Index

Aachen (Aix-la-Chapelle) 435, 437, Agde, council of (506) 137 443 Agilulf, king of the Lombards 250 abbesses 373, 477 Agobard, archbishop of Lyons 455, abbots 210–11, 415, 477 456 British 353 agrarian rites 154 Carolingian 442 agrarian society 43, 46, 47–8, 48, 50, Irish 331, 333 147, 172 social status 331 Aï Qanum 28 Abd al-Malik, calif 301, 303, 309 Aistulf, king of the Lombards 405 Abd al-Walid, calif 301, 302, 303 Aix-la-Chapelle see Aachen Abgar VIII of Osrhoene 64 al-Akhtal (Arab poet) 308 Abraham 37, 291, 292 al-Mundhîr 288 A.D. dating system 23, 416 Alans 102 Admonitio Generalis Alaric I, king of the Visigoths 48, 86 (Charlemagne) 441, 450 Alaric II, king of the Visigoths 136–7, Adomnán, abbot of Iona 330, 362 137 Adrianople 48, 86, 480 Breviarium Alaricianum 136 áes dana 372 Alban, Saint 125–6 Africa Alcuin of York 432–3, 439, 440, churches 114 443–4, 446, 447, 453–4, 478 see also NorthCOPYRIGHTED Africa; the names Aldebert MATERIAL (heretic) 421, 422–3, 450 of individual countries Alemanni 413 afterlife see death and the afterlife Alexander, Saint 480 Agapetus, Pope 199 Alexandria 2, 50, 115

The Rise of Western Christendom: Triumph and Diversity, A.D. 200–1000, Tenth Anniversary Revised Edition. Peter Brown. © 2013 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. Published 2013 by John Wiley & Sons, Inc.

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patriarchs 115, 116, 118, 172 Antrim, County 41 population 54–5 Apamea 273 Serapeum 74 Apennines 182, 192 almsgiving 69–70, 71, 157, 158, 222 Apollos, Apa 174 alphabet 277 “applied culture” 27–8 Christianity 276–9 Aquileia 63 division between Rome and Arab culture 316 Persia 277 Arabian peninsula 286–8, 289 literature 277 Arabic language 289–90, 301–2, 308, national identity 9, 278 337, 386, 449 warrior aristocracy 277–8 spread 315–16 alphabet, Armenian 277 Arcadius, emperor 134 Ambrose, bishop of Milan 80, 87, Arculf, bishop 319, 378 105, 256 “arguments in stone” 30, 32, 55, 108 Amida 185, 188 Ari Thorgilsson the Wise Ammianus Marcellinus, Histories 480 Book of the Icelanders 474 amsâr 305 Arianism 79–80, 105–6, 136, 137, amulets 77, 154, 159, 324, 465 425 Ananias of Shirak 365, 486 aristocracy 84–5 K’nnikon 365 aristocratic swagger 477–8 Anastasius, emperor 137–8, 177 aristocratization of the Anastasius of Sinai Church 110–11 Stories to Strengthen the Faith 309 bishops 110–11, 478 Anatolia 57 early medieval Europe 30–1 Christianization 391 Frankish 31, 253, 354, 378, 410, Aneirin 411, 412, 442, 447, 448 Y Gododdin 129 land ownership and wealth 56, 98 Anglo-Saxon Chronicle 469 literate 448, 452 Anglo-Saxon language 346, 373, 374 urban 56 Anglo-Saxon verse 373, 377–8 Aristotle 274–5 Anglo-Saxons 378 Arius 79, 117 ‘Anjar 305 Ark of the Covenant 457–8 anmcharae (“soul friend”) 333–4 Arles 112, 151, 153, 154, 227–8 Annianus, bishop of Orléans 107 Armagh monastery 330 Anskar (Frankish missionary) 471–2 Armenia 9, 44, 187, 276–9, 486 Anthony of Tagrit 311–12 Armenian Church 111, 277, 278–9 Anthony the hermit 81, 82 Katholikos 111, 177, 288 Antichrist 203, 295 Monophysitism 278–9 Antioch 2, 50, 77, 115, 119–20, 171, armies 206, 272, 273, 370 Arab 296–7, 298, 315 patriarchs 115–16, 119, 171 barbarian militias 102, 103–4, 105 population 54–5 barbarian recruits 49, 101 Antirrheticus (Evagrius) 285 ethnic specificity 104–5 Antirrhetikos (Nicephorus) 397 German 47

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armies (cont’d) Aurelius Isidore 58 Roman 49, 101 Ausonius of Bordeaux 86–7 Themes 386 Austrasia 408, 410–11 art Autun 164 early medieval 459, 461 Auvergne 137 frescoes 204–5, 470 Avarayr, battle of (451) 278 Islamic 300 Avars 45, 183, 394, 434, 453–4 mosaics 162, 168, 180, 190, 193, Axum 138–9, 187, 276 272, 300, 390, 400 Aya Sofya see Hagia Sophia basilica Muslim 390 see also crafts; icons Baghdad 316–17 asceticism 81, 87, 173, 200, 242, 253 Balkans ascetic missionaries 81, 82 conversion of 404 ascetic sensibility 199 crisis 394–5 desert saints 173, 174, 175 Balthild, queen 255 monastic discipline 112 Bamburgh 353 penitential asceticism 374 Bangor 247 Asia Banu Ghassân 287, 290 Christianity in 40, 41, 267–94 baptism 65, 68, 92, 344–5, 453 Islam in 289–94 adult 53 Athanasius, patriarch of baptismal vows 427, 451, 453 Alexandria 79–80, 82–3, 105, enforced 305, 366, 453 117–18 fulwiht 488–9 Athens 58, 149, 178 godparents 453, 454 atonement 220, 242 infant 453 see also penance mass baptisms 349, 361 Attila the Hun 44–5, 107 potency 154 Aud the Deep-Minded 477 preparation for 453–4 Augustine of Canterbury transformative rite 68, 88 at Canterbury 345 barbarians 6, 43–8 conversion of Britain 215, 340, 342, absorption of Roman frontier 344–7 zone 51, 100–1 Augustine of Hippo, Saint 28, 73, “barbarian invasions” 4, 44, 48, 86, 76–7, 82–3, 85, 87–8, 93, 129, 93, 438 150, 151, 202, 204–5, 233, Christianity 105–6 235, 256 definitions 43 on baptism 92 farmers 43, 46, 47, 48 City of God 91–2 image of 6, 7, 45, 99–100 Confessions 28, 87–8, 204 nomads 43–6 death 93, 97 oral culture 48 doctrine of election 89–91 para-Roman world 49, 50, 100–1 and the Pelagian controversy Pirenne thesis 9–10 88–9 pre-Christian past 8 theology of grace 88–91 in Roman armies 49, 101–2

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Roman attitudes to 45, 46–7, 48, explanation 27, 282, 370–1 49, 99–100 Ten Commandments 389 Roman collaboration with 99, Vulgate 199 100–1, 102 see also Old Testament; Scriptures settlements 7, 101–6 Birka (Björkö) 464 warrior society 48–9 bishops 68, 78, 80, 107–8, 415 Bardaisan 42, 43, 48, 64 arbiters of sin and repentance 68 The Book of the Laws of aristocrats 110–11, 478 Countries 40–1, 54 Chalcedonian 185 Barhebraeus (Gregory Abu church-building 168 al-Farâj) 313 city “fathers” 158 Barontus (monk) 260, 262, 374 civic and episcopal power and Barsanuphius of Gaza 175–6, 204 activities 78, 80, 107, 157–8, Questions and Answers 175 166–7, 168–9, 208, 209, 211 Barsauma, bishop of Nisibis 281 convergence of holiness and basilicas 30, 63, 77, 78, 108, 125, 458, ecclesiastical office 173 459 entry into their cities 166–7 Gallic 162 founders of monasteries 223 “sacred theater” 187 Frankish 414, 423–4 Basra 305 Gallic 110, 112, 113, 114, 116, Bath 76, 127 157–8 Bauto (Frankish chieftain) 134 Gregory’s guidance for 209, 211, Bavaria 412, 421 212, 237 Bede the Venerable 30, 32, 52, 350–4, Irish 331 355–6, 358, 364, 367, 373, 374 judges in civil litigation 78 death 355 monk-bishops 111–13, 207 Ecclesiastical History of the English Monophysites 186 Nation 9, 351, 352–3, 416, 419 and the pagan past 149–50 Life of Cuthbert 355 retinues 332, 362 Belisarius 180 of Rome 114–15, 116 Bell-Beaker culture 486 and rural Christianity 146–7 Benedict Biscop 356–7, 359, 364 social status 331 Benedict, Saint 210, 221, 222, 250 tools of imperial government 168–9 Rule 210, 225, 441 wealth 157–8 Benevento 192 blood-money 245 Beowulf 479, 485 boars 135 Berbers 138 Bobbio 248 Berry 161 Boethius 195–6, 275 Bertha (wife of Ethelbert) 344–5 Consolation of Philosophy 195 Bertram, bishop of Le Mans 157 Bogu Qaghan 42 Bewcastle 377 Boisil, prior 355 Bible 370–1, 460 Boniface, Pope 249 allegorical interpretation 204, 370 Boniface, Saint 5, 41, 418–21, 423–5, copying and meditation on 41, 460 430, 449

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Book of Daniel 297 churches 79 Book of History (Gregory of Tours) civil wars 126 140, 160, 161, 163 economic collapse 12, 13 Book of Job 204, 206 “folk Christianity” 342 Book of Kells 30, 372–3, 377, 459 gens Anglorum 352 Book of Leviticus 244 gift-giving relationship 31, 129, 344, The Book of Monsters 485 347, 350 Book of the Icelanders (Air Thorgilsson hill-forts 129 the Wise) 474 kings/kingdoms 342–4, 352, 475 The Book of the Laws of Countries Latin Christian culture 239, 241 (Bardaisan) 40, 54 metropolitan bishops 345 Book of Tobit 159 “micro-Christendoms” 15, 359, books 368, 378 centers of book production 22 monasteries/monasticism 128, codices 23, 63, 82, 111 373–4 copying 357, 372, 430 overlordship 343 encyclopedic works 364–5, 387 post-imperial 12, 125–9 illuminated 372–3, 459 Roman economy 126 Manichaean texts 82 Roman garrisons 49–50 material production 23, 24–5, Romano-Britons 126–7, 128–9, 357, 445 140 of penance see Penitentials Saxons 7, 8, 15, 127, 242, 301, 341, of rituals 427 342–54 treated as gifts 357 single “English nation” 9, 352 “wisdom literature” 427 warrior elite 348, 353 see also libraries; translations written histories 9, 140, 351–2, Boseth 73 416, 419 Bostra 169 see also Northumbria Bourges 110–11 British language 239 Braga 99 bubonic plague 155, 161, 180–3, 394 Braudel, Fernand 11 Buddha 82 Breviarium Alaricianum 136 Buddhism 32, 285 Brigit, Saint 330, 331 Bulayiq 284–5 Brioude 162 Bulgars 394 Britain Burdona see Jacob Baradaeus Angli 214–15, 352, 475 Burgundians 102, 104, 228 Anglo-Saxons 378 Burgundofara 251, 254 Augustinian mission 5, 215, 219, burial hoards 126–7, 321, 324 340, 341, 344–7 burial practices burial hoards 126–7 burial beside saints and shrines 263 Celtic hill-shrines 127 Byzantine Church 386–7, 404 Christian language 346 Christian 67, 262–5 Christianity 7, 8, 76, 127–8, 129, Frankish 418 242, 341, 342, 344–64, 373–8 Gallic 133, 134

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grave inscriptions 264, 282 Carthage 62, 85, 105, 179, 296 ship burials 321, 324, 343, 347 fall 10, 296 theology of images 395–9 Cassian see John Cassian see also Orthodox Church Cassiodorus 27–8, 196–8, 199, 234, Byzantine empire 3, 177, 379, 386 240, 274, 358 centralized 443 Institutes of Christian Culture 196 Iconoclast Controversy 27, 387–406, Variae 196 408, 457 Catholic Church 4, 91, 92, 106, 129, “orthodox” belief systems 387 130, 488 pressure of Muslim invasions 394, Celestial Hierarchies 395 (Pseudo-Dionysius) 398 simplified society 386 Celestine, Pope 114 see also east Roman empire celibacy clerical 81 Caecilius (Berber ruler) 138 see also virgins Caedmon 376, 377 Celsus 160–1 Caesarius, bishop of Arles 108, 112, Celtic language 233 116, 151–4, 227–8, 426, 427, 451 British 239 and paganism 151–3 Old Irish 239 problem of the mundus 152–3 “Celtic Mediterranean” 16, 51, 130, sermons 151, 445 132 weekday naming 152–3 cemeteries 25, 33, 262, 263 calendar Ceolfrith, abbot of Wearmouth 357, A.D. dating system 23, 416 358 regnal years 416 ceramics 180–1 Roman “provincial era” 416 Chad, bishop 370 canon law 370 Chalcedon 120 Canterbury 215, 345, 369, 370 Chalcedonians 166, 187–8, 189, 308, Capitulary on the Region of Saxony 309, 310 (Charlemagne) 432 bishops 185 Caratene, queen of the charismatic preachers 81 Burgundians 228–9 Charlemagne, emperor 5, 6, 42, 378, Caroline minuscule 444, 445 405, 406, 428, 431–2, 433, Carolingian empire 378, 406, 431, 434–7, 440–1, 442, 461, 478 437–40 Admonitio Generalis 441, 449–50 Carolingian myth 438 on baptism 453–4 court 435, 437, 443, 444 Capitulary on the Region of instruction and control system 451 Saxony 432 intense religious curiosity 450 concept of loyalty 437, 451 program of correctio 439, 440, conquest of the Lombards 431, 436 442–3, 447, 454 coronation 435 technocrats 455 death 436 “Carolingian Renaissance” 23, 31, 220, invasion of Saxony 432 438, 440 Life (Einhard) 435–6

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Charlemagne, emperor (cont’d) Latin 83 new imperial order 434–5, 437 localization and diversity 14–16, 17 program of correctio 440–1 as a minority religion 132 Charles Martel (the Hammer) 319, oral 420, 449, 450 378, 408, 410, 420, 428 Primitive Church 18 Childeric, king of the Franks 134, 324 public welfare system 69–70, 78, 158 Chinese empire 272 Roman empire 54–92 Chlothar III, king of the Franks 255 rural 81, 146–7 Chlothar, king of Neustria 229–30 salvation 65 Chlothild, queen 136 in Scandinavia 7, 468–9, 470–85 “Christian Law” 441–2, 444, 446, 448, spread 7–8, 61–4, 470 451, 455, 456, 461, 480 Syria 3, 82, 172–3, 174, 183, 186, Christian Topography (Cosmas) 271 310–11 Christian visual imagination 399–400 “top-down” view of establishment of Christianity Christian Church 375 applied 25–9 universal religion 14, 15, 40–1, 62, aristocratic preoccupation 33 91, 169, 414 in Asia 40, 41, 267–94 “vernacular” 449, 450 in Britain 7, 8, 76, 127–8, 129, 242, Western 265 341, 342, 344–64, 373–8 Christogram 84 Christendom 487–9 Christological controversy 116–22, Dark Age 17–20 291 democracy 65 Chronicle of Zuqnîn 314, 315 early Church 62–71, 439 chronicle tradition 312–13 early medieval 17–20, 29–30, 52 Church councils East Roman empire 3, 168, 265, Agde (506) 136 267–94, 365 Chalcedon (451) (Great Egypt 81, 82, 111, 118, 172, 174, Prevarication) 116, 120, 183, 241, 242, 250 121, 166, 169, 177, 183–4, emphasis on Christ-like nature of 279, 310 common man 188 Ephesus (431) 116, 119, 120, 149 “folk Christianity” 125, 342, 412, Frankfurt (794) 406 413, 420–1, 455 Hiereia (754) 392 “frontier Christianity” 421 Nicaea (325) 61, 79 in Gaul 99–101, 106–7, 146–7, Nicaea (787) 393, 396, 405, 406, 151–65, 252–5 457 Germany 413, 420–1, 482 Toledo (589–694) 366 Golden Age 17 Tours (813) 450 grassroots movement 79 Whitby (664) 361 Great Persecution 62 “Church of Satan” 170, 187 Greek 2, 25, 26, 149, 183, 387 Church of the Ascension, interconnectivity 14, 16 Jerusalem 318–19 in Ireland 132–3, 326, 330–5, 344 Church of the Holy Sepulcher, late antique 24–5, 29 Jerusalem 77–8

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churches 77–8 Clovis, king of the Franks 6–7, 133, building complexes 78 134–8, 156, 347 church building 79, 108, 168 baptism 137 destruction 63 Gregory’s account 139 disendowment of rival churches 91 Lex Salica 135 iconography of Latin churches 461 Cluain Melsige (Clonmelsh) 415 on pagan sites 146, 149 Codex Amiatinus 357, 372 visual magnificence 77–8, 157–8, Codex Grandior 357–8 388, 400, 401 Codex Justinianus 178 see also basilicas codices 23, 62–3, 82–3, 111 Church–State conflict 80 see also books cingulum militiae 101 Cogitosus, Life (of Saint Brigit) 331–2 Cirta 70 Coifi (pagan high priest) 348–9 cities coinage 130, 464 councils 55, 78 Arabic 302 decay of post-Roman cities 21, 22 Axum 139 East Roman empire 273 Merovingian 416 fortified 106–7 Roman 464 and imperial centralization 57 solidi 180 inner cities 158 colloquia 203 Islamic garrison cities 305 Cologne 50, 55 local gods 58 Colum see Columbanus local militia power bases 104 Columba (of Iona), Saint 327–9, 334, pagan monuments 170 361 populations 54–5 at Iona 327–9 repeated sackings 99 Life of Columba 330 Roman cities 21, 49, 54–5 Columbanus, Saint 5, 165, 219, 220, trade associations and cultic 246–50, 257, 327 brotherhoods 64 asceticism 252 urban aristocracies 54, 80 in the Frankish world 248, 252–5 City of God (Saint Augustine) 91–2 and Gregory the Great 248, 249 civil wars 86, 97 Letters 249 Britain 126 Life of Columbanus (Jonas) 251, Germany 452 252, 258 Islamic empire 299, 300 Monastic Instructions 249 Spain 193 column saints 173, 174, 310–11 Clement (heretic) 421, 422 Comgall, abbot 246, 247 Clermont 107, 108, 113 commerce 12, 22 climate 18 and Christianity 11, 146–7, 284 clothing decline of western Mediterranean “barbarian” 6, 100, 103 commerce trading networks 364 Irish clergy 132 Frisian 416–17 monks 223, 225–6 Companions of Muhammad 292–4 and status 223 Compludo 210

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concubinage 305 powerhouses of atonement 252 confession 24, 243, 244, 251, 257, powerhouses of prayer 226, 231, 333, 422 425 auricular 24 of Radegund of Poitiers 229–30 Confession (Saint Patrick) 132, 331 “rules” 227–8, 229 Confessions (Saint Augustine) 28, Spain 221 87–8, 204 Tauberbischofsheim 425 Consolation of Philosophy wealth 254–5 (Boethius) 195 conversion 67–8, 225 Constantine, emperor 67, 74, 77–8, forced 306 80, 86 narratives 6, 86–7, 88 benefactions to the Church 77–8 personal transformation through 68 conversion 60–1, 73 Coptic language 172 death 61 Corbie monastery 255 rise to power 3 Cornwall 130 sense of imperial mission 89 Coroticus (British warlord) 131–2, suppression of paganism 74 332, 334 Constantine IV, emperor 319 correctio 439, 440, 442–3, 447, 454 Constantine V, emperor 390, 392–3, Cosmas Indicopleustes (the 397 India-Sailor) 271 Constantine VI, emperor 393 Christian Topography 271 Constantinople 2, 21, 50, 57, 85, 177, cosmological works 365 201–2, 267, 297, 317, 318, 386, Council of (451) 116, 120, 121, 166, 392, 404 169, 177, 183–4, 279, 310 Blue and Green factions 178, 187 countryside, Christianization of 81, church of Saint Irene 393 146–7 fall (1453) 318 crafts Haghia Sophia 178–9, 378, 387, ceramics 180–1 395, 400, 403, 404 frescoes 204–5 Hippodrome 171–2, 178, 387 jewelry 45, 101, 372, 459 library 387 metalworking 47 “New Rome” 57, 97, 115, 201 silverware 84, 172 Nika riot (532) 178 “the Creeper” (Christian wrestler) 64 plague (543) 181 Cross 302 population 57, 115, 386 relics of 153, 230, 284, 285, 319, rise 21, 115–16 377, 391, 392, 393, 395 Constantius II, emperor 74, 79, 324 sign of 72 convents victorious power 72 of Caesaria (Arles) 227–8 victory-bringing sign 378, 392 child novices 224 Ctesiphon 40 family foundations 373 Cúl Drebene, battle of (561) 327 Faremoutiers 252, 254–5, 258 culture Frankish 254–5 Arab 316 Gallic 221 creativity and retrenchment 236

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ecclesiastical 237 Defense of Holy Images (John of Latin Christian 239–41 Damascus) 398 Latin secular 237, 238–9 Demetrius, Saint 389 narrowing down 235–6 demonic world 65–6, 73, 147, 455–6, secular culture in “barbarian” 476, 483–4 West 237–9 Christian attitudes to 65–6 “culture of wisdom” 203–5, 236–7, exorcism 66, 72–3, 83 241–2, 261 Denmark 325, 464–6, 471, 472 Cummian (Cumméne the Tall) 361–2 “depaganization” of Christians 423 Cunorix MacCullen 126 Dermot mac Cerball 327 curse-tablets 76 desert 173–4, 175 Cuthbert, Saint 355, 422 Desert Christians/Fathers 24, 81, 203, Cyprian, bishop of Carthage 62, 138 256 Cyril, patriarch of Alexandria 116, see also hermits 118, 183 Dhû Nuwâs 288 Dhuoda 448 daemones 65–6, 76–7 Dialogues (Gregory the Great) 213–14, see also demonic world 258, 259, 264 Dalriada Irish 130 Digest (Tribonian) 178 Damascus 307, 308 Diocletian, emperor 56–7, 58, 60, 62–3 Great Mosque 302–3, 401 Dionysius the Areopagite see dancers 170–1 Pseudo-Dionysius Daniel 67 Dioscorus, patriarch of Alexandria 116, Daniel, bishop of Winchester 419, 118 423–4 divide and rule policy 102–3, 432 Danube valley 47, 123, 124–5, 182, 183 divination 410, 473 Dark Ages 6, 9, 17, 22 doctrinal unity 169, 170 Christianity 17–20 failure to impose 170, 176 visual and artistic achievements 30, Dokkum 424 31 Dome of the Rock, Jerusalem 303, 309 Dastkart 284 Dorestad (Duurstede) 417, 464–6 dating systems Drachensberg 485 A.D. 23, 416 Dream of the Rood 377–8 Muslim system 416 druids 336 Roman “provincial era” 416 Drythelm 375–6 Dawson, Christopher 11, 14–15 Dublin Bay 474 days of the week 152–3 Dubtach maccu Lugair 336 deacons 64 Dura Europos 63 death and the afterlife Christianization of death 262–5 Eanbald 347 preoccupation with 257–62 Eanfled, queen 359 triumph over death 67 East Roman empire 2, 97, 115, 165, Voyage of the Soul 259–60 378 see also Heaven; Hell annual budget 177

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East Roman empire (cont’d) monasteries/monasticism 81, 82, Christianity 3, 168, 265, 267–94, 111, 174, 241, 242, 250 365 Monophysite province 183 cities 273 monotheism 118 collapse 297, 308 remnants of paganism 148 crisis of identity 379 Einhard 435–6, 448 desert/world divide 173 Life of Charlemagne 435–6 destabilization of barbarian the elect 89–90 kingdoms 193 Eligius, Saint 158 diminished state 383 Elipandus, archbishop of Toledo government 57 406 Islamic attacks 296–7, 298, 378, Elishe Vardapet 9, 278 383, 385–6 Ella Atsbeha 139, 288 Monophysites 274 Eloi see Eligius, Saint remnants of paganism 149–50 Elvira 64 territorial area 168, 181 Emmanuel 118 war with Persian empire 272–3, “End of Ancient Christianity” 221 285–6, 287 end of the world 93 Easter see also Last Days/Last Judgment date calculations 61, 248–9, 360, Ephesus 58, 149 361–2, 365 council of (431) 116, 119, 120, etymology 346 149 “Roman” Easter 363, 371 Epic Histories (P’awst’os Buzand) 9 Ecclesiastical Hierarchies epic poetry 478, 479 (Pseudo-Dionysius) 398 Frankish epics 478 Ecclesiastical History of the English Epifanij the Wise 404 Nation (Bede) 9, 351–3, Epiphanius, Apa 175–6 416, 419 Epiphanius, bishop 113, 204 Echternach 417–18 Ercantrudis (nun) 251, 252 eclipses of the moon 153 Escomb 373 Edda 475 Ethelbert, king of Kent 215, 344–6 Edessa 14, 37, 40, 171, 280, 313, 371 Laws 346–7 education Ethelburga (daughter of Ethelbert) 139, classical education 197, 234–7 348, 349–50 private education 235 Ethiopia 138 uniformity 234 Etymologies (Isidore of Seville) 365, Edwin, king of Northumbria 348, 368, 466 349–50 Eucharist 166, 187, 264, 458 Egfrith, king of Northumbria 350, Eugippius 125 351 The Life of Severinus 125, 357 Egypt 55, 81, 82, 172 Euphemia (Monophysite) 188 Christianity 81, 82, 111, 118, 172, Eusebius, bishop of Caesarea 117–18 174, 183, 241, 242, 250 Eutychius, patriarch of government 55 Constantinople 202

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Evagrius of Pontos landowning system 411 Antirrheticus 285 military ethos 155–6 execution, public 66 mixed aristocracy 234 exiles 247, 334 monasticism 253–5 “exiles of God” 415, 421 warfare 410 religious exiles 415 Frankfurt, council of (794) 406 exorcism 66, 72–3, 83 free will 88, 89 Freising 413 fairy kingdom 421, 484 French language 447, 451 Faremoutiers monastery 252, 254–5, frescoes 204–5, 470–1 258 Friderichus (of the Rugians) 125 farming 43, 46, 47, 48, 50, 147 Friesland 417 fasting 471 Frisia 47, 412, 414, 415, 416–17, 427 Fathers of the Church 17, 19, 24, 26 “frontier” Christianity 421 feasting 48 Fulda 420, 424, 442, 480 Feddersen Wierde 47 Fursa, abbot 259, 350, 375 feis Temro 327 Felix III, Pope 199 Gafsa 232 Fénelon, François, bishop of Galen of Ephesus 48 Cambrai 159 Garonne valley 102, 103 Feofan (Theophanes) the Greek 404 Gaul 7, 97, 133–8 Ferghil, abbot of Aghaboe see Vergil, aristocratization of the bishop of Salzburg Church 110–11 Fergus mac Roich 484 barbarian raids 86 Fertile Crescent 37, 276, 285, 299, 300 basilicas 108 Finns 466 bishops 110–11, 112, 113, 114, 116, Firmus (of Carthage) 92 157–8 flint-stones 487 burial practices 134 Florentius, abbot 214 Christianity 99–101, 106–7, 146–7, “folk Christianity” 125, 342, 412, 413, 151–65, 252–5 420–1, 455 convents 221 Fossa Carolina 434 erosion of Latin culture 233 Francia/Franks 6, 7, 51, 104, 133–8, holy springs 148 194, 234, 252–5, 378, 405, Merovingian 12, 13, 158, 162, 163 408, 410 monasteries 221 aristocracy 31, 253, 354, 378, 410, new aristocracy 157 411, 412, 442, 447, 448 potentes 157, 160 bishops 414, 423–4 religious experimentation 161 chieftainship 135 stability 156 clergy 442 veneration of the martyrs 109 formation of the Frankish warfare 107 kingdom 411 see also Francia/Franks gift-giving relationship 253–4 Gaza 66 international elite 411 Geismar, sacred oak at 41, 421

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General Warning see Admonitio Giso, Queen of the Rugians 124–5 Generalis (Charlemagne) Glorious Raven see Bertram, bishop Genovefa, Saint 109 of Le Mans gentes 104–5 Goar, king of the Alans 113 Gerald of Wales 373 God German language 451 Allah 290 Germanus, bishop of Auxerre 112–13 grace of 88–91, 173, 187 Life of Germanus 113 see also Jesus Christ Germany 451, 482 godparents 453, 454 “Apostle of Germany” (Saint gods 58–60, 65–6 Boniface) 418–19 classical mythology 476 armies 47 and genealogies 475 Carolingian “discovery” of 479–80 local gods 58 Carolingian instruction and lower gods 59, 65–6, 76–7 control 451 power of 481 Carolingian invasion of Saxony 432 sacrifice to 482 cattle-tributes 47 Scandinavian 476, 481 Christianity 413, 420–1, 482 source of energy 481 “Conversion of Germany” 412 source of high skills 476 Frankish landowning system 411–12 see also God local chieftains, power of 413 Gogo (referendarius) 237 monasteries 442 Goodmanham 348–9 Old Saxons 413–14 Gospel Harmony 452 paganism 413, 420 Gospel of Saint Luke 399 peripheral Roman economy 46–7 Gothic age 17 program of correctio 442–3 Goths 47–8, 104, 194 recuperation of the past 479–80 see also Visigoths tribal warfare 47 Gottschalk (theologian) 410–11 warrior society 413 grace of God 88–91, 173, 187 Germia 181 Grand Narrative of European Gertrude, abbess of Nivelles 266, 408 history 4–5 Ghaerbald, bishop of Liège 452, 453, Great Liturgy 166, 167 454 Great Mosque, Damascus 302–3, Gibbon, Edward 6 401–2 Gibuldus, king of the Alemanni 124 Great Persecution (303–14) 62–3, 66, gift-giving relationship 31, 32–3, 129 73, 74 Britain 31, 129, 344, 347, 350–1 Great Prevarication (Council of churches and monasteries 32–3 Chalcedon) 116, 120, 121, Franks 253–4 166, 169, 177, 183–4, 279, Ireland 31, 133, 326, 332–3 310 popes and emperors 31 Greek Christianity 3, 25, 26, 149, reciprocity 333 183, 387 Gildas 128, 140–1, 241, 242, 351 Greek Fathers 183 On the Ruin of Britain 140 “Greek fire” 318, 392

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Greek scholarship 3, 311, 317, 368–9, hack silver 134–5, 353 395 Hadiths 297 Greenland 468, 470, 482 Hadrian, pope 405 Gregorius, Georgius Florentius see Hadrian’s Wall 129, 363 Gregory, bishop of Tours Hagia Sophia basilica 178–9, 378, 386, Gregory, bishop of Tours 7, 64, 106, 395, 400, 403, 404 108, 139–40, 155–65, 174, 187, hagiography 187 208, 260, 376 hair shirts 228–9 Book of History 140, 160, 161, 163 hairstyles books of Wonders 161 declaration of identity 223, 361 Gregory I, pope (Gregory the Great) 5, see also tonsure 28, 120, 165, 198–215, 219, Harald Bluetooth of Denmark 472 224, 234–5, 346, 351, 357 Harald Klak, king of Denmark 470–1 and biblical allegory 370 Harran 37 “care of souls” 28, 203–4, 205, Harun al-Rashid 314, 316 208–9, 246, 346 healing 159, 163, 181 and Columbanus 248, 249 Heaven 258, 375 at Constantinople 201–2 Heavenfield, battle of (635) 352 correspondence 212–13 Hedeby 464 “culture of wisdom” 203–5, 236 Helena (mother of Constantine) 230 death 205, 215 Heliand, The Savior 452 Dialogues 213–14, 258, 259, 264 Hell 258, 260–1, 375, 422 on exercise of spiritual “Hellenes” 149 power 207–12 Hellenism, eastern 310 Homilies on the Gospels 214, 258, Hemmaberg 125 260 Hengist and Horsa 127 Life 215, 377 Heraclius, emperor 285–6, 293–4, 306 mission to Britain 5, 345, 346 heretics 91, 176, 184 monk 200–1, 209–10 hermits 81, 123 Moralia in Job 205, 207, 236 Hesse 420 papal office 205–7 Hesychius, bishop of Salona 93, 97 praedicator 213 Hexham abbey 363 Prefect of Rome 200–1 Hezekiah of Israel 393 Regestum 212 hijra 293, 305, 416 Regula Pastoralis 207–12, 236–7, Hilary, bishop of Arles 112, 113 248 Hild, abbess 215, 376–7 on sin and penance 256–7, 258, 261 Hippo 78, 87, 91 on “worldly wisdom” 236 Hira 288 Gregory Nazianzen 208, 311 Hisham Palace 300 Grigor (“Gregory the Histories (Ammianus Marcellinus) Illuminator”) 277 480 Groningen 417 Histories (Monophysite) 312, 313 Gudme 324 History against the Pagans Guntram Boso 160 (Orosius) 74–5

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Hlodovech see Clovis, king of the Franks Iconoclast Controversy 3, 27, 387–406, Holland 5 408 Holy Commonwealth 194, 211 First Iconoclasm 391–3 Holy Island see Lindisfarne Iconoclasts 389, 390, 391, 457 holy men and women 173, 174, 175, Iconophiles/Iconodules 387–8, 389, 200, 203, 388, 422, 455 392, 393, 395, 396–7, 402, 403 ascetics 173, 174, 175 Second Iconoclasm 393–5 icons 388 theology of images 395–9 Monophysites 185 icons 25, 26, 387–8, 389, 457, 458, spiritual guides 176, 200, 203 461 see also saints “clericalized” devotion 402 holy pictures see icons enkolpia 403 Holy Spirit 173–4 link to Christ and the Apostles 399 holy war (jihâd) 292 miraculous 388, 402, 403 homilies 450–1 protective function 389, 401–2, Homilies on the Gospels 403 (Gregory) 214, 258, 260 sense of privacy 403 honor 245–6, 253, 361 veneration 388, 399, 403 clerical 346–7 Iliad (Homer) 311 codes 156 Illerup 47 compensation for damaged images honor 245–6 cult of 405–6, 456–7 Honoratus, Saint 112 talismans 402 horse-archers 179 theology of 395–9 horses see also icons horse-sacrifice 134 imaginative landscape 486 horseflesh, eating 370, 473 incest 421 stirrups 45 Index of Superstitions and Pagan in warfare 44–5, 410 Practices 426 Hoxne hoard 126 infanticide 473 Hsian-fu 271, 272, 285, 314 Ingelheim 470 Hunayn ibn Ishaq 317 Institutes of Christian Culture Huneberc (Anglo-Saxon nun) 427–8 (Cassiodorus) 196 Huns 44–5, 48, 107, 119, 124, 480 Institutions of the Monastic Life hunting 45, 103 (Cassian) 111 Hydatius, bishop of Chaves 98–9 Iona 30, 320, 327–9, 330, 341, 349, Chronicle 99 350, 353, 361, 362, 371, 372, hymns 187, 188, 281 469 Iraq 313 Ibas of Edessa 184 Ireland 6, 130–3, 325–39 Iceland 468, 481 áes dana 372 conversion of 472–4 anmcharae (“soul friend”) 333–4 literature 474–5 base clients 325–6, 332 Sagas 479, 481 brithemain 335–6

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British Christian slaves 130 taboos, codification of 20 cattle raids 47 túath 132, 325–6, 330 Celtic 325–6 warrior elite 335 centers of learning 22 Isidore, bishop of Seville 365, 367 Christian communities 332–5 Etymologies 365, 368, 466 Christianity 132, 326, 330–5, 344 Isidore of Pelusium 72 clergy 331, 332, 333 Islam 3, 9, 219, 291–2, 294, 305 “conversion” of 326, 335 Christian attitudes to 307–9, 317–18 cultural riches 240 Christians under 295–320 Dalriada Irish 130 conversions 304, 315 druids 336 criticism of contemporary Christian First Synod of Saint Patrick 132 practice 390 gift-giving relationship 31, 133, 326, and the debate on images 390 332–3 Eastern Church under 3, 313–14 hagiography 331–2 emergence 3, 289–94 introduction of literacy 335–6, 337 Islamization of Near East 314–17 Irish literature 337, 338 Jews under 3, 309 kings/kingdoms 342, 343 Muslim art and architecture 390 laech 335 Islamic empire 383 Latin Christian culture 239–41, Arab conquests 296–8, 299 335–6 attacks on East Roman empire law of damages 245 296–7, 298, 378, 383, 385–6 laws 335, 336, 337–9, 476 civil wars 299, 300 legal texts 337–9 creation of Arabic historical Lughnasa festival 133 tradition 301 manaig 333–4 feuds 298 Mass priests 265 garrison cities 305 “micro-Christendoms” 15 public face 301–4 monasteries/monasticism 128, 330, Italy 332–3 economic depression 156 ogham script 50, 130, 336 Frankish invasion 431 Old Irish 50, 130, 239, 277, 337, “geographical expression” 192 374 Lombard invasion 182, 184, 192, paganism 335 430–1 Palladius’ mission 130 new “Roman” empire 94, 195 penitential practices 333–4 reconquest by Justinian 179 poetry 331, 335–6, 476 pre-Christian Ireland 338 Jacob Baradaeus, bishop of Edessa 186 sapientes 20 Jacobites see Monophysites Síde (“the Other Side”) 421, 455, Jafnid family 287 484–5 Jarrow 52, 351, 356, 374 sixth-century 325–6 Jebel Sem’an 173 slaves 326 Jelling 472 stratified society 325–6 Jerash 307

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Jericho 299 John of Tella 311 Jerome, Saint 99, 199, 236, 246–7, John the Persian 212 248 Jonas (biographer of Columbanus) 251, Jerusalem 252, 258 Church of the Ascension 318–19 Jordan 273, 390 Church of the Holy Sepulcher 77–8 Judaism 70, 289, 290 Dome of the Rock 303, 309 almsgiving 69 fall (618) 284 Julian, archbishop of Toledo 26 Heavenly Jerusalem 92 Julian, Saint 163 Temple 393 Julian the Apostate, emperor 86, 170 Jesus Christ Julius Africanus 64 Christological Controversy 116–22, Justin, emperor 177 291 Justinian, emperor 3, 122, 155, 165, Crucifixion 72, 119, 369, 377 170, 176–80, 190, 193, 249, divine and human nature 116–22, 305–6, 400 188, 369 Codex Justinianus 178 icons 388 condemnation of Three Incarnation 117, 118, 119 Chapters 184, 249 Islamic attitudes to 307 death 181 “Monothelite” controversy 369, 378 invasion of southern Spain 366 jewelry 101, 459 orthodoxy 193 barbarian 45 Procopius’ account 180 Irish 372 quest for religious unity 183–5 Jews reconquest of Italy and Africa 179 enforced baptism 305, 366 suppression of paganism 178 under Islamic empire 3, 306 Jutland 50 and the Messiah 295 and the worship of images 390 Ka’ba, Mecca 291, 293 jihâd 292 Kalends of January (Roman jizya tax 306 festival) 85–6, 152, 154, 423 Joazeira 14 Karabalghasun 41 John bar Penkâye 299 Katholikoi (of Armenia) 111, 277, John, bishop of Ephesus 186, 188 288 Lives of the Eastern Saints 186 Kebra Nagast 140 John Cassian 111, 203, 242 Kerala 271 Conferences 111 Kerkuk 284, 285 Institutions of the Monastic Life Khan Krum 394 111 Khirbet al-Mafjar 300 John Lydus 177 Khusro I Anoshirwan, king of John Moschus 188, 212 Persia 182, 283, 287 John of Damascus (John Khusro II Aparwez, king of Persia Damascene) 307–8, 397–8, 283–4, 285 399–400, 401, 404, 457, 461 Kiev 404, 467 Defense of Holy Images 398 conversion 468, 470

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Kildare monastery 330, 372 law kingship canon 370 genealogy 475–6 “Christian Law” 441–2, 444, 446, identification with civilization 448, 451, 455, 456, 461, 480 413–14 Irish 335, 336 sacral 343 “law of the face” 245, 246 see also gift-giving relationship Mongol 313 Kirgizstan 267 natural 336 K’nnikon (Ananaias of Shirak) Roman 97, 178, 183, 238 365 Scriptural 336 kontakion 187 Visigothic codes 237–8 Kufa 305 Law of Innocents 329 Laws (Ethelbert, king of Kent) 346–7 laech 335 Lazar of Pharp (or P’arp) 9, 278 laity 14, 173, 335 Le Mans 158 Ireland 332–3 Leander, bishop of Seville 205, 365 monastic endowments 224, 254, Leeuwarden 50 357, 373 Leo I, pope (Leo the Great) 113, 115, pursuit of piety 199, 200 116, 130–1, 146 languages and the Christological linguistic boundaries of Europe controversy 117, 120–1 447 Tome 120–1, 184 liturgical 172 Leo III, emperor 318, 390, 392 “profane” languages 461 Leo III, pope 435 see also the names of individual Leo V, emperor 394–5 languages Leoba (Anglo-Saxon nun) 425 laos 14 Leontius of Neapolis 188 Lapps 466 Lérins 112 Last Days/Last Judgment 203, 235, Letter from Heaven 422, 450 237, 292, 304 Letter to Coroticus (Saint Patrick) 132, Latin culture 198, 233 331 Christian 239–41, 335–6, 439 Leubella (prophetess) 161 erosion 233, 235 Lex Salica 135 oral transmission 197 libraries 195, 357 Latin language 116, 177, 232–3, 237, assembling 357 446–7, 461 Constantinople 386 consolidation 232 monastic 52 “correct” Latin 449 Rome 64, 195, 199 fixed pronunciation 447 Vivarium 196–7 legal 116, 177, 238 Wearmouth 356 loan words 50 Libri Carolini 457 Roman 430 Liège 452 “rustic” 160, 233, 238–9, 448 Life of Anskar (Rimbert) 471–2 sub-Latin 447 Life of Anthony (Athanasius) 83

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Life of Charlemagne (Einhard) 435–6 Lupercalia ceremony 145 Life of Mani 82 Luxeuil monastery 248, 250, 253, Life of Martin (Severus) 83 254 Life of Severinus (Eugippius) 125 Lyons 100, 108, 455 limes 156, 411, 412, 414, 431 Lindisfarne (Holy Island) 328, 353, Maccabees 278, 279 357, 360, 369, 372, 469 Madaura 233 literacy 22, 446 Magi 271–2 active 447 magic 48, 75, 482–3 grammar 418 Mainz 411, 417 historical narratives 8–9 Maiouma 166 introduction into Ireland 335–6, 337 Malaia Pereščepina 321 passive 448 Mamertus, bishop of Vienne 108 practical 22 manaig 333–4 literature Mani 81–2 Armenian 277 Manichaean psalm book 82 chronicle tradition 312–13 Manichaeism 42, 81–2, 284–5 Greek Church 26 Mansûr (of Damascus) 307–8 Irish 337, 338 Mansûr bar Sarjûn see John of Latin 479 Damascus Latin Christian 26, 198 Marburg 426 Patristic Age 23 Marcia (Christian concubine) 6–4 see also poetry Marcian, emperor 120–1 Lives of the Eastern Saints (John of Marcus Aurelius, Meditations 205 Ephesus) 186 marriage livestock 47 marital intercourse 208, 244, 334 Loire valley 102 polygamy 305, 339 Lombards 182, 192–3, 206, 429, 430, prohibited degrees of 421–2 431, 436 widows 422 invasion of Italy 182, 405, 430–1 Marseilles 111 London 50, 55 Martel, Charles see Charles Martel (the Lorch 123, 125 Hammer) Louis the Pious, emperor 440, 442, Martin I, pope 369 464, 470–1, 478 Martin of Tours, Saint 83, 109–10, loyalty 13, 361 125, 164, 261 and autonomy 15 Life of Martin (Severus) 83 Charlemagne and 437, 451 tomb 109–10, 125–6, 137–8, 154, local loyalties 98 159–60, 163, 261 oaths of 451 martyrdom 66–7, 89, 90 and pietas 87 festivals of martyrs 73, 89, 109, to the Roman state 101 346 soldier’s oath of 101 holy war martyrs 309 Lughnasa festival 133 sign of power of Christ 66–7 Luni 222 women 90

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Mass 264, 265, 458, 483 mission civilisatrice 427 priests 265 missionaries 4–5, 6, 324–5, 414, 427 see also Eucharist ascetic missionaries 81, 82 Maurice, emperor 224 exchange of “symbolic goods” 15–16 Maxentius 60 image of 6, 7 Maximus the Confessor 369 Manichaeans 42, 82 Mecca 289, 290, 291, 293 Monophysites 186–7 Medina 293 Nestorians 41 The Mediterranean and the Mohammed and Charlemagne Mediterranean World in the Age (Pirenne) 9–10 of Philip II (Braudel) 11 Moldavia 48 Mediterranean region monachos 81 intensification patterns 21–2 monasteries 209–10, 275 Pirenne unity thesis 9–13 amelioration of sinners 224, 225 megalithic culture 23–4 Arabian peninsula 287 Melania the Elder 83, 87, 285 association with shrines 23 Melkites see Chalcedonians competition 330 Melrose 355, 375 “desert” monasteries 174 Menas, Saint 125 double monasteries 376 Menelik (son of Solomon) 139 endowments 224, 253, 254, 357, menhirs 23 373 Merovingians 134, 155, 159, 229, 255, episcopal founders 221 411, 428 family foundations 373 Merv 275, 284 Frankish 253–5, 373, 410 Mesopotamia 3, 37, 81, 86, 272, 274, Gallic 221 275–6, 283, 286, 314 Germany 442 Mesrop Mashtots 277 gift-giving relationship 32, 332–3 metalworking 47 grants of immunity 254–5 Metz 411 Ireland 330 Michael, Archangel 181 Italy 210, 221–2 Michael II, emperor 395 landholdings 222 Michael the Syrian 313 Latin scholarship 52 “micro-Christendoms” 15, 364, 367, Mesopotamia 275 368, 378, 387, 406, 430 microcosms of local society 374, 477 Britain 15, 359, 376, 378 otherworldly self-image 374 Ireland 15 poverty 222 Spain 367, 406 powerhouses of atonement 252, 374 “middle ground” 52, 467 powerhouses of prayer 226, 255, Milan 78 264 milestones 302 retired warriors in 374 Milvian Bridge, battle of (312) 60, 84 sacred spaces 334 Mimar Sinan 179 symbiosis with laity 224 minuscule script 312 Syriac 173, 174, 310–11 miracles 161, 163, 214, 388 wealth 254–5, 332

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monasticism 81–4, 220–31 Monte Cassino monastery 201, 210, changing role 220–1, 226 221–2, 225 Egyptian 242, 250 Moorish kings 138 Frankish 253–5 Moralia in Job (Gregory) 205, 207, geographical shift 253 236 increasing prominence 220 moralitas 236 low-profile early monasticism 223 mosaics 162, 168, 180, 190, 193, 272, in Mediterranean western 300, 390, 400 Europe 221–4 Moses 459–60 monastic discipline 112 mosques 302–3 monastic “Rules” 210, 227–8, Mren 378 250 Mu’awiya, calif 299 oblation 223–4 Much Wenlock 374 stability and political success 231 Muhammad 219, 289–94, 300–1, 304, see also monasteries; monks 318, 376 Mongolia 284 Companions of 292–4 monks 81 death of 293, 295 and alms 222 hijra to Medina 293 child novices 223–4 Muirchú moccu Machtheni 331, dress 223, 225–6 352 education 374 Life (of Patricius) 332 exiles 247 mundus (natural world) 145, 146, 147, last great myth-makers 477 152, 153, 155, 162 self-mortification 225 musical notation 445–6 shared values with lay protectors Muslims see Islam 477 myth-making 8, 438, 477 tonsure 223, 224 Monkwearmouth see Wearmouth Najrân 288 Monophysites 119–20, 172, 176, 177, Narsai 281 183, 184, 185, 186–8, 189, 274, Nestorians 41, 279–80, 288, 365 278, 279, 280, 288, 308, 309, Nestorius, patriarch of 310, 368, 369 Constantinople 119–20, 280 Armenia 278 Neuillé-le-Lierre 164 East Roman empire 274, 279–80 Neustria 16, 253, 410, 430 Histories 312, 313 New Grange 23, 130 holy men 185 New Hellenism 310–13 missionaries 186–7 “New Rome” see Constantinople opposition to Council of Nicaea 61, 391 Chalcedon 183–4 council of (325) 61, 79 radical Christology 279 council of (787) (Iconophile region-wide networks 186–7 Council) 394, 397, 405, 406, theology 119–20 459 monotheism 76–7, 117, 118 Nicene Creed 80 “Monothelite” controversy 369, 378 Nicephorus, emperor 94

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Nicephorus, patriarch 397 ogham script 50, 130, 336 Antirrhetikos 397 Olaf Tryggvason, king of Norway 473, Nieul-les-Saintes 164 481–2 Nihâwand 296 Old Irish 50, 130, 239, 277, 337, 374 Nika riot, Constantinople (532) 178 Old Saxons 413–14, 419, 431, 432, Nisibis (Nusaybin) 267, 274, 281, 451 365 Old Testament nodfyr (“fire of need”) 426 appeal to Old Testament models nomads 43–6, 284, 286–7, 289, 301 279 Noricum 123–4, 125 justification of pre-Christian Normandy 464 practices 339, 422 North Africa Latin translations 140 ceramics 180–1 as model for Christian piety 18 Christian states 138–9 On Germany (Tacitus) 480 reconquest by Justinian 179 On the Ruin of Britain (Gildas) 140 Northmen 465, 466, 470 O’Neill dynasty (Ireland) 327, 342, conversion 468 361 expeditions 467, 468 oracles 73, 76, 77, 137 Viking raids 468–9 oral Christianity 420, 449, 450 see also Scandinavia oral culture 48, 477, 478 Northumbria 328, 349, 368 ordo see town councils Christianization 350–1, 356, 373 Origen of Alexandria 64 diversity of local ecclesiastical Orléans 107 cultures 371 Orosius “Golden Age of History against the Pagans 74 Northumbria” 350–1 Orthodox Church 387, 404 “micro-Christendoms” 359 Osrhoene 40 vernacular visionary culture 375, Ostbornholm 324 376 ostraka 175 Norway 464, 470, 472–3, 481 Ostrogoths 104, 105, 136–8, 179, 182, Novgorod 404 196 Nubia 187 Oswald of Northumbria 349–50, numerals 352–4, 378 Arabic 275 Oswy, king of Northumbria 350, Roman 275 360–1 nuns 90, 223, 226–8, 477 outlaws 334–5, 485 see also convents Oxyrhynchus 170

Oak of Thunor 41, 421 paganism 146, 148–9, 340–1 oblation 224 Germany 413, 420 Odin 482 Ireland 335 Odoacer 124, 194 northern 465, 474, 476 Offa, king of Mercia 479 suppression of 41, 73–5, 146 Offa’s Dyke 479 survivals 148–50, 151–2, 153–4

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Palestine 174, 272, 390 P’awstos Buzanderan (Faustus the monasticism 82, 174 Bard) 9, 277, 278 Palladius 130 Epic Histories 9 Panjikent 41, 284 peasantry Pannonia 84, 86 control of 102, 107 papacy 114 Dark Ages 31 appeals/petitions to 114, 212 farming economy 43, 46, 47–8 patronage and administration runaway serfs 107 network 212 seigneurial system 410 subject to East Roman Pehlevi language 281 empire 179–80 Pelagianism 130 see also entries for individual popes Pelagian Controversy 88–91, Paradise 127–8 artistic representation 401 Pelagius 89–91, 127–8 Christian 162, 163, 174, 260, 261, Pelusium 72, 181 303, 401 penance 242–6 desire for 202 Augustinian view 256 on earth 163, 164, 187 elective element 243, 257, 333 Muslim 303 Gregorian view 256–7, 261 visions of 162 group penance 108 Paris 50, 55, 109 Irish penitential practices 333 churches and shrines 158 medicamenta paenitentiae 252, 255, parishes 33 257 Parthian kingdom 54 perpetual penance 256 Pascha see Easter public penance 68, 80, 125, 256 Passover 346 restoring the honor of God 245, past and present, tension between 246 475 “tariffed penance” 243–4, 253, 257, pastoralists 43, 44, 47–8, 182 326, 370 Patricius see Patrick, Saint in the Western Church 255–7 Patrick, Saint 51, 131–3, 140, 266, Penitentials 19, 24, 243–4, 245, 246, 325, 334, 336, 352 334, 482 Confession 132, 331 peregrinatio 414–15 Letter to Coroticus 132, 331 perfection, attainment of 199 Life (Muirchú moccu Perpetuus, bishop of Tours 109 Machtheni) 332 Persia 181–2, 272–3 Patristic Age 23 Church in 279–82 Patroclus (hermit) 161 Sasanian dynasty 40, 54, 283 Paul, Saint 208 war with East Roman empire 272–3, Paulinus, archbishop of York 348, 285–6, 287 349–50 Zoroastrianism 271, 278, 283, 313 Paulinus, bishop of Nola 86–7, 235–6, Peter the Iberian, bishop of 415 Maiouma 166 Pavia 206 Peterborough 469

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philosophy 68, 70, 236 prophetesses 160, 161, 450, 482 Christian 68 Prosper of Aquitaine 89, 130 and morality 70–1 Provence 97, 151 Phrygia 383, 488 Psalms of David 41, 82 pietas 87 Pseudo-Dionysius 29, 398–9, 457 piety 199–200 Celestial Hierarchies 398 lay pursuit of 199, 200 Ecclesiastical Hierarchies 398 pilgrimage 125, 154, 319, 449 public building traditions 32, 55, 302 Pippin of Herstal 408, 415, 417, 420, purgatory 24, 258–9, 265, 375 428, 430–1 pirates Qâdisiyya 296 Greeks 193 Qenneshre 272 Saxons 102, 126 qeryana 282, 290 Pirenne, Henri 9–15 Questions and Answers 175, 308–9, Platonic mysticism 250 387 Po valley 182, 192 Qur’ân 290, 291, 292, 300, 302, 303, poetry 481 304, 337, 390, 449 Anglo-Saxon 373, 377–8 Quryash family 290 Arabic 308 Christian 330–1, 373, 377 Radbod (Frisian chieftain) 417 epic 478, 479 Radegund of Poitiers 228–31, 255 Irish 330–1 Ragnachar of Cambrai 135 Poitiers Ravenna 97, 136, 179, 192, 193, battle of (733) 319, 410 196, 430 Holy Cross convent 255 fall 405 polygamy 305, 339 Lombard occupation 430 polytheism 58–60, 65–6, 73–5, 77 San Vitale 193, 401, 405 coexistence with Christianity 76–7 Sant’Apollinare Nuovo 271 see also paganism ravens 148 Portugal 152 Reccared, king of the Visigoths 193–5, Potho, abbot of San Vincenzo 436 214 poverty, and Christian charity 69–70, rectores 236 78, 158 Redwald, king of East Anglia 347–8 power Regensburg 412 condescensio 208, 212 Regestum (Gregory) 212 spiritual 208, 209, 211 Regula Pastoralis (Gregory) 207–12, praedicatio 213, 214, 215 236–7, 248 prayer Reichenau monastery 442 communal 108 relics 162, 255, 429, 430, 458 frequency 458 Holy Cross 230, 284, 285, 319, spiritual guides 176, 226 377 predestination 89 religiones 58–60, 61, 63, 71, 74, 75 Procopius of Caesarea 180, 185 reliquaries 458 Secret History 185 Remigius, bishop of Rheims 134, 137

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repentance 68, 69 imperial court 57 and almsgiving 69, 71 indirect rule 55–6 see also atonement; penance provinces 57–8 Repton 479 religion 58–60 res sacratae 458 religiously neutral public Resafa 287–8 culture 85–6 Resh’aina 274 taxation 31, 55–6, 57–8 reverentia 154–5, 159 Tetrarchy 57 Rhine valley 49, 50 see also East Roman empire; Rhône valley 102, 228 Rome Rihab 273 Romance languages 232–3, 447 Rimbert, Life of Anskar 471 Romani 98, 103, 123–5 Ripon 363 Romanos Melodes 187 ritual 18 Rome Adoration of the Cross 377 archaic pagan ceremonies 145–6, agrarian rites 154 194 books of 427 bankruptcy 429 borrowing between pagans and basilicas 77, 114 Christians 153–4 bishops of 114–15, 116 consolidation 366–7 Christian 199 Great Liturgy 166, 167 Christian relics 429, 430 healing rituals 77 emptying and neglect of 21, 190, “high” liturgical language 449 198–9, 428–9 lay rituals 454 falls to Justinian 179 see also burial practices frontier city of East Roman empire 2 Rogation processions 108, 281 libraries 64, 195, 199 Roma Invicta 194 monuments 60 Romagna 179 new social order 195 Roman empire patrimony of Saint Peter 206 aristocratic collaboration with population 21, 50, 54, 114, 190, non-Roman warlords 98, 100–1 428–9 barbarian invasions 4, 44–6, 48–9, re-creation 429–30 86, 93, 438 Roman clergy 114, 206–7 centralization 57–8 sack of (410) 48, 86, 91 Christianity 54–92 Saint Peter’s 77 collapse of Western empire 21, 50–1, San Cosmà e Damiano 199 56–7, 97, 98, 150, 177 San Giovanni in Laterano 77 command economy 12–13 San Stefano Rotondo 199 “downsizing” 12, 20, 102, 128 Santa Constanza 29 economic collapse 12–13 Sant’Agnese 29 end of Roman peace 99 senatorial aristocracy 194–5 frontiers 50–1 Romulus and Remus 177, 194 “Golden Age” 56 Romulus Augustulus, emperor 97, 122, government 55–6 125, 194

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Rugi 124 Salona, bishop of 213 Rule (Saint Benedict) 210, 225, 441 salvation 65 Rûm 297, 317–18, 383 Salzburg 421 see also East Roman empire San Vincenzo monastery 436–7, 446, Rûmi 488 487 runes 49, 377, 467 San Vitale church, Ravenna 193, 401, rural Church 81, 146–7 405 Rus’ 467 sancta respublica 193 Russia 467 Saône valley 102 Russian Orthodoxy 404 sapientes 20, 24, 241–2, 246, 252, rustici 152, 159 329, 368 Ruthwell 377 sarcophagi 238 Sardis 63 “Sacramentary of King Pippin” Sarjûn (of Damascus) 307 430 Sasanian dynasty 40, 54, 283 sacraments 395, 398 Saxons 102, 126, 127, 320 sacred and profane in Britain 7, 8, 15, 126, 127, 301, bridged by gift-giving 32–3 341, 342–54 separation 460, 461–2 ideas of the sacred 348 sacred landscapes 148, 164, 426 pirates 102, 126 “sacred theater” 187 Saxony 412, 431, 451, 452 sacrifice 60, 64, 74, 85, 473, 482 “frontier” province 452 animal 60, 309 Sayings of the Fathers 188–9 horse 134 Scandinavia 466, 469–70 human 324, 417 Christ as Frankish god 466 Sa’d bar Abî Waqqâs 298 Christianity 7, 468–9, 470–85 saeculum 82 Northmen 464, 466, 467, 468–9, Sagas 474–5, 479, 481 470 Saint Germigny-des-Prés 458 paganism 465, 474, 476 Saint Sabas monastery 397 territorial reach 466 Saint Thomas’ Christians 271 see also the names of individual saints 109 countries column saints 173, 174, schismatics 91 310–11 Scotland 51, 130 continued presence of 163–4 scotti (sea-rovers) 130, 327 cult of 19 script deathbeds 258 ogham 50, 130, 335 desert saints 173, 174, 175 scriptoria 22 icons 388 scripts 23 intercessors 154–5 Caroline minuscule 444, 445 patron saints 109, 110 minuscule 312 veneration of 109, 154–6, 159 punctuation 445 see also hagiography runic 377 Salic Law 346–7 uncial 363

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Scriptures sin copying 372, 459 atonement 242–3, 258 divine law 62–3 calibration of 24, 242 exegesis 282 capital sins 256 manifestation of the will of God 459 confession 257 qeryana (“reading aloud”) 281–2, districtio 257, 258 290 inner cross-examination 256 textual community 14 new language of 68 see also Bible; Old Testament new view of 220 seasonal festivals 154 and repentance 68, 69 Sebbi, king of Essex 374 retribution for 160 Seine valley 21 unatoned sin 258 Semirechye 282 in the Western Church 255–7 Senchas Már 338–9, 422 Sinkepha 60 Seneca 205 Sinkiang 284 Serapeum of Alexandria 74 Sisetrudis (nun) 258 Sergius (Christian martyr) 287–8 Sklaviniai 182–3, 192 Severinus of Noricum 123–4, 125 slave trade 131, 214, 326, 416, 473 Life of Severinus (Eugippius) 125 British Christian slaves 130 Severus of Antioch 185 Christian slave-owners 64 Severus of Sebokht 275 slave-raiding 124, 325 Sevso 84 Slavs 182, 394, 404 sexual codes and practices 152, 334 Slovenia 125 sexual sins 243–4 Snorri Sturluson 475, 481 shamanism 466, 473 Sagas 481 Shapur II, king of Persia 61 Soghdians 284 Shenoute of Atripe 118, 148 Soissons 134 Shirin (wife of Khusro II) 283 Spain shrines 458 Arab conquest 296, 319, 367 Christian 29, 109–10, 125, 154, 158, civil wars 193 181, 331, 342, 458 competition with East Roman Islamic 291 empire 366 and monasteries 221 erosion of Latin culture 233 pagan 147, 148, 345 imperial garrisons 179, 366 Shubhhal-Isho’, Mar 41 Justinian’s invasion 366 Sicily 179, 192, 206, 208, 405 “micro-Christendom” 367, 406 Síde (“the Other Side”) 484–5 monasteries 221, 222 Sidonius Apollinaris, bishop of Visigothic 6, 193–4, 211, 214, 234, Clermont-Ferrand 100, 110–11, 319, 365–8 113 spells 482–3, 487 Siegfried 485 spiritual guidance 176, 203–4, 205, sign of the Cross 72, 153–4, 267, 391, 208–9, 242 392, 393, 395 Spoleto 192 Silk Route 272 St. Gall, monastery 442 silverware 84, 172 stelae 139

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Stellinga 452 taboos 19–20 Stephen II, pope 430, 431 codification of 20 Stephen the Younger, Saint 393 Tacitus, On Germany 480 Stoic sages 205 Taín (Tale of the Cattle Raid of Stonehenge 23 Cooley) 368, 484 Stories to Strengthen the Faith talismans 402 (Anastasius) 309 Tara Brooch 372 Streanaeshalch see Whitby Tarsus 368 Sturla (father of Snorri Sturluson) 481 Tauberbischofsheim 425 stylite hermits 173, 310–11 taxation 31, 55, 56, 301, 314 Subiaco 221 administration 55, 56, 57–8, 76 Sulpicius Severus 83, 87 clerical immunity 78 supernatural, attitudes towards 76–7, jizya tax 306 375, 421, 426, 455–6, 483–6 Roman empire 31, 55, 56, 57–8 see also demonic world tithes 33–4, 452–3 superstitio 150 Tembris valley 64 superstitious practices 426 temples, closing and destruction of 74, Susanna (Monophysite) 188 75–6, 91 Sutra of the Causes and Effects of temptation 203 Actions 285 Tetrarchy 57 Sutton Hoo 321, 324, 347–8 Thagaste 233 Sweden 464, 467 theaters 170 swords 466 Themes 386 “symbolic goods” 15–16, 22 Theodora (consort of Justinian/ “symbolic systems” 16 empress) 185, 193 Symeon (hermit) 185–6 Theodore, abbot of Studios 397 Symeon the Stylite, Saint 125, 173, 402 Theodore abu Qurrah 316 Symeon the Younger 174 Theodore of Mopsuestia 183–4, 280, Symmachus, prefect of Rome 59 365 synagogues 63, 80 Theodore of Tarsus 368–71 Syria 3, 22, 81, 82, 272, 273, 274–5 Theodoret, bishop of Cyrrhus 183–4 agrarian society 172–3 Theodoric, king of the Ostrogoths 103, biculturalism 311 136, 194 charismatic preachers 81 Theodosian Code 75, 97, 178 Christianity 3, 82, 172–3, 174, 183, Theodosiopolis 169 186, 310–11 Theodosius I, emperor 74, 80, 130, 256 holy men 173 Theodosius II, emperor 75, 97, 134, Justinian’s theological politics 183 149, 178 monasteries/monasticism 82, 173, Theodulph, bishop of Orléans 405–6, 174, 310–11 456–8, 460, 461 Monophysite clergy 186 Theophilus, emperor 395 weakening of imperial control 186 Theophilus of Edessa 311 Syriac language 40, 172, 274, 275, Theotokos 120 281–2, 312, 317 Thessalonica 389 Syriac literature 311 massacre at 80

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Theuderic II, king of the Franks 254 Uighur empire 42, 284 Thiota (prophetess) 450 Ukraine 48 Thorbjorg (prophetess) 482 Ultán (Irish monk) 372 Thorgeir of Ljosvatn 473 Ummayad Empire 298–301, 319 Thrace 119, 394 collapse 314–15 Three Chapters 184, 249 Undley, Suffolk 343 “thunderstones” 487 “unity” of Western Europe 9–12, 16 Thuringia 420 commercial unity notion 12, 13 Timothy I, Katholikos 314 and diversity 16 Tintagel 130 evaporation 12 tithes 34, 452–3 Pirenne thesis 10–13 Titus Praxias 488 “Roman” unity 10 Toledo 366 upper class Tome (Leo I) 120–1, 184 creation 84 tonsure 223, 224 ethnic specificity 104–5 Celtic 360 fragile monopoly of Christianity Roman 360 375 Touareg language 138 militarization 234 Toulouse 103–4 see also aristocracy Touraine 164 Urnfield Period 23–4 Tournai 134 Utrecht 417, 487 Tours 108, 109–10, 146, 159, 164–5 council of (813) 450 Valens, emperor 480 tomb of Saint Martin of Tours Vandals 97, 102, 104, 106, 136, 179 109–10, 125, 137–8, 154, Vardan Mamikonian 278 159–60, 163, 261 Venantius Fortunatus 156–7, 231, trade associations and cultic 237, 247 brotherhoods 64 Verden 432 translations Vergil, bishop of Salzburg 421 of the Bible 199 “vernacular” Christianity 449, 450 Greek texts 198, 311 vernacular visionary culture 375–6, Syriac 3, 275, 311, 317 377 Travancore 281 Vienne 104 Trdat III 277 Vigilius, Pope 184 trees Viking raids 468–9 Christian symbolism 164 villages 46, 274 sacred 41, 314, 413, 421 villas, Roman 147 Tribonian (lawyer) 178 Vinniau (Saint Findbarr) 240, 246–7 Trier 50, 79 violence 155–6, 163 “Triumph of Orthodoxy” (843) 396, buying off 245 398 regulation of 156 Trondheim 472 Virgin Mary túath 132, 325–6, 330 cult of 120 Tyché 172 icons 388, 389, 457

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virgins 90 Welsh language 240 high value placed on 226–7 Whitby 215, 361, 376 sanctity 227 council of (664) 361 see also nuns widows 422 Visigoths 49, 86, 99, 102, 103–4, 105, Widukind (Saxon noble) 432, 480 106, 136, 234 Wildeshausen 480 Arian Visigoths 136–8 Wilfrid, bishop of York 52, 359–64 Catholicism 193, 214 deposition 370 legislators 237–8 Willibald, bishop of Eichstätt 320, 428 sack of Rome 49, 86, 91 Willibrord 5, 416, 417–18, 427 in Spain 6, 193–4, 211, 214, 234, calendar 416 319, 365–8 “wisdom literature” 427 visionaries 450 Wittislingen 413 visual imagination, schooling 399, 403 Woden 475, 481 Vitalian, pope 369 women Vivarium 196–7, 222 abbesses 373, 477 Volturno 446 in the Christian Church 64 Volubilis 138 cultic sisterhoods 64 votive offerings 324 martyrdom 90 Vouillé, battle of (507) 137 and piety 200, 227, 228, 229, 231 Voyage of the Soul 259–60, 313 prophetesses 160, 161, 450, 482 reclusiveness 200 Walbert (of Wildeshausen) 480 virgins 90, 226–7 Walcaud, bishop of Liège 452 widows 422 Wales 129, 130, 240 see also nuns; Virgin Mary wandering preachers 161 Wonders, books of (Gregory) 161 warrior society “worldly wisdom” 234–6 Armenia 277–8 written vernacular 374–5 barbarians 48–9 Wroxeter 126 Britain 348, 353 Wynfrith see Boniface, Saint Germany 413 Ireland 335 Y Gododdin (Aneirin) 129 Water Newton church 79 Yazdin of Kerkuk 284 wealth Yazdkart II, king of Persia 278, 283 bishops 157–8 Yazid II, calif 302 convents and monasteries 254–5, Yeavering 349 332 Yemen 139, 276, 288, 290 mobilization of 71, 126, 157–8 York 345, 359 Roman aristocracy 71 Wearmouth (later Monkwearmouth) Zacharias II, pope 430 monastery 52, 351, 355, 356–7, 358, Zoroastrianism 271, 278, 283, 313 372, 374 Zuqnîn 314

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