ADVANCES in WASTE MANAGEMENT

Clean technology from waste management

IONEL IOANA Department Mechanical Machines Equipment and Technologies, Faculty of Mechanical Engineering University “POLITEHNICA” of Timisoara Bv. M. Viteazu, 1, 300222, Timisoara ROMANIA [email protected], www.mec.upt.ro, http://www.energieregen.mec.upt.ro

Abstract: - Waste is representing an important environmental pollution source, not only for the soil and ground water, but also for the air. Deposit in open land fields is not allowed according European standards and the EU countries have met national regulations to close the exiting non-ecological deposits and turn them into ecological ones. Also the general management for the waste is to be accordingly re-evaluated and shaped in a novel. Waste is representing also an energy source that should be not wasted. The waste (mainly municipal waste) must be properly reused as it represents material and energy content. Combustion, fermentation and recycling are possible solution for turning the waste management into a business, also reducing simultaneously the environmental damages raised by the enormous waste quantities, nowadays. The presentation will focus on clean combustion and co-combustion of waste, and on technologies to turn the energy content of the waste into other cleaner energy sources. One will raise attention also about the barriers – technical and mental – to apply correct waste management, as well to the consequences of not given a correct input to this matter from the society and policy makers. Examples from the author’s experience and literature will elucidate the conclusions.

Key-Words: - Waste, bio-waste, renewable energy resource, clean technology, clean combustion, CO2 reduction.

1 Introduction business, and offering new jobs and further advantages Waste management is the collection, transport, for the community that is generating it. The EU intends processing, recycling or disposal, and monitoring of to turn waste into a resource efficient and thus put the waste materials. The term usually relates to materials base of a "Recycling Society". Waste management is produced by human activity, and is generally undertaken already governed by a substantial body of regulation but to reduce their effect on health, the environment or there remain opportunities for further improving the aesthetics. Waste management is also carried out to management of some major waste streams [21], [25]. recover resources from it. Waste management can The several kinds of waste produced by a technological involve solid, liquid, gaseous or radioactive substances, society can he categorized in many ways. Some kinds of with different methods and fields of expertise for each. wastes are released into the air and water. Some are Waste management practices differ for developed and purposely released, while others are released developing nations, for urban and rural areas, and for accidentally. Many wastes that are purposely released residential and industrial producers. Management for are treated before their release. There are wastes with non-hazardous residential and institutional waste in particularly dangerous characteristics, such as nuclear metropolitan areas is usually the responsibility of local wastes, medical wastes, industrial hazardous wastes, and government authorities, while management for non- household hazardous wastes. The novel world wide and hazardous commercial and industrial waste is usually the EC strategy set out three national goals for municipal responsibility of the generator [7], [11], [24]. solid waste management: Increase source reduction and All organisms produce wastes, but none produces as recycling, increase environmental friendly disposal many wastes of such diverse composition as humans. capacity and improve secondary material markets, and Society's wastes arise from many different activities; improve the safety of solid waste management facilities, growth is worldwide still accompanied by increasing by using the energy content of the waste [1]. amounts of waste, causing unnecessary losses of Solid waste is generally made up of objects or particles materials and energy, environmental damage and that accumulate on the site where they are produced, as negative effects on health and quality of life. It is a opposed to water, and airborne wastes that are carried strategic goal of most developed countries to reduce away from the site of production. Solid wastes are these negative impacts, meaning to reduce waste or typically categorized by the sector of the economy applying a correct management system to exploit it, responsible for producing them, such as mining, turning into novel technologies, opportunities of agriculture, manufacturing, and municipalities.

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Mining waste is generated in three primary ways. First, includes waste from households, commercial in most mining operations, large amounts of rock and establishments, institutions, and some industrial sources. soil need to be removed to get to the valuable ore. This Specialists and local communities, in addition to waste material is generally left on the surface at the mine governmental agencies and local authorities generally site. Second, milling operations use various technologies decide how waste will be managed whether by landfill, to extract the valuable material from the ore. These incineration, recycling, composting, waste reduction, or techniques vary from relatively simple grinding and a combination. sorting to sophisticated chemical separation processes. Bio-waste [18], [25] is defined as biodegradable garden Regardless of the technique involved, once the valuable and park waste, food and kitchen waste from material is recovered, the remaining waste material, households, restaurants, caterers and retail premises, and commonly known as tailings, must be disposed of. Solid comparable waste from food processing plants. It does materials are typically dumped on the land near the not include forestry or agricultural residues, manure, milling site, and liquid wastes are typically stored in sewage sludge, or other biodegradable waste such as ponds. It is difficult to get vegetation to grow on these natural textiles, paper or processed wood, that are piles of waste rock and tailings, so they are unsightly and biomass categories, as well. It also excludes those by- remain exposed to rain and wind. Finally, the water that products of food production that never become waste. drains or is pumped from mines or that flows from piles The total annual arising of bio-waste in the EU is of waste rock or tailings often contains hazardous estimated at 76.5-102 Mt food and garden waste materials (such as asbestos, arsenic, lead, and radioactive included in mixed municipal solid waste and up to 37 Mt materials) or high amounts of acid that must be from the food and drink industry. Bio-waste is a contained or treated - but often are not. Many types of putrescible, generally wet waste. There are two major mining operations require vast quantities of water for the streams (i) green waste from parks, gardens etc. and (ii) extraction process. The quality of this water is degraded, kitchen waste. The former includes usually 50-60 % so it is unsuitable for drinking, irrigation, or recreation. water and more wood (lignocelluloses); the latter Since mining disturbs the natural vegetation in an area, contains no wood, but up to 80 %, by mass, water. Waste water may carry soil particles into streams and cause management options for bio-waste include, in addition to erosion and siltation. Some mining operations, such as prevention at source, collection (separately or with strip mining, rearrange the top layers of the soil, which mixed waste), anaerobic digestion and composting, lessens or eliminates its productivity for a long time. incineration, and environmental friendly land filling. The Agricultural waste is the second most common form of environmental and economic benefits of different waste and includes waste from the raising of animals and treatment methods depend significantly on local the harvesting and processing of crops and trees. Other conditions such as population density, infrastructure and wastes associated with agriculture, such as waste from climate as well as on markets for associated products processing operations (peelings, seeds, straw, stems, (energy and composts). Today, very different national sludge, and similar materials). Since most agricultural policies apply to bio-waste management, ranging from waste is organic, it is used as fertilizer or for other soil- little action in some Member States to ambitious policies enhancement activities. Other materials are burned as a in others. source of energy, so little of this waste needs to be Hazardous waste means waste that requires special placed in landfills. However, when too much waste is precaution in its storage, collection, transportation, produced in one place, there may not be enough treatment or disposal to prevent damage to persons or farmland available to accept the agricultural waste property, and includes explosive, flammable, volatile, without causing water pollution problems associated radioactive, toxic and pathological wastes. This category with runoff or groundwater contamination due to includes the management of three types of hazardous infiltration. wastes from their source to ultimate disposal: (i) the Industrial solid waste from sources other than mining radioactive materials, which are primarily the includes a wide variety of materials such as demolition responsibility of specials national and international waste, foundry sand, scraps from manufacturing authorities, (ii) medical wastes, and (iii) the non- processes, sludge, ash from combustion, and other radioactive liquid industrial wastes, which are mainly similar materials. These materials are tested to determine under state or provincial jurisdiction. Hazards in the if they are hazardous. If they are classified as hazardous environment may arise also from natural occurrences waste, their disposal requires that they be placed in like floods and hurricanes, from human environmental special hazardous waste landfills. disturbances like CO2 build-up and acid rain, and from Municipal solid waste (MSW) consist of all the the improper treatment and disposal of the toxic and materials that people in a region no longer want because hazardous wastes generated by an industrialized society they are broken, spoiled, or have no further use. It [1], [2].

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2 Problem Formulation concerning Based on a Community-wide commitment to reaching a target of 20 % share of renewable energy in final energy Waste Management consumption by 2020, the European Commission proposed a RES Directive to replace existing Directives Figure 1 indicates the structure of the waste disposal in on the promotion of renewable electricity (Directive time. The landfill is still the primary method of disposal. 2001/77/EC) and bio fuels (Directive 2003/30/EC). Historically, landfills have been the cheapest means of Figure 2 indicates that waste production in Europe has disposal, but this may turn in the future. Recycling and risen steadily to more than 2 kg per capita per day. composting have grown, while the amount of waste Recycling rates are also rising, however [15], [16]. going to landfills has declined somewhat. The proposal strongly supports the use of all types of

biomass, including bio-waste for energy purposes, and requires Member States to develop National Action Plans to outline national policies to develop existing biomass resources and mobilise new biomass resources for different uses. The Renewable Energy Road Map for Europe projected that around 195 million tonnes of oil equivalent (Mtoe) of biomass will be used in 2020 to achieve the 20 % renewable energy target. Biodegradable part of MSW is considered biomass. A report by the European Environment Agency found that the potential for bio-energy from the MSW is 20 Mtoe, which would account for around 7 % of all renewable energy in 2020, assuming that all wastes Fig.1: Changes in Waste Disposal Methods. which are currently land filled would become available Source: Data from the U.S. EPA [18]. for incineration, with energy recovery and waste which are composted will be subject to anaerobic digestion first and then composted [2], [8], [15], [16]. As Figure 3 indicates paper products are the largest component of the waste stream. Changes in lifestyle and packaging have led to a change in the nature of trash. Note the increase in the amount of plastics in the waste stream, most of what is currently disposed or could be recycled.

Fig. 3: The Changing Nature of Trash. Source: Data from the U.S. EPA, 2004 [18].

Fig. 2: Bad & good news in solid waste production. Source: Data from the U.S. EPA, 2005 [18].

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2.1. Current Techniques in Waste Management Directive 2000/76/CE indicates the legal frame of the waste for incineration in favour of land filling, as From prehistory through the present day, the favoured Directive 1999/31/CE stipulates the national targets in means of disposal was simply to dump solid wastes the EC to reduce, the quantity of land-filled bio-waste, in outside of the city or village limits. Frequently, these a proportion of 75%, 50 % respectively 35% by 2006, dumps were in wetlands adjacent to a river or lake. To 2010, 2016, in comparison to the level from 1998. minimize the volume of the waste, the dump was often Notable is also the Directive 2001/77/EC concerning the binned. Unfortunately, this method is still being used in renewable energy resources utilisation for energy remote or sparsely populated areas in the world. As production, as waste and bio waste are considered such better waste-disposal technologies were developed and sources and may contribute to this objective, as well. as values changed, more emphasis was placed on the 2006/12/CE is the basic European legislation concerning environment and quality of life. Dumping and open the waste [12]. Table 1 and Figure 4 present the burning of wastes is no longer an acceptable practice prognosis for 2025 for the EC concerning the waste from an environmental or health perspective. While the management and also the gap in Emission in Tonnes technology of waste disposal has evolved during the past CO2 equivalent/tonne of used waste according efficiency several decades, options are still limited. Realistically, of diverse combustion WtE systems that should be used. there are no ways of dealing with waste that have not been known for many thousands of years. Essentially, Table 1 Prognosis for 2025 concerning the waste five techniques are used: (1) landfills, (2) incineration, management in the EC [2], [10]. (3) source reduction, (4) composting, and (5) recycling. Incineration Deposit Recycling Bio-fuel Land filling, although according to the waste hierarchy Technology Using WtE (%) (%) (%) the worst option, is still the most used MSW disposal (%) method worldwide, even recently the EC reduced the 45/62 by EC - 2006 18 36 1 legal existence of such techniques, by putting pressure to 1995 close the open air landfill deposits, and not permitting EC - 2025 5 50 35 10 opening of new ones. Landfills need to be constructed and operated in line with the EU Landfill Directive (impermeable barriers, methane capturing equipment) to Incineration is usually a method to destroy part of the avoid environmental damage from the generation of MSW, including bio-waste. Incineration is carried out methane and effluent, not mentioning the water and soil both on a small scale by individuals and on a large scale destruction. Older, poorly-designed or poorly-managed by industry. It is used to dispose of solid, liquid and landfills can create a number of adverse environmental gaseous waste. It is recognized as a practical method of impacts such as wind-blown litter, attraction of vermin, disposing of certain hazardous waste materials (such as and generation of liquid leachate. Another common by- biological medical waste). Incineration is a controversial product of landfills is gas (mostly methane and carbon method of waste disposal, due to issues such as emission dioxide), which is produced as organic waste breaks of gaseous pollutants. down an-aerobically. This gas creates odour problems, Incineration is common in countries such as Japan kills surface vegetation, and is a greenhouse gas. where land is scarcer, as these facilities generally do not require as much area as landfills. Waste-to-energy (WtE) or energy-from-waste (EfW) are broad terms for facilities that burn waste in a furnace or boiler to generate heat, steam and/or electricity. Combustion in an incinerator is not always perfect and there have been concerns about micro-pollutants in gaseous emissions from incinerator stacks. Particular concern has focused on some very persistent organics such as dioxins which may be created within the incinerator and which may have serious environmental consequences in the area immediately around the incinerator. On the other hand this method produces steam or hot flue gases that introduced into a thermodynamic cycle (Rankin, combined, etc.) might be used to turn into heat and Fig. 4: Emission in Tonnes CO2 equivalent/tonne of used electrical energy [10]. waste according efficiency of combustion WtE systems. Figure 5 indicates for several countries what the Source: Internat. Panel on Climate Change IPCC [10]. structure of the applied waste management is.

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countries have difficulty finding adequate space for landfills. Therefore, they rely on other technologies, such as incineration and recycling, to reduce the amount of waste that must be placed in a landfill. About one- fourth of the incinerators use refuse-derived fuel collected refuse that has been processed into pellets prior to combustion. This is particularly useful with certain kinds of materials, such as tires.

Fig. 5: EC countries with NB of functional incinerators and generated power (MW), by 2006. Source: IPCC [10].

Depending on its energy efficiency, incineration can be regarded as energy recovery or as a disposal. As the efficiency of incineration is lowered by the moist bio- waste, it can be beneficial to remove bio-waste from municipal waste. On the other hand, incinerated bio- Fig. 6: EC countries according the WtE technologies waste is regarded as carbon-neutral “renewable” fuel in adopted. the meaning of the renewable electricity directive and Source: IPCC [10]. the proposed Directive on the promotion of the use of energy from renewable sources (RES Directive). Incinerators drastically reduce the amount of municipal Incineration is the process of burning refuse in a solid waste up to 90 percent by volume and 75 percent controlled manner. By 2004, about 15 % of the by weight. Primary risks of incineration, however, municipal solid waste in the United States was involve air-quality problems and the toxicity and incinerated; Canada incinerated about 8 %. In the EC the disposal of the ash. Modern incinerators have many situation and prognosis is indicated by Figures 5 and 6. pollution control devices that trap nearly all of the It is supported by 2008/98/CE, assuming to reduce the pollutants produced. However, tiny amounts of waste quantity, to sort it, to recycle it and use it as pollutants are released into the atmosphere, including energy potential [26]. certain metals, acid gases, and classes of chemicals There are three major groups in the EC (Figure 6): known as dioxins and furans, which have been Group 1 (light colour): where incineration WtE is less implicated in birth defects and several kinds of cancer. than 25 % from the generated national waste quantity The long-term risks from the emissions are still a subject and utilisation of more than 25 % of the waste, Group 2, of debate. Ash from incineration is also an important where incineration is less than 25 % and utilisation of issue. Small concentrations of heavy metals are present waste more than 25 %, and Group 3 (dark colour) where in both the fly ash captured from exhaust stacks and the the incineration WtE represents less than 25 % and bottom ash collected from these facilities. Because the utilisation of waste under 25 %. ash contains lead, cadmium, mercury, and arsenic in While some incinerators are used just to burn trash, most varying concentrations from such items as batteries, are designed to capture the heat, which is then used to lighting fixtures, and pigments, the ash is tested to make steam to produce electricity. Most incineration determine if it should be designated as a hazardous facilities burn unprocessed municipal solid waste. This is waste. This is a concern because the toxic substances are often referred to as mass burn technology. Many more concentrated in the ash than in the original garbage

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and can seep into groundwater from poorly sealed of solid wastes, which in turn extends the available life landfills. In nearly all cases, the ash is not designated as of existing landfills. Municipal incineration systems, or hazardous and can be placed in a landfill or used as resource recovery facilities, also can provide steam and aggregate for roads and other purposes [25], [26]. electricity generation for the surrounding community. The cost of the land and construction for new However, as many people are aware, the disadvantages incinerators are also major concerns facing many of incineration include high capital and operational communities. Incinerator construction is often a expenditures and requirements for skilled operators. municipality's single largest bond issue. Incineration is Improper equipment or operations can lead to problems also more costly than landfills in most situations. As associated with air pollution and emissions deposition. long as landfills are available and legal (what is not any Municipal waste can be combusted in hulk form or in more the case in the EC), they will have a cost reduced form. Shredding, pulverizing, or any other size advantage. When cities are unable to dispose of their reduction method which can be used before incineration trash locally in a landfill and must begin to transport the decreases the amount of residual ash, due to belted trash to distant sites, incinerators become more cost contact of the waste material with oxygen during the effective. combustion process. Shredded waste used as fuel is generally referred to as refuse - derived fuel (RDF) and is sometimes combined with other fuel type’s classification for RDF. Good combustion depends on three principles, known as the three T’s: time, temperature, and turbulence. Time refers to providing adequate residence time of list combustible matter within the system. Temperature refers to the optimum temperature for complete combustion. Turbulence refers to the proper mixing of the flowing gases through the system. Every incinerator must be designed to optimize these three variables according to the waste type in order to provide complete and clean combustion. A modern municipal solid waste landfill is typically constructed above an impermeable clay layer that is lined with an impermeable membrane and includes mechanisms for dealing with liquid and gas materials Fig. 7: Disposal Methods Used in Various Countries. generated by the contents of the landfill. Each day's Source: Data from the U.S. EPA, 2000 [18]. deposit of fresh garbage is covered with a layer of soil to

prevent it from blowing around and to discourage To help reach renewable energy targets, energy recovery animals from scavenging for food. Selection of landfill could be significantly enhanced by developments in the sites is based on an understanding of local geologic area of anaerobic digestion for production of biogas and conditions such as the presence of a suitable clay base, by improving the efficiency of waste incineration, for groundwater geology, and soil type. In addition, it is example by using cogeneration of electricity and heat. important to address local citizens' concerns. Once the Figure 7 brings data about the ratio for using the waste in site is selected, extensive construction activities are the major EC countries, by land filing, incineration, and necessary to prepare it for use. New landfills have recycling, complex bottom layers to trap contaminant-laden water, Most of the energy gained via incineration of MSW called leachate, leaking through the buried trash. The results from burning highly calorific fractions such as water that leaches through the site must be collected and paper, plastics, tyres, and synthetic textiles while the treated. In addition, monitoring systems are necessary to "wet fraction" of biodegradable waste reduces overall detect methane gas production and groundwater energy efficiency. However, the biodegradable fraction contamination. In some cases, methane produced by of municipal waste (but including paper) still delivers decomposing waste is collected and used to produce heat about 50 % of energy coming from an incineration plant or generate electricity. As a result of the technology and increased recycling of bio-waste could limit the involved, new landfills are becoming increasingly more amount of bio-waste available for incineration. complex and expensive. They currently cost up to Although incineration is often viewed unfavourably by $1 million per hectare (Figure 8). A modern sanitary the general public, it has several advantages. It provides landfill is far different from a simple hole in the ground for a significant reduction of both the volume and weight filled with trash. A modern landfill is a self-contained

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unit that is separated from the soil by impermeable which could be upgraded to natural gas standards using membranes and sealed when filled. Methane gas and 3-6 % of its energy. Anaerobic digestion of mixed waste groundwater are continuously monitored to ensure that brings similar energy gains but makes further use of wastes are not escaping to the air or the groundwater. residues on land difficult. Mechanical-Biological Treatment (MBT) describes techniques which combine biological treatment with mechanical treatment (sorting). Waste materials that are organic in nature, such as plant material, food scraps, and paper products, can be recycled using biological composting and digestion processes to decompose the organic matter. The resulting organic material is then recycled as mulch or compost for agricultural or landscaping purposes. In addition, waste gas from the process (such as methane) can be captured and used for generating electricity. The intention of biological processing in waste management is to control and accelerate the natural process of decomposition of organic matter. There are a large variety of composting and digestion methods and technologies varying in complexity from simple home compost heaps, to industrial-scale enclosed-vessel digestion of mixed domestic waste (Mechanical biological treatment). Methods of biological decomposition are differentiated Fig, 8: A Well-Designed Modern Landfill. as being aerobic or anaerobic methods, though hybrids Source: USA Solid Waste Management Association [6], of the two methods also exist. [18]. However, MBT using anaerobic digestion generates biogas and thus can also be an energy recovery process. Biological treatment (including composting and Combustible waste sorted out in MBT processes may be anaerobic digestion) may be classified as recycling further incinerated because of its energy recovery when compost is used on land or for the production of potential. Composting, anaerobic digestion and growing media. If no such use is envisaged it should be mechanical-biological treatment also produce emissions classified as pre-treatment before land filling or (including greenhouse gases CH4, N2O and CO2). After incineration. In addition, anaerobic digestion (producing stabilisation through biological treatment, the resulting biogas for energy purposes) should be seen as energy material binds short cycle carbon for a limited time: it is recovery. Composting is the most common biological estimated that in the 100-year horizon about 8 % of the treatment option (some 95 % of current biological organic matter present in compost will stay as humus in treatment operations). It is best suited for green waste the soil. The use of compost and digestate as soil and woody material. There are different methods of improvers and fertilizers offers agronomic benefits such which the "closed methods" are more expensive, but less as improvement of soil structure, moisture infiltration, space demanding, faster, and stricter in terms of process water-holding capacity, soil micro organisms and supply emissions control (odours, bio-aerosols). with nutrients (on average, compost from kitchen waste Anaerobic digestion is especially suitable for treating contains about 1 % N, 0.7 % P2O5 and 6.5 % K2O). In wet bio-waste, including fat (e.g. kitchen waste). It particular the recycling of phosphorous can reduce the produces a gas mixture (mainly methane 50 to 75 % by need to import mineral fertilizer while replacement of volume, and carbon dioxide) in controlled reactors. peat shall reduce damage to wetland eco-systems. Biogas can reduce greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions Increased water retention capacity improves workability most significantly if used as a bio fuel for transport or of soils, thereby reducing energy consumption when directly injected into the gas distribution grid. Its use as ploughing them. Better water retention (soil organic bio fuel could result in significant reductions of GHG matter can absorb up to 20 times its weight in water) can emissions, showing a net advantage with respect to other help to counteract the desertification of European soils transport fuels. The residue from the process, the and prevent flooding. digestate, can be composted and use for similar purpose Finally, the use of compost contributes to counteracting as compost, thus improving overall resource recovery the steady loss of soil organic matter across temperate from waste. Every tonne of bio-waste sent to biological 3 regions. Environmental impact of composting is mainly treatment can deliver between 100-200 m N of biogas limited to some greenhouse gas emissions and volatile

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organic compounds. The impact on climate change due Recycling is one of the best environmental success carbon sequestration is limited and mostly temporary. stories of our century. The popular meaning of The agricultural benefits of compost use are evident but ‘recycling’ in most developed countries refers to the there is debate about their proper quantification (e.g. by widespread collection and reuse of everyday waste comparison to other sources of soil improvers), while the materials such as empty beverage containers. These are main risk is soil pollution from bad quality compost. As collected and sorted into common types so that the raw bio-waste easily gets contaminated during mixed waste materials from which the items are made can be collection, its use on soil can lead to accumulation of reprocessed into new products. Material for recycling hazardous substances in soil and plants. Typical may be collected separately from general waste using contaminants of compost include heavy metals and dedicated bins and collection vehicles, or sorted directly impurities (e.g. broken glass), but there is also a from mixed waste streams. potential risk of contamination by persistent organic The most common consumer products recycled include substances such as PCDD/F, PCB or PAHs. Proper aluminium beverage cans, steel food and aerosol cans, control of input material coupled with the monitoring of HDPE and PET bottles, glass bottles and jars, compost quality is crucial. Only a few Member States paperboard cartons, newspapers, magazines, and allow compost production from mixed waste. Most corrugated fibreboard boxes. PVC, LDPE, PP, and PS require separate collection of bio-waste, often in the are also recyclable, although these are not commonly form of a positive list of waste which may be composted. collected. These items are usually composed of a single This approach limits the risk and reduces the cost of type of material, making them relatively easy to recycle compliance testing by allowing less extensive into new products. The recycling of complex products monitoring of production and use of compost. (such as computers and electronic equipment) is more Separate collection schemes function successfully in difficult, due to the additional dismantling and many countries especially for green waste. The kitchen separation required. Recycling, including composting, waste are more often collected and treated as part of the diverted about 30 percent of the solid waste stream from mixed MSW. The benefits of separate collection can landfills and incinerators. Figure 9 demonstrates with include diverting easily biodegradable waste from data that recycling rates for materials have high value landfills, enhancing the calorific value of the remaining (automobile batteries). Other materials are more difficult MSW, and generating a cleaner bio-waste fraction that to market. But recycling rates today are much higher allows producing high quality compost and facilitates than in the past as technology and markets have found biogas production. Separate collection of bio-waste is uses for materials that once were considered valueless. also expected to support other forms of recycling likely Several kinds of programs have contributed to the to be available on the market in the near future (e.g. increase in recycling rate. Some benefits of recycling are production of chemicals in bio-refineries). resource conservation, pollutant reduction, energy savings, job creation, and reduced need for landfills and incinerators. However, incentives are needed to encourage people to participate in recycling programs. Plasma gasification [13] offers states new opportunities for waste disposal, and more importantly for renewable power generation in an environmentally sustainable manner. Plasma is a highly ionized or electrically charged gas. An example in nature is lightning, capable of producing temperatures exceeding 6,980 °C. A gasifier vessel utilizes proprietary plasma torches operating at + 5,540 °C (the surface temperature of the Sun) in order to create a gasification zone of up to 1,650 °C to convert solid or liquid wastes into a syngas. When municipal solid waste is subjected to this intense heat within the vessel, the waste’s molecular bonds break down into elemental components. The process Fig. 9: Recycling Percentage for Selected Materials results in elemental destruction of waste and hazardous (2001) in the USA. materials [13]. Source: Data from the U.S. Environmental Protection According to the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, Agency, Characterization of Municipal Solid Waste in the U.S. generated 250 million tons of waste in 2008 the United States, 2001 [18], [25]. alone, and this number continues to rise. About 54 % of

this trash (122,000,000 t) ends up in landfills and is

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consuming land at a rate of nearly 1,400 ha per year. In management system for bio waste significantly depend fact, land filling is currently the number one method of on: waste disposal in the US. Some states no longer have • The amount of energy that can be recovered is a capacity at permitted landfills and export their waste to crucial parameter giving high energy efficient options a other states [26], [27]. clear advantage. It is due to better energy utilisation of The energy content of waste products can be harnessed wet biodegradable wastes by anaerobic digestion than by directly by using them as a direct combustion fuel, or incineration. indirectly by processing them into another type of fuel. • The source of the energy which is replaced by the Recycling through thermal treatment ranges from using recovered energy is mainly based on fossil fuels, the waste as a fuel source for cooking or heating, to fuel for benefits of a high energy recovery of the bio waste boilers to generate heat and electricity. Pyrolysis and system become more important. However, if the gasification are two related forms of thermal treatment replaced energy is largely based on low emission where waste materials are heated to high temperatures sources, e.g. hydro energy, energy recovered from bio with limited oxygen availability. The process usually waste is obviously associated with significantly less occurs in a sealed vessel under high pressure. Pyrolysis environmental benefits. of solid waste converts the material into solid, liquid and • The amount, quality and use of the recycled gas products. The liquid and gas can be burnt to produce compost and the products which are replaced by using energy or refined into other products. The solid residue compost - If the compost is used in landscaping or (char) can be further refined into products such as landfill cover any environmental benefits will be very activated carbon. Gasification and advanced Plasma arc limited. However, if high quality compost is replacing gasification are used to convert organic materials industrial fertilizers, the benefits usually will be directly into a synthetic gas (syngas) composed of significant. Also the replacement of peat yields high carbon monoxide and hydrogen. The gas is then burnt to environmental benefits. turn into useful energy (electricity, heat). • The emission profile of biological treatment plants show that plants can have very different emission patterns, which lead to more or less environmental 2.2 Comparison of Management Options impacts. The studies show especially importance of emissions of N2O and NH3. Most studies refer to management of biodegradable waste. The difference is that bio-waste does not include paper and has higher moisture content, which may have 2.3 Economic Impacts impact especially for comparison of options including thermal treatment of waste. For the management of The capital and operating costs of MSW management biodegradable waste that is diverted from landfills, there and biological treatment of waste depend on multiple seems to be no single environmentally best option. The factors and vary regionally and locally, hence it is environmental balance of the various options available difficult to arrive at meaningful average values or make for the management of this waste depends on a number comparisons. The most important variables for such of local factors, inter alias collection systems, waste costs include the plant's size, technology used, composition and quality, climatic conditions, the geological conditions (for landfills), costs of locally potential of use of various waste derived products such available energy, type of waste available, transport costs as electricity, heat, methane-rich gas or compost. and others. This excludes indirect costs on the Therefore strategies for management of this waste environment and health. Land filling is usually should be determined at an appropriate scale based on a considered the cheapest option, especially if the price of structured and comprehensive approach like Life Cycle land is low, or where the environmental costs of land Thinking (LCT) and the associated tool of Life Cycle filling and future costs of landfill closure and aftercare Assessment (LCA) to avoid overlooking relevant aspects have not yet been internalised in the gate fee (especially and any bias. The situation is of course dependant on the in the new Member States). The increase of costs due to varying conditions in the countries. the Landfill Directive will possibly change this situation A range of Life Cycle Assessment (LCA) based studies combined with rising awareness of the “real” long term have been conducted on national and regional scales. costs of landfills. Equally, revenues from energy Also recently, on behalf of the Commission, Life Cycle recovery and products can at least partly offset the costs Assessments for MSW management in new member of other management options. These then can even come states have been conducted. Whilst arriving at different close to break even, making them economically more results depending on local conditions, they largely show interesting than land filling. Incineration requires higher the common pattern that the benefits of the chosen waste investment but can offer good economies of scale and

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does not require changes to existing MSW collection are limited which limits impact from the Internal Market schemes for land filling, while brining in revenues from on the competitiveness of this product. energy recovery especially when the efficiency is There is no problem with the market for biogas or maximised by using waste in high efficiency landfill gas. It can be burnt on site to generate heat cogeneration units for the production of both electricity and/or electricity or cleaned and upgraded to reach the and heat. quality of automotive fuel or natural gas pumped into the As biological treatment must be applied to waste of grid. These uses would maximise the potential of sufficient quality to deliver safe compost, the costs of anaerobic digestion for reducing GHG emissions, separate collection of bio-waste must be added to the helping to achieve both the Kyoto and the RES treatment process. Selling compost may be a source of Directive's targets. additional revenues and again, energy recovery using Separate collection schemes can help in diverting anaerobic digestion can provide further revenues. biodegradable waste from landfills, providing quality In the study for European Commission [3], [8] the input to bio-waste recycling and improving the following assumed financial cost estimates for efficiency of energy recovery. However, setting up management of bio waste were proposed, as separate collection is not without challenges, including: representative for the EU-15 (2002): • The need to re-design waste collection systems and – Separate collection of bio-waste followed by change of citizens' habits. While properly designed composting: min 35 to 95 €/tonne; separate collection systems are not necessarily more – Separate collection of bio-waste followed by anaerobic expensive, their proper design and management require digestion: min 80 to 135 €/tonne; higher effort than mixed waste collection systems. – Landfill of mixed waste: min. 55 €/tonne; • Difficulties in identifying areas suitable for separate – Incineration of mixed waste: min. 90 €/tonne. collection. In densely populated areas it is problematic EUNOMIA estimates the additional costs of separate to guarantee the necessary purity of the input. In collection at 0-15 €/tonne, while optimisation of the scarcely populated areas separate collection may be too separate collection systems (e.g. by increasing periods expensive and home composting may be a better between collection of non-biodegradable waste) could solution. decrease these costs below zero making collection • Problems of matching the waste arising with the use profitable. On the other hand, COWI (2004) [3] gives of recycled material, due to transport costs and low examples of much higher costs of separate collection of prices the use of compost is often confined to locations 37-135 €/tonne and estimates it possible to achieve net near the treatment plant. This may pose problems in benefits of separate bio waste collection, even if small densely populated areas. and depending on a number of factors (cost of separate • Hygiene and odour issues, especially in warm and collection, energy efficiency of an alternative hot climate. incinerator, type of energy displaced by energy from the alternative incinerator). Investment costs of biological treatment plants vary, 2.4 Social and Health Impacts depending on the type of installation, the emission reduction techniques used, and the product quality Increased recycling of bio-waste is expected to have requirements. Study supporting the Impact Assessment limited positive impacts on employment. New jobs may for the revision of IPPC directive quotes 60-150 €/tonne be created in waste collection and in small composting for open composting and 350-500 €/tonne for closed plants. Separate collection of bio-waste may be three composting and digestion in large-scale installations times more labour-intensive than collecting mixed waste. [10]. Market prices for compost are closely linked to the It is also likely that inhabitants of areas covered by public perception and customer confidence in a product. separate collection will have to change their waste Usually, compost for use in agriculture is sold for a separation habits; however, there are no data for symbolic price (e.g. 1 €/tonne, the price may even assessing the societal cost of separate collection. include transport and spreading). However, well There is a general lack of quality data on the health marketed compost of recognised quality may reach impacts of various waste management options based on 14 €/tonne, while for small amounts of packed compost epidemiologic studies. A study by DEFRA [4] did not or blends including compost the price may even reach reveal any apparent health effects for people living near 150-300 €/tonne. The prices are higher at well developed MSW management facilities. Further to this study, in the compost markets. future additional research could be required to ascertain Due to high transport prices and low market value, the absence of risks to human health from such facilities. compost is usually used close to the composting site and However, it identified small risks of birth defects in presently long-distance transport and international trade families living near landfill sites and of bronchitis and

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minor ailments for residents living nearby (especially available (Figure 12) [13], [24]. Several reference texts open) composting plants though. No apparent health are available which provide further details on the various effects have been identified for incineration plants and system designs [21], [22], [23]. the neighbourhood, especially as modern clean Gross electric power output from a resource recovery combustion and flue gas cleaning technologies are system ranges from 340 kWh per ton of raw solid waste available and applied. incinerated. Output is dependent on the type of incineration technology utilized and the type of waste fed. Electricity generated by a resource recovery facility 3 Technical Solutions for Incineration will usually be used to supply the total electrical need for in-house power consumption, which ranges from 10 % As incineration has many advantages and generates at to 15 % of the gross amount generated. The remaining same time a renewable energy resource, necessary for 85 90 % can be sold to the local utility. further development of the sustainable civilization, one will insist and present in the following some main features and possibilities for this technology. An incineration system is comprised of several components. It must have a waste reading system, also referred to as a loading or charging system, to ensure uniform loading of the incinerator. The incinerator itself generally consists of primary chamber, a secondary chamber, an auxiliary fuel system, air supply systems, a hearth or a grate area, and either moving grates or rams to move the waste ad the ash through the unit. The incineration system must also have an ash removal system: both wet and dry ash removal systems are available. Air pollution equipment will most likely be required on all new incineration systems. Many municipal incinerators also are equipped Fig. 11: Water-cooled rotary combustor and boiler [17]. with efficient steam and or electricity generators,.

The types of incinerators used in municipal waste combustion include fluidized bed incinerators, rotary water wall combustors, reciprocating grate systems are related modular incinerators [17], [20], [22], [23], [24].

Fig. 12: Normal flue gas treatment for incinerators (de dusting, desulphurisation, DeNOx, including Hg and HCl retention). Source: Process Diagram of Dry Sorption based on Bicar and SCR - DeNOx technology [13], [24].

Fig. 10: Modular incinerator [17]. Finally a pilot for co-combustion of waste with coal is presented, being a solution for small retrofitting of The basic variations in the design of these systems are existing boilers in new member states, that are at the end related to the waste feed system, the air delivery system, of their life time, and thus having the chance to get and the movement of the material through the system. further reduction possibility in limiting emissions from As an illustration of typical system configurations, fossil sources, and additional generating, by Figure 10 depicts a modular incinerator, and Figure 11 cogeneration higher efficiency and CO2 reduction, from depicts a rotary combustor. Both are equipped with a utilising of waste (biodegradable fraction) as renewable heal recover boiler. Finally flue gas treatment is

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energy source. The facility (Figure 13) comprises several main parts, and is based on original design [19], [20]: (i) Figure 13 is indicating a result of the waste The main burning subassembly comprising the furnace, implementation directives, by year 2007, attesting that the air distributor, divided with grates for injection of the waste is a part in the energy cocktail in the EU27. In the fluidisation air and main combustion air, the fuel EU27, 524 kg of municipal waste was generated per bunkers (biomass and coal), the starting & post person in 2008. 40 % of this municipal waste was land combustion burner working with natural gas, and diverse filled, 20 % incinerated, 23 % recycled and 17 % measuring instruments and observation gaps. (ii) The composted. The average amount of waste generated in heat transfer subassembly components are mainly the EU27 was virtually unchanged from 2007 (525 kg formed by the convective case. (iii) The flue gases de- per person). This information is published by Eurostat dusting system components are formed by a cyclone dust [6], [7], the statistical office of the European Union. separator, a convective connection, flow measuring Municipal waste generated per person varied from 306 sockets, extracting tubes for flue gas analysis and kg in the Czech Republic to 802 kg in Denmark [3], [5], powder/dust sampling, thermocouples, thermometers & [14]. Waste became recently also a matter of trade, as manometers. (iv) The flue gases cleaning subassembly is Figure 14 is indicating. formed by a scrubbing tower, a neutralization reactor, a demister, and an appropriate air feeding system, including all necessary adaptors.

Fig. 14: Developments in shipments of paper waste as an example of non-hazardous wastes out and within the EU from 1995 to 2007. Source: Eurostat [7]. Fig. 12: Design of the co-firing facility in fluidized bed [19], [20]: 1 - Start-up burner, 2 - Fuel bunkers, 3 - Increasing amounts, especially of waste paper, plastics Fluidized bed furnace 4 - Ash cooler, 5 - Convective and metals are being shipped from developed countries case, 6 - Dust separator-cyclone, 7 - Scrubbing tower, 8 to countries where environmental standards are less – Neutralisation reactor, 9 - Demister, 10, 13 - Reagents stringent. Huge ships steam around the high seas circulation pumps, 11, 12, 14 - Containers, 15 - Filter, 16 everyday carrying goods from emerging markets in Asia - Air feeding system, 17- Air distributor, CF – Chimney to the West. Rather than sail back empty, and needing something to provide ballast, the ship owners are only too happy to take waste products from Europe to be 4. Waste in the RES cocktail in the EC recycled back in Asia [7]. That does not mean that shipments of waste are not regulated. Both the UN and the EU have strict rules on what can be shipped where [26], [8], [13]. At the global level international trade of 'hazardous wastes' (waste that is potentially dangerous for people or the environment) is regulated by the UN's Basel Convention. A central goal of the Basel Convention is to protect human health and the environment by minimising hazardous waste production whenever possible through environmentally sound management. The convention requires that the production of hazardous wastes be managed using an Fig. 13: Installed Electricity capacity of RES in EU, integrated life-cycle approach, which involves strict 2007. controls from its generation to storage, transport, Source: Eurostat [6], [7]. treatment, reuse, recycling, recovery and final disposal.

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The EU's long term aim is that each Member State sectors reduced their emissions substantially, by 19.6 % should dispose of its own waste domestically (the across the EU27, due to improved waste management, 'proximity principle'). However, as shipments of emission reductions in industrial processes (as well as hazardous and problematic waste for disposal from general restructuring leading away from heavy industry, EU Member States nearly quadrupled between 1997 and particularly in the EU12) and agriculture [2], [9]. 2005, this aim has yet to be fulfilled [26], [27]. The factors driving the export and import of waste vary: availability of special treatment technology; a shortage of materials; differences in prices for disposal or recovery. EU policy, setting targets for recycling, also leads to waste shipments from Member States who cannot meet their targets at home. The volumes of waste on the market keep costs low for a country like China, which needs cheap raw materials. As long as this waste is not for disposal at its destination and does not contain hazardous materials, it is an acceptable trade.

Fig. 16: Structure of total greenhouse gas emissions by sector, EU27, 2005. Source: EEA, Energy and environment report 2008 [2].

Fig. 15: Europe’s share of the world market in green sectors. Source: EC News [9].

Figure 15 indicates that waste management is very important and promising hopes are related to its contribution to the potential green share in the energy cocktail offered by Europe in the global world energy balance [9]. In 2005 [2], [8] the total greenhouse gas emissions in the EU27 was 5,177 Mt CO2 equivalent (Figure 16) comprising 82.5 % CO2; 8.1 % CH4; 8.0 % N2O, while the remaining 1.4 % corresponded to the fluorinated gases. Energy related emissions continue to be the dominant representing approximately 80 % of the total emissions (see Figure 16), with the largest emitting sector being the production of electricity and heat, followed by transport. Even waste is sharing a reduced percentage in the total balance, it is not to be negligible. The C from waste content might be used for a better purpose, being the support for combustible matter. Since 1999, GHG emissions started to rise again, with some fluctuation over the period of 2004–2005. The reduction in energy‑ related emissions was much smaller than that observed for non‑ energy‑ related emissions in agriculture, waste and other sectors. These

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Fig. 18: Contribution of renewable energy sources to primary energy consumption in the EU27. Source: EEA, Energy and environment report 2008 [2], [8], [9].

The share of renewable energy sources in primary energy consumption in the EU27 (Figure 18) increased Fig. 17: Pollutant Emissions by sectors, in 2005, EU27. slowly from 4.4 % in 1990 to 6.7 % in 2005. This Source: EEA, Energy & environ. Report 2008 [2], [8]. development led to a reduction in CO2 emissions (see As it results from Figure 17, waste is also contributing to Figures 16 and 17) [2], [8], [10]. However, rising overall the general emission of pollutants into the ambient air. energy consumption in absolute terms has counteracted some of the environmental benefits from the increased use of renewable. The strongest increase came from wind and solar energy. In absolute terms, about 80 % of the increase came from biomass, including waste. Despite good progress, significant growth will be needed to meet, by 2010, the indicative target for the EU of a 12 % share of renewable [8].

5 Conclusions

1. Waste Management is becoming one of the key problems of the modern world, an international issue that is intensified by the volume and complexity of domestic and industrial waste discarded by society. Unfortunately, many of the practices adopted in the past were aimed at short- term solutions without sufficient regard or

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knowledge for long term implications on health, the • 20 % renewable energy, environment or sustainability and this, in many • 10 % renewable fuels. cases, is leading to the need to take difficult and This package comprises a set of key policy proposals expensive remedial action. that are closely interlinked. They include: (i) a proposal 2. Waste is indicated to be a resource for the energy amending the EU Emissions Trading Directive (EU system based on RES, in the EU27 and not only. ETS); (ii) a proposal relating to the sharing of efforts to 3. The quantity and type of wastes generated within a meet the Community's independent greenhouse gas community must be estimated before an appropriate reduction commitment in sectors not covered by the EU waste management plan can be developed. emissions trading system (such as transport, buildings, 4. The amount of waste produced by residents and services, smaller industrial installations, agriculture and businesses is increasing. Over the past decade, the waste); and (iii) a proposal for a Directive promoting annual rate of increase in household waste rising renewable energy, to help achieve both of the above has generally been between 2 % and 3%. Analysis emissions targets [8], [9], [13]. of recent trends in waste generation shows that the 13. The efforts required to meet these targets will also rate of growth in waste generation has been quite cut air pollution in Europe. For example, consistent for waste collected from households; improvements in energy efficiency and increased 5. Three strategies are employed in waste use of renewable energy will both lead to reduced minimization: reuse, reduction, and recycling. amounts of fossil fuel combustion, a key source of Composting is generally, considered to be a form of air pollution. These positive side effects are recycling. referred to as the 'co-benefits' of climate change 6. Resource recovery facilities are advantageous policy. Waste management is a considerable part because they provide for significant reduction of and contributor to it! both the volume and weight of solid wastes, which 14. Climate and resource challenges require drastic in turn extends the available life of existing action. Strong dependence on fossil fuels such as landfills. These facilities can also provide steam oil and inefficient use of raw materials expose and/or electricity for the surrounding community. world wide consumers and businesses to harmful 7. Combustion or biogas production are technical and costly price shocks, threatening our economic options that are offering renewable energy benefits security and contributing to climate change. The to the waste generating society, on spot. expansion of the world population from 6 to 9 8. Essentially, five techniques for a novel waste billion will intensify global competition for natural management are used: (1) environmental friendly resources, and put pressure on the environment. landfills in novel deposits, (2) incineration, (3) Using the waste is a solution to contribute to the source reduction, (4) composting, and (5) recycling. general aim of a worldwide solution to the 9. Waste co-combustion makes the Kyoto protocol to problems of climate change at the same time as be more realistic and brings advantages from three implementing the agreed climate and energy potentially benefit schemes: strategy. • EU Emissions Trading Scheme (EU ETS), 15. In the next future of the world energy cocktail, • National Green Energy Schemes (Green waste represents a non negligible renewable energy Certificates), resource, contributing as well to a cleaner • National Energy Efficiency Schemes (e.g. environment, development of business Combined Heat &Power markets). entrepreneurship and offering security and jobs to 10. Reducing (avoiding) the waste quantity is local communities, direct producer of the waste. considered an optimum, cost effective solution for a 16. Waste management must be analysed and applied sustainable management. in the context of the Commission’s proposal 11. EU policy, setting targets for recycling, also leads regarding five measurable for the EU targets for to waste shipments from Member States who 2020 that will steer the process and be translated cannot meet their targets at home. into national targets: for employment; for research 12. Correct waste management may improve the and innovation; for climate change and energy; for contribution to RES of existing energy resources education; and for combating poverty. They and also to support the EC master plan (January represent the direction we should take and will 2008, the European Commission proposed Climate mean we can measure our success [2], [3]. and Energy package) in energy for 2020, in 17. Waste Management is a key player in maintaining a comparison to 1990, meaning: business’s ISO14001 accreditations. Companies are • 20 % less greenhouse gas emission, encouraged to improve their environmental • 20 % improved energy efficiency, efficiencies each year. One way to do this is by

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improving a company’s waste management with a waste minimization strategies. The aim of the waste new recycling service. hierarchy is to extract the maximum practical 18. There are a number of concepts about waste benefits from products and to generate the management which vary in their usage between minimum amount of waste. The Strategy for the countries or regions. Waste Management Hierarchy, in order of 19. So far municipal waste management has already preference, prevention, re-use, recycle/compost, reduced GHG emissions significantly within the recovery, disposal, except where costs are EU: from 64 to 28 million tonnes CO2 annually prohibitive, or where the environmental between the years 1990 and 2007, which is consequences can be demonstrated to be negative. equivalent to a drop from 130 to 60 kg CO2 each 22. Extended producer responsibility (EPR) is a year per capita. As discussed by the International strategy designed to promote the integration of all Solid Waste Association (ISWA) the EU municipal costs associated with products throughout their life waste sector will achieve 18 % of the reduction cycle (including end-of-life disposal costs) into the target set for Europe before 2012 according to the market price of the product. Extended producer Kyoto agreement. Looking forward, between 2012 responsibility is meant to impose accountability and 2020 the EU municipal waste sector will over the entire lifecycle of products and packaging become a net saver of GHG emissions according to introduced to the market. This means that firms current predictions [3] [7], [8], [14]. which manufacture, import and/or sell products are 20. Waste utilisation has multiple advantages over required to be responsible for the products after conventional energy sources: their useful life as well as during manufacture. • It contributes to security of supply as a 23. Polluter pays principle is a principle where the versatile and constant renewable energy polluting party pays for the impact caused to the source, environment. With respect to waste management, • It reduces greenhouse gas emissions and this generally refers to the requirement for a waste improves air quality, depending on generator (person, industry, agent, community, etc.) technology, to pay for appropriate disposal of the waste. • It creates employment opportunities and 24. Promoting the economic and employment contributes to rural development and opportunities of sustainable waste management, regeneration, consistent with the principles of sustainable • Its use can lead to numerous other development and best value, is of real importance. environmental benefits, such as the use of 25. Management of the resources and waste should special wastes as feed stocks, leading to the occur in a way that meets the needs residents now reduction of landfill waste or sustainable without compromising the ability of future energy crop management, leading to generations to meet their own needs. increased biodiversity. 26. Work & Lobby closely of the legal governmental and associative agencies, including commercial, statutory, non-governmental, academic and community based or not-for-profit organisations, with the community & community sector to educate residents in waste-related matters and encourage engagement with waste prevention and reuse initiatives is of major importance and necessary. In this sense, acting together to research and develop coordinated services and infrastructure for waste collection, treatment, transfer and disposal, aiming to manage residual waste within the County/region, where this is consistent, and to manage all other Fig. 19: Diagram of the waste hierarchy. waste at the nearest appropriate facility by the most Source: [13]. appropriate method or technology is in perfect accordance with the proximity principle. 21. Waste hierarchy (Figure 19) refers to the "3 Rs" 27. Finally only approaches to managing waste from reduce, reuse and recycle, which classify waste commercial and industrial sources where this management strategies according to their contributes to the overall environmental, social and desirability in terms of waste minimization. The economic wellbeing of Residents is important, as waste hierarchy remains the cornerstone of most

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well to pursuit of the Partnership’s vision of [18] E. Enger, B. Smith, A. T. Bockarie, sustainable waste and resource management. Environmental Science. A study of 28. Education and awareness in the area of waste and interrelationships, Mc Graw Hill Higher Education, waste management are becoming increasingly 2006. important from a global perspective of resource [19] I. Ionel, Al. Savu, et al., Co-combustion of management. Waste in a Romanian Fluidized Bed Combustion Facility, World Renewable Energy Congress, WREC 2006, Florence, 2006, pp. 269-275. References: [20] I. Ionel, Fr. Popescu, N. Lontis, W. Russ, Co- [1] *** British Medical Association, Health combustion of fossil fuel with bio fuel in small &Environmental impact assessment, an integrated cogeneration systems, between necessity and approach, Earthscan Publications Ltd, 1999. achievements, SSE '09, Volume II, Proceedings of [2] *** A strategy for smart, sustainable and inclusive the 11th WSEAS International Conference on growth, Communication from the Commission Sustainability in Science Engineering, Timisoara, Europe 20102010. pp. 352-358. [3] *** COWI, [21] J. G. Henry, G. W. Heinke, Environmental http://www.cowi.com/menu/services/utilities/munic Science and Engineering, Prentice Hall, 1989. ipalandhazardouswaste/wastetoenergy/Pages/Waste [22] L. Yassin, P. Lettieri, St. J. R. Simons, Study of ToEnergy.aspx. the Process Design and Flue Gas Treatment of an [4] *** DEFRA, http://www.defra.gov.uk/. Industrial-Scale Energy-from-Waste Combustion [5] *** EUNOMIA http://www.eunomia.co.uk/. Plant, Ind. Eng. Chem. Res., 2007, 46 (8), pp. [6] *** USA Solid Waste Management Association, 2648–2656. http://www.environmentalistseveryday.org/about- [23] L. Yassin, P. Lettieri1, St. Simons, A. Germanà, nswma-solid-waste-management/index.php. Thermal conversion of biomass and waste, ECI [7] *** EUROSTAT, Conference on Fluidization, Vancouver, Canada, http://epp.eurostat.ec.europa.eu/portal/page/portal/ Vol. RP4, Article 111, 2007, pp. 905-912, Produced waste/data/wastemanagement/waste_treatment. by The Berkeley Electronic Press, 2010. [8] *** GREEN PAPER: On the management of bio- [24] N. Verdone, P. De Filippis, Thermodynamic waste in the European Union, SEC (2008) 2936 behaviour of sodium and calcium based sorbents in [9] *** http://ec.europa.eu/commission_2010- the emission control of waste incinerators’, 2014/president/news/statements/pdf/20100210_3_e Chemosphere 54 (2004), pp. 975-985. n.pdf. [25] W. Cunningham, M.A. Cunningham, B. W. [10] *** IPPC http://www.ipcc.ch/pdf/assessment- Saigo, Environmental Science, A global concern, report/ar4/syr/ar4_syr.pdf. Mc. Graw Hill, Higher Education, 2007. [11] *** LEICS, [26] USA Environmental Protection Agency, http://www.leics.gov.uk/lmwms_2006_.pdf. http://www.epa.gov/. [12] *** Waste Incineration Directive, 2000/76/EC. [27] *** EEA, http://www.eea.europa.eu/ [13] *** Waste management , highlights/the-waste-trade-2013-legal-and-illegal. http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Waste_management#R [28] *** EEA, Tran boundary shipments of waste in eferences, the EU, ETC/RWM 2008, European Topic Centre http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Plasma_arc_waste_dis on Resource and Waste Management, posal. http://eea.eionet.europa.eu/Public/irc/eionet. [14] ***WTERT, http://www.wtert.eu/Default.asp?Menue=18&News PPV=7552. [15] A. J. Waldau (editor), Energy use efficiency and Electricity from Biomass, Wind and Photovoltaics, in the EC, Paper EUR21217-EN, 2004. [16] D. D. Chiras, Environmental Science. Action for a sustainable future, The Benjamin Cummings Publishing Company Inc., 1990. [17] G. Burke, B. R. Singh, L. Theodore, Handbook of environmental management and technology, Wiley Interscience, A John Wiley & Sons, 2005.

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