Concepts for Commemorating Spanish Colonization in New Mexico

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PLEASE RETURN TO: TECHNICAL INFORMATION CENTER DENVER SERVICE CENTER NATIONAL PARK SERVICE Alternative Concepts for Commemorating Spa11ish Colonization

February 1991

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SPANISH COLONIZATION STUDY• NEW MEXICO

UNITED STATES DEPARTMENT OF THE INTERIOR I NATIONAL PARK SERVICE • Summary and Major Findings • SUMMARY AND MAJOR FINDINGS At the direction of Congress, the undertake a separate Spanish colonial National Park Service is studying theme study. alternative concepts for commemorating Spanish colonization in New Mexico. Some of the alternative concepts Much is already happening in New analyzed in this study emphasize the Mexico at the federal, state, and local preservation and/or interpretation of levels to commemorate and interpret Spanish colonial sites, and some of the the period of Spanish colonization. alternatives describe other ways, However, several important aspects of independent of existing resources, for the story are not currently represented, commemorating Spanish colonization. and many important resources are at risk. Action is needed to ensure that The concepts have not been developed this important part of our nation's into actual plans. Specific proposals for history is appropriately commemorated. sites, programs, facilities, and related costs have been deferred pending the This study identifies completion of the resource data base and more extensive coordination with the themes considered by scholars property owners and local communities. of Spanish colonization to be the Even though this is a National Park most important ideas to be Service study prepared for Congress, it conveyed to the public includes alternatives that would involve only limited federal government action. a preliminary list of 22 sites that Spanish colonization could be • the National Park Service, in commemorated by federal, state, or consultation with scholars, has local governments, ethnic communities, found to be the best private organizations, or any representations known to date of combination of these entities, and this the various elements of the range of alternatives is included in this Spanish colonization story study for consideration by Congress.

seven alternative concepts for The success of any of these concepts commemorating Spanish will depend on direction, support, and colonization in New Mexico assistance from local New Mexico communities. It is recommended that a The sites included in this study range task-directed committee or commission from archeological ruins of pueblos, be established to enter into a dialogue mission churches, and Spanish civil with these communities to define a settlements to contemporary Hispanic course of future action. Once a general communities and Indian pueblos. concept or concepts have been selected, Considerably more study is needed to more focused planning can be conducted complete the survey and documentation by the appropriate involved entities. of Spanish colonial sites. The state of Facility needs and cost estimates can New Mexico has expressed an interest most appropriately be developed at that in conducting this study. In addition, time. • the National Park Service should

lll Summary and Major Findings

The seven alternatives described and Identify state tour routes: The analyzed in the study are summarized state of New Mexico would below. No alternative is preferred over incorporate Spanish colonial the others at this time. themes into the state highway tour • program. Conduct a comprehensive research program: The National Establish new units of the Park Service, possibly in national park system: The cooperation with the state of New National Park Service would add Mexico, would contract with one or more units to the national academic institutions to inventory, park system to allow for more document, and study Spanish complete representation and colonial resources remaining in interpretation of the entire story of New Mexico. Research would be Spanish colonization. conducted with the consent of the existing landowners. Enhance state programs and assistance to local sites: The Coordinate a comprehensive federal government would allocate interpretation program: The funds to the state of New Mexico National Park Service would specifically for the study, develop a comprehensive preservation, and interpretation of interpretation program to increase Spanish colonial resources at the public understanding of the state and local levels. Spanish colonization of New Mexico and its importance to U.S. history. Some alternatives, including the Owners of Spanish colonial sites alternative of establishing new units of that are open to the public could the national park system, would require choose to participate in the further federal legislation. Many of the interpretation program. alternatives could be financially • supported through cooperative Develop a commemorative public/private partnerships with or center: A local or state entity, without new congressional funding. perhaps with federal assistance, Some of the alternatives, such as the would develop a commemorative commemorative center, the re-creation center, which could include of a cultural heritage scene, and state museums, a research center, tour routes, would be primarily state or cultural events, and interpretation. local government or private initiatives, The center would give communities the opportunity to celebrate their with minimal or no involvement by the heritage and to share their culture National Park Service. with the visiting public. The alternative concepts were reviewed Interpret a Spanish cultural by the public in August 1990. Most heritage scene: A local or state people commenting on the study entity, perhaps with federal supported some form of further action assistance, would re-create a to commemorate Spanish colonization in multi-faceted Spanish cultural New Mexico. Some supported an heritage scene to allow the alternative emphasizing either research, interpretation of the complete story resource protection, or interpretation, of Spanish colonization at a single but most saw a need to combine site. alternatives. •

IV Contents • CONTENTS

Summary and Major Findings m

Spanish Colonization Study 1 Study Background 1 Study Purpose and Scope 1 Public Involvement in This Study 3

PART ONE: THE STORY 5

Overview of Spanish Colonization in New Mexico 7 Introduction 7 Major Story Elements 7 Spanish and English Colonization: A Comparison of Methods 11 The Significance of the Hispanic Southwest 12 Conclusions 13 Major Interpretive Themes 14 United States History 14 Conquest 14 Colonial Institutions 15 Pueblo Revolt and Subsequent Accommodation of Cultural Differences 15 • Cultural Interchange 16 PART TWO: RESOURCE EVALUATION 17

Evaluation Methodology and Criteria 19 Site Descriptions and Analyses 23 Units of the National Park System 23 National Historic Landmarks 26 Other Sites 31

PART THREE: ALTERNATIVES 41

Introduction 43 1. Conduct a Comprehensive Research Program 44 Concept 44 Analysis 45 2. Coordinate a Comprehensive Interpretation Program 46 Concept 46 Analysis 48 3. Develop a Commemorative Center 50 Concept 50 • Analysis 51

v Contents

4. Interpret a Spanish Cultural Heritage Scene 53 Concept 53 Analysis 54 5. Identify State Tour Routes 56 • Concept 56 Analysis 57 6. Establish New Units of the National Park System 59 Concept 59 Analysis 61 7. Enhance State Programs and Assistance to Local Sites 62 Concept 62 Analysis 63

APPENDIXES 67

A: Legislation 69 B: Spanish Colonial Resources 70 C: Story Elements and Their Representation Inside and Outside the National Park System 74 D: New Area Criteria 77

BIBLIOGRAPHY 79 STUDY PARTICIPANTS 82 •

• vi Spanish Colonization Study • SPANISH COLONIZATION STUDY STUDY BACKGROUND STUDY PURPOSE AND SCOPE

In 1598, almost a decade before the The Spanish colonization study has two first permanent English settlement was purposes: The first is to identify the established at Jamestown, Spanish major elements of the story of Spanish colonists moved into New Mexico, colonization in New Mexico and the beginning more than two centuries of places, structures, landmarks, and other dominion and enculturation that would resources that appear to best represent indelibly mark the character of the that story. The second purpose is to American Southwest. In recognition of analyze a wide range of alternative this distinctive contribution to American strategies for commemorating this culture, the U.S. Congress has directed important part of American history. the National Park Service to study alternatives for commemorating Spanish Much is already happening in New colonization of the American Southwest, Mexico at the federal, state, and local Spanish colonial frontier culture, and levels to commemorate and interpret Spanish colonialism in New Mexico. the period of Spanish colonization. For example, pueblo/mission complexes and The Spanish Colonization other Spanish colonial resources are Commemorative Act of 1988 (Public preserved and interpreted for the public Law 100-559, reprinted in appendix A) at several national parks and specifies that the study of alternatives monuments and a state monument should make recommendations (described later in this report). Federal, • regarding preservation and state, and local agencies are currently interpretation of resources associated considering designation of a number of with the Spanish colonization of the tour routes involving Spanish colonial Southwest. The legislation further resources, including the Camino Real stipulates that the study include and a Coronado trail. The National specific analysis of the San Gabriel Park Service's Spanish Colonial National Historic Landmark and the Research Center, managed in Los Luceros Hacienda to determine cooperation with the University of New their significance to the Spanish Mexico, is working to increase borderlands story. understanding of Spanish colonization nationwide. Through this center and Consistent with the legislative emphasis the Southwest Regional Office in Santa on New Mexico, this study will be Fe, the National Park Service provides limited to resources within that state, technical assistance to other owners even though historically the province of and managers of Spanish colonial New Mexico extended from El Paso into resources interested in enhancing their Colorado and from the Hopi pueblos in protection or interpretation. The city of northeastern Arizona to central Kansas. Santa Fe and many other New Mexico Indeed, the Spanish claim at one time communities retain structures and extended from Florida to Alaska, and plazas dating from the colonial period. the complete history of all the Spanish Santa Fe interprets its Spanish colonial provinces would require the study of history at the Palace of the Governors resources in many states. museum. The city of Espanola is • planning a commemorative plaza to

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Spanish Colonization Study celebrate the Spanish colonial and other necessary funding. The state has aspects of its cultural heritage. The Rio indicated that approximately $100,000 Arriba County Commission has passed will be adequate to develop a survey a resolution to erect a monument and and data base. Additional funding will • visitor center to commemorate the be required for appropriate founding of the first Spanish colony in documentation for the National Register the Southwest. El Rancho de! las of Historic Places. In addition, the Golondrinas near Santa Fe, managed National Park Service should undertake privately by the Colonial New Mexico a separate Spanish colonial theme Historical Foundation, interprets study, which will result in national reconstructions representing the landmark nominations for appropriate Spanish colonial period. sites.

If no further action was taken as a The alternatives described and analyzed result of this study, most of the in this study are broad concepts and programs described above, including the have not been developed into actual National Park Service's technical plans. Limitations in the available data assistance program, would continue as base make it inappropriate to link currently operated or planned. However, possible actions with specific sites or despite the overall quality of the costs at this time. Also, because the existing programs, important implementation of many of the concepts opportunities would be missed for would depend on direction, support, and preserving and interpreting a assistance from local communities, comprehensive representation of the private property owners, and state or Spanish colonial period. To date the local agencies, considerable coordination documentation and preservation of with all the potential participants Spanish colonial resources has been would have to precede specific proposals. very limited. Several important aspects • of the story of Spanish colonization are Although this study is being conducted not represented by any protected or by the National Park Service for interpreted sites, and many important Congress, it includes alternatives in resources are at risk as a result of which the federal government would ongoing community and private not participate or would play only a development, vandalism, erosion, and minor role. Spanish colonization could other factors. The information compiled be commemorated by federal, state, or through this study will help define the local governments, ethnic communities, direction for a new initiative intended private organizations, or any to ensure that this important part of combination of these entities, and this our nation's history is appropriately range of alternatives is included in this commemorated. study for consideration by Congress.

Although this study included the most The success of any of these concepts systematic and comprehensive survey of will depend on direction, support, and New Mexico's Spanish colonial sites assistance from local New Mexico conducted to date, considerably more communities. Prior to selecting one or research will be required to complete more of these concepts, it is the survey and documentation of recommended that a task-directed Spanish colonial resources. The state of committee or commission be established New Mexico has expressed an interest to enter into dialogue with these in conducting this survey but lacks the communities to define a course of • 2 ------

Spanish Colonization Study

future action. This group, which should include Hispanic, American Indian, and Anglo representatives, could be • established administratively or legislatively for a specified term, possibly for one year.

Once a general concept or concepts have been selected, additional focused resource studies will be conducted. Specific facility needs and cost estimates will be developed as part of this more detailed planning. A lead agency or other entity should be assigned responsibility for directing this planning effort, but it should involve all the property owners, local communities, and other agencies and organizations with an interest in the project.

PUBLIC INVOLVEMENT IN THIS STUDY

Because of the importance of local involvement and support in this project, a particularly high priority has been placed on gathering information and comments from people interested in the commemoration of Spanish colonization. The National Park Service has held meetings and discussions with subject-matter specialists, provided information through newsletters, and requested comments through the mail. More than 450 people, including specialists, community leaders, site managers, and other interested individuals are included on the mailing list for this project. More specific information about public involvement in the various parts of this study is included in the appropriate sections of this report . • 3 I 1•

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-- Overview of Spanish Colonization in New Mexico OVERVIEW OF SPANISH COLONIZATION IN • NEW MEXICO INTRODUCTION As time passed, the colony became more like its home culture, but Webster's Dictionary defines a colony as because of separation and the "a body of people living in a new influence of the local culture, territory but retaining ties with the always retained characteristics parent state." Spain colonized most of peculiar to the area. the Western Hemisphere, and the northern limits of its colonization extended across the North American MAJOR STORY ELEMENTS continent. In the context of the northern frontier of New Spain, Two distinct periods of Spanish colonization may be defined as the colonization occurred in New Mexico. process of expansion of the Spanish The first period began in 1598, when Empire into areas inhabited by other the first colony was established, and cultures. The expansion proceeded by continued until the Pueblo Revolt in means of the establishment of Hispanic 1680. The second period began with the settlements, called colonies, in these return of the Spanish to New Mexico in areas. 1692 and continued until Mexico gained independence from the Spanish Empire The Spanish colony of New Mexico met in 1821. The two colonial periods in all the usual characteristics of a colony: New Mexico were significantly different as a result of changing policies within • There was a cultural difference the government of the Spanish Empire. between the colony and the local inhabitants. First Colonization The colony's culture was a distilled version of the colonists' home After 1492 Spain moved to settle the culture. lands in this new addition to its empire. The fall of Tenochtitlan in 1521 The colony had a set of methods by gave Spain a dominant position on the which it maintained itself in the North American mainland. From there, colonized area. These consisted of conquest expanded westward toward military, religious, economic, and the Pacific coast. political pressures and inducements used to influence the local culture. As the period of conquest came to an end, exploration and pacification of The economic relationship with the areas to the north became a priority. parent state frequently had a Francisco Vasquez de Coronado led a strong influence on the success of large expedition into New Mexico in the colony. Usually, the benefits 1540. Settlement toward the north that accrued from the colony's lagged behind exploration. In 1548 existence had to exceed its silver miners along the Mexican maintenance cost for it to continue . Plateau were still opening the lands • directly north of Mexico City for new 7 Part One: The Story economic activities including ranching, northern defensive establishment, to farming, and trading. By the latter prevent French and English expansion 16th century, Santa Barbara in present into the southwestern part of the North day Chihuahua and Saltillo in Nuevo American continent. • Leon represented the northernmost Spanish settlements. With the The Spanish Empire used specific settlement of the extensive Mexican institutions to carry out its colonization Plateau, the stage was set for the next process. One of these, the encomienda, phase of the Spanish frontier movement. supported the military component of the Spanish colonial system. The The Pueblo Indians along the northern encomienda operated by granting borderlands of New Spain belonged to particular persons, called encomenderos, several important Indian cultures, all of the right to take tribute in the form of which formed powerful, close-knit, foodstuffs, salable goods, and sometimes sophisticated societies. The Indians, labor from an Indian village. In return, however, no matter how capable and the encomenderos maintained a military aware, had only the resources of a few force available for the needs of the thousand acres of farmland, forest, and region. In New Mexico, as in other plains and a few dozen towns to draw parts of the empire, this force defended on. Worse, there were strong political and policed the colony and the pueblos. divisions between various pueblos, as Following the Pueblo Revolt of 1680, well as clear linguistic differences, the encomienda was not reintroduced making it very difficult for the pueblos into New Mexico. to act as a unified force in opposing colonization. Although there was no legal provision for it, there was a strong relationship In 1598 Juan Perez de OD.ate led a between the encomienda and large wagon train northward to the landownership. The eminent historian • Indian pueblos of New Mexico. OD.ate Silvio Zavala has written of the and his settlers established their "tendency of the encomendero's family headquarters at the pueblo of San to convert itself ... into the proprietor Juan, beyond the confluence of the Rio of lands contained within the Chama and Rio Grande. Two years jurisdiction of the encomienda towns." later OD.ate moved the headquarters to Encomenderos were among the a new site near the confluence of the principal landowners of New Mexico two rivers, which he named San during the first century of settlement, Gabriel. From there the Spanish and they established ranching and extended their farms north and south farming properties called estancias in along the Rio Grande. By 1610 the the rich river valleys unoccupied by settlers had established a permanent Indian pueblos. These estancias headquarters at the new Villa de Santa generally consisted of a centralized Fe. group of buildings, frequently fortified, that served as administrative The New Mexico colony was intended to headquarters and the residence for the serve several purposes. It was to staff, surrounded by lands used for convert the Indians to Christianity and herding and farming. An estancia indoctrinate them into Spanish culture. produced great quantities of corn, It was also, hopefully, to provide more wheat, and sheep for the subsistence of material wealth for the Spanish the province and for trade with other Empire. Finally, it was to act as a provinces. They must have depended on • 8

- -·--·------Overview of Spanish Colonization in New Mexico

complex system referred to as the repartimiento. Because they competed for Indian labor and open lands, the --• missionaries and the encomenderos were potential enemies. On the whole, however, they maintained relatively amicable relations. It was more common for both groups to see the governor, a short-term administrator from outside the province who was inevitably interested in political power and quick profit, as the enemy.

The colony had a hierarchical government structure headed by the provincial governor. Under the governor, chief magistrates managed the labor of Indians as well as of the various jurisdictions within the Spanish settlers who could not afford province. Indian villages within each independent landholdings of their own. jurisdiction had local magistrates who were answerable to the chief of the The second major colonial institution jurisdiction. Each village controlled an was the mission. The Spanish crown area of influence, called a district, that saw conversion to Christianity as a extended several miles from the village means of securing the cooperation of center. The magistrate of the district the Indians. The missionaries, had authority over the nearby Spanish supported by a stipend from the king, estancias and associated settlements. • placed missions at major villages of the Within this hierarchy the provincial local residents. Here the missionaries governor had direct control over both attracted Indians to the acceptance of the missionaries and the encomenderos. Christianity and European civilization The encomenderos answered to him, through the inducements of European and under certain circumstances he crops, domestic animals, and could revoke an encomienda and subsistence methods. The Spanish used regrant it to a person of his choice. The the missions as schools to teach the governor also had specific powers over Indians new technologies and new the missionaries and their pueblos, agricultural and livestock methods, as although how these powers could be well as Catholicism, the Spanish exercised was a topic of bitter language, and Spanish culture. The controversy between the governor and missionaries also operated estancias in the church through the first century of the valleys of the Rio Grande and its colonization in New Mexico. tributaries, using the open land for herding and farming. The colony was supported by the world-spanning network of the Spanish Both the encomenderos and the Empire and the population and missionaries depended on Indian production power of Europe. The pueblos for their wealth and power. individuals arriving in New Mexico, They both used Indian labor, sometimes however, brought only a limited forced, sometimes voluntary, and selection of the rich and complex • sometimes compensated, under a Iberian cultures and material 9 Part One: The Story technology. The colony had to produce increased. One expression of this was goods of interest to Spain or to other the increasing use of Pueblo Indian colonial regions so that it, in turn, auxiliaries in military expeditions could purchase the products it could not against outside Indian groups such as • produce locally. New Mexico lacked the Apaches. By the 1670s, as many as mineral wealth, but it was located 300 pueblo auxiliaries were commonly relatively near major mining operations, included in retaliatory strikes. which created a ready market for its beef, mutton, leather, textiles, piiion Centuries of dealing with each other nuts, and especially salt. As a result of and neighboring tribes had given the these markets, New Mexico was a Pueblo Indians sophistication in politics. viable economic unit of the Spanish Each pueblo, like a Greek city-state, Empire. Both the wealthier colonists used kinship and social ties, alliances, and the missions dealt in the threats of or the actual use of force, marketable goods of the province. Most and economics to achieve dominance of the settlers lived on farms and raised over other pueblos. The Pueblo Indians subsistence crops, cattle, and sheep. quickly learned the dynamics of the The missions raised corn, wheat, and Spanish system and proved to be livestock on Indian land or in large masters in the use of the system ranching and farming estancias of their against itself. Not until epidemics of own. The Indian population hauled salt, European diseases and famine began to tanned hides, gathered piiion nuts, seriously reduce their population did wove textiles, herded sheep, and the Pueblo Indians begin to prepare for rounded up cattle, all of which were a provincewide revolt. After several traded to Mexican markets by the abortive attempts, in 1680 the pueblos settlers and missions. succeeded in throwing off the yoke of the Spanish Empire for the next 12 The pueblos were the first source of years. • wealth and power in the province of New Mexico and were of tremendous economic importance to the colony. Second Colonization When a pueblo was abandoned because of famine or conflict, the impact on In 1692 the Spanish returned and New Mexico's economy was severe. It began to reestablish the province of resulted in the loss to the church of a New Mexico, but not under the same portion of the produce of mission fields conditions as before. As part of the and pastures managed by Indian staff, second colonization, the Spanish the loss of Indian tribute to one or allowed the Pueblo Indians much more encomenderos that maintained the greater religious freedom. The Indians, defense of the province, and a cutback for their part, were more amenable to on Indian labor for the collection of the presence of the Spanish because natural resources. they realized that they and the Spanish could work together to survive the The economic importance of the pueblos increasing onslaughts of the Apaches lessened somewhat through the first and other Indians. century, as the Spanish established their own farming and ranching The economic and political structures of complexes in the open river valley the second colonial period also differed lands. In some other ways, however, the from the first. Political power became pueblos' importance to the colony more centralized, and the encomendero • 10 Overview of Spanish Colonization in New Mexico

system was discontinued. Since the 1680. At the same time, both groups Pueblo Indians no longer had to pay were threatened by outside forces. They tribute to encomenderos, most of the turned to each other for mutual • goods sent out of the province in trade protection from the Apaches in the were produced by Spanish and mestizo early decades of the 18th century and settlers. The governor encouraged the from added threats by other groups, expansion of the settled area of the principally the Comanches, during the province by granting land to individuals second half of the century. or groups. Several towns grew from the ruins of estancias that had been established during the first colonization SPANISH AND ENGLISH and pueblos that had been abandoned COLONIZATION: A COMPARISON during the revolt or the intervening OF METHODS years. The Spanish colonial method, although Missionaries exercised much less power, similar to the English approach, both economically and socially, during differed from it in several important the recolonization. Missions were no ways. Initially, some of the English longer principal sources of goods and colonies were largely mercantile produce. New churches were built from ventures carried out by individual the ruins of the first colonization companies that acquired charters from buildings where possible, resulting in the English crown. A charter granted a smaller, more primitive buildings. company the right to trade and exploit resources within a given territory; With the cessation of the encomienda however, the companies exercised little system, professional soldiers assumed direct control over the actions or the the burden of the defense of the daily lives of the colonists. The English • province. The crown established a considered native Americans to be a presidia in Santa Fe, and military source of resources and goods from patrols and detachments originated outside the area of English settlement, from it. However, individual towns but English entrepreneurs looked on depended on local militia as their first them as competitors for land and as line of defense, and militia auxiliaries, potential or de facto enemies. The either Spanish or Indian, aided in the companies had no official policy to patrols and guard duties along the "civilize" the natives or to protect them frontiers of the province. from colonial incursions and offenses.

During the second colonial period the The Spanish colonies, however, relied pueblos had a lower level of influence on a different system to maintain them and political activity than during the in the New World. The direct authority first colonial period. A tacit balance or of the Spanish crown established and standoff between the Indians and the controlled each colony. An important colonists seems to have been part of the responsibilities of a colony established. The missionaries made few was to bring European civilization to attempts to increase the Hispanization the native Americans in the area of the Indians, and the Indians made colonized. The Spanish Empire legally few attempts to rebel against the recognized native Americans as human presence of the Spanish. Apparently beings and protected them by laws both groups had learned a certain fear guaranteeing their rights in the • of the other as a result of the revolt of Spanish Empire. Individual colonists 11 Part One: The Story frequently abused these rights, but the two empires appear to have directly Indians had a court of law to which influenced the successful growth of they could appeal and which would their colonies and the expansion of protect them from or compensate them their frontiers. Among the many factors • for any offense. The Spanish considered involved, several are of particular note the Indians to be a conquered people here. During the conquest period and usually accorded them legal respect Spanish expansion was rapid and as subjects of the king. The Spanish English expansion was minimal. After incorporated the Indians into the the first two centuries, however, the colonial society, while the English kept Spanish colonial movement languished, them separate as outsiders. The while the Anglo expansion became more Spanish believed that if a good aggressive. (Anglo expansion gained relationship was achieved, the momentum after the English colonies sedentary populations of the pueblos won their independence and thus was and the semisedentary groups of the an American rather than a British vast surrounding territories could be a phenomenon.) The more mercantile major source of goods and products for approach of the Americans seems to the Spanish economy. However, they have encouraged expansion, while the found that these native Americans centralized "wealth and souls" could be formidable opponents if orientation of the Spanish Empire, with antagonized. a lower emphasis on individual profit, discouraged the growth of the Spanish The different methods of colonization colonies. used by the two Empires directly affected the survival of native American cultures in each colonial region. In THE SIGNIFICANCE OF THE areas colonized by the English, the HISPANIC SOUTHWEST Indians have virtually disappeared, and • those few groups left have kept little of American culture derives from both an their heritage. In areas colonized by the English and a Spanish colonial Spanish, many of the Indian groups heritage. The Spanish colonization remain. In many cases their heritage created a colonial culture in the survives largely intact. The Spanish American Southwest just as English colony of New Mexico made a colonization created an English colonial determined attempt to incorporate culture in the eastern United States. Pueblo Indians into the new Hispanic From English colonization developed society of the frontier. Ultimately, many of the basic cultural elements of however, the Spanish Empire collapsed America today. In the same way, from and gave way to Mexico and finally to Spanish colonization developed a the United States, while the Pueblo Hispanic culture that characterizes the Indian cultures have persisted despite American Southwest. Spanish waves of acculturation by Spain, colonization is not a historical curiosity Mexico, and the United States. that occurred far in the past with no pertinence to the American Southwest A careful examination of the process of of today; rather, that colonization is the expansion of the English and Spanish principal source of this distinctive colonies suggests that the two methods Southwestern culture. of colonization affected more than the native Americans living in the colonial The Spanish colonization of the south, areas. The different approaches of the from Georgia and Florida on the east • 12

------Overview of Spanish Colonization in New Mexico

coast to California on the west, stronger Spanish colonial presence there established European culture in that than may be found anywhere else in region of the continent. English traits the southeastern or southwestern • dominate the culture of the United United States. A large percentage of States as a result of the expansion of southwestern families maintain the English colonies until they acquired Hispanic lifeways, traditions, kinship all of North America north of Mexico. patterns, settlement and land-use In other colonial areas outside of the patterns, social interaction, and original thirteen English colonies, language. Spanish towns, laid out however, the Anglo traits are overlaid according to the Laws of the Indies on the cultural traits of the other Old formulated by a Spanish king, dominate World nations who established their the countryside, Spanish place names colonies in these areas. The colonial are common, and even among Anglo cultures of Spain and France were families, innumerable Spanish words effectively erased from New England are used in everyday speech. and the southeastern states by British expansion and conquest. After the American Revolution, the conquest of CONCLUSIONS Florida and the West by the United States eventually resulted in the The Spanish colonization of the Anglicization of these areas, but in a American Southwest was part of the more superficial way. great expansion of western European culture across the world in the 15th Upon acquiring the Hispanic colonial and 16th centuries. This expansion had territories, the United States a tremendous effect on all war Id established a legal structure derived cultures. The United States itself was a from English law. The laws were product of the expansion, and as it • modified, however, to incorporate local grew, this nation acquired colonies practices derived from Hispanic established by other European powers, tradition and law. This resulted in producing an American culture distinct conflicts, especially in the areas of from any individual European culture. water management and land tenure, The Spanish colonies were a major where the practices of Anglo and contributor to American culture, and Spanish cultures strongly differ. this study seeks to recognize that contribution. Because of the flow of history and the natural topography, New Mexico was and has remained an unusual area of the Spanish borderlands. It began as a colony separated from the rest of the northern frontier by a considerable distance, causing unusual hardships for the settlers. As a result of its isolation, New Mexico changed more slowly than the core settlements to the south and retained archaic colonial remnants of custom, language, and attitudes. Even the over lay of Anglo culture was thinner in the mountains of northern • New Mexico that elsewhere, leaving a 13 Part One: The Story MAJOR INTERPRETIVE THEMES • At the beginning of the project, the confirmation of the team's planning team consulted with more understanding of the ideas. The theme than 30 scholars of Spanish colonization statements that follow are the result of in New Mexico in two day-long that process. They are the ideas meetings, one in Albuquerque and one considered essential for the public to in Santa Fe. While the scholars were know in order to have an accurate naturally concerned with the understanding of Spanish colonization preservation of sites and resources, they in New Mexico and will be the were particularly concerned about how foundation for interpretation in any the story of Spanish colonization would alternative. be presented to the public. They cautioned the team about past mistakes that have resulted in the perpetuation UNITED STATES HISTORY of stereotypes, myths, and misconceptions about this period of Spanish colonization in New Mexico is American history. To help ensure a not foreign history but rather an sound basis for this study, the scholars integral part of United States history. reviewed and helped revise the preliminary draft of the overview of The first Europeans in North Spanish colonization presented in the America were Spanish, or at least previous section of this report. represented Spain. Long before the English settled in North America, In addition, because of the strength and the Spanish were permanently validity of their concerns, these experts established in Florida and New • were asked to help develop a set of Mexico. theme statements that could be used in the future to guide the preparation of The American Southwest retains a interpretive programs and media. Each hispanic character, which has of the scholars was asked to provide the evolved from the Spanish colonial planning team with a list of those ideas period. he or she considered the most important to convey to the public. The Spanish colonization of New Mexico team categorized and consolidated the was followed by United States ideas received and used them to colonization of New Mexico. prepare interpretive themes. Spain provided considerable support to Interpretive themes are statements of the American Revolution in the form of the principal ideas that must be supplies and money. Without this aid conveyed to help people understand the there might not have been a United significance of Spanish colonization in States today. New Mexico. Themes are the framework from which a complete interpretation program can be developed. CONQUEST

The interpretive themes prepared by Conquest of one group by another, the planning team were returned to the whether ultimately perceived as positive scholars for review, corrections, and • 14 Major Interpretive Themes

or negative, has occurred repeatedly European civilization through the throughout history and throughout the inducements of European crops, world. The Spanish conquest of New domestic animals, and subsistence • Mexico was no exception. methods. Each of the conquering nations that The encomienda system, another colonized portions of North America institution of colonization, granted used different methods, which resulted certain individuals the right to in different effects on native populations. take taxes in the form of food, goods, and labor from an Indian Unlike the other European village. In return, a military force conquerors of the New World, was maintained for the needs of Spain emphasized the conversion of the area. The encomenderos Indians to Christianity. became the principal landowners, settling on river bottom lands Unlike other colonizing powers of unoccupied by the Indians. the time, Spain early established specific legal regulations (Laws of Unlike the missionaries, the Indies) protecting the property encomenderos and other civil rights and civil rights of the native settlers were prohibited from people. utilizing pueblo lands, although some still did in violation of the The Pueblo Indians were able to law. Both missionaries and keep some parts of their own encomenderos sought and competed culture. Thus, they continue to for open lands to establish have their languages and their estancias. • native religions. PUEBLO REVOLT AND COLONIAL INSTITUTIONS SUBSEQUENT ACCOMMODATION OF CULTURAL DIFFERENCES The Spanish Empire used specific institutions to carry out its colonization The colonization of New Mexico is a process. prime example of Spanish-Indian intercultural reaction and adjustment. Hispanic colonists in the Southwest had little economic exchange with The attempt to dominate the Pueblo Spain and only infrequent Indians backfired on the Spanish. commerce with Mexico. As a result, the colonists became part of the Following a short period of contact existing aboriginal trade networks and the initial intrusion of Spanish to acquire bond servants, food, settlers, the Spanish and Pueblo hides, and other items needed for Indian cultures, unfamiliar with their domestic lives. each other's way of life, clashed over differences in attitudes, Missions were a major institution religion, and economics, which led of colonization. Through them, the to the expulsion of the Spanish in Pueblo Indians, who resisted 1680. coercion, were attracted to • acceptance of Christianity and 15 Part One: The Story

The Pueblo Revolt resulted from a Cultural exchanges took place combination of causes, including through marriage, religion, etc. For the Pueblo Indians' alarm over the example, the matachines ritual is a serious population losses from cultural trait borrowed by the • European diseases; diametrically native population, whjle the opposed assumptions about politics, Spanish population learned to use religion, and culture; excesses the local corn, beans, and squash. within the repartimiento and The Spanish brought the adobe encomienda systems; and a model that revolutionized adobe widespread famine resulting from architecture. The so-called kiva the long drought of the 1660s. fireplace and the horno may be of Moorish origin. After the Pueblo revolt the repartimiento and encomienda Indian cultures have persisted despite systems declined and there was waves of acculturation by Spajn, more accommodation than strife. Mexico, and the United States.

Better understanding and mutual needs Even though the Pueblo Indians for survival resulted in a period of adopted elements of Spanish readjustment on the 1700s frontier. religion and culture, a tightly knit community structure and strong sense of independence allowed CULTURAL INTERCHANGE them to retain their own languages and religions over the long term. The distinctive multiethnic culture of New Mexico, manifested in its The pueblos of today are not an architecture, its foods, and its accurate ethnographic analogy of languages, is a direct reflection of the the pueblos as they were in late • accommodations and changes that prehistory. Colonization had an Hispanic, the many native American, impact on aboriginal population and later Anglo cultures have had to size and distribution, and on the make. corresponding social and economic organization of the pueblos. The Spanish experience in New Mexico offers a case study of how one group of emigrant people adapted to a distinctjve environment and different native American cultures.

Spanish colonial society was complex and jncluded a diversity of people in terms of class, education, race, and other factors. To lump all these people together and to stereotype modern-day Hispanics on the basis of false generalities so generated is not only misleading, but unfair to both the historic population and their descendants. • 16

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-· - _... ,.. -

,. .. - Evaluation Methodology and Criteria • EVALUATION METHODOLOGY AND CRITERIA

A major task for the planning team was using only information found in the to determine what Spanish colonial data base, resulted in a list of resources remained in New Mexico and approximately 200 sites. which of them were most appropriate to include in the study of alternatives. The Next, all sites that had not been steps leading up to this determination evaluated for the New Mexico State are described briefly below. The list of Register or the National Register of Spanish colonial resources identified in Historic Places were eliminated because this report should not be considered of the general lack of information about definitive because of a number of them. The scope of this study did not limitations inherent in the study allow for original research; therefore, methodology. Only readily available only documented sites could be information was used; thus, some considered. A few exceptions were made important sites may not have been by professional NPS historians who, considered. The variable quantity and based on their knowledge and quality of site data made it impossible consultation with other scholars, added to consistently and comprehensively back to the list some potentially address the sites that were known. All important sites that had not previously the work that predated the analysis in been evaluated for register status. this document is summarized in the "Study Team Progress Report" on file at This step resulted in a working list of the Denver Service Center and the about 120 mostly registered sites • Southwest Regional Office in Santa Fe. related in some way to the story of Spanish colonization in New Mexico. These sites are listed in appendix B. Step 1: Identify all registered Other sites need to be identified and resources related to Spanish added to the list in the future. colonization in New Mexico. Given this small number of sites and As a starting point, the study team the significance of Spanish colonization conducted computer searches through in New Mexico, it is evident that all the archeological records management Spanish colonial sites deserve at least system data base of the Laboratory of some degree of care and attention. Anthropology Records Center in Santa Fe and requested printouts of recorded archeological sites in all Hispanic and Step 2: Identify the major story Pueblo Indian categories. elements and the resources that best represent each of those Using this printout of approximately elements. 660 sites, the team began to sort out sites having little relevance to the For purposes of this study, the Spanish study. Sites were eliminated from this colonization story was defined to preliminary list if they did not include events and developments from represent the Spanish colonial time 1540, when the Coronado expedition period or if they did not contain arrived in New Mexico, to 1821, when • Spanish colonial elements. This process, Mexico gained independence from 19 Part Two: Resource Evaluation

Spain. National Park Service historians considered as an extension of the NPS consulted with Spanish colonization thematic framework. Various resources scholars in developing the historical related to the Spanish colonization • overview of this period presented in story also are representative of other part one of this document. The major themes, such as Cultural Developments elements of this story, outlined in table (theme I), Agriculture (theme XI), 1, provided the framework for Architecture (theme XVI), and determining the range of resources American Ways of Life (theme XXX); needed to fully represent and however, the comprehensive story of commemorate this period of American Spanish colonization can only be told history. within the framework provided by theme II.

TABLE 1: ELEMENTS OF SPANISH After identifying the story elements, the COLONIZATION IN NEW l\IEXICO planning team analyzed the 120 sites on the preliminary resource list to First Colonization determine which sites best represented Exploration Pueblos each of the story elements. Factors First settlements considered to be important included Provincial system of government how well the resources represented one Institutions of colonization (encomienda or more elements of the story, whether system and missions) they retained visible fabric from the Economic production colonial period, and whether they Defense retained historical integrity. The Lifeways information used in making these determinations was assembled from the Pueblo Resistance Laboratory of Anthropology files, Cultural conflict • Pueblo Revolt of 1680 national and state register forms, Reconquest national historic landmark forms, and consultations with NPS and Second Colonization private-sector Spanish colonization Pueblos historians and archeologists in the Provincial system of government United States and Mexico. Institutions of colonization Economic production Twenty-two sites, listed in table 2, Defense appeared to provide the best Lifeways representation of the various elements of the story of Spanish colonization in New Mexico. Some of these sites represent more than one story element, These story elements fit into the NPS thematic study, History and Prehistory and some of the story elements are in the National Park System and the represented by more than one site. The National Historic Landmarks Program, sites are arrayed according to which under theme II: European Colonial story elements they represent in Exploration and Settlement; subLJ,eme appendix C. Some of the sites are A: Spanish Exploration and Settlement; actually groups of sites closely related by historic function and proximity. facet 3: Southwest. Because no further definition exists for the Spanish colonization theme, it is suggested that This list of sites was published in a the story elements presented above be newsletter for public review in August • 20 Evaluation Methodology and Criteria

1990. Several people noted that the nationally significant, a resource must church and townsite of Santa Cruz de meet the following criteria. It must • la Canada had not been included. The site has since been added to the study be an outstanding example of a and is evaluated in the next section of particular type of resource this report. possess exceptional value or quality in illustrating or interpreting the natural or cultural themes of our nation's heritage Table 2: Best Representations of Spanish Colonization in New Mexico offer superlative opportunities for recreation, public use, and Acoma Pueblo and Mission Big Bead Mesa enjoyment or for scientific study Camino Real group Chimay6 retain a high degree of integrity as El Morro National Monument a true, accurate, and relatively Galisteo group unspoiled example of a resource Isleta-Bernalillo Estancia group La Salina Grant All but one of the sites appear to meet Las Huertas group all of these criteria. The details of this Las Trampas analysis for the sites that are not Pecos National Historical Park already formally designated as Salinas Pueblo Missions National Monument San Francisco de Asfs Mission nationally significant are included with San Gabriel the site descriptions, below. San Jose de Guisewa State Monument • Santa Fe group Santa Fe river sites Santa Rita de Cobre Mine Sevilleta Pueblo and Mission Taos Pueblo and Mission Zuni-Cibola complex 16th century Spanish campsite

Step 3: Determine significance

Four of the sites or groups of sites identified above are units of the national park system, and eight others are designated national historic landmarks. The other 11 sites were analyzed to determine whether or not they meet the National Park Service criteria for national significance. Determinations of national significance are based on criteria established in the NPS Management Policies, adopted in • 1988 (see appendix Dl. To be considered 21 Part Two: Resource Evaluation To Alamosa • .6. Taos Pueblo and Mission .6. San Francisco de A~is Mission

Los Luceros Hacienda BE Chimay6 San Gabriel A San Jose de Guisewa State Monument II

Historical Park

Islc:ta Bernalillo Estancia Group To Amarillo ALBUQUERQUE •El Morro National ~M~o~n-u_m_c_n_t--if,'"fo_t_a __ '-~------l~ 4~o'>-..-

'""'DOO'"'"""'" •No•• ""'""f M'"''" II La Salina Grant

Sevillcta Pueblo and Mission II Salinas Pueblo Missions National Monument •

Santa Rita dltCobrc Mine

10 20 30 MILES G National Park Service Unit A National Historic Landmark II Other

DSC• JULY 90 • 930 • 20,000

BEST REPRESENTATIONS OF SPANISH COLONIZATION IN NEW MEXICO • 22 Site Descriptions and Analyses • SITE DESCRIPTIONS AND ANALYSES The following sites and groups of sites and took water from the site but did are the resources considered to be most not inscribe their names. These important to the interpretation of the included the expeditions of Pedro de story of Spanish colonization in New Alvarado (part of the Coronado Mexico. The alternatives included in expedition) in 1540; Antonio de Espejo, part three of this study will focus on who gave El Morro its colonial place these sites, although the alternatives name of El Penal (the Rock), in 1582; may also include additional sites if they and Gaspar de Villagra in 1600. are considered important to the visitor experience. President Theodore Roosevelt proclaimed El Morro a national monument in 1906. UNITS OF THE NATIONAL PARK SYSTEM Pecos National Historical Park Three sites important to the Spanish (Vicinity of Pecos, San Miguel colonization story are national parks. County) These sites, described below, have all been determined to be nationally Indians established Pecos Pueblo in the significant. History and Prehistory in first half of the 15th century. In 1540 the National Park System and the the Coronado expedition visited the National Historic Landmarks Program pueblo, followed by other Spanish classifies these NPS units under theme explorers and settlers, including Juan • II: European Colonial Exploration and de Ofiate. Franciscans had established Settlement; subtheme A: Spanish a mission and convento there by 1617. Exploration and Settlement; facet 3: The Pecos Indians destroyed the church Southwest. during the Pueblo Revolt of 1680. Diego de Vargas reconquered the pueblo and reestablished the mission in 1693. Pecos El Morro National Monument Indians participated in a minor revolt (Vicinity of Ramah, McKinley in 1696. The Indians built a third County) church under Spanish supervision in 1707. Attacks from the Comanche El Morro (Inscription Rock) is a Indians from the plains and European massive soft sandstone monolith on diseases (which decimated the Indian which are carved hundreds of population) plagued the Spanish and inscriptions, including those of 17th and the Pueblo Indians throughout the 18th 18th century Spanish explorers and century. The last resident priest left the settlers. Spanish explorers described mission in the 1770s, and the mission this site in 1582, and Juan de Ofiate in became a visita (periodically visited 1605 was the first European to inscribe outlier of another mission). The Spanish his name on the rock. Most major abandoned the visita entirely in 1782. expeditions after Ofiate recorded their In 1839, the 17 Indian survivors left passing by making similar inscriptions their pueblo to live with their kinsmen on the face of El Morro. Other at Jemez Pueblo . • expeditions camped near this landmark

23 Part Two: Resource Evaluation

The secretary of the interior desiimated occupied them in 1598. Effective the site a national historic landmark in missionization of the Salinas 1960, and Congress established Pecos pueblos began in 1613, and Quarai National Monument in 1965. The received its first missionary in • monument was enlarged and designated 1626. The construction of the a national historical park in 1990. church and convento of the mission Resources include ruins of pueblos, of Purisima Concepcion de Quarai churches, a convento, a chapel, a began the same year. Famine and shrine, and defensive works. an increase in Apache raiding on the pueblo forced the Spanish and Christianized Indians to abandon Salinas Pueblo Missions National the mission about 1677. Quarai Monument (Vicinity of Mountainair, was reoccupied by Spanish settlers Torrance and Socorro Counties) in the early 19th century. These settlers built fortified ranches near Salinas Pueblo Missions National the mission ruins and cultivated Monument comprises three separate the valley. Descendants of these units: settlers still live in the area.

Quarai Pueblo. The Spanish first Quarai became a national historic made contact with the Salinas landmark in 1962 and a unit of Valley pueblos in 1581 and first Salinas National Monument in

24 Site Descriptions and Analyses

1981. The name was changed to pueblo was visited by Antonio de Salinas Pueblo Missions National Espejo, and in 1598 by Vicente de Monument in 1988. Resources Zaldivar, a legendary frontiersman • include a pueblo, Spanish mission from Zacatecas (who first recorded ruins, and Spanish reoccupation the name of Ab6), and Ganear de building ruins. Villagua, the colonial poet who wrote the epic history of the Abo Pueblo. The Spanish knew of founding of New Mexico with Ab6 Pueblo as early as 1581, when mention of the Salinas pueblos. the first recorded Spanish visit Ab6 was visited by Governor Onate occurred. Governor Juan de Onate in 1598 and by several other assigned a part-time missionary to colonial governors of New Mexico. the pueblo in 1598, but this In 1668 one of New Mexico's missionary apparently never visited better-known victims of the Holy Ab6. Later missionaries supervised Office of the Inquisition, Bernardo the construction of a church, San Gruber, was jailed at Ab6. The Gregorio de Ab6, beginning in missionaries and Christianized 1622. Like Quarai, Ab6 was the Indians abandoned the pueblo scene of events that reflected the about 1673 as a result of the same business of the Spanish Empire. famine and Apache raids that Ab6 was also associated with early forced Quarai to be abandoned a Spanish exploration. In 1582 the few years later . •

25 Part Two: Resource Evaluation

Ab6 became a national historic protected by someone other than the landmark in 1962 and a unit of National Park Service. Salinas National Monument in 1981. Resources include a pueblo The existing NPS theme classifications • and Spanish mission ruins. of the landmark sites are listed below:

Gran Quivira. The largest of the History and Prehistory in the Salinas pueblos was Gran Quivira, National Park System and the known during the early Spanish National Historic Landmarks colonial period as Las Humanas. It Program classifies San Gabriel, was an important center of trade Taos Pueblo, the Zuni-Cibola between the Pueblo Indians and complex, and some of the Santa Fe the Plains Indians, particularly the group (the Palace of the Governors) Apaches from Los Siete Rios (The under theme II: European Colonial Seven Rivers) in the Carlsbad area. Exploration and Settlement; The Spanish began missionary subtheme A: Spanish Exploration efforts in 1627 and converted part and Settlement; facet 3: Southwest. of the pueblo complex into a church and convento. A church was The remainder of the Santa Fe constructed between 1627 and group and the churches at Acoma 1640, and was named San Pueblo, Las Trampas, and Rancho Buenaventura. Construction on a de Taos are classified under theme second church began in 1660, but XVI: Architecture; subtheme A: was given up in 1668 because of Colonial (1600-1730). Part of the the famine afflicting the area. The Santa Fe group (the Barrio de Humanas Indians, Spanish clerics, Analco) is also classified under and civilians abandoned Las theme XXX: American Ways of Humanas about 1671. Life; subtheme E: Ethnic • Communities (including President William Howard Taft Immigration). proclaimed Gran Quivira National Monument in 1909. In 1980 the The outline classifies Las Trampas monument was enlarged by the under theme XXX: American Ways addition of Quarai and Abo and of Life; subtheme B: Farming renamed Salinas National Communities; and subtheme E: Monument. This name was Ethnic Communities (including changed to Salinas Pueblo Missions Immigration). in 1988. Resources include pueblo and mission ruins. Big Bead Mesa and Acoma Pueblo are classified under theme I: Cultural Developments, Indigenous NATIONAL HISTORIC LANDMARKS American Populations.

Nine sites or groups of sites important to the commemoration and Acoma Pueblo and Mission (Acoma, interpretation of the Spanish colonial Cibola County) period have been designated as national historic landmarks. These sites have Members of the Coronado expedition been determined to be nationally first made contact with the Indians of significant and are being managed and this pueblo in 1540. Other Spanish

26 Site Descriptions and Analyses

exploration and punitive expeditions, and from other Indian tribes. Navajos including those led by Ofiate, also conducted trading expeditions and raids visited Acoma. The Spanish supervised against Laguna and Acoma pueblos and • the construction of San Estevan de! Rey Spanish settlements from the site. Mission Church in 1629. The Indians participated in the Pueblo Revolt of Resources include fortified walls, 1680, but in 1699 they were forced to hogans, fire rings, and other resubmit to Spanish authority. The archeological remains. The secretary of church became a visita of Laguna in the interior designated this site a 1782. national historic landmark in 1964. The site is preserved and protected by the Acoma Pueblo no longer has a Forest Service and Bureau of Land permanent population. Most of the Management. Acoma Indians live in outlying communities on pueblo lands. Ceremonial functions are still held in Las Trampas (Rio Arriba County) the streets of the pueblo and at the church. The church, which suffered Las Trampas is one of the towns along little damage during the Pueblo Revolt, the High Road between Santa Fe and is a large, impressive example of Taos. The towns along this route in Spanish colonial architecture blending a colonial times were isolated both European plan and general form with from one another and from Santa pueblo construction and decorative Fe, and until recently they have detail. The secretary of the remained isolated from the interior designated the pueblo a mainstream of Anglo New national historic landmark Mexico. Twelve Spanish in 1960. The church was families from Santa Fe • designated a national received a land grant of historic landmark in 46,000 acres in 1751 1970. and established Las

Trampas. The new village was intended as a buffer outpost against roving bands of Apache and Ute Indians. Although each of the twelve families had its own farm, they Big Bead Mesa (Vicinity of Casa built all of their houses side by side Salazar, Sandoval County) within a defensive wall around a central plaza, thereby utilizing the The Navajos constructed this planned, unified houses as a defensive center in fortified site, which was occupied from time of danger. The Bishop of Durango around 1745 to 1812. The site served as granted the villagers permission on a place of refuge for Navajo and Pueblo June 15, 1760, to construct a church • Indians withdrawing from the Spanish 27 Part Two: Resource Evaluation within the defensive compound of Las permission to move into Trampas. San Jose de Gracia Church Yungue-Oweenge, across the river, and was completed in April of 1776. to occupy it exclusively, displacing the Indians who had been living there. The • Las Trampas remains an active Spanish either rebuilt or altered much community. Many of the original of the original pueblo, which they structures surrounding the central renamed San Gabriel, and they plaza have long since disappeared; constructed the church of San Miguel, however, the placement of some of the the first permanent church west of the houses indicates the original plaza Mississippi. Subsequent expeditions location. Some consider San Jose to be brought additional colonists, and by the best preserved example of an 18th 1601 San Gabriel had more than 500 century civil church in New Mexico. Spanish and Indian occupants. When Field and irrigation patterns Don Pedro de Peralta replaced Ofiate, surrounding the community are he moved the capital to Santa Fe in evocative of Spanish colonial land use 1609-10. San Gabriel was largely practices. The secretary of the interior deserted after 1610. designated the Las Trampas Historic District a national historic landmark in Resources include archeological remains 1967. San Jose de Gracia was of Spanish and Pueblo Indian designated a national historic landmark settlement. The secretary of the interior in its own right in 1970. designated the site a national historic landmark in 1964.

San Francisco de Asis (Rancho de Taos, Taos County) San Lazaro Pueblo (Part of the Galisteo Group, Described Below) The Spanish established San Francisco • de Asfs Mission in the early part of the San Lazaro Pueblo lay abandoned at 18th century. The present church, the time of the Coronado expedition to constructed between 1772 and 1816, is the area in 1540; however, the Indians a large and excellent example of a New had reoccupied the site by the late 16th Mexico Spanish colonial church, notable century. The Spanish supervised for its massive adobe walls. construction of a chapel that was a visita of the mission at Pueblo San The church remains in use today. The Marcos. The inhabitants participated in secretary of the interior designated the the Pueblo Revolt of 1680, and site a national historic landmark in sometime between 1680 and 1692 they 1970. abandoned the village and moved to a new location near present-day Santa Cruz. San Gabriel (Vicinity of Espanola, Rio Arriba County) The site consists of a ruined wall and mounds and depressions associated with When Ofiate arrived with a band of two pueblos and a mission church. Part settlers in August of 1598, he initially of the site is privately owned, while the established a base camp at San Juan rest is on Bureau of Land Management Pueblo (Oki-Oweenge), on the east bank property. The secretary of the interior of the Rio Grande. However, the designated San Lazaro a national Spanish soon obtained the Indians' historic landmark in 1964. • 28 ------

Site Descriptions and Analyses

Santa Fe Group (Santa Fe, Santa well as the governor's residence Fe County) and offices. However, only the palace remained at the end of the • The Santa Fe group includes three Pueblo Revolt. separately designated landmark properties: Although the building has been renovated and reconstructed over Santa Fe Plaza. In 1610 Pedro de the centuries, it maintains the Peralta selected the site of Santa basic size, scale, and ambiance of a Fe for the construction of the new colonial structure. Today the capital for New Mexico. The structure serves as the settlement was constructed to headquarters for the New Mexico alleviate some of the tensions in State Museum. The secretary of Spanish-Indian relations that had the interior designated the arisen during Onate's term as structure a national historic governor. A well fortified defensive landmark in 1960. plaza was the central feature of the to..vn. It was made of packed Barrio de Analco. Barrio de earth and unadorned. The Analco, a working class district of remainder of the defensive features the Villa de Santa Fe, was built consisted of a town wall, which has about 1620 to house Tlascalan and not survived, and the Palace of the other Mexican Indians. Residents Governors fort, part of which has of the district had their own parish survived. The plaza was used as a church, San Miguel, which was market place from the beginning of constructed in 1620. The Barrio de the settlement. It was originally Analco was the initial area of twice as large as the modern plaza, Santa Fe to be attacked and • which has been reduced in size as destroyed by the Indians during the city of Santa Fe has the Pueblo Revolt of 1680 because modernized. it was outside the city's walls. The Spanish began the process of The secretary of the interior rebuilding the district around 1692. designated the plaza a national historic landmark in 1960. The district contains a variety of resources, all modified to a greater Palace of the Governors. The or lesser extent, including Palace of the Governors is one of the oldest extant structures built what is known as the oldest by the Spanish within the extant house in Santa Fe, continental United States. constructed somewhere Constructed in 1612, it has been between 1740 and 1 767 occupied continuously by either Spanish, Mexican, or U.S. officials the chapel of San Miguel, or, for a brief time, rebellious constructed in 1620, which Pueblo Indians who converted it was partially destroyed during into a pueblo. The palace was the Pueblo Revolt and rebuilt originally part of a larger in 1710 to serve as the chapel government-military structure for the presidia containing barracks, offices, • arsenals, a chapel, and a prison, as 29

L Part Two: Resource Eualuation

the Gregorio Crespin house, of the interior designated the pueblo a constructed somewhere national historic landmark in 1960. between 1720 and 1750 Taos Pueblo was nominated as a world (making it possible that it heritage site in 1987. • predates the "oldest house," above)

the Boyle house, constructed between 1766 and 1768 Zuni-Cibola Complex (Vicinity of Zuni, Cibola and McKinley Counties) the Roque Tudesqui house, constructed prior to 1841 The Zuni-Cibola complex comprises two distinct areas: The secretary of the interior designated the district a national historic landmark Hawikuh Pueblo. The first in 1968. Spanish contact with the Zuni people came in 1539, and the next year the Coronado expedition Taos Pueblo and Mission (Taos, reached Hawikuh Pueblo. In 1582 Taos County) Antonio de Espejo, who led the most significant expedition to Taos Pueblo was visited by members of western New Mexico between 1540 the Coronado expedition in 1540 and by and 1598, visited the area on his several other Spanish expeditions over way to Arizona. The Spanish later the next few decades. Franciscan friars supervised the construction of a supervised the construction of a mission mission in the pueblo. The Indians church there in 1620, but the Indians abandoned the pueblo following a destroyed this church during an revolt in 1672. • uprising in 1639-40. The Spanish mounted a punitive expedition in 1641, Most of the pueblo and mission after which another church was built. were excavated by Frederick Webb The Indians destroyed this church Hodge in 1925. Today sandstone during the Pueblo Revolt of 1680. rock walls, in places several feet Governor Diego de Vargas reestablished high, outline the foundations and Spanish rule after several forays to rooms of the pueblo. Mounds of Taos between 1692 and 1694. The final earth littered with rocks, revolt against Spanish authority began potsherds, and other debris mark in June of 1696 and ended in October the locations of other portions, and of that year. Threats of attacks by Ute the general impression of the site and Comanche bands led to cooperation as a whole is that of a huge rock between the Spanish and the Pueblo rubble mound. Depressions Indians after 1700. Taos was an marking other rooms and kivas are important center of trade between the also evident. At the bottom of the Spanish and the Pueblo and Plains ridge to the east of the town are Indians. mounds of eroded adobe 2 to 3 feet high. They are all that remain of Today Taos remains a living pueblo the 17th century mission church with two principal groups of buildings and convento. surrounded by a town wall. The colonial church remains in ruins. The secretary • 30 Site Descriptions and Analyses

Kechipowa Pueblo. Kechipowa Camino Real Group (San Antonio to Pueblo was occupied during the Texas-New Mexico border, Socorro, same period as Hawikuh. The Sierra, and Dofia Ana Counties) • Spanish constructed a small 17th century mission church and Description. The Camino Real group convento there. Today ruins remain refers to the sites in New Mexico of an 800-room pueblo with at least relating to the government-maintained two plaza areas and a mission road that ran from Mexico City to complex. Santa Fe from the 17th through the 19th centuries. Through New Mexico all The secretary of of the road except the interior the J ornado de! designated M uerto portion these sites ~·~~~~/-,,,~~~d?m/\ closely followed national - ~ the Rio historic Grande. The landmarks segment in in 1974. In Socorro, Sierra, 1988 Congress and Dona Ana authorized counties contains Zuni-Cibola visible sites, National structures, trail ruts, Historical Park and landmarks from to be created if the Spanish colonial a satisfactory period. None of these leasehold ~ 'features have been agreement evaluated for the • between the National Register of Zuni and the Historic Places. federal government can Significance. The be reached by sites in this group 1994. appear to meet the criteria of national significance: OTHER SITES They are the last remaining As part of the current study, the examples in New Mexico of the following sites were analyzed to officially designated transportation determine whether they meet the NPS and communication link between criteria for national significance. Some the New Mexico province and of the sites have previously been Mexico City. evaluated for listing on the National Register of Historic Places; some have Portions of the trail remain visible, received no known evaluation other and these together with prominent than that of the current study team. landmarks possess exceptional value for interpreting this aspect of • the Spanish colonial story. 31 Part Two: Resource Evaluation

Remnants of the Camino Real retaining its enclosed character. provide insights into the colonial Over the centuries, all the other story not represented by other plazas have been demolished or extant resources and so offer dramatically altered as • important opportunities for communities have grown. scientific investigation. Many colonial architectural The resources contain a high features are visible, and the degree of integrity. completeness of the plaza and its various component parts, such as A separate study of the trail through the acequia madre and the torreon, New Mexico and Texas is underway make it exceptionally valuable for and may result in this resource being illustrating the Spanish colonial designated a national historic trail or story. national scenic trail. Al though the plaza has been surveyed and some preliminary Chima~«) (Sandoval County) historical study has been done, no intensive historical, landownership, Description. The Spanish constructed or archeological investigations have the fortified Plaza de! Cerro at Chimayo been undertaken. The site's in the 1740s. Throughout the 18th completeness and its high degree of century Chimayo was considered the integrity make Plaza del Cerro of eastern boundary of Spanish settlement exceptional scientific value. in the Rio Grande Valley. The plaza retains an extremely This community has been continuously high level of historical integrity. inhabited to the present. The original • fortified plaza of one-story adobe buildings remains recognizable, Galisteo Group (Vicinity of although it is in a dilapidated condition. Galisteo, Santa Fe County) The original torre6n, or defensive watchtower, is protected inside a barn Description. The Galisteo group on the south side of the plaza. The includes the San Lazaro, San Cristobal, plaza interior is used for small garden San Marcos, and Galisteo pueblos. San and orchard plots with the original Lazaro is a national historic landmark acequia madre, or main irrigation ditch, and is described above. still visible. The site is on the National Register of Historic Places. San Cristobal. San Cristobal was an active pueblo during the period Significance. The Plaza de! Cerro at of Spanish exploration and early Chimayo appears to meet the NPS settlement. The Spanish supervised criteria for national significance: the construction of a 17th century mission there. The Indians were It is typical of Spanish northern major participants in the Pueblo frontier community planning Revolt of 1680. The pueblo was during the late 17th and early 18th abandoned between 1692 and 1696 centuries. However, in all of New and never reoccupied. Mexico the Plaza de! Cerro is the last example of a fortified plaza • 32 Site Descriptions and Analyses

Resources include pueblo ruins, inhabitants to move to Santo defensive works, and mission ruins. Domingo. The site is listed on the National • Register of Historic Places. Today the site consists of eroded mounds. The site is on the San Marcos. San Marcos is National Register of Historic Places. estimated to have been continuously occupied from around Significance. The Galisteo group A.D. 1300 until it was abandoned appears to meet the criteria for national during the Pueblo Revolt in 1680. significance: During the early 1600s a mission was established at the pueblo. San It is a superlative example of a Marcos played a major role in the complete and self-contained Pueblo Revolt. multi-pueblo/mission complex.

Visible resources at the site include The group possesses exceptional mounds and wall remnants up to 6 value in illustrating the entire feet high eroding out of chronology of the pueblo-missions streambanks. The site is on the and also the element of Spanish National Register of Historic Places. civil administration, since the complex was historically governed Galisteo Pueblo. Galisteo Pueblo as a functional group. may have had its beginnings as early as the latter half of the 13th The pristine condition of the century. The site has been complex offers a unique tentatively identified as the Pueblo opportunity for scientific study. Ximena visited by the Coronado • expedjtjon jn 1540. Gaspar Castano The sjtes retain a high degree of de Sosa saw the village in 1590 integrity because, unlike Pecos and and called it San Lucas. Onate Salinas, they have not been visited the pueblo in 1598 while significantly disturbed by establishing mission districts and archeological excavation or renamed it Santa Ana. Only a few vandalism. Three of the pueblos years later its name was changed (all except Galisteo) were not to Santa Cruz de Galisteo. A reoccupied after their abandonment church was constructed there in during the first colonial period and 1617. The inhabitants of Galisteo thus retain exceptionally high were major participants in the integrity as first-period sites. Pueblo Revolt and moved to Santa Fe, where they stayed until 1692, when the Spanish returned under Isleta-Bernalillo Estancia Group the command of don Diego de (Rio Grande Valley from Isleta to Vargas. In 1706 Governor Cuervo Bernalillo, Bernalillo County) reestablished the pueblo under the name of Santa Maria. Ninety Tana Description. The central Rio Grande Indians were there at that time. It valley was a farming and ranching area was a pueblo of moderate size until that served as the bread basket for 1794, when smallpox and Spanish colonial New Mexico and Comanche raids forced its northern New Spain from the 17th to • the 19th centuries. The area between 33 Part Two: Resource Evaluation

Isleta and Bernalillo was critical to the landscape elements and the provincial New Mexico economy and extensive archeological values. trade. By 1640 some 11 private and more than 14 mission estancias existed The land use patterns, cultural • in this area. The mission estancias landscape, acequia systems, and numbered more than 46 by 1663. By archeological sites retain much 1680, on the eve of the Pueblo Revolt, historical integrity. as many as 1 7 Spanish estancias had been established in the area between Atrisco and Alameda alone, a distance La Salina Grant (Vicinity of of about 8 miles. Willard, Torrance County)

Resources include remnants of colonial Description. For centuries the Indians roads, farm complexes, acequia systems, used the saline lakes known as Las field patterns, community development, Salinas as sources of salt. When Oiiate and cultural landscapes. Few of these arrived in New Mexico, he considered features are listed on the National the lakes a source of wealth for the Register of Historic Places. One of the province. Using Indian labor, the sites on the National Register is the Spanish mined the salt and shipped it Old Albuquerque Historic District, to Mexico City during the 17th century. which takes in the Hispanic village core The salt lakes continued to be utilized of Albuquerque founded in 1706. The by residents of New Mexico in later site is on the National Register of centuries, with commercial exploitation Historic Places. again taking place in the 19th and 20th centuries. The Salina Grant salt lake is Significance. The Isleta-Bernalillo considered the purest source of salt estancia group appears to meet the among the numerous alkaline deposits criteria for national significance: common in the area. •

The group is an outstanding Significance. The Salina Grant alone example of Spanish colonial does not appear to meet all of the NPS agricultural development. criteria for national significance; however, it does appear to meet the Few structures remain from the criteria if viewed as part of Salinas Spanish colonial period, and those Pueblo Missions National Monument: that exist have been modified over the centuries. However, the land The site is the only major Spanish use patterns, cultural landscape, mineral extraction site from the and acequia systems are visible. first colonization period that The area possesses exceptional retains any historical integrity. value for interpretation because the complex is extensive and patterns In the context of the Salinas are readily identifiable. Dozens of pueblos the site offers the Spanish and pueblo archeological opportunity to tell a nationally sites also occur within the area significant story of the collection of and are relatively undisturbed. salt by the Indians and the trade between the province of New The complex is of scientific Mexico and the mining towns to importance because of the cultural the south where salt was needed for the silver-refining process. • 34 Site Descriptions and Analyses

It is possible that sheds, tools, land use patterns are visible. Not all of equipment, and other artifacts of these sites have been fully evaluated the colonial salt-mining industry for the National Register of Historic • may be found there. The potential Places, but San Jose de Las Huertas for scientific research is high. and Casa Acequia have been found eligible for nomination. The area has seen no development other than occasional episodes of Significance. The Las Huertas group salt extraction. It is likely that the appears to meet the criteria for national Salina Grant lake and its resources significance: retain a high level of integrity. The sites are the most outstanding remaining examples of Spanish Las Huertas Group (Vicinity of civil settlement and illustrate the Bernalillo, Bernalillo County entire Spanish colonial period.

Description. This cluster of resources The group possesses exceptional consists of four Spanish settlement sites value in illustrating Spanish civil which, together with the existing village settlement, which complements the of Placitas, represent a chronology of pueblo/mission story told at Pecos Spanish civil settlement and village life and Salinas. from the 17th to the present century. The sites offer superlative Casa Acequia. The Casa Acequia opportunities for scientific study site encompasses the ruins of a because of their integrity. Little 17th century community. historical or archeological investigation has been carried out • San Jose de Las Huertas. This on any Spanish civil settlement settlement may also date from the sites in New Mexico. 17th century. Like Casa Acequia, it was abandoned during the Pueblo Casa Acequia and San Jose de Las Revolt. However, unlike the former Huertas have not been disturbed site, San Jose de las Huertas was by occupation subsequent to their resettled and existed as a small abandonment by the Spanish, and village into the 19th century. as a result, these sites make up a Spanish colonial time capsule and Canjil6n. Canjil6n was a Pueblo retain a high degree of Indian siege site associated with completeness and integrity. None of the revolt and reconquest. the other sites have been excavated, and they all show few Tecolote Hill. Little is known signs of vandalism. about the Tecolote Hill site. It dates from the 1600s but may be either an Indian or a Spanish site. Los Luceros Hacienda (Vicinity of Los Luceros, Rio Arriba County) The Las Huertas complex contains rich archeological resources including Description. Los Luceros was not one foundations and mounds of defensive of the 22 sites that appeared to best walls, residences, and commercial represent Spanish colonization in New • buildings. Also, acequias and colonial Mexico. However, because it was 35

L_ Part Two: Resource Evaluation specifically mentioned in the legislation The current landowners are protecting for this study, it is included here for and adaptively using the historical reference. resources. • According to local tradition, a small party of Onate's settlers may have San Jose de Guisewa State constructed a small estancia on this site Monument (in Jemez Springs, around 1601, but no written records Sandoval County) have been found to verify this fact. The remains of a boulder dam across the Description. San Jose de Guisewa was Rio Grande and some portions of a local the first permanent mission to the irrigation system may date from this Jemez Indians. The ruins of the church, period. The first documented occupation standing to a height of almost 40 feet of the site is a land grant to Capt. at one point, are not only impressive Sebastian Martin Serrano in 1703. In and attractive, but are the remains of a the early 18th century, Serrano building unlike any other mission constructed a hacienda complex on the church in New Mexico. The early 17th site. The site continued to be the center century structure incorporates portions of farming and ranching activity into of two earlier buildings within the the 19th century. During this period a fabric of its walls, and it was burned number of new 19th century structures out and restored at least once before were constructed and the original the century ended. The single bell Spanish colonial structures were greatly tower behind the altar, the huge modified. windows, and the multistoried sacristy are all unique features, demonstrating Today the area serves as a center of the originality and inventiveness of the operations for a bed and breakfast inn, Franciscan architect. Equally unusual is an art gallery, and the Amerkan the layout of the convento, which had • Studies Foundation. The foundation is to be completely rearranged from the concerned with the study and typical plan to fit above a mountain preservation of the southwestern stream in a narrow canyon of the tricultural heritage. The site is on the Jemez Mountains. National Register of Historic Places. Significance. San Jose de Guisewa Significance. Los Luceros does not appears to meet the criteria for national appear to meet all the criteria for significance: national significance as a Spanish colonial resource. Although it may have It is an outstanding and unique played a role in the early colonial example of Franciscan missionary period, the remaining significant church and convento design. resources date from the later territorial period of New Mexico's history. Because The building offers an exceptional the primary visible resources do not opportunity for interpreting date from the Spanish colonial period, Franciscan design and construction the site offers little opportunity to methods. Much of the structural illustrate the colonial story. Because the detail of the building survives and site is in a floodplain and has been is easily visible. disturbed, the scientific value of the archeological remains of the colonial The church, convento, and portions period is uncertain. of the pueblo of Guisewa are easily • 36 Site Descriptions and Analyses

accessible from a major highway altered. The site retains a high passing beside the site. Because of level of integrity. its accessibility and well-preserved • condition, the site offers great potential for scientific investigation. Santa Cruz de la Canada (Rio The property is publicly owned. Arriba County)

Although the buildings have had Santa Cruz de la Canada was not one several major excavations and were of the 22 sites determined by the team stabilized in the 1920s, many areas to best represent Spanish colonization of the convento and church remain in New Mexico. However, during the untouched. Most of the visible public review of the National Park fabric has not been significantly Service list of those sites, several people requested that it be evaluated for possible inclusion.

Description. The community of Santa Cruz de la Canada was established in 1695 and moved to its present location after an abortive Pueblo Indian revolt in 1696. A small church was established in 1706. Work began on a new church in 1733, and it was completed in 1744 or 1745. By 1776 the church served eight nearby households and the ranches scattered throughout the area. The community has been • continuously occupied from its founding to the present.

Significance. Santa Cruz de la Canada does not appear to meet all the criteria for national significance as a Spanish colonial resource. While the site is significant to the Spanish colonial period, very little of the original Spanish colonial feeling remains. ,..; Many of the Spanish colonial . ·-- structures have either been modified · ' or replaced by later structures. The area that was the plaza contains evidence of numerous ruin mounds, but these have been overlaid with post-colonial buildings and walls. The church also has been modified to meet the needs of each succeeding generation.

The role of this site in the interpretation of Spanish colonization • may be reconsidered in the future, since 37 Part Two: Resource Evaluation a church restoration program is being partially damaged by road carried out by the community. construction in the 1950s. However, none of the sites have been significantly disturbed. • Santa Fe River Sites (Santa Fe County) Santa Rita de Cobre Mine (Vicinity Description. The Santa Fe River sites of Silver City, Grant County) are a series of six estancia ruins along the river between Santa Fe and Description. The Santa Rita de Cobre Cieneguilla Pueblo, 10 miles to the Mine was founded by the Spanish in southwest. One of these sites has been 1804. The Spanish built a fort near the tested and is known to have been mine to give some protection from established in the 17th century, raiding Apaches. The ruins of this fort, destroyed during the Pueblo Revolt, and of a distinctive triangular plan with a reoccupied in the 18th century, with round bastion at each corner, were occupation continuing into the early visible into the first decades of the 20th 19th century. The other sites probably century, when they presumably were followed the same sequence. destroyed by expansion of the mining operation. The mining operation at this Significance. The Santa Fe River sites location has continued to expand until appear to meet the criteria for national today the pit is perhaps 1,000 feet deep significance: and about a mile across.

They are outstanding examples of Significance. Little or nothing survives privately owned fortified estancia of the original Spanish mining complexes, which formed a critical operation or the town and fort of Santa part of the food production and Rita. In spite of the long history and • subsistence economy of the colonial origin of the present mine, the province of New Mexico. lack of any colonial presence today prevents the site from being nationally They offer a unique opportunity for significant. investigating and interpreting the lifeways and material culture of private settlers in the Santa Fe Sevilleta Pueblo and Mission area from the first decades of (Vicinity of La Joya, Valencia colonization through the end of the County) Spanish colonial period. Description. A number of 16th and The sites are near county roads 17th century Spanish expeditions and are easily accessible. One of stopped at Sevilleta Pueblo on their the sites is owned by the way into the North American interior. Archeological Conservancy. The Later, the pueblo became a stopping remainder are on private land. point for travelers on the Camino Real. The Spanish fleeing from the Pueblo All of the sites retain a high level Revolt found refuge here as they moved of integrity. None were occupied south. The Piro Indians apparently after the early 19th century. One abandoned the pueblo about 1680. The of the sites has been tested by Spanish reoccupied the site in 1800, archeologists, and a second was building a small village. • 38 Site Descriptions and Analyses

Resources include pueblo ruins, mission Coronado expedition lay in the and convento ruins, village foundations, information the Spanish gained about and a plaza. The site has not been people living in fortified settlements in • evaluated for eligibility for the National the region and about the geographical Register of Historic Places. features and the flora and fauna of southwestern North America. A recent Significance. Sevilleta Pueblo appears archeological investigation suggests that to meet the criteria for national the Coronado expedition may have used significance: this campsite in the winter of 1540-41. Further investigation could reveal It is an outstanding example of a additional archeological resources pueblo/mission complex reoccupied related to the Coronado expedition. It is during the second period of also possible that this campsite could colonization. relate to one of the other major expeditions that passed through the The site possesses exceptional area between 1581 and 1598. For value for interpreting the sequence example, in 1592 Juan de Norleta of occupation of the province of moved north to arrest the illegal New Mexico because each expedition of Gaspar Castano de Sosa, occupation occurred in a different and upon his return passed through area of the site and the remains this area; and Juan de Onate led are readily visible for study and another large expedition that passed comparison. through the area in 1598. The site has not been evaluated for the National Sevilleta is located next to a major Register of Historic Places. highway on a terrace above the Rio Grande, making it easily accessible Significance. This campsite appears to • and offering an impressive view of meet the criteria for national the Rio Grande Valley. Because it significance: has never been excavated or disturbed, the site has high The site is the only documented potential for scientific study. example of a 16th century Spanish expeditionary campsite in the Because the site was abandoned Southwest. shortly after the Spanish colonial period and has not been excavated This resource possesses exceptional or otherwise disturbed, it retains a value for interpreting the impact of high degree of integrity. Spanish exploration and resulting colonization on the indigenous cultures. The site is located on a Sixteenth Century Spanish terrace overlooking the Rio Grande Campsite (Vicinity of Bernalillo, Valley and the Sandia Mountains. Sandoval County) This unobstructed view provides an opportunity for interpretation of Description. Between 1540 and 1542, the historical landscape; because of Francisco Vasquez de Coronado led an the trees and hills, most modern expedition of approximately 300 development is obscured and the Spanish soldiers and 1,000 Indian allies valley looks much as it must have and servants throughout the American in the 16th century. • Southwest. The significance of the 39 This site offers a superlative opportunity for scientific study because it is the only known undisturbed 16th century Spanish • expeditionary campsite.

The site has a high degree of integrity and has not been disturbed by past archeological digs or by vandalism.

Table 3: Nationally Significant Spanish Colonial Sites in New Mexico

Units of the National Park System

El Morro National Monument Pecos National Historical Park Salinas Pueblo Missions National Monument

National Historic Landmarks

Acoma Pueblo and Mission Big Bead Mesa Las Trampas San Francisco de Asis San Gabriel • San Lazaro Pueblo (part of Galisteo group) Santa Fe group Taos Pueblo and Mission Zuni-Cibola Complex

Other Sites

Camino Real group Chimay6 Galisteo group Isleta-Bernalillo estancia group La Salina Grant Las Huertas group San Jose de Guisewa State Monument Santa Fe River sites Sevilleta Pueblo and Mission 16th century Spanish campsite • 40 ~ -~---·--·-· ...... Introduction • INTRODUCTION This section describes seven alternative objectives might be better served by strategies for commemorating Spanish combining two or more strategies. colonization in New Mexico. All of the alternatives are intended to increase These alternatives were presented for public awareness and appreciation of public review in the August 1990 the multicultural encounter that newsletter. Everyone on the mailing characterized the period of Spanish list, which included all the site colonization in New Mexico, and to managers, were asked to comment on improve the accuracy and objectivity the advantages and disadvantages of with which the story is told. Some of each alternative. More than 60 people the strategies emphasize interpretation sent comments. Most people of the Spanish colonial sites identified commenting on the study supported in this study (possibly along with other some form of further action to sites and resources); some call for commemorate Spanish colonization. preservation of significant sites; some Some supported an alternative include extensive research programs; emphasizing either research, resource and others would commemorate this protection, or interpretation, but most period of American history through saw a need to combine alternatives. symbolic monuments or re-creations Ideas received from the public were without relying directly on any historic incorporated into an analysis of the sites. No alternative is preferred over possible effects of each alternative on the others at this time. resources, visitors, and surrounding communities. Additional comments • Even though this is a National Park expressed by the public are summarized Service study prepared for Congress, it at the end of each analysis section. includes some alternatives that would involve only limited federal government action. Spanish colonization could be commemorated by the federal government, by state or local governments, by private citizens, or by any combination of the above, and this variety of possibilities is reflected in the range of alternatives. Any agency or organization undertaking commemorative activities should work closely with the Hispanic and American Indian communities, whose cultural heritage is closely tied to the story of Spanish colonization.

Each alternative concept is discussed separately in this study for clarity in comparing the various possibilities. In actual implementation, however, while each alternative could stand alone, • interpretation and resource protection 43 Part Three: Alternatives 1. CONDUCT A COMPREHENSIVE RESEARCH PROGRAM • CONCEPT Service. With the assistance of an advisory board of experts from the This alternative calls for a public and private sectors, the Park comprehensive archeological and Service would set priorities and contract historical research program to with the academic community for inventory, document, and study Spanish research and the publication of data. colonial resources remaining in New Curation, archiving, and interpretation Mexico. The purposes of the program of artifacts could be accomplished would be to maximize understanding of through an expansion of the Park the colonial period in New Mexico and Service's Spanish Colonial Research to publish research findings for use by Center at the University of New Mexico. the academic community and the public. Educational materials based on As another option, the National Park the research would be prepared to Service could enter into a cooperative improve teaching of the Spanish agreement with the state of New colonial period of U.S. history. Artifacts Mexico to jointly manage the program. resulting from research could be The Park Service would receive federal exhibited in an existing museum or funds, and the state could apply for museums. grants and private funding, thus expanding the financial base for the program. Research projects would be Site Management contracted by the National Park Service and the state. Curation, archiving, and • This alternative would not involve any interpretation of artifacts could be changes in site ownership, accomplished by the Museum of New manage-ment, or use. Research would Mexico with federal funding and be conducted with the consent of the technical assistance or with private existing landowners. Research priorities funds. Regardless of which option was would be based on known or expected implemented, additional facilities for significance and degree of threat. Many offices, archives, curatorial activities, Spanish colonial sites and resources are and education/interpretation services being lost to modern development, would be required, and staffing would vandalism, erosion, neglect, and other need to be increased. Part or all of the causes, and in cases where site research center and/or museum destruction appeared inevitable, an functions could be housed at the effort would be made to salvage planned multi-cultural center at information from threatened sites before Espanola (see the commemorative it was lost forever. center alternative).

Administrative Structure and Actions Required for Funding Implementation

Congress could fund the program Implementation of this alternative directly through the National Park would require public and/or private • 44 l, Conduct a Coniprehensive Research Program

funding, establishment of an advisory limited interpretation would be board, and a statewide inventory and included in this alternative. Visitors research plan. would not get an overview of the • Spanish colonial period or have increased opportunities to see ANALYSIS colonial sites.

Effects on Resources Effects on Communities • Research would be emphasized over interpretation or preservation. The Communities would not be directly effectiveness of this alternative involved, and no local funding would would depend on the amount of be diverted from other community funding allocated to carry out the needs. program. • No private property owners would Site preservation would not be be displaced, and no properties directly funded or assisted by this would be removed from tax rolls. program. On the one hand, research activities and greater public Present tourism trends would not be awareness could result in site affected. disturbance. On the other hand, greater public awareness could No direct economic benefits would increase support for site result. preservation, and some information would be salvaged that might otherwise be lost as sites Additional Public Comments • deteriorated or were destroyed. Several people who commented on the Scholarly knowledge of Spanish alternatives raised questions about the colonization would be greatly need for additional research, but more enhanced, and educational resources people placed a high priority on such a would be increased. program. While participation by a full range of experts and students from the public and private sectors was viewed Effects on Visitors positively, concerns were expressed about effective coordination and • Existing visitor programs might be man-agement of such a complex enhanced by the exhibit of program. additional cultural materials.

The documentation of Spanish colonization in New Mexico would provide the data base necessary for teaching U.S. history and for interpretive and commemorative activities. However, a program of research and scholarly study of information would not provide quick • results to the general public. Only 45 Part Three: Alternatives 2. COORDINATE A COMPREHENSIVE INTERPRETATION PROGRAM • CONCEPT major criteria would be that the sites would have to be related to the Spanish This alternative places the highest colonization story and be open to the priority on developing a comprehensive public. Existing visitor programs interpretation program to increase provided by pueblo, local, state, and public awareness and understanding of federal governments and private the Spanish colonization of New Mexico organizations would be coordinated and and its importance to U.S. history. The supplemented where necessary to National Park Service would prepare a provide visitors with an accurate, comprehensive plan and coordinate comprehensive view of Spanish visitor programs for a variety of public colonization. Because many Spanish and private sites to help ensure that colonial resources have either fallen visitors got the most complete and into ruin or been significantly altered accurate picture of Spanish colonization over time, effective interpretation might possible. require exhibits and audiovisual programs to help people picture what Visitors would receive a comprehensive the pueblos and villages must have overview of the story of Spanish looked like during the colonial period. colonization in New Mexico and have New programs would be developed for the chance to experience a great variety resources that are currently not of sites remaining from the Spanish interpreted, such as fortified plazas and colonial period. Emphasis would be acequia systems. placed on interpreting how each site • related to the others, helping visitors Existing units of the national park understand how the various aspects of system that relate to the Spanish Spanish colonial society contributed to colonial period (Pecos National the whole. Historical Park and the Salinas Pueblo Missions and El Morro national monuments) would be incorporated into Site Management the larger program by ensuring that their interpretation was consistent with This alternative would not involve any the overall plan and by using these changes in site ownership, but it might national parks as distribution points for involve changes in the ways individual information about other related sites. sites were managed for public use. Local visitor centers or museums, such Resource preservation and maintenance as the Palace of the Governors National would not be direct goals of the project, Historic Landmark in Santa Fe, might but some sites might benefit indirectly also help distribute or sell interpretive from increased management attention brochures or other interpretive and public awareness. materials.

Different sites might be incorporated Associated facilities would be certified into the project, depending on the and allowed to use the official project interpretive emphasis and the interest logo for certain purposes. Property of individual property owners. The owners or managers requesting such an • 46 I 2. Coordinate a Comprehensive Interpretation Program

I association with the National Park Specific NPS responsibilities would Service would have to comply with include research, development of 1• certification requirements, which might interpretive materials, management of include one or more of the following: cooperative agreements with other federal, state, and local agencies and I protection of resource integrity private organizations, and provision of technical advice and assistance. The I achievement of a high standard of National Park Service would inform the maintenance and public service public through media such as brochures, audiovisual programs, or I commensurate with that expected of units in the national park system exhibits about all of the certified museums and other facilities where accuracy of information conveyed to people could learn more about Spanish the public colonization. The Park Service would not provide exhibits or staff for others' financial accountability for sale of properties, but it could provide financial materials sponsored or approved by and technical assistance for interpretive the National Park Service media under certain conditions, and it could make films or other such maintenance of a design theme materials available, perhaps for a harmonious with the Spanish nominal charge. Other than possible colonization story funding for interpretive media, no new sources of federal financial assistance Certification would not be permanent would be available. but could be renewed on a regular basis, subject to satisfactory The Park Service would operate out of performance of the terms of the the existing Spanish Colonial Research • agreement. Center at the University of New Mexico and a new project office in the Southwest Regional Office. NPS Administrative Structure and planning, coordinating, and technical Funding assistance responsibilities would require additional staffing and yearly funding Funding for planning and coordination specifically dedicated to this project. would come from Congress directly to the National Park Service. The Park Service would consult with scholars and Actions Required for ethnic communities and develop an Implementation interpretation plan based on the best information available about the Spanish Implementation of this alternative colonial period in New Mexico. The plan would require increased NPS funding, a would identify how existing programs comprehensive interpretation plan, and could be fitted into a cohesive whole standards for site interpretation. and how existing gaps might be filled. The implementation of this plan would rely on the cooperative efforts and support of private, pueblo, and • government landowners . 47 Part Three: Alternatives

ANALYSIS visit, they could receive a complete or somewhat fragmented Effects on Resources understanding of the Spanish colonial story. People who visited Interpretation would be emphasized many sites would notice some over preservation or research. repetition of information.

On the one hand, increased visitation and public awareness of Effects on Communities the significance and value of Spanish colonial sites might result The existing interpretive programs in an increase in research and conducted by pueblo, local, state, • resource preservation efforts. On the and federal governments and the other hand, increased visitation private sector could be integrated could result in disturbance of into the project. resources at some sites. Communities and local governments • An increase in scholarly know ledge would be directly involved in the would result from the original interpretation of their past, which research that would likely be could help focus community efforts required to implement this but could also divert funds from alternative. other community needs.

No private property owners would Effects on Visitors be displaced, and no properties would be removed from local tax • Visitors could get the best rolls. comprehensive overview of the major themes of Spanish colonization and Visitors would be more aware of and increased opportunities to experience interested in various sites around all the various types of sites New Mexico, which would help remaining from that period. increase and decentralize tourism. Depending on the number of sites Careful planning would be required people had the interest and time to to avoid increasing visitation to • 48 2. Coordinate a Comprehensive Interpretation Program

unprotected sites or imposing visitation on communities where it • is not welcome. Additional tourism-related economic benefits would be dispersed to communities throughout much of New Mexico.

Additional Public Comments

Coordination among government and private entities was generally viewed favorably, but some people expressed concern over the National Park Service being given excessive control over others' programs. Several people commented that different cultural groups should be allowed to present their own points of view about the Spanish colonization story. While some people were concerned about the potential expense of this alternative, others believed it would be cost effective because of the large number of visitors that could be reached by • interpretive programs .

• 49 Part Three: Alternatives 3. DEVELOP A COMMEMORATIVE CENTER • CONCEPT Administrative Structure and Funding This alternative calls for a commemorative center, which could Management and operation could be include museums, a research center, undertaken by the community in which cultural centers, cultural events, and the center was located; by a state interpretation of the Spanish agency, such as the Museum of New colonization story. The center would Mexico; or - in the case of a major give communities an opportunity to center - through a cooperative effort of celebrate their heritage and to share local, state, and federal governments. their culture with the visiting public. The National Park Service could provide technical assistance for Visitors would learn about Spanish planning and development of the center colonial culture by attending cultural and interpretive materials and events and through the literature programs. Funding for the development available at the center, rather than by and operation of museums, libraries, directly experiencing historic and visitor centers, and other public archeological resources. The center facilities would come from the group(s) would give the public an opportunity to managing and operating the facilities, learn about many aspects of the from local, state, or federal govern colonial period at a single location. For ments, or from some combination of the visitors desiring additional experiences, above. Fees for admission into the the center would offer orientation to center and for cultural events and other Spanish colonial sites and events activities could help offset facility • throughout New Mexico. maintenance and programming costs.

Schools could become involved in the The city of Espanola is currently in the cultural events, providing students with early stages of the kind of project better insights into the Spanish colonial described by this alternative and in period. which the federal government could participate. The city has plans for a new commemorative plaza made up of Site Management Hispanic, Indian, Anglo, and multicultural centers that will provide a No sites would be directly affected by national focus for the preservation and the alternative, but visitors to the appreciation of the rich cultural commemorative center would be heritage of the American Southwest. As directed to other Spanish colonial sites envisioned, the Hispanic center will open to the public. The visitation to commemorate the first families to some sites might increase as an indirect colonize what is now the United States, result of this project. trace the dispersion of these Spanish families throughout the region and the country, and provide a place for the continuing celebration of Hispanic family traditions. The Indian center will similarly trace the roots and modern manifestations of Indian cultures. The • 50 ------

3. Develop a Com1neniorati1..:e Center

centers will serve as a starting point for Effects on Visitors visits to a variety of resources representative of New Mexico's Visitors would get a comprehensive • development from colonial limes to the overview of Spanish colonization and present. the best chance to understand the dynamic and continuing interchange The County Commission of Rio Arriba between Spanish and Pueblo County is working on another cultures by seeing how various commemorative center concept. The cultural elements are manifest in commission has passed a resolution to modern communities. On the one erect a monument and visitor center to hand, consolidating interpretation at commemorate the founding of San a single center would eliminate the Gabriel, the first Spanish colony in the possibility that visitors would Southwest. Five acres of land on the receive only fragments of the main highway near the village of complete story. On the other hand, Alcalde have been deeded to the county a single center would not be as by the Bureau of Land Management for convenient to the largest number of this purpose. The target date for the visitors as numerous dispersed sites completion of the monument and visitor and, therefore, might not reach as center has been set to coincide with the many people. This approach would Columbus Quincentennial in 1992. place less emphasis on creating opportunities for people to visit and experience the actual sites Actions Required for remaining from the Spanish colonial Implementation period .

Implementation of this alternative • would require a master plan to define Effects on Communities goals and objectives, interpretive themes and programs, facility needs, Existing interpretive and cultural and funding and implementation programs offered by pueblo, local, strategies. It might also require state, and federal governments and research and collections plans, as the private sector could be appropriate. incorporated if the participants chose to conduct at least some of their activities at the cultural ANALYSIS center. Alternatively, the center might compete with existing Effects on Resources programs.

Interpretation and research would The center would involve be emphasized over preservation. communities and local governments in the interpretation of their past Preservation work would not be and could provide a focal point for funded or assisted. community pride, cultural heritage, and special events. Depending on Scholarly knowledge of Spanish the breadth and success of its colonization might be enhanced by programming, the center could be original research conducted through perceived as a high or low priority • the center. by local and regional residents. 51 ---··----~

Part Three: Alternatives

• No private property owners would be displaced, and no properties would be removed from local tax rolls. •

• Visitors would be more aware of and interested in various sites, particularly in the communities participating in the commemorative center, and this would increase tourism in a relatively localized area.

• Additional tourism-related economic benefits would be concentrated in communities adjacent to the commemorative center.

Additional Public Comments

Several respondents expressed concern about focusing on a single location. Some believe this alternative could be perceived as favoring a single community rather than a regional heritage. Some said that a single site could not do justice to the region's total • cultural diversity. The assumed high cost of this alternative was of some concern, and some people pointed out that communities are developing their own programs and may not need or welcome federal involvement.

• 52 4. Interpret a Spanish Cultural Heritage Scene 4. INTERPRET A SPANISH CULTURAL • HERITAGE SCENE

CONCEPT colonization. The interpretive goal would be to provide visitors with No one area of New Mexico contains insights into the sights, sounds, and enough diverse historic structures with smells of the period, helping them a high degree of integrity to adequately understand and appreciate the overall represent all aspects of the Spanish environmental context and life-styles of colonial period. This alternative would Spanish colonial New Mexico. Visitors re-create a multi-faceted Spanish would be encouraged to visit cultural heritage scene in one compact archeological sites and extant Spanish area to allow the interpretation of the ·· colonial structures that are open to the complete story of Spanish colonization public. The interpretation they received at one site. at the re-created heritage site would help visitors recognize the features of Visitors would be offered tours of ruins and modified historic structures re-created buildings and grounds. The that are representative of the Spanish range and number of structures would approach to colonization. For example, be the minimum necessary to after seeing a re-created fortified plaza successfully depict all the major and learning about its major features, • elements of the story of Spanish visitors would be able to discern those

I! l I I

53 I L__ Part Three: Alternatives features in communities throughout Research Center at the University of New Mexico. New Mexico as one option. Funding would come primarily from the private sector, but could be supplemented by a • Site Management one-time congressional appropriation.

An appropriate site would be selected El Rancho de Las Golondrinas near for the authentic re-creation of Santa Fe is an existing example of this structures representative of those found concept. The site, which is managed by in Spanish colonial New Mexico, such the Colonial New Mexico Historical as mission complexes, estancias, and Foundation, could receive additional fortified plazas. If the selected site funding from public or private sources contained extant structures from the to meet the developmental and Spanish colonial period, then those interpretive requirements of this structures would be preserved and/or project. The site currently focuses on restored while missing buildings and the Spanish colonial period but also facilities would be reconstructed or includes reconstructions from several re-created as required. Authenticity other periods to interpret more of New would be the guiding principle for Mexican history. preservation, reconstruction, and re-creation. The site would be managed The city of Espanola might also choose as a museum. to create a Spanish colonial scene as part of its commemorative plaza project. No other sites would be directly affected The current plans call for a variety of by this alternative, but visitors at the museum and commercial facilities, museum would be directed to other including a re-created period mission. Spanish colonial sites open to the public, which might increase their • visitation. Actions Required for Implementation

Administrative Structure and Implementation of this alternative Funding would require a master plan to define goals and objectives, interpretive Re-creations of typical structures on themes and programs, facility needs, sites where they did not exist and funding and implementation historically is not generally consistent strategies. with the NPS mission, policies, and programs. Therefore, this alternative would be feasible only if the site was ANALYSIS owned and managed by someone other than the National Park Service. The Effects on Resources Park Service could provide technical research and resource management Interpretation would be emphasized assistance to the site manager. This over preservation or research. alternative would require extensive collection of available documents, Preservation work would not be drawings, artifacts, and other research funded or assisted except at the tools, which might be accomplished by chosen project site. the Park Service's Spanish Colonial • 54 4. Interpret a Spanish Cultural Heritage Scene

• Scholarly know ledge would be Visitors would become more aware enhanced by research conducted to of and interested in one site, which ensure the authenticity of would increase tourism in a • reconstructions and re-creations. localized area.

• Additional tourism-related economic Effects on Visitors benefits would be concentrated in communities adjacent to the project • Visitors would get a comprehensive site. overview of the major themes of Spanish colonization and a chance to visualize the life-sty Jes of the Additional Public Comments people living during that period. The consolidation of interpretation at a Many people commented favorably on single location would eliminate the the potential effectiveness and public possibility of visitors' receiving only appeal of this alternative, but an equal fragments of the complete story. number pointed out the expense of This alternative would not increase reconstructions and the difficulty in opportunities for people to visit and carrying out this kind of program in an experience the actual sites accurate, balanced way. Some people remaining from the Spanish colonial commented that Las Golondrinas period. However, visitors' already accomplishes the intent of this understanding and appreciation of alternative and that additional money ruin sites that are already open to could be better spent on preservation of the public independent of this actual sites. Other people suggested project would be greatly enhanced that several smaller sites presenting by the opportunity to see what the different cultural points of view could • ruins might have looked like before be desirable. It was also suggested that they deteriorated. a reconstructed site would work best as a community "hands-on" project.

Effects on Communities

• If an existing re-creation was not used, a new visitor program would be introduced and compete with existing programs.

• Communities and local governments would be directly involved in interpretation of their past, which could help focus community efforts but could also divert funds from other community needs.

No private property owners would be displaced, and no properties would be removed from local tax rolls.

55 Part Three: Alternatives 5. IDENTIFY STATE TOUR ROUTES

Northern Mountains Loop. This • CONCEPT tour would follow the high This alternative would identify a series mountain route from Santa Fe to of tours that would allow visitors to Taos and back past the first retrace the routes traveled by the Spanish settlement of San Gabriel. Spanish colonists or to visit closely Included would be the high related sites. Different tours would be mountain villages and Spanish planned around individual parts of the settlements along the way. Spanish colonization story, and the tour routes would be designed so that people Rio Grande Valley Route. Visitors could embark on a tour at any major on this tour would follow modern entrance to the state. Visitors would roads along the approximate route receive orientation for the tours at the of El Camino Real between El Paso various state welcome and information and Santa Fe. Included along the centers and at other tourism centers. route would be the colonial agricultural area that extended A brochure or booklet would be along the Rio Grande from Isleta developed for each tour to explain how to Bernalillo. resources along the way related to the Spanish colonization story. These tour Western Plains Route. This booklets could offer visitors options that western tour from Albuquerque to would allow them to spend one day or Gallup would include some of the several days on each tour. earliest exploration/contact sites and mission sites along Coronado's • route. Site Management Eastern Plains Route. This tour This alternative would not involve any would roughly approximate the changes in site ownership or route of the Coronado Trail management. Sites open to public use between Pecos National Monument would be identified in one or more tour and the Texas border. brochures, depending on their relationship to the tour themes. Some A number of tour routes involving additional signing or orientation Spanish colonial resources are currently pullouts could be developed, depending being considered by the National Park on the specific elements of each tour Service, the New Mexico Office of route. Five possible tours are offered Cultural Affairs, the city of Espanola, here as examples. and other federal, state, and local agencies. Ways of coordinating with Sangre de Cristo Mountains Route. these other efforts would be sought as This tour would take visitors on a part of the planning for this alternative. linear route from the living pueblo of Taos along the Sangre de Cristo Mountains and further south to the ancient pueblos of Salinas. • 56 5. Identify State Tour Routes

Administrative Structure and Effects on Visitors Funding Visitors would get a more complete • The state of New Mexico would fund understanding of one or more and coordinate the tour designation themes of New Mexico's Spanish program and the production and colonial history; however, most distribution of guide booklets. The Park visitors would not get a Service could provide research support comprehensive overview of all the through the Spanish Colonial Research themes. Starting tour routes at all Center and technical assistance for the major entrances to the state development of interpretive brochures would be the easiest, quickest way and booklets. The sale of interpretive for the largest number of people to materials could help defray the costs of visit some of the state's Spanish production and periodic updating. colonial sites.

Actions Required for Effects on Communities Implementation • Existing interpretive and cultural Implementation of this alternative programs conducted by pueblo, local, would require state legislation and a state, and federal governments and plan identifying appropriate routes and the private sector would be the desired interpretive program. incorporated into the project.

Communities and local governments ANALYSIS would be directly involved in interpretation of their past, which • Effects on Resources could help focus community efforts but could also divert funds from Interpretation would be emphasized other community needs. over preservation or research. No private property owners would On the one hand, increased be displaced, and no properties visitation and public awareness of would be removed from local tax the significance and value of rolls. Spanish colonial sites might result in an increase in research and Visitors would be more aware of and resource preservation efforts. On the interested in various sites around other hand, increased visitation New Mexico, which would increase could result in disturbance of and disperse tourism. Careful resources at some sites. planning would be required to avoid incurring visitation at unprotected Original research on Spanish sites or imposing visitation on colonial resources would not be communities where it would be required to implement this unwelcome. alternative; therefore, no increase in scholarly know ledge would Additional tourism-related economic necessarily result. benefits would be dispersed to • communities throughout New Mexico . 57 Part Three: Alternatives

Additional Public Comments

Helping tourists get the most out of their visits to New Mexico by letting • them choose from a variety of experiences was a popular aspect of this alternative. Several people commented, however, that existing and planned trails already meet this objective. Some people questioned whether tourists actually follow tour routes.

•

• 58 ------

6. Establish New Units of the National Park System 6. ESTABLISH NEW UNITS OF THE NATIONAL • PARK SYSTEM CONCEPT Service would tell visitors about related sites that are open to the public. This alternative would add a new unit or units to the national park system to National significance is only one of the more fully represent the story of criteria for inclusion in the national Spanish colonization. Interpretive park system. To be eligible, an area programs at existing and new areas must (1) possess nationally significant would be coordinated to tell a single natural, cultural, or recreational complete story while avoiding resources, (2) be a suitable and feasible duplication. At each site visitors would addition to the system, and (3) require get a brief overview of the entire direct NFS management instead of Spanish colonial story and in-depth alternative protection by other agencies interpretation of one part of the story or the private sector. These criteria are best represented by that particular site. designed to ensure that the national In addition to more fully telling the park system includes only outstanding story within the national park system, examples of the nation's heritage. They the Park Service would also enter into also recognize that inclusion in the cooperative agreements with other national park system is not the only colonial sites throughout the state and option for preserving the nation's direct visitors to those areas for outstanding resources. The complete additional interpretation. text of these criteria, as excerpted from the NFS Management Policies, is • The opportunity to experience a variety included in appendix D. of highly significant Spanish colonial sites could greatly enhance peoples' In determining suitability, emphasis sense of history. However, all of the would be placed on sites that represent sites most likely to be considered for parts of the Spanish colonial story that inclusion in the national park system are not already well represented in the have fallen into ruin, so visitors would national park system. Much of the have to use their imaginations to pueblo/mission story is well represented picture what the pueblos and villages by existing NFS areas (Pecos and must have looked like during the Salinas) so new units would most likely colonial period. Exhibits and emphasize other parts of the story, audiovisual programs would be provided especially the civil settlement and to help visitors with this visualization. Spanish colonial lifeways portions of the story. In determining feasibility, emphasis would be placed on the Site Management appropriateness and desirability of general public use as a park. For One or more nationally significant sites example, living pueblos and would be added to the national park communities would not be considered system and become a focus for research, feasible for inclusion in the national preservation, and public use. No other park system unless there was strong sites would be directly affected by this community support for such action. • alternative; however, the National Park 59 Part Three: Alternatives

Based only on the current, limited study, possible candidates for further consideration could include the following: • all or parts of the Las Huertas group, a cluster of four archeological sites that, together with the existing village of Placitas, represent a chronology of Spanish civil settlement and village life from the 17th to the present century

one or more of the Santa Fe River sites, the archeological remains of six 17th and 18th century farming and ranching complexes owned by Spanish citizens

the 16th century Spanish campsite, the only documented example of a Spanish expeditionary campsite of its period in the Southwest

all or parts of the Galisteo group, four archeological sites with exceptional value for illustrating the complete chronology of the • pueblo-missions and also the element of Spanish civil Actions Required for administration, because the Implementation complex was historically governed as a functional group Implementation of this alternative would require

Administrative Structure and federal legislation Funding a more detailed study to determine The new unit would be funded by the most appropriate and Congress and administered by the reasonable areas for designation as National Park Service. The research NPS units required for managing and interpreting the new area could be conducted out of general management plans, the Park Service's Spanish Colonial development concept plans, and Research Center at the University of interpretation and resource New Mexico. management plans for all new NPS areas to determine specific management and development needs; possibly amendments to the • 60 ,-

6. Establish Neu.J Units of the National Park System

general management plans for Private citizens and local agencies existing areas might be involved in the new area if it incorporated an existing • coordinated interpretation plan to community; however, no local cover all the related NPS areas funding would be diverted from other community needs.

ANALYSIS • One or more private property owners might be displaced, and Effects on Resources properties might be removed from local tax rolls. The one or more sites included in the national park system would Visitors would be aware of and receive balanced interpretation, interested in the new national park preservation, and research. P~wever, system units, which would help this alternative would not be broad increase tourism in relatively in scope in any of these activities. localized areas. I

• A few significant sites would be • Additional tourism-related economic I preserved and protected. benefits would be localized in communities near the units of the I Scholarly knowledge would be national park system. increased as a result of research conducted by the National Park I Service to further the interpretation Additional Public Comments and preservation goals for the new 1• park area(s). Many people expressed concern that funding would not be forthcoming to I support new units of the national park Effects on Visitors system. Some said that, in view of I limited available funds, alternatives Visitors would get a comprehensive that would provide more general

I overview of the major themes of protection, preservation, and visitor Spanish colonization and increased services should have higher priority.

I opportunities to visit and experience Several people questioned the need for the most significant sites remaining more units of the national park system, from that period. Depending on how while others saw a role for the National I many sites people had the interest Park Service in protecting significant and time to visit, they could receive endangered sites. I a complete or somewhat fragmented understanding of the Spanish I colonial story.

Effects on Communities

• New visitor programs would be created and might compete with • existing programs . 61 Part Three: Alternatives 7. ENHANCE STATE PROGRAMS AND ASSISTANCE TO LOCAL SITES • CONCEPT inter-pretation involving federal funds. Participation in the program might This alternative would use existing increase the number of visitors at some partnership programs to strengthen sites. This alternative might involve the state and local efforts to research, addition of some sites to the state park preserve, and interpret a wide range of or monument systems. Spanish colonial resources. Federal financial and technical assistance would enable the state to complete an Administrative Structure and inventory of Spanish colonial resources, Funding create additional state parks or monuments, and assist local Funds would be earmarked for historic communities and private organizations preservation of Spanish colonial in preservation and public enjoyment of resources in New Mexico. The National a variety of sites. The state would Park Service would administer the develop and implement a comprehensive funds and transfer them to the New interpretation program for all the Mexico Office of Cultural Affairs under participating sites. the authorities of the Historic Preservation Act and related legislation As in the other alternatives calling for and executive orders. The state office site interpretation, visitors would get an might require additional staffing to overview of Spanish colonization and carry out an expanded historic have the opportunity to visit a variety preservation program. • of sites representing various aspects of that story. The added emphasis on The National Park Service and the New preservation would help ensure the Mexico Office of Cultural Affairs would integrity of resources and minimize the set up a committee that would include potential for misrepresentation of the local agencies, Indian authorities, and story. The preservation of a wide private organizations to set priorities assemblage of resources would give and determine which sites qualified for visitors a broader understanding of the financial and technical assistance. period than could be conveyed by preserving just the biggest or most impressive sites. Actions Required for Implementation

Site Management Implementation of this alternative would require earmarked funds; a Technical and financial assistance could regional research plan to assist in affect the management and public use setting priorities for research projects; a of participating sites. The National comprehensive interpretive plan; and Park Service and the New Mexico criteria for prioritizing site assistance. Office of Cultural Affairs would develop guidelines and standards for resource preservation and coordinated • 62 ------~---

7. Enhance State Programs and Assistance to Local Sites

ANALYSIS their past. This could help focus community efforts but could also Effects on Resources divert funding from other • community needs. Interpretation, preservation, and research would be balanced and One or more private property applied to a broad cross section of owners might be displaced, and resources. The effectiveness of this properties might be removed from alternative would depend on the local tax rolls. amount of funding allocated to carry out the alternative and on the Visitors would be more aware of and degree of public and institutional interested in various sites support. throughout New Mexico, which would help increase and disperse A variety of sites would be tourism. preserved and protected. • Communities throughout much of Scholarly knowledge would be New Mexico would receive increased as a result of research tourism-related economic benefits conducted to further the and financial and technical interpretation and preservation assistance in preserving cultural goals of the project. resources.

Effects on Visitors Additional Public Comments

Visitors would get a comprehensive Involvement of private, local, and state • overview of all the major themes of entities with the federal government Spanish colonization and increased was perceived as being very positive opportunities to experience all the and potentially beneficial to a range of various types of sites remaining resources. However, significant concern from that period. Depending on how was expressed about the difficulty of many sites people had the interest coordination and effective management. and time to visit, they could receive Some people said they were concerned a complete or a somewhat that the program would be driven by fragmented understanding of the political rather than resource Spanish colonial story. considerations. Some were concerned that without an infusion of federal funds Spanish colonial resources would Effects on Communities not be a high enough priority to compete for state funding. This alternative would take best advantage of existing interpretive and cultural programs conducted by pueblo, local, state, and federal governments and the private sector.

Communities and local governments would be directly involved in the • interpretation and preservation of 63 Part Three: Alternative Table 4: Summary Analysis of Alternatives

1. Conduct a 2. Coordinate a • Comprehensive Comprehensive 3. Develop a Research Program Interpretive Program Commemorative Center

Scholarly knowledge knowledge greatly knowledge increased knowledge increased increased through planned, through research conducted through research conducted prioritized research to support interpretation at the center program

Opportunity to no effect additional opportunities to no effect experience sites experience a great variety of sites •

Funding source federal and/or private reliance on state or local reliance on state or local funding funding; potential to divert funding; potential to divert funds from other needs funds from other need

Property ownership no effect no effect no effect

• 64 Su1nmary Analysis of Alternatives

• 4. Re·create Spanish 6. Establish New Units 7. Protect and Colonial Buildings and 5. Designate State Tour of the National Park lnte1·pret a Wide Range Grounds Routes System of Resources

knowledge increased no effect knowledge increased knowledge increased through research to ensure through NPS research through research conducted authenticity of re·creations to meet preservation and interpretation goals

no effect additional opportunities to additional opportunities to additional opportunities to experience a great variety experience the most experience a great variety • of sites significant sites of sites

reliance on state or local reliance on state or local federal funding; no effect mixture of federal, state, funding; potential to divert funding; potential to divert on state or local programs and local funding; potential funds from other needs funds from other needs to divert funds from other

no effect no effect potential for displacement potential for displacement of one or more property of one or more property owners and removal of ow~ers and removal of property from local tax base property from local tax base • 65 ------• - A: Legislation APPENDIX A: LEGISLATION

TITLE IV - SPANISH COLONIZATION COMMEMORATIVE STUDY

SEC. 401. SHORT TITLE. This title may be cited as the "Spanish Colonization Commemorative Act of 1988".

SEC. 402. AUTHORIZATION OF STUDY. (a) Authorization. - The Secretary of the Interior is authorized to conduct a study of the Spanish Frontier culture and Spanish Borderlands story to determine their significance in illustrating and commemorating the Spanish colonization of the Southwest, the Spanish colonial frontier culture, and Spanish colonialism in New Mexico. The study shall include an analysis of the significance of the San Gabriel Historic Landmark and the Los Luceros Hacienda as they relate to the Spanish Borderlands story of the Southwest. (b) RECOMMENDATIONS. - The study shall include recommendations with respect to - (1) measures for the preservation and interpretation of resources associated with the Spanish colonization of the Southwest; and (2) indications of types and general intensities of development, including the feasibility of visitor facilities that would be associated with public enjoyment and use of the sites, including general location and anticipated costs. (c) COMPLETION OF STUDY. - The study shall be completed and transmitted to the Committee on Interior and Insular Affairs of the House of Representatives and the Committee on Energy and Natural Resources of the Senate not later than two years after the date on which funds are appropriated for the study.

• SEC. 403. AUTHORIZATION OF APPROPRIATIONS. There are authorized to be appropriated such sums as may be necessary to carry out the purposes of this title .

• 69 Appendixes APPENDIX B: SPANISH COLONIAL RESOURCES ...

1 Site Name County Register Status

Acoma Pueblo Cibola NR(NHL) Agua Fria Santa Fe Alameda Bernalillo "Alamillo Pueblo" Estancia Socorro Albuquerque Old Town Bernalillo SR Algodones Bernalillo Angostura Sandoval Arena! Bernalillo Atrisco Bernalillo Auruba (Jorupa) San Miguel B andelier' s Alamillo (Acomilla Estancia) Socorro NR-MBE Belen Valencia Black Mesa (San Ildefonso) Pueblo Santa Fe SR Camino Real sites Dona Ana/Sierra/Socorro Cangilon Pueblo Sandoval NR-MBE Carnue (the Silva site) Bernalillo SR Casa Colorado de! Sur Valencia SR Casa Acequia Sandoval SR Chalcihuitl turquoise mine Santa Fe SR Chilili Bernalillo Chimay6: Plaza del Cerro Santa Fe SR/NR Cieneguilla Pueblo Santa Fe SR • Cochiti Springs site Sandoval Cochiti Pueblo Sandoval SR/NR Corrales Pueblo Sandoval SR Corrales Abaja Bernalillo Cuyamungue Pueblo Santa Fe El Morro National Monument Cibola SR/NR Galisteo Pueblo Santa Fe SR Giusewa Pueblo Sandoval SR/NR Gran Quivira National Monument Socorro/Torrance SR/NR Hawikuh Pueblo McKinley SR/NR(NHL) Isleta Pueblo Bernalillo SR/NR J aconita Pueblo Santa Fe Jemez Pueblo Sandoval SR/NR

1 NRCNHL): National historic landmark listed on the National Register of Historic Places NR: Listed on the National Register NR-E: Determined eligible for listing on the National Register NR-MBE: May be eligible for listing on the National Register SR: Listed on the New Mexico Register • 70 B: Spanish Colonial Resources

Site Name County Register Status1

Kechipowa Pueblo Cibola SR/NR(NHLJ Kuaua Sandoval SR/NR Kyakima Pueblo McKinley SR La Cienega Pueblo Santa Fe La Garita Santa Fe La Salina Grant Torrance Laguna Pueblo Cibola SR/NR Las Cocinitas Sandoval SR Las Huertas (San Jose de) Sandoval SR Llanito Sandoval Los Griegos Bernalillo SR/NR Los Luceros Rio Arriba SR/NR Los Padillas Bernalillo Lost Pecos Church & Shrine San Miguel [Luis Lopez Estancia] Socorro NR-MBE Manzano Torrance Nam be Pueblo Santa Fe SR/NR Ojitos Torrance Ojo Cuchillo Sandoval SR Old San Felipe Sandoval Old Kotyiti (Cochiti) Pueblo Sandoval SR Old Corrales Church Sandoval "Oldest House" Santa Fe SR/NR(NHL) Palace of the Governors Santa Fe NR(NHLJ Patokwa Pueblo Sandoval SR/NR Pecos National Historical Park San Miguel SR/NR(NHLJ Picuris Pueblo Taos SR/NR Pilar Taos • Pojoaque (Posunwage) Pueblo Santa Fe Potrero Viejo Sandoval Puaray Pueblo (Bandelier) Sandoval NR-MBE Puaray Pueblo (Snow) Bernalillo SR Punta de Agua Torrance Qualacu Pueblo Socorro Quarai Pueblo Torrance NR(NHL) Quern ado/Pino Sandoval Rancho de Carnue (Ward) Bernalillo Rancho de Carnue (San Miguel de Carnue) Bernalillo SR Ranchos de Taos Taos SR/NR Saint Francis Cathedral Santa Fe

1 NR(NHL): National historic landmark listed on the National Register of Historic Places NR: Listed on the National Register NR-E: Determined eligible for listing on the National Register NR-MBE: May be eligible for listing on the National Register • SR: Listed on the New Mexico Register 71 Appendixes

Site Name County Register Status1

San Antonio de Los Poblanos Bernalillo San Antonio de Padua de Carnue Bernalillo SR San Cristobal Pueblo Santa Fe SR/NR-MBE San Felipe Pueblo (and earliest San Felipe) Sandoval SR San Fernando Y San Blas Sandoval San Francisco de Asis Mission Taos NRCNHL) San Gabriel (Yuque Yunque) Pueblo Rio Arriba NR(NHLJ San Gregorio de Abo Torrance NR(NHLJ San Ildefonso Santa Fe SR/NR San Jose de! Vado San Miguel San Juan Pueblo (Okel Rio Arriba SR/NR San Lazaro Pueblo Santa Fe SR/NRlNHL) San Luis Sandoval San Marcos Pueblo Santa Fe SR/NR San Miguel Cemetery (and Church) Santa Fe SR/NR(NHLJ San Miguel de! Vado San Miguel SR/NR Sandia Pueblo Sandoval Sandoval/Corrales Sandoval Santa Ana Pueblo Sandoval SR/NR Santa Clara Pueblo (Kapo) Rio Arriba SR/NR Santa Cruz de la Canada Santa Fe Santa Fe Plaza Santa Fe NR(NHL) Santa Fe River site 16767 Santa Fe SR Santa Fe River site 16768 Santa Fe SR Santa Fe River site 16769 Santa Fe SR Santa Fe River site 16773 Santa Fe SR Santa Rita de! Cobre mine Grant SR • Santa Rosa de Lima de Abiquiu Rio Arriba SR/NR Santo Domingo Pueblo Sandoval SR/NR Sevilleta Pueblo (Seelocu) Socorro NR-MBE Sixteenth Century Spanish Campsite Sandoval SR Socorro Socorro Socorro Pueblo (Pilabo) Socorro Tabira (Pueblo Blanco) Torrance Tajique Torrance Taipa Taos NR-E Tamayo (Old Santa Ana Pueblo) Sandoval SR/NR Taos Pueblo Taos SR/NR(NHLJ Tenabo Pueblo Socorro Tesuque Pueblo Santa Fe SR/NR

I NR(NHL): National historic landmark listed on the National Register of Historic Places NR: Listed on the National Register NR-E: Determined eligible for listing on the National Register NR-MBE: May be eligible for listing on the National Register SR: Listed on the New Mexico Register • 72 B: Spanish Colonial Resources

Site Name County Register Status1

Tome Valencia Tome church Valencia Tome site 1952 Valencia Tome site 50262 Valencia Torreon Torrance Tramp as Taos SR/NRCNHLJ Truchas church Rio Arriba Valdez (previously San Antonio) Taos Valencia Pueblo Valencia SR/NR-MBE Villanueva San Miguel Zia Pueblo Sandoval SR/NR Zuni Pueblo CHalona) McKinley SR/NR Zuni Salt Lake Catron SR

•

I NR(NHL): National historic landmark listed on the National Register of Historic Places NR: Listed on the National Register NR-E: Determined eligible for listing on the National Register NR-MBE: May be eligible for listing on the National Register • SR: Listed on the New Mexico Register 73 Appendixes APPENDIX C: STORY ELEMENTS AND THEIR REPRESENTATION INSIDE AND OUTSIDE THE NATIONAL PARK SYSTEM

Current Status

Unit of the National National Historic Story Elements Park System Landmark Other

First Colonization

Exploration El Morro Acoma Pueblo, mission 16th century campsite Taos Pueblo, mission Camino Real Zuni-Cibola

Pueblos Salinas Pueblo Missions Acoma Pueblo, mission Sevilleta Pecos Taos Pueblo, mission Galisteo group Zuni-Cibola San Jose de Guisewa Galisteo group (San Lazaro)

First Settlements Santa Fe group Santa Fe River sites San Gabriel

Provincial Government Santa Fe group

Institutions of Colonization

Encomienda system Santa Fe group Las Huertas group Isleta-Bernalillo estancia group Pueblo tribute Salinas Pueblo Missions Acoma Pueblo, mission Sevilleta • Pecos Taos Pueblo, mission Galisteo group Zuni-Cibola San Jose de Guisewa Galisteo group (San Lazaro)

Military protection Santa Fe group

Missions Salinas Pueblo Missions Acoma Pueblo, mission Sevilleta Pecos Taos Pueblo, mission Galisteo group Zuni-Cibola San Jose de Guisewa Galisteo group (San Lazaro)

Economic Production

Agriculture Salinas Pueblo Missions Acoma Pueblo, mission Sevilleta Pecos Taos Pueblo, mission Galisteo group Zuni-Cibola San Jose de Guisewa Galisteo group (San Lazaro)

Famine (pueblo- Salinas Pueblo Missions Acoma Pueblo, mission mission) Taos Pueblo, mission Zuni-Cibola

Famine (Spanish) Las Huertas group

Manufacturing Salinas Pueblo Missions Acoma Pueblo, mission Sevilleta Pecos Taos Pueblo, mission Galisteo group Zuni-Cibola San Jose de Guisewa Galisteo group (San Lazaro) • 74 ------·------

C: Story Elements Table

Current Status

Unit of the National National Historic .. Story Elements Park System Landmark Other

Mineral collection La Salina grant

Trade Pecos Galisteo group (San L

Defense

Militia/pueblo Santa Fe group auxiliaries

Lifeways

Pueblo Salinas Pueblo l\Iissions Galisteo group (San LJ.zaroJ Sevilleta Galisteo group San Jose de Guisewa

Spanish settlements Las Huertas group

Missions Salinas Pueblo !v1issions Acoma Pueblo, mission Sevilleta Taos Pueblo, mission Galisteo group Zuni-Cibola San Jose de Guisewa Galisteo group lSan Lazaro)

Pueblo Resistance

Cultural conflict

Early revolts Big Bead Mesa

Raids Salinas Pueblo !viissions Acoma Pueblo, mission Galisteo group • Taos Pueblo, mission Zuni-Cibola Galisteo group (San Lazaro)

Abandonment Salinas Pueblo J\.1issions Acoma Pueblo, mission Galisteo group Taos Pueblo, mission Zuni-Cibola Galisteo group (San Lazaro)

Pueblo Revolt of 1680 Salinas Pueblo Missions Acoma Pueblo, mission Sevilleta Pecos Taos Pueblo, mission Galisteo group Zuni-Cibola San Jose de Guisewa Galisteo group (San Lazaro)

Reconquest Las Huertas group

Second Colonization

Pueblos Pecos Galisteo group (San Lazaro) Galisteo group

Provincial Government Santa Fe group

Institutions of colonization

Civil settlements Las Trampas Las Huertas San Francisco de Asls Santa Fe River sites

Land grants Sevilleta • Chimay6 75 Appendixes

Current Status

Unit of the National National Historic Story Elements Park System Landmark Other

Missions Pecos Galisteo group

Economic Production

Agriculture

Pueblo /mission Pecos Galisteo group

Spanish Las Huertas Sevilleta

Manufacturing Pecos Galisteo group

1-lineral collection La Salina grant Santa Rita de Cobre

Trade Pecos Camino Real Galisteo group

Defense

Raids Pecos Galisteo group (San L8.zaro) Galisteo group

Professional soldiers Santa Fe group

Pueblo auxiliaries Salinas Pueblo Missions

Defensive settlements Las Huertas group

Lifeways Pueblos Pecos Galisteo group • Spanish settlements Las Huertas group Sevilleta

Missions Pecos Galisteo group

• 76 D: New Area Criteria APPENDIX D: NEW AREA CRITERIA

• A natural, cultural, or recreational significant in the history of the resource will be considered nationally United States; significant if it meets all of the following criteria: Resources representative of some great idea or ideal of the American It is an outstanding example of a people; particular type of resource. Resources that embody the It possesses exceptional value or distinguishing characteristics of an quality in illustrating or architectural type specimen, interpreting the natural or cultural exceptionally valuable for study of themes of our nation's heritage. a period, style, or method of construction; or that represent a It offers superlative opportunities significant, distinctive, and for recreation, public use, and exceptional entity whose enjoyment or for scientific study. components may lack individual distinction; It retains a high degree of integrity as a true, accurate, and relatively Resources composed of integral unspoiled example of a resource. parts of the environment not sufficiently significant by reason of Nationally significant cultural resources historical association or artistic include districts, sites, buildings, merit to warrant individual • structures, or objects that possess recognition but that collectively exceptional value or quality in comprise an entity of exceptional illustrating or interpreting our heritage historical or artistic significance; or and posses a high degree of integrity of resources that outstandingly location, design, setting, materials, commemorate or illustrate a way of workmanship, feeling, and association. life or culture; Examples of cultural resources that may be nationally significant include Resources that have yielded or may the following: be likely to yield information of major scientific importance by Resources associated with events revealing new cultures or by that have made a significant shedding light upon periods of contribution to and are identified occupation over large areas of the with, or that outstandingly United States. represent, the broad national patterns of United States history The National Register of Historic Places and from which an understanding provides for listing of resources with and appreciation of those patterns local, state, or national significance may be gained; based on the recommendations of the state historic preservation officer or Resources associated importantly other nominating officials. A resource with the lives of persons nationally listed in the National Register as • "nationally significant," therefore, has 77 Appendixes not necessarily been evaluated against NPS criteria. Most of these resources are not expected to meet standards of significance for designation as a unit of • the national park system.

An area will be considered suitable for addition to the national park system if it represents a natural/cultural or type of recreational resource that is not already adequately represented in the national park system, unless such an area is comparably protected and presented for public enjoyment by another land-managing entity. Adequacy of representation will be determined by comparing the proposed addition to other units in the national park system.

To be feasible as a new unit of the national park system an area must be of sufficient size and appropriate configuration (considering natural systems and/or historic settings) to ensure long-term protection of resources and to accommodate public use, and it must have potential for efficient • administration at a reasonable cost. Important feasibility factors include landownership, acquisition costs, access, threats to the resource, and staffing or development requirements.

• 78 Bibliography BIBLIOGRAPHY

• ADAMS, ELEANOR B., AND FRAY 1949 Coronado: Knight of Pueblos ANGELICO CHAVEZ, TRANS. and Plains. Albuquerque: 1956 The Missions of New Mexico University of New Mexico Press. 1776: A Description by Fray Francisco Atanasio Dominguez, 1950 Pageant in the Wilderness: The with Other Contemporary Story of the Escalante Documents. Albuquerque: Expedition to the Interior University of New Mexico Press. Basin. Salt Lake City, Utah.

BANCROFT, HUBERT HOWE CHAVEZ, FRAY ANGELICO 1889 History of Arizona and New 1968 Coronado's Friars. Washington, Mexico 1530-1888. San D.C.: Academy of American Francisco: The History Franciscan History. Company. 1973 Origins of New Mexico Families BANDELIER, ADOLPH F. in the Spanish Colonial Period. 1975 The Southwestern Journals of Albuquerque: University of Adolph F. Bandelier, 1885- New Mexico Press. 1888. Edited by Charles H. Lange, Carroll L. Riley, and COVEY, CYCLONE, TRANS. Elizabeth M. Lange. 1961 Cabeza de Vaca's Adventures in Albuquerque: University of the Unknown Interior of New Mexico Press. America. Albuquerque: University of New Mexico Press. • BANNON, JOHN FRANCIS 1976 The Spanish Borderlands ESPINOSA, J. MANUEL Frontier, 1513-1821. 1942 Crusaders of the Rio Grande: Albuquerque: University of The Story of Don Diego de New Mexico Press. Vargas and the Reconquest and Refounding of New Mexico. BISHOP, MORRIS Chicago: Institute of Jesuit 1945 The Odyssey of Cabeza de History. Vaca. New York: New York Press. FORRESTRAL, PETER P., TRANS. 1959 The Memorial of Alonso de BLOOM, LANSING B., ED. Benavides of 1630. Washington, 1933 "Fray Estevan de Perea's D.C. Relacion." New Mexico Historical Review 8:211-35. HACKETT, CHARLES W., TRANS. AND ED. BOLTON, HERBERT E. 1931 Historical Documents Relating 1908 Spanish Exploration in the to New Mexico, Neuva Vizcaya Southwest, 1542-1706. New and the Approaches Thereto, to • York: Charles Scribner's Sons . 1773. 3 vols. Washington, D.C. 79 Bibliography

HACKETT, CHARLES W., ED., AND KINNAIRD, LAWRENCE, ED. CHARMION CLAIR SHELBY, TRANS. 1958 The Frontiers of New Spain: 1941 Revolt of the Pueblo Indians of Nicolas de Lafora's Description, New Mexico and Otennin's 1766-1768. Berkeley, Calif. • Attempted Reconquest, 1680-1682. 2 vols. Albuquerque: KUBLER, GEORGE University of New Mexico Press. 1940 The Religious Architecture of New Mexico in the Colonial HALLENBECK, CLEVE Period and Since the American 1939 Alvar Nunez Cabeza de Vaca: Occupation. Albuquerque: The Journey of the First University of New Mexico Press. European to Cross the Continent of North America, MARSHALL, MICHAEL P., AND 1534-1536. Glendale, Calif. HENRY J. WALT 1984 Rio Abaja: Prehistory and HAMMOND, GEORGE P., AND History of a Rio Grande AGAPITO REY Province. Santa Fe, N .Mex.: 1953 Don Juan de Oiiate, Colonizer New Mexico Historic of New Mexico, 1595-1628. 2 Preservation Program. vols. Albuquerque: University of New Mexico Press. MOOREHEAD, MAX L. 1975 The Presidio: Bastion of the 1940 Narratives of the Coronado Spanish Borderlands. Norman: Expedition, 1540-1542. University of Oklahoma Press. Albuquerque: University of New Mexico Press. NATIONAL PARK SERVICE 1989 In the Midst of a Loneliness: 1966 The Rediscovery of New Mexico, The Architectural History of the • 1580-1594. Albuquerque: Salinas Missions, by James E. University of New Mexico Press. Ivey. Santa Fe, N.Mex.: Southwest Regional Office. HODGE, F. W., G. P. HAMMOND, AND AGAPITO REY, TRANS. AND PEARCE, T. M., ED. EDS. 1965 New Mexico Place Names: A 1945 Revised Memorial of Fray Geographical Dictionary. Alonso de Benavides, 1634. Albuquerque: University of Albuquerque: University of New Mexico Press. New Mexico Press. SANCHEZ, JOSEPH P. JOHNS, ELIZABETH A. H. 1987 The Rio Abaja Frontier, 1975 Storms Brewed in Other Men's 1540-1692: A History of Early Worlds. College Station: Texas Colonial New Mexico. A & M Press. Albuquerque Museum History Monograph. Albuquerque, KESSELL, JOHN N.Mex. 1980 Missions of New Mexico Since 1776. Albuquerque: University SCHOLES, FRANCE V. of New Mexico Press. 1937 Church and State in New Mexico, 1610-1650. Historical Society of New Mexico. • 80

- - ·- - ·-·--- Bibliography

1942 Troublous Times in New THOMAS, ALFRED BARNABY Mexico, 1659-1670. 1966 After Coronado, Spanish Albuquerque: Historical Society Exploration Northeast of New • of New Mexico. Mexico, 1696-1727. 2nd ed. Norman: University of SCHOLES, FRANCE V., AND Oklahoma Press. ELEANOR B. ADAMS 1952 "Inventories of Church 1941 Teodoro de Croix and the Furnishings in some of the Northern Frontier of New New Mexico Missions, 1672." Spain, 1776-1783. Norman: Dargan Historical Essays. University of Oklahoma Press. University of New Mexico Publications in History no. 4. 1940 The Plains Indians and New Albuquerque: University of Mexico, 1751-1778: A Collection New Mexico Press. of Documents Illustrative of the History of the Eastern Frontier SCHOLES, FRANCE V., AND H. P. of New Mexico. Albuquerque: MERA University of New Mexico Press. 1940 "Some Aspects of the Jumano Problem." Contributions to THOMAS, ALFRED BARNABY, American Anthropology and TRANS. AND ED. History 4:265-99. 1969 Forgotten Frontiers: A Study of the Spanish Indian Policy of SCHROEDER, ALBERT H., AND DAN Don Juan Bautista de Anza, S. MATSON, EDS . Governor of New Mexico, 1965 A Colony on the Move: Gaspar 1777-1787. Norman: University Castano de Sosa's Journal, of Oklahoma Press. • 1590-1591. Santa Fe, N.Mex.: School of American Research. TWITCHELL, ROBERT E. 1963 The Leading Facts of New SIMMONS, MARC Mexican History. Vol. 1. 1968 Spanish Government in New Albuquerque: Horn and Wallace. Mexico. Albuquerque: University of New Mexico Press. VIERRA, BRADLEY J. 1989 A Sixteenth Century Spanish SPICER, EDWARD Campsite in the Tiguex 1962 Cycles of Conquest. Tucson: Province. Museum of New University of Arizona Press. Mexico Laboratory of Anthropology Notes 475. Santa THOMA, FRANCISCO DE Fe, N.Mex. 1896 Hist6ria Popular de Neuvo Mexico desde su Descubrimiento VILLAGRA, GASPAR PEREZ DE hasta la Actualidad. New York: 1933 History of New Mexico by American Book Company. Gaspar Perez de Villagra. Translated by Gilberto Espinosa. Los Angeles, Calif.: The Quivira Society • 81 Study Participants STUDY PARTICIPANTS

STUDY TEAM Joseph P. Sanchez, Chief, Spanish • Colonial Research Center Denver Service Center Marilyn Hof, Study Team Leader Roberta McDougall, Interpretive Planner CONSULTANTS John Paige, Cultural Resource Planner Thomas W. Merlan, New Mexico State Rosellen Westerhoff, Planning Historic Preservation Officer Technician Ed Natay, Chief, Office of American David Hesker, Graphic Artist Indian Programs, NPS Southwest Gail Slemmer, Writer-Editor Region

The National Park Service is especially Southwest Regional Office appreciative of the efforts of the more Douglas Faris, Assistant Regional than 30 experts in Spanish Director, Planning colonization in New Mexico who Thomas B. Carroll, Special Project reviewed the original draft and Coordinator offered valuable information and James E. Ivey, Historical Archeologist criticism. • As the nation's principal conservation agency, the Department of the Interior has responsibility for most of our nationally owned public lands and natural and cultural resources. This includes fostering wise use of our land and water resources, protecting our fish and wildlife, preserving the environmental and cultural values of our national parks and historical places, and providing for the enjoyment of life through outdoor recreation. The department assesses our energy and mineral resources and works to ensure that their development is in the best interests of all our people. The department also promotes the goals of the Take Pride in America campaign by encouraging stewardship and citizen responsibility for the public lands and promoting citizen participation in their care. The department also has a major responsibility for American Indian reservation communities and for people who live in island territories under U.S. administration.

Publication services were provided by the graphics and editorial staffs of the Denver Service Center. NPS D-38 February 1991

• "{:(U.S. GOVERNMENT PRINTING OFFICE: 1991-573-040/20,035 REGION NO. B •

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