UNIVERSITY OF JOS FINE AND APPLIED ARTS JOURNAL (UJFAAJ) MAIDEN EDITION University of Jos Fine and Applied Arts Journal (UJFAAJ) is a peer reviewed Journal. The journal helps to spread visual arts research findings and reports from the studio, theoretical and empirical works in the field in order to advance the knowledge base of practice led and practice based studies. The Journal is peer reviewed and published twice in a year and welcomes contributions from academics, art connoisseurs, critics and art Entrepreneurs.

UJFAAJ EDITORAL BOARD MEMBERS EDITOR – IN – CHIEF Dr. Yohanna C. Datiri Department of Fine and Applied Arts Faculty of Environmental Design University of Jos – Jos Plateau State. E-Mail: [email protected], [email protected] Phone: +234 (0) 8036206270

EDITOR Dr. Jacob E. Onoja Department of Fine and Applied Arts Faculty of Environmental Design University of Jos – Jos Plateau State. E-Mail: [email protected], [email protected] Phone: +234 (0) 8035984125

ASSOCIATE EDITORS Prof. Ema Ema Department of Fine and Applied Arts Faculty of Environmental Design University of Jos – Jos Plateau State.

Prof. Habila Joel Gukas Department of Fine and Applied Arts Faculty of Environmental Design University of Jos – Jos Plateau State. Email: [email protected]

Prof. Enoch G. Wuritka Department of Industrial Design

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Faculty of Environmental Technology Abubakar Tafawa Balewa University Bauchi (ATBU) E-Mail: [email protected], [email protected]

Prof. Abdullahi A. Umar Department of Industrial Design ATBU E-Mail: [email protected]

Prof. Philip O. Gushem Department of Fine Arts Faculty of Environmental Design Ahmadu Bello University Zaria – Kaduna State E- Mail: [email protected]

Prof. Jerry Buhari Department of Fine Arts Faculty of Environmental Design Ahmadu Bello University Zaria – Kaduna State

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EDITORIAL The idea of starting with the maiden issue of the University of Jos Fine and Applied Arts Journal (UJFAAJ) was borne out of the need to report current issues, researches and other visual arts ongoing engagements in the various research institutions across the globe. The call for paper was met with much enthusiasm from colleagues in the visual arts profession. The papers cover a wide range of subjects in arts history, art education, painting, sculpture, ceramics and graphics designs. The publication follows global best practices and advances reportage in the visual arts. Gushem and Nasidi give a historical perspective of African art and oral tradition. They are of the position that, the role of oral traditional is not only the reconstruction of the African art history, but in demystifying the western perception of the African artistic expressions. Commercial deposits of white earthy substances estimated to be in millions of tons, suspected to be refractory clay were identified in Rarin, in Sho village of Ropp district, south-west of Barkin Ladi of Plateau State. This is the position of Datiri in an empirical paper showing the suitability of Rarin-Sho clay for the production of refractory bricks for ceramic kiln construction. Tser, Ahuwan and Opoku in their paper draw attention to the development of glazes in Nigeria which has become a challenging issue to the ceramic industry and has resulted in the dependence on imported glazes, which is not easy for the ceramic industries and the ceramists. They draw attention to locally sourced materials to advance the ceramic industry. Trends in Contemporary Nigerian Pottery by Yakubu, Tser and Gushem contribute to expanding the modern definition of ceramics, especially in the aesthetic consideration of ceramic forms as devoid of utilitarian functions. Barwa and Datiri present Clay and It’s Many Uses and the role clay plays in the production of ceramics and other utilitarian objects. Dingba exployed the prospect of developing paintings from the anthill structure and carefully outlines the processes involved; while discussing the metaphorical idioms in the paintings. The contribution of Ajayi and Omokanye on using art as entrepreneurial tool thereby reducing unemployment and aiding the economic fortunes of Nigeria among the teeming youths is a welcome idea. Lamidi’s discussion on installation art in Nigeria traces the origin, current trends and prospects of installation arts in visual arts practice. In the same vein, Review of Techniques and Practices of Metal Sculpture drew attention to practice based and led researches in sculpture. Lamidi and Paul gave a panoramic view of metal sculptures over the ages and the usage in contemporary art. The origin of Egungun Masquerades and oral traditions which surround the myths was succinctly espoused by Adeyemo The place of art exhibition was advanced by Onoja and Joshua as they posit that Visual artists record events, discuss issues and stir emotional responses from the viewers of artworks. Artists, through joint efforts as seen in exhibitions, bring to the public space, works created in their studios in order to engage actively with art enthusiasts, connoisseurs and the general public on societal issues. Symbiotic Relationship Between Art and Culture was well articulated by Mbahi and Adiwu giving insight to how art and culture are mutually dependent on each other thereby showing collaborative relationship between art and culture; fusion of art and culture and its influence on human behaviour and interaction. Kanale

iii advances the standardization of education and exposes teaching methods that have been used and found suitable and effective in disseminating knowledge to learners across various levels of the education system. The trio of Angyol, Adawus and Pam developed alphabet models to enhance pre-primary pupils education in Nigerian schools. The study unveils that models approach is a concrete modern technique creatively employed through improvisation using innovative approaches in the development of instructional materials to pave way for active learning and robust achievements (performances) via efficient teaching. Saleh and Adiwu encapsulates the place of art education as a base for teaching other subjects in schools. The paper sets out to reaffirm the importance of arts based education to the general learning process and also its core significance to a school’s curriculum.

Datiri Yohanna Chumang Ph.D Editor –in – Chief UJFAAJ

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UJFAAJ

UNIVERSITY OF JOS FINE AND APPLIED ARTS JOURNAL. CALL FOR PAPERS VOLUME 1, NO.1 University of Jos Fine and Applied Arts Journal (UJFAAJ) is a peer reviewed Journal. The journal helps to spread visual arts research findings and reports from the studio, theoretical and empirical works in the field in order to advance the knowledge base of practice led and practice based studies. The Journal is peer reviewed and published twice in a year and welcomes contributions from academics, art connoisseurs, critics and art Entrepreneurs. AUTHORS’ GUIDELINES The Paper Should Have the Following Structure 1. Title of the paper in block capital 2. Authors and affiliations (SURNAME IN BLOCK CAPITAL AND OTHER NAMES) 3. Abstract (150 – 250 words) 4. Keywords 5. Introduction - including motivation, aims (and for long paper, overview and references to related work (in separate section) 6. Main body - explanation of methods, data used, instrumentation 7. Results and Discussion 8. Conclusions 9. References in APA 6th edition

TEXT FONT OF THE ENTIRE DOCUMENT The entire document should be in Times New Roman. Font size 12 with double line spacing FIGURES, PLATES AND TABLES figures should appear throughout the text as close to their mention as possible and it should be in Arabic numerals, while plates should be in Roman numerals. Figures and plates shouldn’t infringe upon the page borders. Tables must be centered according to the length of the caption. Large table can be in one column in order to see them more clearly and avoid placing them in the middle of columns. (Figure. 1, Plate I and Table 1 should be used accordingly and appropriately where necessary). SUBMISSION OF PAPER Full papers should be sent by e-mail to the editor. ([email protected], [email protected]) with a processing and publication fee of N20,000.00 (N5,000.00 vetting fee and N15,000.00 for publication after acceptance) only to Diamond bank account: Jacob Enemona Onoja 0011124792 (Savings). Jacob Enemona Onoja Ph.D. Editor-+2348035984125

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CONTENTS PAGE

I. EDITORIAL BOARD i

II. EDITORIAL iii

III. CALL FOR PAPERS v

IV. CONTENTS vi

1. AFRICAN ART AND ORAL TRADITION 1 Gushem, P.O and Nasidi, N. A.

2. ASCERTAINING THE SUITABILITY OF RARIN-SHO CLAY FOR 18 USE AS REFRACTORY BRICKS FOR CERAMIC KILN CONSTRUCTION Datiri, Y.C

3. DEVELOPMENT OF LOW-TEMPERATURE GLAZES 32 FROM SELECTED RAW MATERIALS IN BENUE STATE, NIGERIA Tser, H. N. Ahuwan, A. M. and Opoku, E.V

4. TRENDS IN CONTEMPORARY NIGERIAN POTTERY 47 Yakubu, G. Tser, H. and Gushem, P.O

5. CLAY AND ITS MANY USES 57 Barwa, D.G and Datiri, Y.C

6. EXPLORATION OF THE INTRINSIC POTENTIALS OF 70 ANTHILL STRUCTURES IN PAINTINGS Dingba, S. A.

7. ENTREPRENEURSHIP IN APPLIED ARTS: 83 A TOOL FOR SELF- RELIANCE IN NIGERIA Ajayi, A. O. and Omokanye, P. S.

8. ABOUT INSTALLATION ART IN NIGERIA 93 Lamidi ,A.L

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9. REVIEW OF TECHNIQUES AND PRACTICES OF 113 METAL SCULPTURE Lamidi, A.L and Paul, J. O

10. THE GENESIS OF EGUNGUN MASQUERADES 133 IN YORUBA LAND: A REVIEW OF CONFLICTING STANCES Adeyemo, P. A. & Saliu, A. R.

11. EMERGING TRENDS, ADVANCING THE FRONTIERS 147 OF VISUAL ARTS CULTURE: A REVIEW OF THE 29TH AND 30TH UNIVERSITY OF JOS CONVOCATION EXHIBITION 2018 Onoja, J.E and Joshua, J.O

12. SYMBIOTIC RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN ART AND CULTURE 162 Mbahi, A.A and Adiwu, T. O

13. STANDARDIZATION OF FINE AND APPLIED ARTS 175 TEACHING METHODS: A PROGRESSIVE APPROACH Kanale, M.D

14. IMPROVISING ALPHABET MODELS USING FOAM 182 AND DESIGNED FABRICS TO ENHANCE PRE-PRIMARY EDUCATION IN NIGERIAN SCHOOLS Angyol, M. A, Adawus, D. L and Pam, S. T

15. THE IMPORTANCE OF ART EDUCATION AS A BASE 196 FOR TEACHING OTHER SUBJECTS IN SCHOOLS Saleh, H. M and Adiwu, T. O.

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AFRICAN ART AND ORAL TRADITION GUSHEM, P.O, NASIDI, N.A Department of Fine Arts, Ahmadu Bello University, Zaria

Abstract ______Oral tradition has been an important source in the reconstruction of African art history. It is also an important vehicle through which the western version of the famous Hamitic hypotheses, which claims that Africa and the Africans have no history and that the African art is ‘childish’ and ‘primitive’. Therefore, this paper centred heavily on the meaning and functions of oral tradition in the reconstruction of African art history with a particular focus on its features. It also makes an incursion in debunking the baseless arguments of the western oriental approach to the African art, which they regard as ‘traditional’, a word that does not exist in the art history of the western world. The paper relied on written sources, but found out that the role of oral tradition in not only the reconstruction of African art history but in demystifying the western perception of the African artistic expressions.

Keywords: Africa, Art, Oral Tradition. ______

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Introduction For a time, immemorial, Africans are known for their rich culture in terms of artistic recreation of reality. Pointer to this was their famous cave paintings, which existed for hundreds of years and sculptural productions. Unlike Pablo Picasso who believes that art is only relevant

‘when it is bought and hung on the wall’ (Honour and Flemming, 1982), the African arts were produced for a number of reasons, which are either social, economic, religious, or even political

(Egonwa, 2005).

Oral tradition is one of the most important sources used in the reconstruction of the African past, which may be artistic, religious, economic, or even political. Therefore, this paper examines the meaning and role of the oral source in the reconstruction of the African history as a response to what most western historiographers have written about Africa and the Africans, which they argue that ‘Africa and the Africans have no history’. However, currency is given to the serious relationship that exists between oral tradition and the traditional African art, which can never be fully understood without the former. This includes the artistic expressions of the various African communities, which may be sculptural, or painterly as enshrined in the visual recreation of reality particularly, in the case of Ife and Benin, Nok, Dagon, Gurunsi to mention, but a few.

The Meaning of Oral Tradition Scholars have given various propositions in defining the term ‘oral tradition’. However, oral tradition is one of the major sources of history. It deals with the transmission of information about the past events be it social, political, or economic mainly through the words of mouth (orally) from one generation to another (Vansina, 1972). A tradition is said to be a collection, or series of historical documents even if it is verbal. According to Dike and Ajayi (1965), oral tradition refers to past human actions transmitted verbally and handed down from generation to generation, while

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oral historiography is said to be the reconstruction of human actions based on oral traditions. In other words, oral traditions are the building blocks upon which oral historiography is based and therefore, became central to the writing of African history (Erim, 2004).

Due to the lack of writing technology in most African societies, the need for the institutionalization of oral tradition as a way of recording their histories, crafts and creativity becomes necessary. This period was tagged ‘pre-historic’, a term coined by Robert Wilson in 1851.

It was in this regard that the whole African history is based on oral testimonies handed down from one person to another, or from one generation to another. According to Vansina (1972):

A verbal testimony is the sum of the statements made by any one informant concerning a single series of events so long as all the statements relate to the same referent. An informant is a person, or a group of persons who gives an account of a referent. A referent is that of which an account is given: in the case of an eye witness account, it is the thing observed, in the case of a rumour, it is a piece of news that has been heard; in the case of oral tradition, it is a testimony that has been heard, about a series of past events, which may contain one, or several traditions for anyone testimony of anyone informant may be a combination of several traditions.

Due to the absence of written documentation in most African societies, the Europeans in an attempt to justify their colonial subjugation, which carries with it the so-called ‘civilizing mission’ to salvage the ‘barbaric’ Africans from the trial of the time claimed that Africans have no history (Nwauwa, 1999). Among the proponents of this idea were; Margery Perham, Robert Knox,

Joseph Conrad, to mention, but just a few (Harris, 2003). For instance, Conrad is known for his damaging book titled ‘Africa: The Heart of Darkness’. In it, he depicted the Africans as ‘savages’,

‘barbaric’, ‘illiterates’ and bunch of ‘animal-like’ people with no culture, knowledge, civilization and history (Firchow, 2000). According to Erim (2004):

The so called natives, it was vigorously canvassed had no history that was worthy of the name. The implied historiographical assumption here was that there could be no history without the technique of writing. Since the Dark Continent of Africa had not developed

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the technique of writing, they further contended, Africa could not have had a history…The resultant colonialism gave a new impetus to European historiography as colonialism itself sought to defend their enterprise often on supercilious grounds: that none European peoples needed the patronage of European powers into world history and civilization. This Eurocentric virus certainly affected many scholars like Hegel (already mentioned) Newton, Coupland, Seligman (of the Hamitic thesis fame) Margery Perham, Hugh Trevor — Roper and a host of others whose notorious views are well known to need further elaboration.

To debunk as well as repudiate the western Hamitic theory about Africa and Africans,

African historians with Kenneth Nwuka Dike as the linchpin, began to re-write their history as an intellectual response to what most European writers documented about the African continent and its history which is the most stereotyped (Dike, 2003). According to him, an understanding of the historical possibilities in all aspects of culture is very significant because, the ‘African, sees his past in the language he speaks, in his music, his dance, his art, religion and institutions and finds it difficult to understand why what is so clear to him cannot be understood by others’ (Alagoa, n.d). Civilization is lucidly defined as a perceived level of excellence and thus, Africa has something monumental to show to the world; its historic kingdoms, empires and caliphates like

Benin, Ife, Mali, Mansa Musa, Kush, Asante and Fante, Kanem-Borno as well as the great Sokoto

Caliphate (Webster and Boahen, 1967). Not only that, Africa has produced great and sophisticated artistic expressions; sculptural, painterly and cultural. Most of these artistic material cultures of

Africa like Igbo Ukwu, Nok Terracotta, Ife, Benin and Tadda bronze castings as well as Ishen soft stone sculptures were uncovered through either accidental or deliberate archaeological discoveries

(Sulaiman, 2015).

One would argue that it is difficult if not impossible for one to reconstruct the African past without the heavy involvement of the oral tradition, which is no doubt depicting the true nature of the African way of life; political, economic, social, artistic, to mention, but a few. in some African

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societies like that of Mali, a special class of people was shouldered with the responsibility of memorizing, saving, narrating and handing over the history of their people verbally from one generation to another. They are popularly known as ‘Griots’ often sponsored by the kings and people in high positions in government. To the griots, the recording and transmission of the past events through words of mouth is hereditary though some intelligent apprentices capable of memorizing the tradition of the people were given a chance to prove their worth (Nianne, 2006).

It should be noted that in the collection of oral tradition through interviews, various informants will be taken into consideration so as to test the reliability of the information given through triangulation and juxtaposition of various viewpoints given by the informants. This is because oral tradition has intrinsic contradictions and sometimes biased as one informant may decide to hide the truth from people, or researchers, when it say, affects his people or socio- economic inclination. On the other hand, he may be telling the truth, but at the same time, over exaggerating it especially to blow the trumpet of his people, tribesmen, or what he believes in.

Therefore, it is the responsibility of the historian as E.H. Carr (1962) once argued to study, select and interpret the sources so as to produce a ‘factual’ history. This must be put in place as a means of interrogation of sources to avoid mistakes of omission and falsification on the side of the informant(s). Vansina (1972) argues that:

This (problem of omission) may come about because he (informant) is unconsciously influenced by various factors in his social environment, and is thus, led to omit certain facts either by mistake, or deliberate falsification…the manner in which a testimony is given has, a definite influence on the testimony itself. A testimony, in fact, is the tradition as interpreted through the personality of the informant, and is coloured by his personality.

In establishing a valid typology of oral tradition as a historical source, scholars, or rather, historians classified oral testimony into two; intentional and unintentional and both are based on

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their inherent features, which are; the intentions, or lack of intentions behind a testimony, the significance attached to it, its form and the literary category to which it belongs, the method of transmission used, as well as the manner in which the testimony is delivered.

It is obvious that oral tradition as a source of history despite its importance has its strengths and weaknesses. The following are the significance of the oral source:

1. It helps in recording African history through the use of memory, especially during the pre-historic time. 2. It provides chronological lists of the names of kings and rulers. 3. It helps in the reconstruction of the African past. 4. It proves that Africa and Africans have a history as opposed to the Euro-Centric viewpoint. 5. It serves as a means through which other sources of history can be check-mated and interrogated. 6. It serves as a clue known as haunches through which some archaeological sites were identified as in the case of Nsukka and Umundu. On the contrary, the following are the demerits of oral tradition: 1. It lacks chronology of events. 2. It suffers from omission, or exaggeration which made it somehow biased. 3. It suffers from forgetfulness due to the limitation of the human memory. 4. Sometimes, it got lost when its custodians died. 5. It is limited by language barrier.

Even though oral tradition is one of the most important sources of history, some European scholars relegate it to the back bench, which they claimed to be unrealistic, biased and unscientific way of establishing a historical fact. Despite the fact that their manner of criticism had differed, their theme remains the same. How can one evaluate Robert Lowie’s or Hegel’s assertion, for example, that ‘I cannot attach to oral tradition any historical value whatsoever under any conditions whatsoever’ (Tamuno, 1974). To them (the Europeans) they only deal with people who knew who they were and what they wanted (which to them Africans were not). According to them, the observed and observable reality is the only concrete foundation for history than the transience of

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myths and epics. Once a people (sic) has achieved firm, individuality such forms (oral tradition) cease to be its historical essence.

Despite the fact that oral tradition has its weaknesses, it still remains the most important source of history especially when it comes to the reconstruction of the African historical past. It happens to be the only weapon Africans used to show to the outside world especially the west that

Africa and Africans truly have a history.

The Meaning of Art /Traditional African Art

Despite the fact that there is no specific, clear-cut definition of art, scholars have attempted severally to find suitable meanings for the word. However, their historical experiences and general world view led to the emergence of divergent views as regards the meaning of art though most of such definitions are somehow related.

However, as far as this paper is concerned, Ayn Rand’s definition of ‘art’ is so encompassing as it has not left any stone unturned. According to her, art is ‘a selective re-creation of reality according to an artist’s metaphysical value-judgments’ (Rand, 2010). However, art has a very wide scope netting into its enclave various aspects of human creation like painting, sculpture, architecture, theatre and performing arts, music, photography, and pottery (Larry, 2003).

It may be visual or applied as the case may be.

While commenting on the role, and essence of art, Areo (2009) argue that Art is an expression of the context of a people’s philosophical, cultural and religious worldview, and hence the artist within that society is expected to express his understanding of his milieu. Therefore, one

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would argue that visual art has permeated all the walks of life and the world will never be beautiful without it.

Oral Tradition and Traditional African Art African people have a well- established historical tradition, which cuts across all facets of life, which is not only restricted to politics and economy, but even the human artistic recreation of representational reality (Arnaut, 1991, Bronowski, 2001). According to Ajayi and Boahen (1970), the African arts have shared common similarities both in form and content apart from the use of materials, techniques, among other things, etc.

As argued by most scholars, traditional African arts were the artistic creations of the indigenous African people in line with their cultural settings before the coming of Europeans in the 20th century (explorers, missionaries and the colonialists).

Some of the major African works of art are Igbo Ukwu, Nok (terracotta works of human figure and faces made from a baked clay), Ife bronzes (bronze casting), Tadda, Mumuye masquerades (all in Nigeria), Indebele (Zimbabwe and South Africa), Sinnar arts (Sudan), to mention, but just a few. It should be noted that with the coming of the European colonial governments in the 20th century, they claimed that the traditional African arts are ‘childish’ and

‘premature’ (Visona et al, 2008). The major problem is that while the Africans view the aesthetics of their artworks in their contents, the Europeans examined it mainly from a purely optical way and thus, the wrong conclusion about the African creative arts (Karickhoff, 1991).

The following are the major features of the African traditional:

1. The traditional African arts were produced mainly for spiritual, or religious reasons. 2. The materials used which include; clay, wood, metal and tusks were found within the cultures that produced them.

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3. The artists who produced such works were unknown. 4. Most of such works are named after the places they were found like Nok, Igbo Ukwu, etc. 5. Most of the works are figurative with either humans, or animals as the subjects. 6. Figures are frontal and drawn full face. 7. There is the uniformity of the African hierarchical scaling of enlarging the most important. 8. The works give more importance to the content rather than the form (conceptually driven).

It should be noted that oral tradition plays a vital role not only in the description of how certain festivals are being performed, but goes to the extent of giving us a detailed analysis of the nature, meaning and functions of various African artistic expressions. Probably that was why the

Europeans mistakenly believe that the African sculptural works are ‘childish’ due to the fact that they were not informed about the true meaning of such works which no doubt lie in the oral tradition of the people. This is because, most traditional African arts are made for religious purposes (Douglas, 1980).

Similarly, in the traditional African arts currency is given to the content rather than the form.

Meanwhile, it is full of symbolism, which in most cases is connected to the spiritual divine powers as in the case of the Egyptian Isis and Horace, or the Yoruba god of light, Sango. Therefore, for one to properly understand why certain African artworks are produced, they must refer to the tradition of the people.

The case of the long standing intellectual debate that engulfs the centre table among scholars as regards the artistic ties that exist between Ife and Benin is a classic example. All the historical information about this event revolves around the oral tradition and probably that is why Ife claims to have taught Benin the art of bronze casting and the denial of it by the latter, drawing its facts from the oral source. However, some historians argue that it was on the invitation of the Oba of

Benin that the Oni of Ife sent Eweka who became the first Ogiso (ruler) of Benin as well as the artists who taught the people of Benin the bronze casting.

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The last but not least, oral tradition is the only vehicle through which the nature, meaning and functions of traditional African arts can be unravelled. This is because, it had been the major source of African history due to the lack, or absence of writing technology. Hence, traditional African art is directly entwined with the oral tradition.

Art and Religion in Africa

Art Historians have deliberated extensively on the functions of African art which Louis

Sullivan argues that ‘form follows function’ (Ocvirk, 2002). However, the African art is seriously interwoven with the socio-economic and political aspects of the life of the people especially the religious sphere, which no doubt takes the largest portion of the African artistic creation (Egonwa,

2005). As in the political representation of kings in Africa, religious artworks are also enlarged based on the African hierarchical scaling to show dominance and importance. Most of the artworks of religious value representing god and goddesses of Africa are kept in shrines where people go to worship. These religious works were produced for some reasons as follows:

1. The people believe in the existence of a supreme being whose works are uncovered through the interplay of various deities as intermediaries. 2. The ability to build power around the art object, or animals as ethnic totems. 3. The creation of an idealistic imagery peculiar to the people.

The presence of religion in most African cultures had been constant in which different gods and goddesses were represented artistically as a way of creating a direct link with the divine. For instance, the Yorubas of Nigeria have this form of divinity in their artistic recreations in which their gods were represented like Sango (the god of light and thunder), Ogun, to mention, but a few.

According to Blier (2012):

Artists the world over shape knowledge and material into works of unique historical importance. The artists of ancient Ife, ancestral home to the Yoruba and mythic birthplace

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of gods and humans, clearly were interested in creating works that could be read. Breaking the symbolic code that lies behind the unique meanings of Ife’s ancient sculptures, however, has vexed scholars working on this material for over a century. While much remains to be learned, thanks to a better understanding of the larger corpus of ancient Ife arts and the history of this important southwestern Nigerian centre, key aspects of this code can now be discerned.

For instance, Ṣàngó is considered as the most powerful and feared of the Orisha pantheon.

According to tradition, he casts a ‘thunderstorm’ to earth, which directly creates thunder and lightning, which he uses to punish offenders. Worshippers in Yorubaland the cowpea is forbidden because they believe that the wrath of the god of iron would descend on them. The Ṣàngó god necklaces are composed in varying patterns of red and white beads; usually in groupings of four or six which are his "sacred numbers". Rocks created by lightning strikes are venerated by Ṣàngó worshipers; these stones, if found, are maintained at sacred sites and used in rituals, while Ṣàngó is called on during coronation ceremonies in Nigeria to the present day (Samuel, 2010).

Figure 1: Sango, Unknown artist, (source: www.flickr.com)

Similarly, the representation of gods is famous amongst the Egyptians. A typical example of this is Horace. Horus regarded in Egyptian mythology as one of the most significant ancient

Egyptian deities. Since prehistoric Egypt until the Ptolemaic Kingdom, Horace was the centre of worship among Egyptians and Roman Egypt. Egyptologists have discovered different forms of

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Horace though each of his physical outlooks has a purpose (Redford, 2003). These various forms may come into existence due to the religious complexity of the Ancient Egyptians viewed in the multiple facets of reality (Redford, 2003). In some instances, Horace is often depicted as a falcon, most likely a lanner falcon or peregrine falcon, or as a man with a falcon head (Wikinson, 2003).

As most historians and Egyptologists argue, the earliest recorded form of Horus is the tutelary deity of Nekhen in Upper Egypt, who according to the Egyptian past is the first known national god, in relations to the divine representation of Horus in life and Osiris in death by the pharaoh. According to the Egyptian mythology, Horus is considered to be the son of Isis and Osiris, and he plays a key role in the Osiris myth as Osiris's heir and the rival to Set, the murderer of

Osiris. Horus served many functions, most notably being a god of kingship and the sky.

Art and Politics in Africa

Throughout the history of the African Continent, it had been blessed with different political entities known as kingdoms, empires and caliphates. There were centralized political institutions with the responsibility of protecting the socio-economic and political rights of their people. Among these historic polities were; Oyo, Kanem-Borno, Monomptapha, Songhay and Mali empires,

Benin, Shelleng and Buganda kingdoms. Others being the Egyptian kingdom as well as the

Sultanate of Sinnar.

However, in the aesthetic existence of all these polities lies art and creativity as visual representation of reality according to their socio-cultural settings. In this regard, art becomes an integral part of festivities, political rituals like in the case of the Yoruba Bashorun and Oyemesi of

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the famous Oyo Empire, beatification in form of costumes especially that belonging to the kings, traditional title holders and courtiers. In the case of Ife as Blier (2012) posits:

What or whom do these early arts depict? Many of the ancient Ife sculptures are identified today with individuals who lived in the era in which Ife King Obalufon II was on the throne and/ or participated in the civil war associated with his reign. This and other evidence suggests that Obalufon II was a key sponsor or patron of these ancient arts, an idea consistent with this king’s modern identity as patron deity of bronze casting, textiles, regalia, peace, and wellbeing. It also is possible that a majority of the ancient Ife arts were created in conjunction with the famous truce that Obalufon II is said to have brokered once he returned to power between the embattled Ife citizens as he brought peace to this long embattled city…

Like the rest of the African art, in traditional Ife art, body proportion in sculpture is determined by one’s own position in the society. This form of dominance is achieved when an

African king or a ruler is made big even when in reality he is small in physique. In comparison, the courtiers of a king are made small no matter how big they are in the real sense. This artistic representation points to the fact that primacy of social difference in visual art in the African culture is so important. Probably this is so because, in most African societies, the rulers are regarded as divine vicegerents of the Supreme Being on earth and therefore, are considered different from any other person except those maintaining the lineage. Similarly, in representing the royalty, certain parts of their bodies are enlarged like the head and the chest, which the Europeans considered as

‘childish’ because it lacks proportion. However, it should be noted that such enlargements were deliberate so as to idealise certain issues which the European needs an explanation.

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Figure 2: Ife King and Queen, Unknown artist, (source: Blier, 2012)

From the plate above one can see dominance in the head and bellies of both the king and his queen. Probably, the head is generally considered as man’s intellect and therefore should be represented in this way let alone the head of a king.

Furthermore, some archetypal images were used in traditional African art as motifs and emblems of authority like the Tshokwe royal drums of Cuba and the Bamileke royal drums and pipes. In the Asante kingdom for instance, a golden stool popularly referred to as ‘Sikaduwa’, which was an exclusive artistic masterpiece was used by the Asantahene as the symbol of power and national court of arm.

Art and Society:

The African people are known throughout the realms of history for their interesting socio- cultural activities like ceremonial dances and festivals. All over the African continent, there is no society devoid of this nomenclature, which a pointer to the level of the peoples’ artistic recreation.

Masks, costumes, and body decorations featured prominently the African socio-cultural activities.

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This is more prevalent in the West and Central African sub-region with few instances in East

Africa with particular reference to the Shona and Bakonde.

In relation to one attaining adulthood, special events of this nature are put in place. For instance, during girls graduation in the art of womanhood, masks are paraded which were characterized by elaborate hair-dress, high fore-head, compressed narrow feature face with sensitive, but thin nose and chin for the performance of the festival. There were also separate masks for their male counterparts as they are approaching maturity.

Moreover, art pieces were created to appease the ancestors. In such events, sacrifices were often made to attract good omen and to seek the blessing of the dead. Warriors, conquerors, progenitors, etc. formed the circle of such ancestors. In this regard, images of progenitor especially the mother was given a high priority. A typical example of this is the Egyptian Isis and Horace

(presumably considered to be the first representation of Madonna and Child).

Conclusion This paper discussed extensively on nature, meaning, and functions of oral tradition and traditional African art. The paper found out that oral tradition is one solid foundation on top of which the socio-economic and artistic past of the African continent would be recovered and understood within a historical time perspective. This is because, it is only the oral source that tells us in details the meaning and functions of the African art which gives credence to its content rather than the form. The paper also examined as well as brought out the merits and the demerits of the oral source as well as the criticism of western writers on the relevance, or importance of the oral tradition especially in the reconstruction of the African past even though, it was countered by famous African historians like Kenneth Nwuka Dike who believes that the European narration

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about the African continent is sentimental, racist and biased and therefore, must be re-written in line with the true African tradition imbued in its oral history. This was the milestone in the reconstruction of the African history which had blossomed and affected other fields of its history like the arts.

References: Ajayi, J.F.A. and Boahen, A. (1970). A Thousand Years of African Civilization. London, Oxford University Press, Pp. 1-110. Alagoa, E. I (ed) (n.d). ‘Dike Remembered: An African’s reflections on History’ (Dike Memorial Lecture 1885- 1955), University of Port Harcourt press for the Historical Society of Nigeria. Areo, M. O. (2009). ‘Adire in Southwestern Nigeria; 1957 – 2007’. (Unpublished Ph. D. Thesis), Ladoke Akintola University of Technology, Ogbomoso, Pp. 10-18. Arnaut, K. (1991). ‘Art and the African World: A Historical Analysis of their Interconnection’. JASO 22/2. Ayn, R. (2010). Introduction to Objectivist Epistemology. London, Oxford University, Press. Blier, S.P. (2012). ‘Art in Ancient Ife, the Birth Place of the Yoruba’. African arts, vol. 45, no.4, P. 71. Blier, S.P. (2012). ‘Art in Ancient Ife, the Birth Place of the Yoruba’. African arts, vol. 45, no.4, P. 71. Bronowski, J. (2001). The Ascent of Man. London, Oxford University Press. Carr, E.H. (1962). What is History? London, Oxford University Press. Dike, K. O. and Ajayi, J.F. A. (1965). ‘An introduction to African historiography’. Postgraduate seminar, Department of History, University of Ibadan. Douglas, M. (1980). Man in Africa. London, Oxford University Press, Pp. 199-203. Egonwa, O.D. (2005). African Art: A Contemporary Source Book. Benin, National Gallery of Art, P.15. Erim, O.E. (2004). ‘African Historiography: Trends, Praxis and Democracy in Nigeria’. Professorial Inaugural Lecture, Calabar, University of Calabar, P. 6. Firchow, P. (2000). Envisioning Africa: Racism and Imperialism in Conrad’s Heart of Darkness. Lexington, University Press of Kentucky, Pp. 7-18. Harris, J.E. (2003). Africans and their History. U.S.A: Routledge and Keagan Paul, Pp. 1-15. Honour H. and Flemming, J. (1982). A World History of Art. London, Macmillan Reference Books, P. 9. Karickhoff, E.R. (1991). ‘The Aesthetic and Cultural Significance of Yoruba, Edo, and Igbo Sculpture in the African Art Collection, the Museum of Texas Tech University’. (Unpublished M.A Thesis), Texas Tech University, Pp. 10-20. Nianne, D.T. (2006). Sundiata: An Epic of Old Mali. (Trans. By Pickett, G.D.). London, Pearson Longman, Pp. 1-29. Nwauwa, A.O. (1999). ‘K.O. Dike and the New Africanist Historiography’, Reflections in Historiography, P. 3.

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Nwauwa, A.O. (2003). ‘K.O. Dike and the New African Nationalist Historiography’. Reflections in Historiography, P. 3. Redford, D.B. and Edmund, S. M. (2003). The Oxford Guide: Essential Guide to Egyptian Mythology. Berkley, Horus, Pp. 164–168. Samuel, M. N. (2010). Afro-Caribbean Religions: An Introduction to their Historical, Cultural, and Sacred Traditions. Philadelphia, Temple University Press. Pp. 32–33. Simon, L. (2013). The Hall of Uselessness: Collected Essays. New York, New York Review Books. Sulaiman, S. (2015). ‘The Nigerian History Machine and the Production of Middle-belt Historiography’. (Unpublished PhD Thesis), University of Cape Town, Pp. 152-161. Tamuno, T. N. (1974). ‘History and History — Makers on Modern Nigeria’. Inaugural Lecture, University of Ibadan, P.1. Vansina, J. (1972). Oral Tradition: A Study in Historical Methodology. London, Routledge and Kegan Paul, Pp. 21-23. Visona, M.B., Poynor R.and Cole H.M. (2008). A History of Art in Africa. London, Laurence King Publishing Ltd, Pp. 1-49. Webster, J. B. and Boahen, A.A. (1967), The Growth of African Civilisation: The Revolutionary Years; West Africa Since 1800, Hong Kong, Commonwealth Printing Press, Pp. 20-24. Wilkinson, R. H. (2003). The Complete Gods and Goddesses of Ancient Egypt. London, Thames & Hudson, P. 202.

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ASCERTAINING THE SUITABILITY OF RARIN-SHO CLAY FOR USE AS REFRACTORY BRICKS FOR CERAMIC KILN CONSTRUCTION DATIRI, Y. C. Fine and Applied Art Department, University of Jos – Nigeria.

Abstract ______Commercial deposits of white earthy substances estimated to be in millions of tons, suspected to be refractory clay were identified in Rarin, in Sho village of Ropp district, south-west of Barkin Ladi of Plateau State. Samples of the substance were randomly excavated and a number of tests were conducted to ascertain the physical, chemical composition, specific gravity, refractoriness, firing shrinkage, bulk density, and apparent porosity of this identified substance for possible ceramic use. The chemical analysis conducted using the x-ray fluorescence spectrometer revealed that the substance was chemically composed of: SiO2, Al2O3, Fe2O3, Ti2 O2, CaO, MgO, Na2O, K2O and LOI (Loss on Ignition); which was determined according to Lechler and Desiletes method. The Silica and Alumina constituents dominated the composition of the substance tested as they were 56.12% and 40.38% respectively. All the other oxides present in the substance were discovered to be mere traces as their percentage presence was below one except for loss on ignition (LoI), found to be up to 3.1%. The other oxides, Fe2O3 (0.35), CaO (0.53) MgO (0.68), Na2O (0.75), and K2O (0.95). This result confirmed the substance to be an Alumino-Silicate mineral. The refractory test revealed that it could be fired to a temperature of 16500C, with a specific gravity of 2.8. Its firing shrinkage was within a range of 2.3 – 5.8%, Bulk density was between 1.43 – 1.98g/cm3, Apparent porosity between 20.3 – 56.2% and cold crushing strength ranged between 162.3kg/cm2 and 155.5kg/cm2 from four sets of test bricks produced out of the clay and blended with 20, 30 and 40% saw dust.

Keywords: Refractory, Ascertaining, Kiln, Alumino – Silicate, Rarin-Sho. ______

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Introduction Refractory clays are clays that have high fusion temperatures. The alumino-silicate group of refractory materials reliably produce one of the best ever refractories in the world today. As

Jock, A.A; Ayeni, F.A; Jongs, L.S and Kangpe, N.S (2013) would say, clays are basically hydrated aluminosilicates. The commonest refractory clays are best regarded as Fireclays, which belong to a variety of Kaolins.

Accordingly, Datiri, Y.C and Yusuph, R.D.K. (2004), state that Kaolin is basically clay, commonly referred to as China clay. It is a typical example of primary clay, which are clay types found at their place of formation and as a result often classified as residual clays in ceramics. Most

Kaolin clays are easily identified by their white colour – which signifies purity and freedom from any form of contamination, particularly during the process of transportation to a secondary location; rather, it has only undergone Kaolinization – a chemical process of clay formation. The purity, (Freedom from contamination), High silica and Alumina contents usually account for the high fusion temperatures in most Kaolins. Pure Kaolins are thus represented with the chemical formula – Al2O3 2SiO2 2H2O.

Clays of many types and locations have been investigated previously for their various uses and economic high points. The abundance of the Rarin-Sho deposit (in commercial quantity), coupled with the fact that it has a brilliant white colour, has motivated this study since impurities in clays have been found to be a major factor in lowering firing temperatures in clays. (Gukas, H.J

& Datiri, Y.C. 2001).

For the purpose of this study, Rarin-Sho clay was investigated for its refractoriness, chemical and physical properties. It was later blended with saw-dust in various proportions,

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purposely to determine its suitability for formulating refractory bricks to be used in the building of ceramic kilns and other industrial areas in which heat is employed such as cement, glass, metallurgical, chemical and petrochemical industries.

MATERIALS AND METHODS Sample Preparation: Clay samples from Rarin-Sho quarry were excavated by digging holes at equally spaced intervals.

This is considered a random technique of sampling. This method is in conformity to what Datiri,

Y.C. (2011) and the ASTM-D 3665-12 (2017) recommended. They recommend that, a large enough sample be investigated to serve as a good representation of the bulk of the material under investigation. Indeed, if the sampling procedure is inadequate, the subsequent tests result will not only be inaccurate but also misleading.

Tests and Processing Procedures of Samples The material was Sun-dried when brought from the quarry to ensure the temperatures did not exceed 500c in order to avoid tampering with the plasticity of the material. Larger lumps were reduced or broken down into smaller units prior to the sun-drying. The sawdust was also sundried, sieved and graded to a suitably desired size.

After drying, the clay sample was crushed, ground and sieved to three different particle sizes labelled as coarse, medium and fine fractions. The particles were sieved to 2000휇푚 to represent the coarse, Medium and fine respectively as recommended by Chesti, A.R. (1986) in

Jock, et al (2013). Brick samples were subsequently produced from this base material (Rarin-Sho clay) alone, without blending. Subsequent, samples were blended with 20%, 30% and 40% saw

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dust using the coning and quartering technique which requires that, the sample be thoroughly mixed by heaping it into a cone on a clear, (preferably concrete or cemented) ground, and turning it over to form a new cone, until the procedure was carried out three times. Each conical heap was formed by depositing each shovelful of the materials (clay and sawdust) on the apex of the cone so that the centre of the cone is not displaced. The final cone was flattened then quartered along two diameters which are intersected at right angles. One quarter was then shovelled into a new cone and the process of quartering repeated until the required quantity for brick production was acquired. This process was followed for each of the samples. These clay aggregates and saw dust were mixed with 5% of water for easy mixing and moulding of bricks using a hydraulic press. The ratio of graded clay used for the moulding stood at coarse, 60; medium, 10; and fine, 30; while the sawdust was added to the clay-water matrix at 20, 30, and 40%. Four (4) different brick samples were produced from these blends. (See table 1). Each brick sample measured, 12cm x 4cm x 3cm

(L x B x H).

In all, six sets of four bricks each, (a total of twenty-four bricks) we produced to cover for

Refractory, Specific Gravity, Firing Shrinkage, Apparent Porosity, Bulk Density and Cold

Crushing tests. As many as twenty-four bricks had to be produced for this study to ensure no brick was used for two or more tests. The sample bricks were air-dried in room condition and subsequently taken into an oven where they were dried at 1100C for 8 hours. They were however fired thereafter in a digital test kiln to 14800C, maintaining a steady control rate of 50C/minute. At

14800C, the bricks were soaked to cool gradually.

Chemical Composition Analysis

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To determine the chemical components of the clay from Rarin-Sho, the energy dispersive

X-Ray fluorescence spectrometer (ED-XRF) model PW1660, XRA was used. The procedure determined the presence of the following elements in wt%: SiO2, Al2O3, TiO2, CaO, MgO, Na2O,

K2O, AND Fe2O3. The loss on Ignition (LoI) was determined according to the Lechler and

Desolates methods. This involved measuring the weight loss of a known mass of the sample after firing in a furnace at 10000C and calculated thus:

푊푖−푊푓 LoI, (%) = 푥 100 푊푖

Where Wi and Wf are initial and final weight respectively.

Table 1: Test Bricks formulation

___ Batch Composition (%) Specimen Clay Sawdust A 100 0 B 80 20 C 70 30 D 60 40

Refractoriness The specimens were fired in a digital test kiln with optimum performance. The temperature was steadily raised to 2000C at the rate of 50C per minute. This steady rise in temperature was desirable at the early stages of the firing to pre-heat both the bricks and the kiln chamber, with a gradual reduction in the rate untill the temperature of 14800C was attained. The firing was stopped at 14800C for fear of overstretching the elements of the kiln, but the test samples had the potentials to attain further firing with over 2000C.

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Specific Gravity The test piece for specific gravity was cut from within the core of a refractory shape moulded from the clay and crushed to a size not exceeding 3mm. the crushed material was then mixed and reduced to 50g sample by Cone and Quartering method. The sample material obtained was dried at 110oC to a constant weight, and then 10g sample was weighed using a glass Stoppard bottle. A pyconometer with stopper was equally dried at 110 oC, cooled in a desiccators and its weight (WP) was noted. The pyconometer was filled with distilled water at room temperature.

With the stopper put in place, the weight (W1) was noted. The stopper was removed and distilled water was added to the sample to fill the pyconometer to its half capacity. This was gently boiled for 10 minutes to avoid loss of sample due to popping. The weight (W2) of the pyconometer containing the test sample and the water was recorded. The specific gravity was calculated from the relationship:

Specific Gravity = W – Wp

(W- Wp) – (W2 – W1)

Where: W was the weight of the test sample and dry pyconometer with stopper, Wp was the weight of dry pyconometer with a stopper, W1 and W2 were the weight of pyconometer with stopper containing the test sample and distilled water respectively.

Firing Shrinkage

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On each brick produced, a 10cm line was drawn with a venier caliper, while the bricks were newly produced as recommended by Hassan, (2005). After drying the bricks to 110oC for 5 hours, they were then fired to 1480oC in a digital test kiln at a standard rate of 5oC per minute. The kiln was allowed to cool gradually overnight. The firing shrinkage was calculated by measuring the dimensional changes between the dried and fired bricks using the formula:

Firing shrinkage = LB – LD x 100 LB Where: LB = Dry dimension LD = Fired dimension

Apparent Porosity

Test specimens measuring 30mm x 30mm x 20mm were cut from the fired refractory bricks produced from the kaolin from Rarin-Sho. They were then dried in an oven to 110oC and followed by cooling in a desiccators, after which their dry mass ‘D’ was immediately determined to the nearest 0.01g. Their porosity was determined using the boiling method as prescribed by

Adekanmbi, A. (2005), and ASTM C20 – 00 (2015). The dried specimen was suspended freely in distilled water using setter pins and covered in a pan before boiling for 5 hours, taking care that the specimens were covered with water throughout the boiling period. The specimens were then allowed to soak for an additional 24 hours to make them fully impregnated with water. The specimens ware then removed and blotted lightly with a moistened rag to remove excess water before determining the soaked mass ‘S’ of each specimen, recording the average of the test bricks.

This was followed by determining of water of absorption ‘A’ using the formula:

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A = [(S – D)] x 100

D

Where: S = Soaked weight D = Dried weight A = water absorption

Bulk Density

The bulk density was determined using the scheme proffered by Chesti, A.R. (1985). The same specimens used in testing apparent porosity were first air dried, and subsequently oven-dried at 1100C to a constant weight ‘D’. Thereafter, they were transferred to a beaker and boiled in distilled water for 2 hours to assist in releasing trapped air. The specimens were then allowed to soak to get saturated weight freed of excess water ‘W’. Each specimen was then suspended in water using a beaker and the suspended weight was taken. The bulk density was then calculated using the relationship:

Bulk Density = D Pw W - S

Where: D = Dried Weight W = Saturated Weight S = Suspended Weight Pw = Density of Water

Cold Crushing Strength

Determining the cold crushing strength, according to Borode, J.O. Onyemaobi, O.O; and

Omotoyinbo, J.A. (2000), helps in determining the suitability of a clay type for refractories or not.

It determines the load at which cracks are produced in a specimen when load is exerted. Test

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specimens of each batch in the form of cubes measuring 25mm3 were cut and marked to indicate

the direction in which pressure should be applied and the two faces of the cube were prepared as

load bearing faces. Load was applied at a uniform rate until the test piece failed to support the load.

The maximum recorded load of the test piece before the application of load was calculated and

recorded. The cold crushing strength was obtained using:

Cold crushing strength = L A

Where: L = Maximum load (KN) A = Cross sectional area.

Results of Findings and Discussion

Major results of the study are presented in Tables 2 and 3 below. Table 4 presents already

established standards for refractory properties of fireclays while Table 2 presents the chemical

analysis (properties of Rarin–Sho clay), Table 3 presents the physical properties of fired Rarin –

Sho clay.

Table 2: Chemical Analysis of Rarin-Sho Clay

Chanel Si Al Ti Ca Mg Na K Fe LoI

Compound SiO2 Al2O3 TiO2 CaO MgO Na2O K2O Fe2O3 - Concentration 56.12 40.38 0.24 0.53 0.68 0.75 0.95 0.35 3.1 Unit % % % % % % % % %

Table 3: Physical Properties of Fired Rarin-Sho Clay Properties Specimens ____ A B C D Specific gravity 2.65 - - - Refractoriness 1650OC - - - Linear Shrinkage (%) 2.3 3.2 5.5 5.8

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Bulk Density (g/cm3) 1.98 1.82 1.6 1.43 Apparent Porosity (%) 20.3 28.6 41.3 56.2 Cold Crushing Strength (Kg/Cm2) 162.31 55.5 148.4 130.6

Table 4: Established standard for Refractory Properties of Fire Clays Properties /Specimen Fire Clay Insulating Fire Clay Specific gravity 2.6 – 2.7 * - Refractoriness (OC) 1580 – 1759* _ Linear Shrinkage (%) 7 – 9 * _ Bulk density (g/Cm3 1.98 ** 0.85 – 1.5 * Apparent Porosity (%) 8 – 24 * > 60 ** Cold Crushing Strength (Kg.Cm2) 140 – 840 ** 3.5 – 35. 1** Source: * Misra (1975) and ** Chesti (1986)

Findings and Discussion

Chemical analysis of the Sample

It can be seen from the chemical analysis of Rarin-Sho clay sample in Table 2 above that, results revealed through the Xray-Flourescence Test that the clay is composed predominantly by

two major constituents – SiO2 and Al2O3, constituting 5.6% and 40.3% respectively. The Loss on

Ignition (LOI) follows with 3.10%. All other oxides present in this clay deposit are mere traces since none of them is up to one percent. Put together, all the other elements outside S1O2, Al2,O3 and LOI sum up to just about 3.5%

The percentage presence of SiO2 (56.12%) and Al2O3 (40.38), both fall within the range value for fire clay refractories. Irabo P.S. (2002) collaborates what Misra M. (1975) and Chesti

A.R. (1986) had established, that (25% and above) for both SiO2 and Al2O3 are a good range for

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fire clay refractories. He further states that, the higher the percentage value of these elements in a lump of clay, the higher the refractoriness. By implication, the high concentrations of SiO2

(56.12%), Al2O3 (40.38%), and LOI (3.10%), is an indication that Rarin-Sho clay is a hydrated aluminosilicate type of mineral. It is also an indication to the fact that it is of the Kaolins group, which are usually composed largely of Silica (SiO2), Alumina (Al2O3) and water (H2O) with the chemical formula of Al2O3. 2SiO2. 2H2O. This type of clay is very suitable for refractories due to the very little presence of impurities which may come through heavy pressure of other oxides and, or carbonaceous matter.

Physical Properties of Test Samples of Rarin-Sho Clay

Table 3, presents the physical properties of Rarin-Sho Clay. While batch ‘A’ presents the properties from the base clay without any blend, Batch ‘B’ ‘C’ and ‘D’ are properties of the base clay blended with 20%, 30% and 40% of saw dust respectively with the purpose of creating insulating effects.

O With a refractoriness of 1650 C and specific gravity of 6.25 as presented in Table 3, both the specific gravity and refractoriness are within range of fireclays stated in established standards for refractory properties in Table 4. The relatively high refractoriness could be attributed to the high alumina and silica contents (40.38%) and (56.12%) respectively. The relatively low presence of other oxides that could constitute impurities-about (3.5%) is another factor responsible for the high refractoriness of Rarin-Sho Clay. It is already an established fact that large amounts of impurities usually flux down refractory potentials of clays.

Table 4 also recommends the range of 7-9% shrinkage rates as being acceptable for fire clays. As regards Rarin-Sho Clay, the fired linear shrinkage for specimen ‘A’ (base clay) is only

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2.3 %. As a matter of fact, the shrinkage rate even when blended with as high as 40% saw dust, is still within range as it is just 7.8% as against the 7-9% recommended in Table 4. It however established the fact that the higher quantities of saw dust used in a sample, the higher the shrinkage experienced as can be seen on sample ‘B’ ‘C’ and ‘D’ in Table 3. This is owed largely to the fact that when sawdust burns (since it is carbonaceous by nature) during firing, spaces are created in between clay particles, and in turn, the clay particles contract to meet each other in an attempt to cover the spaces created by the burnt sawdust; this results in shrinkage.

The apparent porosity test of Rarin-Sho Clay revealed that it is indeed a fireclay as it falls within the range of established standards. Sample ‘A’ in table 3 which was purely from the base clay had the lowest porosity level (20.3%), while sample ‘D’ recorded the highest level of porosity

(56.2%). This revelation establishes a fact that porosity can be conveniently induced by the introduction of carbonaceous/combustible material (sawdust). The higher the volume of the combustible material, the higher the percentage level of porosity obtained and the lesser the bulk density of the end product. Interestingly, Table 3 also reveals that samples ‘A’ ‘B’ ‘C’ and ‘D’ for both porosity and bulk density tests fall within acceptable established standards for refractory properties of clay in Table 4.

The cold crushing strength which sought to establish the load bearing ability of the clay under study after it was fired, established that sample ‘A’ had the highest ability but decreased in samples ‘B’ ‘C’ and ‘D’ respectively, due to the effect of induced insulation created by the use of carbonaceous material. In effect, while sample ‘A’ presented the highest cold crushing strength,

(162.3kg/cm2) sample ’D’ presented the lowest, (130.6kg/cm2). By implication, samples ‘A’ ‘B’ and ‘C’ can comfortably be used without fear as their ability to stand cold crushing effects is within an acceptable range. This finding, therefore, establishes that as high as 30% combustible material

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can be used (blended) with Rarin-Sho Clay for the purpose of insulation bricks production.

Interestingly also, Rarin-Sho Clay with or without sawdust could comfortably withstand impacts at low temperatures as the cold crushing strength is an indicator of the effect of firing on ceramic bond.

Conclusion/Recommendations

The study investigated the chemical and physical properties in Rarin-Sho Clay purposely to identify its suitability for refractory bricks production to be used in ceramics and other allied industries where heat and high temperatures are attained. The results of the study revealed that,

Rarin-Sho Clay is an alumino-silicate mineral, with very high refractory potentials due to the high presence of alumina and silica in the sample analyzed. The clay was found to contain some insignificant level of impurities in the form of oxides that could be regarded as mere traces. Due to this level of purity in the clay, it could best be classified as Kaolin- a type of fire clay that is suitable for refractories.

Another interesting characteristic exhibited during the analysis of this clay that makes it suitable for refractories is its very low shrinkage level. The minimal shrinkage level even manifested when carbonaceous material was introduced into the clay to induce insulation. In fact, as high as 30% of carbonaceous material can be used to blend Rarin-Sho Clay to induce insulation effects.

With the interesting characteristics identified in Rarin-Sho Clay, it is the recommendation of this study that the clay under study be used freely for the production of refractory bricks and other kiln furniture to be used by the ceramic and other allied industries that have high temperature zones in their furnaces. The study equally recommends that when insulation is desired in the refractory bricks to be produced from Rarin-Sho Clay, a blend of the clay with combustible

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material be made in the ratio of 7:3 of the clay to such combustible (carbonaceous material for best results.

References Adekambi, A. (2005). The Nigerian Steel Industry: Evaluation and Raw Materials Development. A Historical Excursion (Emphasis on Ajaokuta Steel Project); Xcess Among press. Ibadan, Nigeria. ASTM C20-00 (2015). Standard Test Methods for Apparent Porosity. https://www.astm.org>Standards. Retrieved 20:01:2019 ASTM D3665-12 (2017). Standard Practice for Random Sampling. https://www.astm.org>Standards. Retrieved 20:01:2019 Borode, J.O; Onyemaobi, 0.0; & Omotayinbo, J.A. (2000). Suitability of some Nigerian Clays as Refractory RawMaterials. Nigerian Journal of Engineering Management. Chesti, A.R. (1986). Refractories: Manufacture, Properties and Applications. Practice-Hall of India Private Ltd. New Delhi. Datiri, Y.C. (2011). An Investigation of the Suitability of Kerang and Miango Volcanic Ashes for the Production of Ceramic Bodies and Glazes. (An Unpublished PhD Thesis), A.T.B.U; Bauchi – Nigeria. Datiri, Y.C. & Yusuph, R.K.D. (2004). Developing a Small-scale Kaolin Plant. The Wet Processing Approach; A Practical Experience at Barkin Ladi, Plateau State. Ashakwu Journal of Ceramics. Dasma Press, Zaria. Eija A. (2015). Technical Report. Coning and Quartering. https:www.reseachgate.net/figure. Retrieved 19:01:2019. Gukas, H.J. & Datiri, Y.C. (2001). The Art of Pottery. C.C. Communications, Jos. Hassan, S.B. (2005). Modern Refractories: Production, Properties, Testing and Application. Timo Commercial Printers, Samaru, Zaria.

Irabor, P.S. (2002). Physical and Chemical Investigation of some Nigerian Kaolinite Clays for use in Ceramic and Allied Industries. Nigerian Journal of Engineering Research Development. Jock, A.A; Ayeni, F.A; Jongs, L.S. & Kangpe, N.S. (2013). Development of Refractory Bricks from Nigerian Nafuta Clay Deposit. International Journal of Materials, Methods and Technologies. http://ijmmt.com. Retrieved 21;01:2019. Misra M.I. (1975). Refractories: Their Manufacture, Properties and uses. SMT, Lakshmi Misra, Krishna Colony, Ghamapur, Jabalphur.

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DEVELOPMENT OF LOW-TEMPERATURE GLAZES FROM SELECTED RAW MATERIALS IN BENUE STATE, NIGERIA TSER, H. N., AHUWAN, A. M. and OPOKU, E. V. Department of Industrial Design Faculty of Environmental Design Ahmadu Bello University, Zaria, Nigeria

Abstract ______The development of glazes in Nigeria is a challenging issue to the ceramic industry and has resulted in the dependence on imported glazes, which is not easy for the ceramic industries and the ceramists. This has become necessary, therefore, to explore the possibility of low-temperature glazes using locally sourced raw materials for ceramic production in the Country. The objectives of the study are to: identity and source, for ceramic raw materials in Benue State for, the formulation of low- temperature glazes; carry out chemical analysis of the selected raw materials, formulate low-temperature glazes using locally sourced materials for ceramic production and test; and evaluate the effect of the formulated glazes on ceramic wares. Dogo Red Clay, Groundnut Shells and Locust Beans Wood were sourced for, from within the area of study; The experiments carried out were analysed and discussed. The chemical analysis carried out shows that the major element found in Dogo Red Clay is iron oxide Fe203 which acts as flux in bodies and glazes at high temperature from 1280°C. Groundnut Shells Ash and Locust Beans Wood Ash contain potassium oxide (K2O) and calcium oxide (CaO) which acts as flux to lower the melting temperatures from 1200°C down to 900°C. The low-temperature glazes formulated using locally sourced raw materials shows that the line blend was successful in achieving low-temperature glazes. The study found that there is a similarity in the temperature range of between 900°c ,1000°c and 1100°c, indicating varying shades of black, dark brown, yellow, lemon green, while at 1160°c the reddish colour was found. The study recommends that; the Dogo Red Clay should be tested on other bodies with other fluxes for the different effect of colour. Also, there is a need to carry out further studies using Dogo Red Clay for the development of high-temperature glazes. Through this study, it is observed that Iron oxide (Fe203) acts as a flux in bodies and glazes at a higher temperature of 1280°C. Groundnut shells and locust beans ash contains potassium oxide (K2O) and calcium oxide (CaO) which acts as the flux to lower the melting temperatures from 1200°C down to 900°C.

Keywords: Development, low temperature, glazes, raw materials, fluxes. ______

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Introduction Nigeria is a country blessed with abundant raw materials for ceramic production. Despite the availability of these raw materials, and the attempts being made to utilize these local raw materials, there is still much to be done especially in the area of low-temperature glazes. The trend of research into ceramic raw material today is assuming a dynamic one. This has never been so in the past. It is believed that if this trend continues, it may soon be heading for an industrial ceramic revolution considering the abundant natural ceramic resources available all over the country and Benue State in particular. It is noted by Aluwong (1988) that, the most important issues in ceramic production today are the replacement of expensive imported materials with local raw materials and how to improve their qualities. The complaint of most practising ceramists is that there is no equipment for raw processing. Those countries noted for high-quality products of ceramics today, however, started from scratch and developed with time.

The challenge for the Nigerian ceramists is to brace up and tackle the problem of ceramic development in the country to put the country on the world map of notable ceramic producers. According to Ahuwan (2003), the first move to modern pottery in Nigeria was in 1902 by D. Roberts, though this was not successful, until 1952 when Michael Cardew arrived. Different ceramic industries have folded up and part of the problem is attributed to low or lack of technical knowledge for the production of local glazes to sustain ceramic production.

Nigeria, as a nation, is in need of research efforts that explore and identify locally available raw materials for exploitation and for industrialization. Importantly, the industrial development of a nation could likely be realized with effective and efficient utilization of the available natural resources. According to Ahuwan (1999), there is a constant search for new and relevant sources of materials so as to enhance the supply of materials so as to reduce the cost of production and the quality of products. Thus, the need to take up research work on the abundant locally available raw materials for low-temperature glaze production that will lead to low cost of production is paramount.

The development of low-temperature glazes from Dogo Red Clay in Buruku, Locust Bean Wood from Vandeikya, and Groundnut Shells from Kwande will be beneficial to the development of

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many potteries, studio, and ceramic industries. In view of the industrial benefit derivable from the development of ceramic raw materials in the country, the researcher has decided to explore locally sourced raw materials from Benue state in the North-Central zone of Nigeria which has been found to be endowed with ceramic raw materials such as ball clay, silica and other related minerals in abundance. This research is focused on exploring suitable ceramic raw materials in Benue state for the production of ceramic glazes. Among the objectives of the study are: to carry out chemical analysis of the selected raw materials, and to formulate low-temperature glazes using the locally sourced materials for ceramic production.

REVIEW OF RELATED LITERATURE

Low-Temperature Glaze

Low-temperature glazes can be applied to any type of clay body, although they are generally used on red clay or earthenware. These glazes are divided into two groups; lead glazes and alkaline glazes. Low- temperature glaze has high amounts of boron, lead, soda, or lithium fluxing agents Conrad (1980).

Fluxes for Earthenware

According to Arbuckle (n.d) fluxes are added to lower the melting temperature and help a body mature at the desired temperature. Flux is considered as a non-plastic addition to a clay body. With some clay, the addition of sufficient flux to make the body mature at low‐fire temperatures will reduce plasticity and require the use of more ball clay. The author notes further that, feldspars do not melt at a low temperature so as to be useful as a low‐fire flux. Nepheline syenite, talc, frit, or combinations are used as low‐fire body fluxes. Other higher‐melting fluxes may be tested as

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supplementary body fluxes that may form eutectics with other body fluxes like whiting and strontium.

According to (Rhodes 1957), Talc (Mg3Si4O10(OH)2) has a long firing range, but needs to be used in large amounts if it is the only flux, example, low‐fire white wares bodies may be 60% ball clay,

40% talc for cone 05. This may produce a chalky, powdery body that is not very plastic but could be adjusted for casting. It is worthy to note that talc according to Arbuckle (n.d) works at low‐fire temperatures because its refractory silica and magnesium are in proportions that form a eutectic that depresses the melting point.

Nepheline syenite (K2O.3Na2O.4AL2O3.9SiO2) in the view of the author, is similar to feldspar, but with a higher ratio of flux to alumina and silica so that it melts at a lower temperature than spar.

Talc partially soluble and deflocculates the clay body, leading to working and drying problems.

Fluxes used in Low-Temperature Glazes

According to Peterson (2016), Boron is the commonly used low –fire flux, other than lead. Boron fluxes include; the following; -

Gerstley Borate; no longer mined, but some limited amount is still available. Synthetics replacement is available from many suppliers. Example of synthetic are as follows; Gillespie

Borate –a synthetic product produced by Hammill’s and Gillespie of New Jersey.

Cadycal, and Murrays Borate, Laguna Borate, Frit CC-298C, Frit 439, Ulex Empresa Minera, Imco

Borate, Ulexite also examples of low-temperature fluxes.

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- Colemanite

According to (Peterson 2016) Boron; often used in raku glazes and smooth out higher firing temperature.

- Boron-containing frit such as Ferro 3110,324, and 334.

- Talc; used as a flux in low-temperature clay, clay bodies and as a flux in both low and high-fire glaze.

Firing of Low Temperature Glazes

It is important for the wares to be subjected to heat by means of firing. Zauro (2007) asserts that heat is necessary for the development of a vitreous bond. Normally, the ceramic body undergoes two types of firings. The first firing stage is known as biscuit or bisque and attached to a once fired ceramic body which is not glazed. Biscuit firing refers to the body which has had only one firing and unglazed. The second phase of firing is called gloss or glaze firing. It is a stage in which the glaze is fired onto the wares. The firing commences slowly and the temperature in the kiln gradually rises to attain the derived temperature (Zauro 2007).

Methodology

The experimental research design was adopted for this study. The following steps were followed: Sourcing of raw materials, beneficiation, and chemical analysis of the raw materials, blends composition, glaze formulation, firing and property test

Sourcing of raw materials,

Dogo Red Clay, Groundnut Shell, and Locust Beans Wood were used for this study. The samples were collected from the three local governments namely: Buruku, Kwande and Vandeikya of

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Benue State. The samples were transported to the Department of Industrial Design, Ceramic Section, Ahmadu Bello University Zaria.

Beneficiation of the raw materials

The raw materials were processed as follow:

Dogo Red Clay

The Dogo Red Clay was beneficiated by soaking in a container for two days. This was followed by blunging the clay, sieved through 200 mesh (75 μm) and dewatering the slurry in the plaster mould. After the water was removed, it was allowed to dry and then crushed into a powdered form.

Groundnut Shells Ash

The sourced Groundnut Shells was washed to remove the soil particles attached to the shells it is then dried under the sun. The dried shells were heaped in an enclosure where it will not be easily blown away by wind due to its light weight and then set on fire in the open air to burn into ash. After the burning, the ashes collected were soaked in a container for 10 days. The soaked ash was collected for sieving using a 200 mesh (75 μm) and dewatered the slurry in the plaster mould. After the water was removed, it was allowed to dried and then crushed into a powdered form.

Locusts Beans Wood Ash

The sourced Locust Beans Ash was dried and heaped in an enclosure, before burning into ash form in the open air. The ashes collected were soaked in a container for 10 days. The soaked Locust beans wood ash was then sieved using a 200 mesh (75 μm), and dewatered the slurry in the plaster mould. After the water was removed, it was allowed to dry and then crushed into a powdered form.

Chemical analysis of a sample

The chemical analysis of the samples was done using X-Ray Fluorescence Spectrometer to determine the chemical elements present in the samples so as to ascertain their suitability as a ceramic material for low-temperature glazes production.

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Formulation of low-temperature glazes using line blend The blend which is a method of measuring two ceramic materials was used for the formulation of the glazes. Rhodes (1968) states that, some beautiful glazes may result from the addition of single colouring oxides to a glaze, the most exciting glaze colours are usually the result of the addition of two or more colourants to the base glaze. Such addition may be arrived at by methodical blending, or by adding combinations and quantities of oxides which are known to be congenial and promise to give good results. The testing usually proceeds on the spirit of experimentation, by adding various materials to the glazes just to see what will happen at the end. In methodical blending, the ceramist may anticipate that a certain percentage of his test will prove to be unsatisfactory and will only produce muddy and unpromising colours. According to Harmer (2004) line bled is a method of determining requirements in practical test of materials. In this case, the obvious way is to start with the material and add an increasing amount of another material. Any convenient number of tests can be decided upon. It is also usual, especially with glazes, to decrease one test ingredient as the other increases. In this way, the total bulk remains constant and calculations in percentages are more easily composed. The line blend of 11 members was adopted from (Rhodes 1968) for the study. The chart was drawn and the two materials in various rations were inserted. Table 1 represents Dogo Red Clay and Borax, that made up the chart, and small quantities were physically mixed. The samples were fired to 900°C, 1000°C,1100°C and 1160°C in the electric at the Department of Chemical Engineering, Ahmadu Bello University, Zaria to determine their suitability as low – temperature glazes. (See plates XVII –XX) Two test pieces were selected for the formulation of low – temperature glazes. They are Sample six and samples seven.

Table: 1 Line Blend Test 11 members Chars.

Samples 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 Borax 0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100 Dogo 100 90 80 70 60 50 40 30 20 10 0 Source: Research by Tser (2017).

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Production of test bars

Glazes batches were measured for each of these blends and tested on biscuit fired test slabs. The test slabs were fired at 900°C, using the electric kiln available at the Department of Chemical Engineering, Ahmadu Bello University, and Zaria.

Determination of maturing temperature

The biscuit fired test tiles were glazed and fired to 900°C, 1000°C 1100°C and 1160°C so as to determine the suitable blends for low-temperature glaze production.

Property Test

The following tests were carried out according to ASTM-C126-13, ASTM-424and ISO 10545-6 standard to determine the properties of the low-temperature glazes that were developed from this study.

a. Crazing test, b. Imperviousness test, c. Hardness and Abrasion Resistance Test a. Crazing Test (C424)

The crazing test was carried out by observation of the glazed specimens. The samples were inspected with oblique lighting and application of a dye. The ink was applied to the specimen (test tiles) and cleaned off immediately with clean towel and observation made for the appearance of fine lines. b. Imperviousness Test (C126-13)

The imperviousness test was done by the application of water on the sample for 10 minutes. c. Hardness and Abrasion Resistance Test (ISO10545-6) Successfully glazed surfaces were scratched using ordinary glass or steel and observations were made and recorded.

Results and Discussion

Results of the experiments carried out were analysed and discussed. Various stages conducted were documented and their discussions are presented.

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Chemical Analysis of Dogo Red Clay, Groundnut Shells Ashes, Locust Beans Wood Ashes Rafin- Tukurwa Clay and Kankara Clay

Result and Discussion

Result of chemical Analysis of the clay and Ashes Materials

Table

Clay and Fe2O3 SiO2 AL2O3 K2O CaO Others LOl Ashes Type

Dogo red 39.70 % 27.40 % 12.00 % _ _ 4.88 % 16.02 % clay Groundnut _ _ _ 17.20 % 16.19 % 66.73 % 0.12 % shells ash Locust _ _ _ 20.59 % 66.87 % 13.77 % 1.23 % beans wood ash Rfintukurwa _ 49.00 % 17.85 % _ _ 14.60 % 8.21% clay Kankara _ 44.56 % 31.45 % 2.90% 20.21% clay Source: National Geosciences Research Laboratory (NGRL) Aernyi 2016, Tser 2017 and Zauro 2007

From the result of the chemical analysis Table above, shows that the major element found in Dogo Red Clay is iron oxide which acts as a flux in both bodies and glazes at higher temperatures. Once it reduces Fe2O3 begin with fluxing and form a glass. Dogo Red Clay also contains silica SiO2 which act as a major glass former. It also contains aluminium oxide AL2O3 which stiffens glazes so it does not slide off the clay. Groundnut Shells Ash and Locust Beans Wood Ash contain potassium oxide K2O and calcium oxide CaO which acts as a flux to lower the melting the temperatures. Rafin-Tukurwa which is (Ball Clay) and Kankara (Kaolin) contains silica SiO2

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which is a major glass former and alumina which stiffens the glaze so that it does run off the ware during firing.

RESULTS OF LINE BLEND TEST OF 11 (ELEVEN) MEMBERS AT 900°C

Plate x: Line Blend Test 11 member at 9000 C Source: Studio Research, Tser, (2017). Test blend sample of Nos 1and 2 flacked off from the tile due to the high quantity of Dog Red Clay. Sample tile Nos 3 fused with spots due to the same features, while sample tile Nos 4 -5 were fused but not glossy. Sample Nos 6 and 7 fused with glossy effect of black and some golden shiny brown and attractive effect. Sample tile Nos 8 came out with a golden brown, orange and black colour while Nos 9 to 11 had yellow, orange, lemon green and gloss with shiny colour.

LINE BLEND TEST OF 11(ELEVEN) MEMBERS AT 1000°C

Plate x: Line Blend Test 11 member at 10000 C Source: Studio Research, Tser, (2017). Line blend samples Nos 1 and 2 was flacked off, Sample tile Nos 3was fused with black colour but some part still peeled off, while sample tile Nos 4 – 5 were fused but did not mature. Sample tile Nos 6 and Nos 7 came out black with golden, gloss and shiny colour and matured well without craze effect but it is attractive colour, sample tile Nos 8 was fused with golden brown and orange colour, while Nos 9-11 had yellow, orange, lemon green and gloss with shiny colour.

TEST LINE BLEND OF 11(ELEVEN) MEMBERS AT 1100°C

Plate x: Line Blend Test 11 member at 11000 C Source: Studio Research, Tser, (2017).

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Line blend test sample tile Nos 1 -2 were flacked off while sample tile Nos 3 fused but some part still peed off, sample tile Nos 4 -5 were fused but did not matured. Sample tile Nos 6 and Nos 7 fused with golden shiny brown, glossy and attractive colour. It did not craze while sample tile Nos 8 came out with golden brown colour, orange and black. Sample tile Nos 9 to 11 had yellow, orange, lemon green but had crazing effect.

TEST LINE BLEND OF 11 (ELEVEN) MEMBERS AT 1160°C

Plate x: Line Blend Test 11 member at 11600 C Source: Studio Research, Tser, (2017).

Line blend test samples tile Nos 1 and 2 were flacked off, while sample tile Nos 3 fused but still peeled partially. Samples tile Nos 4 and 5 fused but it did not mature. Sample tile Nos 6 fused with black and shiny with gold dish colour while sample tile Nos7 was fused, gloss and shiny. Sample tile Nos 8 fused with yellow, orange colour but was crazed, sample tile Nos 9 -11 come out yellow; lemon green and some brown colour on it but there was still glaze.

RESULT OF GLAZE FORMULATION

Glaze materials are used in the finely grounded powdered form. The materials used for this research was milled to pass through the 200-mesh screen that is about 75-micron size.

Glaze materials were developed from the raw materials using line blend of (11) member samples which are Dogo Red Clay and Borax. The developed glazes starting with10% (percent) Borax to 100% percent Dogo Red Clay. As 10% Borax increases 10% Dogo Red Clay decrease. From the test glaze tiles, number 6 which is 50% Borax and 50% Dogo Red Clay and number 7 which is 60% Borax and 40% Dogo Red Clay was choosing and used for the development of low- temperature glazes. It was observed that the glaze sample on the test tiles of Nos 6 and 7 did not crazed both on the test tiles and on the body of the produced wares.

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RESULT OF FIRING

The work was first biscuit fired at a temperature of 800 degrees. At that temperature, the works became hard, white and porous. After biscuit firing the prepared glaze was applied before the final firing at different temperatures of 900˚C, 1000˚C, 1100˚C and 1160˚ C respectively. At this stage, the fired wares became hard, glossy, some reddish, black, yellowish brown, dark brown, dark brown with gold and purple colour.

Plate XX Finished Glaze Work at 900°C Plate XXI Finished Glaze Work at 1000°C Source: Studio Research, Tser, (2017). Source: Studio Research, Tser, (2017).

Plate XX Finished Glaze Work at 1100°C Plate XIII Finished Glaze Work at 1160°C Source: Studio Research, Tser, (2017). Source: Studio Research, Tser, (2017).

Findings

From the studio base experimental results conducted, the followings were made:

1. The Dogo Red Clay, Groundnut Shells and Locust Beans Wood were discovering and utilized for the study. 2. The chemical analysis carried out shows that the major element found in Dogo Red Clay

is an iron oxide (Fe2O3, 39.70w %) which acts as a flux in bodies and glazes at high

temperature. Groundnut Shells Ash has potassium oxide (K2O 17.20w %), calcium oxide

(CaO16, 19w %) and Locust Beans Wood Ash contain potassium oxide (K2O 20.59w %)

and calcium oxide (CaO 66.87w %) which acts as a flux to lower the melting temperatures of the glazes.

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3. The earthenware glazes formulated from locally sourced raw materials analyses show that the triaxial blend tested failed to meet the desire to produce low- temperature glaze. Rather, the Line blend was successful in achieving low-temperature glazes. 4. On line blend at 900°C, the body A (70% kaolin and 30% ball clay) came out glossy with a little deformity from the glaze because it did not adhere well thereby forming a matty effect. For Body B (60% kaolin and 40% ball clay) after being fired to about 900°C the glaze appeared without any deformity. 5. The study found out that there is a similarity in the temperature range of between 900°C to 1100°C indicating varying shades of black, dark brown, yellow, lemon green, then at 1160°C, the reddish colour was found.

SUMMARY

The study set out to develop low-temperature glazes using locally sourced raw materials from Benue State of Nigeria. The aim of the study was to formulate low-temperature glazes, while the specific objective is to; identity and sourced for ceramic raw materials; to carry out chemical analysis of the selected raw materials; to formulate low- temperature glazes using locally sourced materials for ceramic production; test and evaluate the effect of the formulated glazes on ceramic wares.

The locally sourced materials include; Dogo red clay, Groundnut shells and Locust beans wood ash. The literature review is premise earthenware clays, clay bodies, glazes, production of earthenware glazes among other topics. The method utilized involved using an experimental research design. Among the findings of the study are; the results proved the achievement of developing glazes since its can mature at 1000°C to 1160°C they can be classified as low- temperature glazes. The imperviousness test of the glazed surfaces was successful without water absorption. The chemical analysis carried out shows that the major element found in Dogo Red

Clay is an iron oxide (Fe2O3, 39.70w %) which acts as a flux in clay bodies and glazes at high temperature.

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CONCLUSION

The development of glazes starting with 10% addition of Borax increases and 10% decreases Dogo red clay. From the test glaze tiles, number 6 which is 50% Borax and 50% Dogo red clay and number 7 which is 60% Borax and 40% Dogo red clay were chosen and used for the development of low-temperature glazes. Test results indicated that glaze sample of Nos 6 and Nos 7 did not craze both on test tiles and on the body of the produced wares (see Plate xiv to Plate xvii). The low - temperature glazes formulated from locally sourced raw materials analysed showed that the triaxial blend tested failed to meet the desire to produce low- temperature glazes. Rather, the Line blend was successful in achieving low-temperature glazes. The temperature ranges between 900°C, 1000°C ,1100°C and 1160ºC varying shades glossiness, some reddish, black, yellowish, brown, dark with gold and purple colour (see Plate xx to Plate xxiii).

References Ahuwan A. M. (1999). Determination of Physical Properties of Clay Samples in Bauchi State Suspected to be Kaolin, Journal of Environmental Studies Faculty of Environmental Design, Ahmadu Bello University, Zaria Vol. 1 No. 1 pp. 29– 35. Ahuwan A.M. (2002), The Changes of Teaching Clay Work in Higher Institutions Learning in Nigeria. Zane: A Journal of Art Education. vol No1.pp1-2. Ahuwan (2003), Contemporary Ceramics in Nigeria 1952-2002 Achievements and Pitfalls; Ashawu Journal of Ceramics, Vol1 No1 DASMA Zaria Ceramic Association of Nigeria (CerAN) pp.18-22. Aluwong, M.S. (1988). Developing Slip Glaze from Selected Clay Materials in Kaduna State Unpublished M.A. Thesis, Ahmadu Bello University, Zaria, Nigeria.Arbuckle, L (n.d) Earthenware Clay, Retrieved from http://lindaarbuckle.com/handouts/clayearthenware.pdf January,13,2017. Leach, B. (1976); A Potter's Book, Faber, and Faber, London pp. 136-137. Opoku E.V. (2003). Development of Local Raw Materials for the Ceramics Industry in Nigeria. Ashaku Journal of Ceramics, Vol1 No1 DASMA Zaria Ceramic Association of Nigeria (CerAN) Pp.14-17. Otimeyin, P. (2015). Ceramics at Glance Revised Edition Benin City, Edo State of Nigeria.p151. Peterson, B. (2016). Ceramic and Glaze Fluxes, pottery.about.com/od/diyglazes/ty/Fluxes.htm December, 12, 2016. Rhodes, D. (1957). Clay and Glazes for the Potter by Greenberg; New York: Publisher, a corporation. Published in New York by Greenberg; Publisher, and Simultaneously in Toronto, Canada, by Ambassador Books, Ltd. pp. 20 - 37.

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Rhodes.D. (1968). Clay and Glazes for the Potter by Greenberg; New York: Publisher, a corporation. Published in New York by Greenberg; Publisher, and Simultaneously in Toronto, Canada, by Ambassador Books, Ltd. P29 Singe, F. and Singer, S. S. (1963). Industrial ceramics Academic press co-LTD. London. Pp125- 250. Skutt, (2016). Clay and Clay Bodies. Retrieved from Skutt.Com/skutt–resources/basic knowledge/ceramics /ceramics-100.Retrieved; October 31, 2016. Sulayman, U.U. A (1999). The utilization of Local Raw Materials for the Production of Marbled Wares using the Jigger Jolley Techniques. Unpublished MA Thesis, Department of Industrial Design A.B.U, Zaria pp 82-83. Zauro, T.D.M (2007). Ph.D. Thesis an Evaluation of the suitability of some Ceramics Raw Materials in Kebbi State, for the production of Tableware for Small Scale Industry Unpublished PhD Thesis. Department of Industrial Design, Ahmadu Bello University Zaria P. 43-50.

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TRENDS IN CONTEMPORARY NIGERIAN POTTERY YAKUBU, G., TSER, H. AND GUSHEM, P.O. Department of Fine Arts Ahmadu Bello University Zaria

Abstract ______The art of pottery in Nigeria and Africa at large is often associated with the production of utilitarian objects, but it is essentially about beauty, sometimes in its humblest and possibly purest form. The technical skills of the artist can also be admired especially in the absence of the simplest of machines like potter’s wheel. Trends in contemporary art practices generally are motivated by groups and individual ideology, based on the artist’s understanding of how art should be viewed. The artists seem to have the urge to create something new and different. They use their materials in a way that transcends their original purpose, creating true art. It is observed that the artists are not just trying to be wacky, they are attempting to challenge the way people think. They are visionaries. The art of pottery can be seen as the craft of Africa that is still being practised in most parts of the continent. The development of contemporary Nigerian pottery by artists has contributed to the transformation of ceramics practice. Through this transformation made, the potters have shown evidence of modernity in the production of ceramic works. Also, the artists succeed in forging a synthesis of traditional and modern. Their practice brought a new dimension in the creation of modern ceramic works in Nigeria. This contributes to expanding the modern definition of ceramics, especially in the aesthetic consideration of ceramic forms as devoid of utilitarian functions. This paper examines the works of some selected Nigerian ceramists.

Keywords: Trends, contemporary, pottery, crafts, ceramics. ______

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Introduction The art of pottery is one among the earliest and most widely practised of all the earth. In the early times, pottery was shaped entirely by hand before the introduction of the wheel. The art of pottery making in Africa is traced back to around the 7th millennium BC and continues to this day within the various regions of the continent. In the past, pottery making was embarked upon by the woman. The procedure usually involves, the woman pouring the clay into a mould of pottery, wood or a calabash. Clay pots were and still are being used to cook food, stone water and for various other food preparation functions. The firing takes place after drying the wares which are arranged in a pile and covered with wood, bark or dried cow dung and baked outdoors in an open fire. However, in countries like Nigeria and Mali today real kilns are utilised to bake the pots. The decoration of the pot enhanced aesthetics takes place after the pots are fired. In other parts of Africa, plant dyes were utilised for colouring and were randomly splashed on the body of the wares. This was a practice common among the Congolese (Zaire republic). In other regions like Nigeria, the Yoruba people and the Mangbetu of Zaire, animals figures were incorporated. In Nigeria, the art of pottery making is a widespread activity. Slogar (2007:22-24) asserted that history of this form of art goes back in the history possibly to the beginning of the human settlement. The traditional pot making in Nigeria thrived for ages during the Iron Age. The Nok terra-cotta, for instance, is considered by some authors, as an evidence of artistic sophistication of ancient Africa peoples that shared traits of both sculpture and ceramics alike. Onuzulike (2009) is of the view that, the early Nok terra-cotta is not the exclusive preserve of sculptures, but also part of the ceramic craft. It is observed by Ahuwan (2018:12) that, common clay pots are so familiar to the modern Nigerian that it might require some extra care to look again and assess the functionality or aesthetics of such an ordinary commodity. Pottery production does not lack technological achievement because technically speaking all the wares have arrived at a fine height of practical importance. Beyond these financial aspects, the Nigerian pottery represents a spiritual aspect that is the essence of art and life. The pottery represents form and expressive character. In recognizing a particular style from a particular village, has achieved a sense of identity with the Nigerian

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people. No art could ever have a closer relationship with all of life than pottery (Ahuman 2018:12). The appreciation of this could be a source of significant contribution to world culture.

Trends in Contemporary Nigerian Pottery Trends in modern art practice generally are motivated by the group and individual ideology, based on the artist’s current understanding of how art should be viewed. The beginning of active modern ceramic practice in Africa (Nigeria) can be traced to the 1950s. Modern Nigerian artists have shown tendencies of following existing art trend of their time, based on certain art ideologies. Available literature in the field (contemporary-africanart.com) posits that modern African ceramics is often associated with the production of utilitarian objects but it is essentially about beauty, sometimes in its humblest and possible purest form. There manifest in the works created by the artists, conscious harmony traditional and modern ideas, as well as techniques in the creation of their works. The potters’ creation according to Okpe (2003) could have been motivated by a desire to promote unity, through the use of certain forms that defy known conventions in ceramic production. The second approach is that some artists deliberately create ceramic forms toward academic dimensions, to seek intellectual understanding or aesthetic experience. The practice and ability by the modern Nigerian potters, to pay attention to detail, give rise to artworks of tremendous charm and beauty; the creative talents of the artists, their learned skills and their desire to succeed, have resulted in their earning a special status amongst their friends and families. All the rhythm, colour, humour and spontaneity of modern Nigeria are displaying in their imaginative ceramic artworks. The vibrant ceramics of the artist range from functional domestic ware to sculptural art in the highly decorative African tradition. The works offer an insight into the subtle influence of rural potters. These artists continue with the elements of their tradition with the unique perspective of a new world. Modern Nigerian artists such as Demas Nwoko, Abbas Ahuwan, Chris Echeta, El Anatsui, Levi Yakubu, Abbas Ahuwan and Yohana Datiri among others have shown evidence of modernity in the production of ceramic works in Nigeria. In Nigeria, Michael O’Brien is seen as a figure amongst other artists that, contributed toward shaping modern Ceramic in Africa. His contribution toward modern pottery dates back to the

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1970s when he brought into Nigeria some quart and the teaching of both staff and students on how to source for their own materials that were relatively easy to obtain locally. Also, he designed and established pottery buildings at Maraba-Kaduna State and Bwari. He constantly experimented with glazes to achieve the exact effect he required. Demas Nwoko’s creations according to Fosu (1986:12 - 68) are drawn from the traditional art forms of Nok terra-cotta and Yoruba wood sculptural forms. Demas is one among contemporary African artists that employed modern conventional style, reflective of traditional artistic ideas and themes with a conscious but selective adaptation of foreign techniques and materials, to create certain visual art forms that were recognized and cherished for their socio- cultural values. The use of foreign techniques, affirms to the European influence that is cleared by some authors. Kunde (2016:1-15) stated that, in the 1970s, ceramic artists like Benjo Igwilo, blended engobe decorations and glazes with pottery forms and techniques, to achieve aesthetic resources of the Igbo Traditional body and well painting practice (called Uli), and became well known for high- fired ceremonial and ornamental pots, that forged a synthesis of traditional and modern. His works were channelled towards accentuating the works of Michael Cardew and Ladi kwali of The Abuja pottery centre, which centred on the fusion of traditional and modern techniques, which can be said to be, the extension of Nwoko’s ideological approach. Furthermore, Kunde noted that the ceramic experimentations of El-Anatsui in the 1970s, which resulted in the “broken pots” series, also brought a new dimension to the creation of modern ceramic works in Nigeria. El-Anatsui’s artistic representations into modern ceramic practice open a new chapter in determining what constitute the definition of ceramic work. This contributes to expanding the modern definition of ceramics, especially in the aesthetic consideration of ceramic forms, as devoid utilitarian functions. In his work titled “we de patcham”, there is a conventional drift, toward conceptual art, which its tenets are idealistic, rather than functional or aesthetic. The work is a visual representation of terra- cotta fragments, which are carefully bound together to achieve a form of a cradled pot. The pot’s opening is unconventionally created to take an irregular shape that defies normal pots. Incorporated on the pot are Uli designs. Chris Echeta, a modern Nigeria artist privileged to pass under the tutelage of El-Anatsui, who worked a similar style. For instance, Chris Echeta’s ceramic works were produced using political

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themes, to capture a similar expression of El-Anatsui. Echeta’s work titled “Aso rock: one question each for president (2008) was achieved by joining various parts of flattened clay of different shapes with engobe designs on it. This is similar to the approach used by El-Anatsui to create the work titled “we de patcham”. It is observed by Okpe (2003:41-44) that, in the 1980s through the 1990s also, Abbas Ahuwan’s ceramic works, exhibited another trend that seeks to harmonize both traditional aesthetic elements and modern techniques. Abbas Ahuwan championed experiments in burnished and smoked pot sculptures, which made references to northern Nigerian architecture, musical instruments and traditional Hunkuyi decorative forms. In Abbas Ahuwan’s “Sculptural Ceramic Forms II” a terra-cotta piece of about 40 cm high created 1998, is a composition that resembles different things. The work looks like a giant tortoise and it also appears like two bowls. The work is produced in a single piece, with no opening, except a tiny hole at the bottom, to allow pressure to escape during firing. The three studs upon which the work rests, give it the impression of a living creature, the studs being its limbs.

Figure 1. Sculptural-Ceramic Form II (1998) Abbas Ahuwan. Terracotta, about 40cm High Photo Credit: Jacob Jari

Levi O’Bem Yakubu’s contribution to the development of ceramics in Nigeria and Africa at large is of significance. His works created are drawn from the environment, culture, and religion, as well as other pottery traditions in Nigeria. The ceramic forms of Levi can be broadly grouped into three. These are ceramic sculpture, conventional ceramics, and two-dimensional ceramic forms. The ceramic sculpture form is a collection of works that are created to achieve unique artistic forms, but largely with designs that are unconventional in nature. The conventional ceramic

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form is composed of works that are created largely as household Ceramic wares. This include, pots, mug-cups, plates, dishes, jugs and so on. The 2D ceramic forms comprised of works that are created as tiles, with pictorial images or scenes on them, the tiles are produced in 3D form with a glossy face like a normal one, but when mounted on a surface (floor or wall), and they usually create an interesting visual outlook of a 2D form. The technique involved in this type of work is digital ceramic printing technology. The forms created by Levi, are described by Kunde as following; traditional Style”, “Aesthetic Geometry”, and “Aesthetic hybridism”. The traditional style is achieved by the creative adaptation of traditional aesthetic elements, drawn from popular African idioms of traditional art pieces. Works under Aesthetic Geometry are with attributes like accurate circles, angles and curved surfaces. They are usually created to have a conventional appearance, suggesting ceramic forms that are achieved through throwing. This practice is more indeed in the production of household ceramic wares. Aesthetic hybridism involves the combination of visual elements of both traditional African Art (shapes, symbols or motifs) and other contemporary artistic approaches, to achieve aesthetically pleasing forms. The works here, represent conscious harmonization of visual forms of both traditional and modern origins, using ideas and concepts that are relevant to the socio- cultural needs of people in the society. Works created in the series of African mask by Levi pottery are decorated with African motifs that symbolize scarification, which is associated with pre-colonial traditional African Societies. Also, From Levi’s mask series, there manifest aesthetic features drawn from African artefacts that are beside his cultural background, the use of geometric and linear motifs bring Levi pottery to be in term with other African ceramists that are culturally influenced. Levi successfully extended his cultural influence into his other wares in a pleasing manner. An example is his set of jugs and cups produced. The working title “Africa mask vase” (plate 1) one can see a vase partially adorn with African motif that symbolizes scarification on a blue and brown colour background. The use of scarification on this vase, like in others in the series, is seen as a form of identification that links Levi’s pottery to African culture. Facial forms depicted on the vase are stylized and repeated on two sides of the vase. The vases are for both aesthetic and utilitarian purposes. In Africa, modern dimensions to the general practices of art are constantly being shaped by different

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socio-cultural forces or events, thereby, affecting the artists’ perception of how art should be created or viewed. It was on such grounds that Fosu (1986:12-68) posits that Both aesthetically and functionally, the new artworks artists produced deviated from the traditional African art without becoming aligned with European aesthetic values. Instead, they blended aspects of both to achieve a uniquely modern artistic expression which can be identified as wholly African in form and content. Consequently, the understanding of ceramic art and its purpose also changed, due to our emerging trends in the art. The manifestation of such trends as noted by Wyk (2010) is evident in the works of modern African artists. These artists effectively utilized modern art dynamics in producing ceramic works that defy the conventional definition of ceramics as a craft, with utilitarian functions. Modern African ceramics are ‘art’ characterized by mastery of technique essential, originality and innovation, key production. The works produced are decorative and narrative in nature, this makes them serve as contributions to the development of modern African art.

Figure 2. African king and queen’s vase, Dajo Levi 160 X 157cm, Source: www.dajopotteryltd.com

Habila Gukas’ Ceramic wares are works that fall in line with the trend in contemporary ceramic practice in Nigeria. His works affirm changes in the scope of aesthetics direction in contemporary ceramic representations. One can see a conscious or unconscious harmonization or simplification of conventional ceramic forms into unconventional ones.

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In his work titled “Seafood”, Gukas creatively designed a spherical life form which is synonymous to the shell. Intricate lines are technically created all over the form, alongside with pointed oil-like marks probably to symbolize the textured surface of a shell. The use of intricate designs seeks to achieve uniqueness in both form and design using natural concepts is attributed to his exposure and experience in his chosen profession.

Figure 3. Sea Food, Habila Gukas. Terracotta Photo credit; (the artist).

Yohana Datiri has produced quite a number and body of works which have added immensely to the existing body of works in Nigerian ceramics. Datiri (2016) in Gunok (2017:92) reports that most of his works produced were influenced by his Berom lifestyle, especially as it relates to the use of pots in their palaces. His experimentation was more of a concept than an event, akin to the Natural Synthesis of the Zaria Art Society of the 1950s, Datiri’s ceramics are a juxtaposition of various styles to achieve his ceramic works, such styles include abstraction, stylization, conceptual and iconoclastic. These styles focus on traditional Berom ideologies, an example of his work is titled “Affection”. The work is a sculptural piece executed in 2016 using coiling and pinching techniques of production. “Affection” is an abstract figure which portrays the love of a mother towards her offspring. The small pot on its back suggests a baby.

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Figure 4. Affection (2016) Yohanna Datiri. Terracotta 35cm high. Photo Credit: Yohanna Datiri

Conclusion The development of contemporary Nigerian pottery by individual artists has contributed to the transformation of ceramics practice in the country. The artists have broadened the multi- dimensional ways of viewing, categorizing, and interpreting modern pottery works, not just as a craft, but as an artwork with cultural meanings. Through the use of indigenous visual elements, the artists succeeded in creating exciting pieces that are distinctive. This contributed more by providing a variety of products and even industrial products. Furthermore, designs, motifs, and styles utilised by the artists aided in giving identity to pottery tradition. The use of indigenous visual elements in the embellishment of pottery products should be encouraged among the artists. This, it is hoped will promote indigenous Nigerian culture and subsequently built local designs. Also, it will make the presence of Nigerian culture felt abroad through the art of pottery, and possibly give the market a favourable opportunity to compete with its foreign counterparts

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References Ahuwan M.A. (2018) The Hunkuyi experiment. An exhibition catalogue Fosu, K (1986) 20th Century Art of Africa (Vol.1) Zaria, Gaskiya corporation limited. Gunok, A. (2017) An Appraisal of Yohana Datiri’s Ceramics from 2006 to 2016. An MA Dissertation submitted to the Department of Fine Art, Ahmadu Bello University, Zaria. Kunde, M.T (2016) An Examination of Form and Content of Dajo Pottery Works in Makurdi, Benue State. A Doctoral seminar paper presented at the Faculty of Environmental Design, Ahmadu Bello University, Zaria. July 2016 Okpe, T. (2003) The Seemingly Sculptural Installation of a Potter: The paradox of Abbas Ahuwan Forms: Ashakwa Journal of Ceramics 1(1) Onuzulike, O. (2009) Pushing the Boundaries of Ceramics Art Tradition in Nigeria: Not on “Suya Scape Project’’ Interpreting Ceramics Issues: 2009, Retrieved from http://interpretingceramics.com/issue//articles/03.htm, August 12, 2016. Slogar, E. (2007) Early Ceramics from Calabar- Nigeria: Towards History of Nsibidi’s. In African Art. 40(2) spring Van Wyk (2010) In Journal of Modern African Craft. http://journalofmoderncraft,com August 12, 2016 Contemporary-African art.com April 15, 2017

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CLAY AND IT’S MANY USES BARWA, D.G. 1 and DATIRI, Y. C.2 1. Department of Fine and Applied Arts Kaduna State College of Education Gidan-Waya 2. Department of Fine and Applied Arts, University of Jos, Jos, Nigeria

Abstract ______Clay is an earthly material or substance found in abundance, as such its importance has not been noticed among members of the society. The paper explains and creates more awareness of how powerful clay is and it’s relevant in our society today. It is hoped that with more awareness, interest and research, of this material, it would build a better future in terms of unemployment and economic gain and technological advancement in our country. In view of this, recommendations are given which includes how individuals and the government can utilize these natural resources to make the nation more productive for industrial development and creating more employment opportunities for its teeming youths.

Keywords: Clay, material, uses, society, plasticity ______

Introduction

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What is Clay? Clay is simply an earthly material found in abundance in the earth. It consists of soil and a certain chemical called “Colloid” which makes it sticky malleable, and soft when wet, it becomes hard when dried and fired at high temperatures. Manzuche (2002), asserts that Clay when well prepared and preserved, improves in quality as it ages for production It is characterized as soft, plain and plastic. Clay can be modelled, pounded, flattened, rolled, coiled, thrown on a wheel and cast into a mould for production of different forms, figures or objects, it responds to shaping, bending, smoothening, drying, glazing and firing. We ourselves are made from it; this confirms what

Wickstrom (2015) stated that, clay is completely dependent of the Potter for the potter shapes and moulds the clay; the clay does not shape and mould itself. We walk on it, eat and drink from vessels made from it. Dodd, (1967) defines clay as a natural material characterized by its plasticity as taken from the clay pit or after it has been grounded and mixed with water. Ewule (2003) states that clay is the basic raw materials for such designers like artists and sculptors and that no other form of earth traces the history of mankind clearly as potters, for the hand of the potter goes hand in hand with clay.

Clay minerals according to Asamoah, Nyakson, Annan, Agyei-Tuffour, Afavi, Kan-Dapaah,

Apalangya, Damoah, Dodoo-Arhin, Tiburu, Kwofie, Onwona- Agyeman and Yaya (2018), are phyllosilicate groups, naturally found in soils in all parts of the wall. They have proven to be among the most essential industrial minerals because of their unique physicochemical properties and versatile applications within a wide range of fields including ceramics, construction, and environmental remediation, biomedical as well as cosmetics. In their words, clays are source composites for secondary applications.

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The power of clay has been with us from creation. Clay has been singled out to be the most important element in the world and thus serves as a true technological development ever since the early man in the areas of creation of man, cave painting, the art of pottery, cartwheel making, roads and shelter constructions to mention just a few. This paper, therefore, hopes to create awareness on the many importance of clay to our society. It also offers recommendations on the appreciation and benefits of clay if properly researched and harnessed.

Creation of Man and Spiritual Power of Clay

The Christian holy bible gives the story of the creation of man on the 6th day, in Genesis 1 verse 1 and 27 and chapter 2 verses 7, God said: “lets us make man in our image and our likeness”. The

Lord God formed man from the dust of the ground (clay) and breathed into his nostrils the breath of life and the man (sculptural ceramics) became a living being. This was the first and initial technology and the governance on the sixth day of creation.

The man made, was decreed by God Almighty to rule the earth same date as a result of a clay work performed. Jesus Christ also healed a man born blind with clay as contained in John Chapter 9 verse 6 where Christ spat saliva on the ground, made some mud clay with the saliva and put it on the man’s eyes and said “go wash in the pool of Siloam” and he did. Certainly, through clay, a blind man was able to receive his sight; that is the spiritual power of clay.

In the Quran, Surah (chapter 15 verses 26, says “we created man from sounding clay (formed) from mud moulded into shape”. The similitude of Jesus before God is that of Adam”. He created him from clay then said “Be” and he was. Clay is, therefore, the first material in the world that was handled by God Himself in the act of making man. This statement sufficiently proves that clay was the initial means for technology in the world.

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In Jeremiah 18 verses 1 to 6, the Lord said to Jeremiah “go down to the potter’s house and there I will give you my message so I went down to the potter’s house and I saw him walking at the wheel’’.

But the pot he was shaping from the clay was marred in his hands; so the potter formed it into another pot, shaping it as seems best to him. Then the word of the Lord came to me; “oh house of

Israel, can I not do to you even as the potter does? Declares the Lord”. Like clay in the hands of the potter, so are you in my hands oh house of Israel. We are on the potter’s wheel and God is shaping us into the individual vessels that he wants us to become. We are literally clay in the potter’s hand. This is and should be a humble thought. However, we often think of ourselves as much more than ordinary clay. In fact, sometimes we don’t even think of ourselves as clay at all instead we see ourselves more in the role of the potters than clay, according to Wickstorm (2014), this is one of the classic passages in the Bible where God reveals how to deal with human lives.

God is the potter; we are the clay. With this verse, one can clearly see again how the Lord God again recognizes the power and importance of clay. So also in Isaiah 64 verse 8 it says yet, o Lord, you are our father. We are the clay; you are the potter; we are all the work of your hand”.

Origin and Sources of Clay

Clay as an earthly plastic material; is plastic when wet but hard and rock like after it has been fired and it is sourced from river banks, construction sites, with some covered by layers of overburdened laterite Wangboje (1982). Ahuwan and Counts (1989) asserts clay as a natural aggregation of fine-grained mineral fragments in various stages of decay and are also sourced mostly from swampy areas. The mineral combines with water to form pure clay whose composition is expressed chemically as AI203 + 2Si02 + 2h20, as stated by Dodd, (1967). However, nearly all clay contains some impurities. It is these impurities and variations in the basic formula

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that accounts for the different characteristics of the numerous clay types. Clay as a basic raw material for the potter could be sourced from different areas such as; a. Riverbanks b. Swampy areas, using geological map survey c. Road constructions or mining pits d. Central supply stores. e. Wells f. Anthills

Clay according to Gukas and Datiri (2001) is formed as a result of the decomposition of an igneous rock. This decomposition they said can only take place as a result of some geological hypogenic actions which results from the mixture of gases and vapour in the interior of the earth’s crust over a very long period of time which must be about 280 million years. In the same vein, Pius (2015), stated that clay is formed from the disintegration of granite or feldspathic rocks acted upon by heat, ice, water and wind and that the existence of pottery depends largely on the widespread group of this earthly substance known as clay. He further said that clay found on or beneath the earth surface are so varied in the composition and properties that they need to be well studied before use.

Characteristics of Clay Before and During Use

Clay has the following characteristics which area;

a. plasticity/ malleability: clay before use should be malleable (flexible) enough to be turned or shaped into any choice easily b. Shrinkage: most clays shrink when dried/ fired. The shrinkage level varies from one clay type to the other depending on the particle size of the clay and the amount of water used in the mixture of such clays. c. Fire ability: Any clay that is used should be able to withstand a very high temperature heat during firing be it bisque of glaze firing. Its ability to withstand deformity accounts a lot in determining the quality and suitability of such clay for meaningful production, especially for ceramics and refractories.

Uses of Clay

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When one first hears of clay, the first thing that comes to mind may be the production of pots only. But clay is used for so many things, few of which will be discussed here. Clay has been used to design and produce varieties of household wares that are commonly known and used such as storage pots, cooking pots, eating pots, musical instruments, ceremonial pots, and many more functional wares, It has been used to produce special pots for people and substances as well as part of daily life events, but clay has now been used for the production of different functional tools for everyday use like the sparking plug of a car is made of clay, the abrasive for grinding nuts and grains are also made of clay, electrical insulators, bathing tubs, tiles, bricks, sanitary wares asbestos, tablets (drugs), magnets and so many others. The power of clay cannot be over emphasized and neglected. With that in mind, below are some few uses of clay that has been stated and explained:

a. Health

In the health aspect, clay as stated in Zion health (2018), in native India and African tribes, they use clay for treating stomach ulcers, insect bites, bounds and digestive illness. It was also stated that animals instinctively travel long distances searching for this magical earth mineral that gives them important nutrients they cannot get from foods. The minerals found in clay provide many benefits to peoples who choose to incorporate its use into their daily lives. According to the research, the healing properties found in the trace mineral provide a wonderful, natural alternative to chemicals found in most manufactured products. One can willingly agree with the above statements for in Africa, most pregnant women like eating, chewing or licking clay during pregnancy which also aids them control or calm any nausea feelings or uneasiness during pregnancy.

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b. Child Development and Creativity

Funny but true clay plays a very important role in the development of a child according to Storm

(2018), an artist and ceramic teacher, she stated that in her several years of teaching, she has witnessed how invaluable the experience of working with clay is for sensory development, motor skills, self-esteem and self-expression, problem solving skills, discipline and pride. She observed also in her words “clay has a uniquely therapeutic quality that I have seen settle and calm children’’; it retains their attention for hours”. Clay is a unique art medium because it is highly responsive to touch and very forgiving. Mbahi and Nkom (2016) mentioned clay also as one of the materials used in teaching cultural and creative arts for kids. This is also the view of Barnabas

(2017), who listed clay as one of the materials used for teaching children’s creativity. As soon as children are given clay, they immediately begin to mould and shape it. They become aware that they are in charge and have influence over the medium as it is quick to respond to their fingers.

The feeling that they are in command of the clay gives the students the confidence to attempt any project which opens door to greater self -expression and imagination.

Clay also allows a child to learn to repair mistakes and therefore not be afraid of them. The forgiving quality of clay, and therefore the ability to readily fix mistakes, gives a child a sense of control over their project success which improves self -esteem and self -expression as they realize that mistakes won’t stop their progress. Storm observed that clay has the power for;

a. Sensory development and motor skill of a child b. Esteem and expression c. Problem solving d. Discipline e. Calming effect f. Pride and self- worth

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Clay is therefore valuable to children’s achievements, teaching of ceramic with the philosophy that the process is more important than the product.

c. Economic Gain and Development

Nigeria is richly blessed with an abundance of raw materials among which is clay that is cheap, readily available and commonly found, but this available material is not properly and adequately utilized. Nigeria which is a developing country has a lot to gain using its natural resources especially clay for economic gain and development. Nigeria is a developing or under developed economy. Nigeria potters have produced great works and ceramic wares but these have not been favourable to compete with global standards. Great potters such as the Giri pottery in Abuja,

Nigeria and Ladi kwali pottery also in Abuja Nigeria, the Nupe vessels of Niger state, Nigeria, to mention but a few have not been able to meet global standards because of several challenges facing the African continents. Gukas (2007), he stated that successive governments in Nigeria have been looking for ways of using local resources to improve the economic status of the country and observed also that clay is one of the most abundant minerals that the country has.

It is one thing for African countries to be considered as developing or under-developed economies.

In Nigeria, for instance, the economy is fast declining into the worst economic recession the country has ever experienced, due to the fall in the oil price which is the mainstay of the country’s economy and its over dependents on imported goods. One of the ways recommends to get out of economic recession is to diversify the economy by venturing into other aspects of generating income for the country. The government is advocating for entrepreneurship and self-reliance especially in both the rural and semi-urban areas. One business opportunity that can be explored is the ceramic/pottery which 85% of the needed clay raw materials are locally sourced and in

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abundance. If properly utilized and explored, the power of clay would be seen and appreciated for economic growth and development of a developing nation.

d. Industries

Clay if properly utilized has the power to create job opportunities to our unemployed youths in its clay and allied industries. Clay products like bricks, tiles, (floor, wall and roofing); sanitary wares, sewage pipes and the like, can conveniently help to build environment industry. With a little support from government and entrepreneurs, a lot can be achieved from the clay industry. Unlike

Nigeria where most of its burnt bricks and tiles industries has gone moribund, these similar industries in the far east thrive so well that they contribute very significantly to the economy of countries like Turkey and Iran. Harder, (2004) in Kashim and Akinbogun (2007), state that at present, over 350 companies which produce bricks with a total capacity of about 5,500 million units by day, and over 70 companies that turn out over 850,000 units of roofing tiles of classic designs a day account greatly for a good percentage of the annual earnings of these countries, in addition to meeting their domestic needs for their built environment. Most burnt bricks all over the world are of high advantage to the user as they offer the same advantage to the user as they offer the following advantages;

- Thermal expansion; 0.00000690f - Thermal conductivity ranges; 1.29-3.79btu (hr) - Modulus of elasticity of tiles; 1.620,000-6,059,000opsi - Water (H2O) of absorption of tiles ranges; between 0-5 %

These offer and meet basic standards of the built environment, particularly that they are

produced of clay. Nigeria as a country can take advantage of the abundance of its clay deposits

for the production of clay products just like other nations of the world for the lifting and

diversification of the economic base of the country, in addition to the provision of employment

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the government puts in for our teeming youths that roam the streets in the cities for white collar

–jobs. In addition, if the government puts in interest and supports researchers with funds to

carry out researches on clay found in our country Nigeria and the clay processed, it will end

and encourage the government on reviving our ceramic industries that have been neglected and

create job opportunities, our industry would be more functional and would be among the

countries exporting ceramic wares out instead of importing which would also attract foreign

investors and tourist.

e. Clay in Space Exploration

Clay has been found to be of great value in Space exploration. It has been established for

instance that porcelain (a clay body) formed a good part of the engine and other part of the jet

engine that was used in space exploration to the moon. Neil Armstrong (1969), in Manzuche

(2003), states that,’’ The safe stay we had in the moon when landed was a result of the role of

porcelain used in the construction of jet parts.’’ This, the authors of this article believed was

very effective due to the potentials in porcelain to resist high temperature. The engine of the

rocket or jet used for the exploration of the moon, the authors believe, would have possibly

failed due to excessive heat it emits, if materials used were not heat resistant in nature. In like

manner, ceramic materials/ products made from clay have been found to be characterized by

exceedingly hard and strong structures that make them offer exceptional resistance to wear and

tear with most of them being able to withstand higher temperatures than the best metal alloys,

(Ewule, 2003).

f. Clay in the Petroleum Industry

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It has become evidently clear that the use of clay is not left for the porter alone. Clay has

been found to be of great significance in the petroleum industry. Bentonite, a clay type with

very high plasticity due to its particle size has been found to be very suitable in the drilling

process of crude oil as it forms filter cakes on the walls of the well. This, in turn, prevents

drilling fluid loss and also keeps ground water from entering the drilling bit. In like manner,

Bentonite also keeps barites in suspension during the drilling process in order to prevent

blowouts.

g. Eco-Friendly Flame –Retardant Made from Plants and Clay.

Recent research reveals that retardants that are nontoxic, can be produced from vermiculite

clay, combined with cellulose Nano fibrils (tiny fibers) obtained from plants ‘cell walls,

applied in multiple layers as water based solution. This serves as a non-combustible,

oxygen- impermeable barrier, minimizing the amount of heat that can reach the material

underneath. According to Qin, Pour, Lazar, Koklukaya, Gerringer, Song, Wagberg, and

Grunlan, (2018), The Nano brick wall structure of the coating reduces the temperature

experienced by the underlying form which delays combustion, “Similarly, “this coating

also serves to promote insulating char formation and reduces the release of fumes that feed

a fire. “this research reveals how the effects of fire hazards and risk can grossly be

minimized in homes using this device. Indeed, clay has great power to increase

environmental health, safety and security.

Recommendations

Based on the above discussion, the paper came up with the following recommendations:

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a. The federal, State and Local Government should see the feasibility of research to be carried out in the various environment of the local materials in their environs especially clay to see how it would be used to promote economic growth of the area. b. Government should support and encourage researchers with funds to enable them survey and analyze the local materials found in their areas to help enrich our country Nigeria c. Ceramic Researchers Association of Nigeria (CeRAN), should see how they can link up with government at all levels to see to the up liftmen and reviving of ceramic industries in our country for economic gain and employment. d. Academic institutions should be seen to be encouraging students on the need to study ceramics for national development and self-empowerment, and should be encouraged and taught on how to be productive and self- reliance after graduation e. Academic teachers/lecturers should be seen practising ceramic production and not only teaching in other to encourage the younger ones.

Conclusion

In conclusion, clay plays a very important role in our daily living; the power of clay cannot be overlooked as even our Lord God too acknowledged the power of clay right from creation. It is therefore interesting to note that, the characteristics of clay are very much associated with man’s behaviours because man is made from clay. Thus he behaves and acts the same as the clay. From arts, clay is the source of past events and can be successfully stored, traced and reveals the past knowledge to improve the present and future technology of this planet. More so, owing to the humble, gentle and obedient characteristics of clay in responding easily to human conceptualization, the world communities should expect greater technological developments in no distant future as long as clay continues to be appreciated and is giving a better position and utilization on this earth.

References

Ahuwan, A.M (1989), You can be a Potter; A Beginners Guide. University of Maiduguri press. Asamoah, R.B; Nyakson, E; Agyei- Tuffour, B; Afavi, J.K; Kan-dapaa,K;Apalangya, V.A; Damoah, L.N.W; Dodoo-Arhin, D; Tiburu, E.K;Kwofie, S.K; Onwona-Agyeman,B& Yaya, A. (2018). Industrial Application of Clay Materials from Ghana. A Review. An International Journal of Pure and Applied Chemistry. ANOPAL Orient J Chem 2018

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;34(4)http:www.orientjchem.org/?p=48447. Barnabas S.D, ( 2017), Home Environment and Children’s Creativity in Art. Sunjo A.J Global links LTD Abubakar Kigo road kaduna. Dodd, A .E, (1967), Dictionary of ceramics Littlefield, Adams & co.New Totowa, New Jersy. Ewule ,E (2003), Clay and its many uses. Ashakwu Journal of Ceramics, vol.1.1 Dasma press Zaria, Nigeria. Gukas, H.J & Datiri Y.C. (2001), The art of pottery published by C.C Communications Jos Gukas, H.J ( 2007). Developing clay bodies to fasten ceramics development in Nigeria; the role of A.B.U staff and student. Published in An anthology of modern Nigerian art. Published by art dialectics forum in collaboration with the department of fine and applied art’ Ahmadu Bello University Zaria, Nigeria. Pp 107 Kashim, I.B,& Akinbogun, T.L. (2007). Contemporary Nigeria Pottery at Crossroad; Delima of Ceramic Practice as Art, Science and Engineering in the New Millennium. Ashakwu Journal of Ceramics. Vol.4.2. Dasma Press, Zaria Nigeria. Manzuche ,S.M.A. (2003). The Role of Clay in Technological Development. Ashakwu Journal Of Ceramics. Vol.1.1. Dasma Press. Mbahi, A.A & Nkom R.A. ( 2016), Cultural and Creative Arts in the 9-years Basic Education Leniaja Publishers Limited Maiduguri Pius , O .(2015). Ceramics at a Glance. Revised edition published in Nigeria by; AMBLK press ltd. Storms P. (2018). Lake Side Pottery; the importance of clay and pottery in a child’s development Lakeside pottery studio The Holy Bible ; New international version (NIV) Printed in China 2013 The Holy Koran Wangboje , I, S (1982). Art for Junior Secondary Schools Evans Brothers Nigeria Publishers Limited. Wickstrom, S.P. (2015) The potter- part one. The potter’s wheel of life. www.spwickstrom.com/potter pdf Zion health healing from the earth, many uses of clay (2017) retrived 22/jan./2019 @6;10pm

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EXPLORATION OF THE INTRINSIC POTENTIALS OF ANTHILL STRUCTURES IN PAINTINGS DINGBA, S. A Department of Visual and Creative Arts Faculty of Arts Federal University Lafia, Nasarawa State, Nigeria.

Abstract ______An exploration of the intrinsic potentials of anthill structures was aimed at developing paintings from the images and imageries embedded on anthills. The paper X - rays the aesthetic possibilities of anthill structures, it reviewed works that are based on images, forms, imageries and patterns, which could be found in nature. Participant observation and explorative methodologies were engaged during the collection of data. Series of sketches and drawings of selected anthill structures were made at the preliminary stage of the study to explore the diverse structure of anthills. Pictures of the anthills captured were uploaded to the laptop/computer where images were zoomed three to four times to scrutinize the inherent anthill structures. These were depicted in both representational and non-representational paintings carried out by the researcher in the present study, to illustrate that a painter could take works through inspiration and idea to realism and eventually, abstraction. To illustrate these, the practical works of the researcher was executed in six stages depicting from the known to the unknown as follows; Representational stage, Semi representational stage, figural infusion, geometric interface, rendition in liquid, and abstraction. The paper concludes that structures are naturally in existence and can be extracted from the elements of nature to create varieties of aesthetic surface qualities in paintings.

Keywords: Exploration, potentials, anthill, structures, paintings. ______

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Introduction Nature and its elements have been the foremost sources of inspiration to art practice over the years. For example, artists from as early as the fifteenth century derived inspiration from their environment. Dingba and Rabo (2018) remark that the quest for individualistic style among artists across the globe is unarguably evident and has a long history. Dingba (2018) points the view that a consistent exploration of elements of nature, ideas and subjective thoughts are capable of leading to novel forms and techniques. The result of such inspiration manifests in different ways and one of such forms is landscape painting. This reveals the delineation of an expansive environment, depicting the physical environment and forms for aesthetic purposes such as mountains, anthills, figures, forestry and several other images found within the environment Dingba (2010). Anthills, like the early efforts at painting referred to above, have also been found in our environment from early times to the present. The intention of this research is to stimulate our creative and critical gaze at anthill as a subject of artistic contemplation. This is with a view to scrutinizing it carefully, and going beyond its appreciation as an element of landscape, which emerged from a natural process, to a visualization of what other potentials could be intrinsic in the anthill for further exploration in art. A careful appreciation of the physical features and compositional manifestation of some anthill structures, contemplated from an artistic viewpoint for example, normal positioning of some anthills could imply a conceptual image or pattern that could be interpreted to either be something that looks like a figure or image of something. These are patterns that are considered in the present study since observation of the structures built by the ants reveals forms, lines, and images, the regular patterns of the anthills are in themselves so exotic to one who appreciates visual arts.

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Buhari (1984), is of the opinion that close-up studies of landscape can provide stimulating experience, and also have certain qualities that can lead one through an artistic experience. The present study is carried out with a view to establishing an evolutionary and developmental artistic trend from natural structures, from which there is possibility of a progression towards achieving a state of non-naturalism /abstraction using ideas that can be generated from contemplation of anthills. Dingba (2010) defined an anthill in its simplest form as a unique part of the landscape, as a pile of earth, sand, pine, needles or a composition of these and other materials that are built at the subterranean dwellings of the ant colonies as they are excavated.

A colony is built and maintained by legions of worker ants that carry tiny bits of dirt or vegetation in their mandibles and deposit them near the exit of the colony forming an anthill. They normally deposit the dirt on the vegetation at the top of the hill to prevent it from sliding back into the colony, but in some species, they actively “sculpt” the materials into specific shapes and may create nest chambers within the mound. Anon (2008), also notes further that in some parts of the world including English-speaking countries of Africa, in common speech, the term anthill (also written as “anthill”) refers to a termite mound. An ant colony is an underground layer where ants live. Colonies consist of a series of underground chambers connected to each other and at the surface of the earth by small tunnels. There are rooms for nurseries, food storage and mating in the anthill structure.

Statement of the Problem

The problem of this research is that, despite the aesthetic nature of anthill patterns, artists have not explored its possibilities in painting. Therefore, the research sought a painter’s visual aesthetic interpretation of the structure of anthills. Volumes of research have been carried out on landscape painting, and the anthill structure has been generally considered as part of the landscape.

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The anthill structure, created through a process of the natural activities of ants, is in itself a piece of visual art, from which an art appreciator can derive aesthetic appeal. However, beyond artists and critics seeing the anthill structure as a curious piece which forms part of the theme of a natural landscape, a germane question that arises is whether or not it can also be a momentous object for scrutiny or study in painting in its own right? It is based on these concerns that the key task of this research is to study, observe, visualize and interpret structures of anthills, which may subsequently lead to the creation of shapes, lines and forms that would open up vistas of possibilities for thrilling and unique paintings abstracted from anthill structure.

This paper is a research report based on a process that is both theoretical and practical; theoretical in the sense that it is a scholarly work based on analysis of both previous and current issues relating to aesthetic possibilities in landscape painting, particularly of anthills; and practical component in the sense that, the exploration of aesthetic possibilities in anthill painting is not only discussed but has already been practically tried out in a number of paintings done by the researcher.

Ecological Importance of Anthills Krishna (2004) revealed that larger termite mound (anthills) plays a role in providing a habitat for plants especially plains in Africa that are seasonally inundated by a rainy season, provides a retreat above the water for smaller animals like birds, and a growing medium for woody shrubs with root systems that cannot withstand inundation for several weeks. In addition, Krishna stressed further that scorpions, lizards, snakes, small mammals and birds leave in abandoned or weathered mounds, and Aardvarks dig substantial caves burrows in them, which then become homes for larger animals such as hyenas and mongooses. Detrivores, termites clear away litter and so reduce the severity of the animal bush fires in Africa Savannas, which are not as destructive as those in

Australia and the United States of America. Engel (2005) furthermore confirmed that the presence

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of anthills results in a greater diversity of flora and fauna in grassland habitat. Several insect-eating birds feed on ants, but the most specialized is the Green Woodpecker. Although it nests in tree holes, it feeds mainly on grassland ants, which may be as much as 80% of its winter diet. The wood pecker pecks into the mound, breaking into the galleries and gathers the ants with its extraordinarily long tongue which it protrudes deep into the mound. The sun-warmed soil of an anthill attracts many other insects, for example the Common Field Grasshopper prefers the soil of the mound for egg laying. The mounds make good basking sites for butterflies like the small copper and reptiles such as the common lizard. Anthills have a different micro-climate and soil composition to the surrounding acid grassland and this favors different species of fungi, lichens, mosses, grasses and other flowering plants help to bind the mound surface.

Theoretical Frame Work

The anthills are realistic object which means they exist in real life, and an artist has the option to approach the structure in realism, abstraction, cubism, impressionism, surrealism and so on. Many artists create paintings from realism e.g. Rembrandt, Caravaggio, Kefas Dajuma and

Jerry Buhari, but this research is interested in an abstract interpretation on anthill structures. In line with this view, abstract art is usually associated with art of the twentieth century. In Western art, abstraction is one without a recognisable subject, one which does not relate to anything external. Instead the colour, form (and often the materials and support) are the subject of the abstract painting. It’s completely non-objective or non- representational. A further distinction tends to be made between abstract art, which is geometric, such as the work of Mondrian, and abstract art that is more fluid (and where the apparent spontaneity often belies careful planning and execution), such as the abstract art of Kandinsky or Pollock. Anon (2011). Works of abstract

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painters like Senthil Kumar and Kathryn Crocker are also stirring in this research since they derived inspiration from the elements of nature which also shares affinity with this study. The free

Encyclopaedia (2011) expresses the view that figurative abstractions are abstractions or simplifications of reality, where detail is eliminated from recognisable objects leaving only the essence or some degree of recognisable form. In Western art history, the break from the notion that a painting had to represent something happened in the early 20th century. Impressionism,

Fauvism, Cubism and other art movements of the time all contributed by the “rules” of art followed since the Renaissance. Impressionism saw painters not “finishing” their paintings. The Fauvism used colour in a non- realistic way. Cubism introduced the idea of painting an object from more than one viewpoint. From all these the idea developed that colour, line, form, textures and structures could be the “subject” of the painting. Abstract Expressionism, which emerged in the

1940s, applied the principle of expressionism to abstract painting. The action painting of Jackson

Pollock, in which paint was dripped, dropped, smeared, spattered, or thrown on the canvas, is a good example. In 1864 the critic Ernest Chesneau wrote that if the trend the impressionists were setting continued, paintings would eventually consist of nothing but “two” broadly brushed areas of colour.

Fig 1: Anthill landscape 1990 Phillip Obed Gushem, Oil on canvas Size-22 X 78cm Source: Transformation of selected landscapes of Savannah Region in Painting. Unpublished MFA Thesis

“Anthill landscape” (fig.1) is one of the series from the study of transformation of the savannah landscape of northern Nigeria. In this painting, forms are broken down into segments and

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represented in bits, merged and condensed linearly to overlap in some places. Trees are seen at the background of the anthill, which breaks the perspective into three segments, the fore ground, background and the sky. The artist depicted the curvilinear renderings within the central right part of the composition in form of ridges or farmland. There is so much depiction of lines from the foreground to the sky to highlight foliage and other element, which suggest the anthills. Most of the forms are defined with lines. This painting suggests an advanced stage in the developmental stage of the researcher’s work because the anthill is not detailed. There are similarities in the choice of colours, which is also seen in this study. The earthly nature always affects the choice of colour adopted by the artist to portray anthill structure for example burnt umber, ochre, seen in the research. This work is relevant to this research in that, it shows the exploratory stage of the study where anthill structure is clearly visible in its natural habitat.

Fig. 2: Artist - Gani Odutokun. Untitled. Source: Not given

The characteristics openings and perforations that look like doors and windows which are also executed in this study is one of the basic features commonly seen on the anthill structure.

Looking at Odutokun’s “Untitled” (fig.2), from right to left, is a portrayal of brown earth colour suggesting the irregular forms of a typical anthill in a landscape. The faintness of the brown colour towards the middle of the canvas (work) also suggests dept. The colour reseeds to the background

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projecting the forms to the foreground. The choice of colours used in the painting is the natural colours of the anthill mostly different gradations of browns, ochre, and yellow. Patches of greens are depicted to suggest vegetation. The painting is done using the liquidize method which gives the work an artistic effect where the image in the composition is projected out on the surface of the canvas as he manipulated the colours in the dripping manner. Fosu (1981) examines the manner in which Odutokun impressively translates his thoughts into visual symbols as new horizon in art.

He makes the observation that Odutokun employs the techniques that allows his colours to flow so that the patterns arrange themselves. The effect derived in the cause of the dripping manner here; facilitates the realization of pattern, which relates to exploring the aesthetic possibilities of anthill structure as in this study.

Methodology

The methodology includes participant observation, by constant visitation to anthill sites where the researcher observed various anthill structures at different views and made a close-up study on the intrinsic aesthetic qualities of the anthill structure. Series of sketches and drawings of the selected anthill structures were made in the preliminary stage of the study to enable the researcher familiarize with the structure of the anthill. Pictures of anthills captured were uploaded to the laptop/computer where images were zoomed three to four times to scrutinize the inherent anthill structure and depicted in representational and non-representational painting as the practical studio exploration and experiment. The data collected for this study was through sketches, photographs and the employment of the computer for detail frames of anthills.

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The Place of Colour

Anthill structures are known with their natural colures but the researcher did not restrict herself to colour usage. This is because the painting was influenced by the natural habitat of the anthill structure of greens, blue, brown and yellow. The dominant use of green in the painting suggests vegetation. This is because, anthills are usually surrounded by vegetation while blue suggest the atmosphere, as the sky. These colours are described philosophically as follows; Brown conveys orderliness, wholesomeness and stability. Green is said to be recreational and soothing; it aids in alleviating nervousness and anxiety which gives a feeling of harmony while yellow activates memory and is mentally stimulating Squidoo (2008).

Plate I. Survival of the Fittest, Oil on canvas 90X100cm, Collection of the Artist

“Survival of the fittest” (Plate I) is the realistic stage of the study; it shows the rendition of foliage and grasses where the foreground is also vegetated with greens and yellows. This, to some extent influenced the use of green extensively as an element of the landscape, which suggests greenery because anthills are usually surrounded by vegetation, which the researcher became conversant with due to constant visit to anthill sites. The interplay of various forms on the ant mould seems to create images sprouting out their heads for survival as the title implies.

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Plate II: Expectation, Oil on Cheap Board, 15X20cm. Collection of the Artist “Expectation” (Plate II) which is surrealistic rendered was inspired by the researcher’s vision towards anthills. The researcher incorporated both the anthill and human forms as a result of the study carried out. Here, the forms are simplified. The sky is heavily portrayed with different shades of blues, yellow, red, green and brown. In the composition is an anthill infused with a woman and a bowl waiting in anticipation. Philosophically, the image in expectation suggests gender sensitive. The woman just like the leopard in Crag Bore’s painting, shares affinity with this painting, as they both wait patiently. While the leopard is ambushing a prey, the woman who seems to be a beggar, with an empty bowl placed in front of her, waits in expectation for alms and other helps.

Plate III. Harmony, Oil on canvas 25X30cm. Collection of the Artist

“Harmony” (Plate III) was based on an experiment with motifs and composition to depict a mood. Choice of colours used is different tones of red, blue, orange, green and purple. The abstracted forms exhibit some of the features of the anthill like cracks, hollows, patterns and

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perforations. It was meant to capture the harmony of nature as people living together in a state of peaceful agreement.

Plate IV. Lost Oil on canvas, 25X35cm. Collection of the Artist

“Lost I” (Plate IV) shows a close-up study of the anthill achieved by zooming to get a close-up detail. It is a display of patterns widely spread with an image looking up and unable to find its way. The painting is depicted with colours like ochre, brown with a hollow suggesting entrance. The surface seems very rough with numerous cracks and patterns, which are manipulated heavily due to the thickness of the pigment.

Findings showed varying painting composition abound in anthill structures. From the outcome of the study, the researcher discovered that the anthill has limited colours but when manipulated with harmonious colours may create exciting and interesting discoveries of patterns.

The research revealed that other hidden potentials are inherent in the anthill structure such as enigmas, lines, forms, shapes, textures that could be explored for painting compositions using anthills as metaphoric inspirations.

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Conclusion

In conclusion, nature has gained importance as a means of inspiration to artists. It is apparent that many artists over time derived inspiration from nature. “Landscape” is defined by

Hornby (2004) as “everything you can see when you gaze across a large area of land, especially in the country. In dissimilarity, other works depicts the landscape and its elements as study of nature not a focused study on the anthill itself. In this research, the similarities are derived from some works, which depict anthills, yet with differences in themes. The differences could also be viewed from the actuality that research exertion is an academic exercise with the aspiration of documenting procedures and results derived. In the review, works are discussed bearing different tittles or themes ranging from the physical features and elements of landscape but works produced in the course of this study is centred on an exploration of the intrinsic potentials of anthill structures, visualizing hidden potentials intrinsic in the anthill structure is fascinating and entails a lot which can be adapted to be explored in painting while looking at other possibilities within the anthill for paintings.

References Buhari, J. (1984) Aspects of Gwari Life as sources of inspiration for contemporary Nigerian painters M.F.A. unpublished Thesis Report. Fine Arts Department library, Ahmadu Bello University Zaria. Caravaggio. (2011). Britannica student Library. Ultimate References Suite. Chicago: Encyclopaedia Britannica Danjuma, K. N. (2010) Comparative Study of the Paintings of Gani Odutokun and Jerry Buhari. An Unpublished Ph. D Dissertation, Department of Fine Arts, Ahmadu Bello University Zaria pp 7-8. Dingba, A. S (2015). A Metaphoric Transformation of the Pawpaw Tree Form into Female Forms in Painting. Unpublished Ph. D Thesis. Ahmadu Bello University, Nigeria. Dingba, A. S. (2010). A Painters Visual Interpretation of the Structure of Anthill in Painting. Unpublished MFA Dissertation, Ahmadu Bello University, Zaria, Nigeria. Dingba, A. S. (2018). The Aesthetic Qualities of Anthill Structure, Journal of Ceramics and Environmental Design, JOCED Vol. 5, No 1, March, 2018 pp 255- 264

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Dingba A. S. and Rabo E. S (2018) Symbolic Synopsis of Mua’zu Mohammed Sani’s Selected Paintings, Maiduguri Journal of Arts and Design (MAIDJAD), Department of Visual and Performing Arts. Vol 3 March. Engel, M.S. and Krishna, K. (2004). “Family group names for termites (isopteran)”, American Museum Novitates 341:1-9 Gushem, O.P, (1990): Transformation of selected Landscapes of Savannah Region in painting. Unpublished MFA thesis. Ahmadu Bello University, Zaria, Nigeria. Grimaldi, D, and Engel, M.S. (2005). Evolution of the Insects. Cambridge University press. Squidoo, (2008). htt://www.Squidoo.Com/color_and_mood Termite Encyclopaedia (2011) Britannica online Library Edition. http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki /isopteran #social organisation. Retrieved 19/11/2011 at 14:54

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ENTREPRENEURSHIP IN APPLIED ARTS: A TOOL FOR SELF- RELIANCE IN NIGERIA AJAYI, A. O. and OMOKANYE, P. S. Department of Fine and Applied Arts, Adeyemi Federal University of Education, Ondo. Nigeria

Abstract ______Entrepreneurship and art are two among many unique factors of self-development. Entrepreneur plays a vital role in the process of economic growth and development. As a result of increasing interest in creativity and the need for economic diversification in the nation, many people have come to realize that it is possible to stand independently as an artist or a craftsman and live successfully without having to depend on white collar jobs except where there is opportunity for such. Applied arts, which consists of graphics, textiles, ceramics and industrial design are major areas of specialization in which any focused skillful human being can make a fortune. This study takes a look into the various enterprises and their activities in the areas under applied arts, examine the nature of management practices and problems like finance, communication, etc. that are being encountered by these entrepreneurs and goes further to make recommendations based on the findings. This is believed will be of great assistance to potential entrepreneurs and new aspirants into the world of entrepreneurship.

Keywords: Applied arts, business, creativity, design, entrepreneur, practice, product, skill.

______

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Introduction

Entrepreneurship has traditionally been defined as the process of designing, launching and running a new business, which typically begins as a small business, such as a startup company, offering a product, process or service for sale or hire. The people who create these businesses are called 'entrepreneurs' (Yetisen, 2015). An entrepreneur is also defined as a person who starts, organizes and manages any enterprise, especially a business, usually with considerable initiative and risk. Rather than working as an employee, an entrepreneur runs a small business and assumes all the risk and reward of a given business venture, idea, or goods or services offered for sale. The entrepreneur is commonly seen as a business leader and innovator of new ideas and business processes. Entrepreneurs tend to be good at perceiving new business opportunities and they often exhibit positive biases in their perception and a pro-risk-taking attitude that makes them more likely to exploit the opportunity (Zhang and Cueto 2015).

Entrepreneurial spirit is characterized by innovation and risk-taking. While entrepreneurship is often associated with new, small and for-profit start-ups. Entrepreneurial practices can be seen in small, medium- and large-sized firms, new and established firms and in both profit and non-profit organizations, including voluntary sector groups, charitable organizations and government. For example, in the 2000s, the field of social entrepreneurship has been identified, in which entrepreneurs combine business activities with humanitarian, environmental or community goals (Clifford, 2016).

Applied art is practical oriented, in other words, it is more of engagement than theorizing.

It involves the role players engaging actively in producing items as end results which can be converted or exchanged for money. Hence entrepreneurial practice is much applicable to applied

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arts. It is an aspect of art where individuals without artistic traits can venture and make meaningful and noticeable results, and the numerous methods of production in the various applied arts trade can be learnt easily. Engaging in arts practice as an entrepreneur does not require much capital, though substantial availability of fund enhances level of productivity. But at whatever financial capacity, applied arts as entrepreneurial practice is lucrative and there are good opportunities for self-empowerment. There are also tools and equipment needed for production which can be acquired easily.

Applied Arts

Applied art is an aspect of art that deals mainly with art works that can be reproduced. It is the application of design and decoration to everyday objects to make them aesthetically pleasing and functional. The term is applied in distinction from the fine arts which aims to produce objects which are mainly for aesthetics or provide intellectual stimulation. Moreover, in practice, the two often overlap. Entrepreneurial practice in the applied arts is a good way of ensuring financial empowerment and security.

There are many areas of discipline in applied arts but the most commonly engaged are the fields of industrial design, graphic design, fashion design, interior design, ceramics, and the decorative arts are considered as applied arts. A few of them which will make a more localized entrepreneurial practice are discussed further.

Graphic Design: Graphic designing is the process of visual communication using one or more of colour, typography, photography and at times illustration. A graphic designer creates and combine symbols, images and text to form visual representations of ideas and to transmit information making use of typography and visual compositions. Common uses of graphic design include corporate design (logos and branding), editorial design (magazines, newspapers and

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books), environmental design, advertising, web design, communication design, product packaging and signage. Traditionally, entrepreneurial practice in graphic design is popular with graphic designers who are also known as “sign writers”. They are engaged in graphics production such as sign writing, screen printing or serigraphy. Some of them with artistic talent engage in other art practices as portraiture, which they easily use to find potential customers that patronize them.

Fashion Design: Fashion design is the art of application of design and aesthetics or natural beauty to clothing and accessories. Fashion design is influenced by cultural and social attitudes, and has varied form of appreciation over time and place. Fashion designers work in a number of ways in designing clothing and accessories such as bracelets and necklaces. Because of the time required to bring a garment onto the market, designers must at times anticipate changes to consumer tastes. Fashion designers attempt to design clothes which are functional as well as aesthetically pleasing. They consider the individual who is likely to wear a garment and the situations in which it will be worn. They have a wide range and combinations of materials to work with and a wide range of colors, patterns and styles to choose from. Though most clothing worn for everyday activities falls within a range of conventional styles. Unusual garments are usually sought for special occasions such as evening wear or ceremonial outings. Today, most clothings are designed for the mass market, especially casual and every-day wear is called ready-to-wear.

Entrepreneurial practice in fashion design is more lucrative in the present dispensation. There are many short and free online courses that can be assessed for basic training. Establishing a small- scale fashion design outfit does not need much capital, most of what is required apart from sewing machine, other items such as design templates and consumables materials can be sourced locally.

Creative intuition and personal interest can be a driving force behind a successful entrepreneur in fashion designing.

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Ceramics Art: The word "ceramics" comes from the Greek keramikos meaning "pottery", which by extension comes from keramos meaning "potter's clay" (The Webster Encyclopedic

Dictionary). Ceramics is the art made from ceramic materials, including clay. Its finished product includes earthen ware, tiles, figurines, sculpture and tableware. While some ceramics are considered fine art, some are considered to be decorative, industrial or applied art objects.

Ceramics may also be considered artefacts in the study of archaeology. There is a long history of ceramic art in almost all developed cultures, and often ceramic objects are all the artistic evidence left from vanished cultures, like that of the Nok in Nigeria over 2,000 years ago. Cultures especially noted for ceramics include the Chinese, Cretan, Greek, Persian, Mayan, Japanese, and

Korean, as well as some modern Western cultures. Ceramic art can be made by one person or by a group of people. In a pottery or ceramic factory, the process of production is sectionalized; a group of people design, another manufacture, while another decorates the art ware. Products from a pottery according to Art Pottery Manufacturers and Collectors (2017) are sometimes referred to as "art pottery". Most traditional ceramic products are made from clay (or clay mixed with other materials), shaped and subjected to heat (firing).

There are many methods of production that can be used in processing ceramic wares. The most popular ones are throwing, liquid casting and hand-built. The basic production line include molding with clay, then first firing (biscuit or terracotta) and finally glazing. Ceramic wares are ready for domestic use after the first firing because there is a transformation from the clay or green ware stage through thermal treatment to a more permanent ware when it can retain liquid.

Indigenous machinery and source of primary material would make a profitable entrepreneurial experience. For example, locally built kiln powered with firewood or kernel shell will be more profitable than that of gas or electric. When indigenous technology is embraced, it is cost effective.

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Many entrepreneurs in Nigeria could not expand their business scope because of challenges brought about by the dwindling economic conditions. Lack of financial support is the major setback for a business enterprise to thrive; others include, proper training of manpower, etc.

Problems of Entrepreneurs in Nigeria The problem and challenges of entrepreneurs’ survival in business has been an object of research. Ofili (2014) who conducted an extensive research on this issue concluded that the following factors militates against their survival,

1. poor state of electricity and other key infrastructures. 2. skilled labourers are not always available, 3. most entrepreneurs are not well informed as to what their tax obligations are or should be, 4. the requirements for accessing funds from financial institutions and the exorbitant interest rates are a big challenge for most entrepreneurs particularly the SME'S. 5. most entrepreneurs do not understand or appreciate the concept of corporate governance. As a result, most run their businesses as an extension of themselves thereby limiting their growth potentials. 6. with every change in government (and at times even in the same government) come radical changes in policies. This has led many entrepreneurs to adopt short-term business models. 7. banks are not supportive of start - ups because they always demand collateral. 8. nonexistence of regulatory body or structure to protect intellectual property whereby people are afraid to share their business ideas because of the fear that “money bags” might steal them. 9. Unhealthy competition among entrepreneurs especially SMEs as a result of lack of competent bodies to regulate quality and prices of finished products. 10. Consumers over-reliance on imported goods and services at the expense of locally produced ones.

Conclusion To build a good entrepreneurial system, the private sector/business owners will need to work with the government to define what is suitable. Entrepreneurs in Nigeria should not only see the challenges, which by no means should not be discounted, but should also learn to take

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advantage of the opportunities. Nigerian entrepreneurs can find smart ways of surviving within the present economic structure of the country while still collaborating with the government to improve the system. They can indeed help to build the desired strong and conducive business environment.

Furthermore, new and upcoming entrepreneurs should see the importance of learning under established entrepreneurs and businesses. They should ensure they have a firm understanding of the business environment before venturing into them. They should desire and embrace sound mentoring, be more innovative and to understand that they have to nurture their ideas until it becomes profitable and also accept the fact that this may take some time.

The government on the other hand should come to terms with the fact that one of the ways of growing the economy is to promote entrepreneurship. To achieve this, it should build a society that promotes and encourages entrepreneurship. The private sector cannot realize and solely build a truly entrepreneurial society without recourse to the government. Furthermore, the financial institutions should adequately incorporate and set aside adequate funding for sponsoring of new innovative enterprises. It is also important that key infrastructures including electric power, transport and water are fixed and made readily available.

Recommendations

Zhang (2005) identified that India’s success since inception in entrepreneurship came about through various attempts. These attempts include: removal of barriers imposed by government policies and inefficiencies towards starting up new businesses; recognizing that finance is critical for entrepreneurship and making same available, and finally promoting entrepreneurial education and nurturing it in the school system. Nigeria government can take a cue from the India experience and adapt it where necessary to suite the Nigeria business, political and social environment. The

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government can start by reducing over regulation of some selected industries. It can give deliberate tax breaks to some industries to encourage new businesses to develop. An example is in India where the government deliberately grant tax holidays to start-ups. This subsequently led to a huge growth in Bangalore and Hyderabad, as both cities became major hubs for information technology companies (Zhang, 2005).

In the current financial structure in Nigeria it is much easier for established businesses to get funding from banks to finance new ventures than it is for new entrepreneurs to raise capital. It is therefore, imperative that the government puts in place mechanisms for raising funds for new businesses. In 2005 the government established the micro-finance policy. One of the key objectives of the policy is to “enhance service delivery (provision of financial support) by micro-finance institutions to micro, small and medium entrepreneurs” (Central Bank of Nigeria, 2005). It was intended that the micro-finance banks will “provide diversified, affordable and dependable financial services to the poor in a timely and competitive manner that would enable them to undertake and deliver long-term, sustainable entrepreneurial activities” (Central Bank of Nigeria,

2005).

The government should therefore ensure that these micro-finance banks have reasonable capital base and that they provide the services they are setup to render. The government can also set up special bodies or work with the Small and Medium Enterprise Development Agency of

Nigeria (SMEDAN) to provide special funds for start-ups. The government can ensure that organizations/individuals that receive these special funds are able to pay back by adopting the services of monitoring these organizations.

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Nigerian Universities churn out large number of graduates yearly but only a small percentage of these graduates get employed after leaving school. It is in fact estimated that the unemployment rate of university graduates in Nigeria is around 25 percent (Dabalen, Oni, &

Adekola, 2000). To address this problem therefore, engaging students in entrepreneurial training is a step in the right direction at addressing this problem. Nigerian government education policy is conforming to international standards by incorporating entrepreneurship education in the school curriculum. Shanmugaratnam (2004) discovered that entrepreneurial education is implemented in the National University of Singapore (NUS). Moreover, existing entrepreneurs in Nigeria should be encouraged to help the schools define, deliver and evaluate their training programs. Professional associations such as Computer Society of Nigeria, Nigeria Society of Engineers, Institute of

Chartered Accountants of Nigeria and other professional organizations should be encouraged to play substantive roles in these training programmes. The government working in collaboration with the organized private sector should from time to time evaluate the sectors that have added more significant value to the country’s GDP through entrepreneurship education, and as well, nurture students to consider developing business interests in those sectors. Lastly, the Corporate

Affairs Commission (agency responsible for registering new businesses) should reduce the time it takes to register a new company by also reducing the number of steps it takes for the entire process online. The online platform should also allow companies to be able to do their annual return fillings and general enquiries online.

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References

"Art Pottery Manufacturers and Collectors". (2017) Retrieved from http://artpotterymanufacturers.com/Welcome.html Accessed on 6/3/17 Central Bank of Nigeria. (2005). Micro-Finance Policy, regulatory and supervisory framework for Nigeria. Retrieved from http://www.cenbank.org/out/Publications/guidelines/dfd/ 2006/microfinance%20policy.pdf Assessed on 4/3/17 Clifford, C. (2016) "Why everyone will have to become an entrepreneur". Retrieved from http://www.entrepreneur.com on 6/3/17 Dabalen, A, Oni, B. & Adekola O.A. (2000). Labor Market Prospects of University Graduates in Nigeria. http://www.valuefronteiraonline.com/public_upload/file/edu1.pdf Assessed on 12/3/17 Ofili, O. U. (2014), Challenges facing Entrepreneurship in Nigeria, International Journal of Business and Management; Paris France. Vol. 9, No. 12; Pile, J., (2003), Interior Design, 3rd edition, Pearson, New Jersey, USA Shanmugaratnam, T. (2004). Entrepreneurship Education Asia 2004. Keynote address at the Inaugural roundtable on entrepreneurship education Asia 2004. National University of Singapore. 29 July. Retrieved from http:// www. moe.gov.sg /media/ speeches/ 2004/sp. 20040729.htm Accessed on 16/3/17 The Webster Encyclopedia Dictionary Yetisen, Ali K. Lisa R. Volpatti, Ahmet F. Coskun, C Sangyeon C, Ehsan K., Haider B, Ali Seok H., (2015). "Entrepreneurship”. Retrieved from Accessed on 5/3/17 Zhang, L. (2005). Entrepreneurship Education within India’s Higher Education System. http://www.asianscholarship.org/asf/ejourn/articles/zhang_l.pdf Assessed on 5/3/17 Zhang, S.X. & Cueto, J. (2015). "The Study of Bias in Entrepreneurship". Entrepreneurship Theory and Practice. 41 (3): n/a. doi:10.1111/etap.12212. Assessed on 12/3/17

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ABOUT INSTALLATION ART IN NIGERIA

LAMIDI, A.L. Department of Fine Art, Ahmadu Bello University Zaria Abstract ______To situate an understanding of the development of installation art as viewed by the western world and in Nigeria today. For how long can artists in Nigeria remain within the context of institutional training and continue to turn out works that are of the most conventional type without recourse to the newer concepts like conceptual and installation arts? Paradoxically, some writers asserted that such new trends mirror art practices in traditional Nigeria and most other African societies. The paper defines installation art and enumerates some key concepts of evaluating installation art, while, in the review of literature; the works of El Anatsui, Yinka Shonibare, Sokari Douglas Camp, Kainebi Osahenye, Eze Ngene are appraised among others. The paper employs the interpretative approach to content analysis within the qualitative research methodology. This method helps in undertaking review on Installation art. The paper concludes by establishing some findings which one amongst others claims that installation art originated from Africa and, therefore, is not a new artistic phenomenon to the Nigerian art scene.

Keywords: Art Practice, Conceptual Art, Installation Art, Interpretative Approach, Qualitative Methodology ______

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Introduction

Contemporary art practice has encouraged postmodernist artists to look into the arrangement and configuration of objects in a space, such as in a room or warehouse and gallery which are termed Installation Art (Visual-arts-cork, 2018). The resulting arrangement of materials and space comprises the “artwork”. Installation Art allows the viewer to enter and move around the configured space and or sometimes interact with its elements or composition. This offers the viewer a different experience from the traditional sculpture and painting as viewed in the gallery, the gallery space most times offers a single perspective. In another sense, Installation Art “may engage several of the viewers’ senses including touch, sound and smell, as well as visual” (The

Art Story, 2018, Visual-arts-cork, 2018).

According to Visual-arts-cork, (2018); “Installation is a form of conceptual art- a genre in which ideas and impact are regarded as being more important than the quality of a finished work of art”. Installation could be a purely temporary work of art, which will usually require documentation for its ephemeral nature. Generally, in Installation Art’; the artists are more concerned with the presentation of the message than the material used to convey the message. In the other hand, conceptual art, which is so purposely experienced in the minds of those introduced to it? Installation art is more grounded and remains tied to a physical space, installation and conceptual arts are two of the most popular examples of postmodernist art, which has expanded the definition of art in the 21st century (Visual-arts-cork, 2018, Tate.org, 2018).

Installation art is associated with conceptual art which emerges in the 70s and can be traced to Marcel Duchamp (1887-1968). His modernist ‘ready-mades’ like the urinal termed as

“Fountain” (1917), other related artists include; Kurt Schwitters (1887-1948); a sculptor that

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worked in collage. The early notable Installation called “Merbau” an assemblage which filled a whole building, the “Proun Room” at the Berlin Railway Station in 1923 by Russian artist El

Lissitzky (1890-1941) possibly the earliest installation recorded. Other Installation artists include,

Lucio Fontana (1899-1968), John Cage (1912-1992) and Allan Kaprow (b. 1927) - notably for his

1966 book “Assemblage”, Environments and development of Installation art (Visual-arts-cork,

2018).

Installation arts like most aspects of visual arts are ‘form of expression, giving order to man’s reaction to his environment’ Art is the expression of the characteristics and attitude of the people of an age. Man lives and thinks in social relationships, so that the art form of any one age is determined by the class which sets the standard for cultural text. (Gaiskell and Hurwitz in

Mohammed, 2014). According to Encyclopedia of Irish and World Art in Sani (2010) installation art is a ‘relatively new genre of contemporary art, which incorporates a range of two-dimensional and three-dimensional materials to influence the way we experience or perceive a particular space’ this type of art are invention of some artists that are designed to make people think over their lives and asses their values.

Buhari (2015) is of the opinion that “as one confronts development in the practice of visual arts and perhaps as one gets more consciously because of the engagement of teaching art at the university level. It is inevitable that new directions in art practice should interest one. However, there may be really no new developments except that these new direction like performance and installation arts have been culturally repackaged”. One will agree with Buhari’s point that there is need to restructure installation art to suit our cultural environment, otherwise we would only be repeating what the westerns have already done in the aspect of installation art. After all, installation art cannot be totally claimed as a Western art, because African religious practitioners probably

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started the art of installing objects in their shrines and worship places before the West. What is new is the re-coinage of the term installation art, which the African gave meaning to in their traditional dialects.

Installation Art in a sense allows the materiality of visual expression to be viewed as commodity that is given less emphasis in preference for art as idea. This way as observed by

Buhari, art museums and galleries, collectors lose their power over what is accepted as art and what can be bought or given reception in the exhibition halls. Most visual artists have made this possible by creating works that are transient or ephemeral. Some of these works are achieved with perishable materials like leaves, tissue paper, water, sand, dust, ice and so on. The importance of artworks like this in Nigeria and largely in Africa lies in the visual power of the works to attract attention perhaps more than conventional works like painting and sculptures.

The use of foreign media such as oil colours, glass, gouache, paper, connects the history of contemporary or modern art in Africa with the western world, as does both the training and early careers of such pioneer Nigerian artists as Aina Onabolu, Akinola Lasekan and Ben Enwonwu.

These artists were to later pass the same artistic value to their students and trainees, thereby making their new artistic orientation from the west a mark on the pivot of modernity in art in Nigeria. They set up different art schools in which contents of their art were tailored after the European model.

These art schools over time have changed their syllabi to suit the modern drive towards technological advancement of the millennium, thus, it has brought about abstraction, a new wave of performance art as well as installation art. The diversity of modern Nigerian art that have taken over these years has been difficult for art historian to classify. A combination of form and content as a basis for classification could open a better understanding of the development and classification of art in Nigeria (Filani 1998).

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Aim of this Paper

The aim of this paper is to document and address the trends of Installation Art in Nigeria with a view in articulating the following;

1. Narrate the perspectives of Installation Art in Nigeria

2. Consider what inspires and motivate Nigerian artists into installation art

3. Analysis the works of selected Nigerian artists that have executed installation art

Media for Installation Art

Installation Art integrates a variety of media to modify an experience in a particular space.

It is not an art that is confined to the gallery spaces and can be any material intervention in everyday public or private spaces (Artlex Art Dictionary, 2018). It incorporates almost any media to create an experience in a particular environment. The materials used range from everyday objects to new media such as video, sound, performance, immersed virtual reality and the internet. Installation art is a form of visual art in which an exhibition space is transformed into a three – dimensional work of art. The materials used for Installation art are almost uncountable or limitless, and it could be narrative, abstract, political or purely theoretical, theatrical, temporary or permanent (Wikipedia,

2018).

Evaluating the Concept of Installation

To position installation art in the Nigerian artistic context, both formally trained and the informally trained, artists can be motivated through many ways to create installation art:

1. The general human instinct for harmony, balance, rhythm: an internal appreciation of balance and harmony, and therefore imitation is one instinct of all human nature. Whether educated or not, every human being has a natural gift developed by some certain degrees of special aptitudes of improvising. 2. To explore the mysterious: generally, installation art provided an avenue for artists and individual to express and experience a kind of mysterious exploration, as practiced in the traditional setting. For, example, imagine a person in the quest to worship, performs some

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rituals, say some incantations and as well decorates the abode of the gods with some objects that are symbolic. 3. The formally trained artist is intentionally and consciously motivated to create. So, he or she creates installations to address issues in society, either for political change, or to convey a personal psychological, sexual desire, to illustrate another discipline, or simply put, as a form of communication. 4. Entertainment: human beings are creative performers, thus installation art like performance art could also be for entertainment.

Perspectives on Installation Arts

Installation Art can seem a difficult concept of art in the Nigerian context, perhaps owing to lack of adequate historical documentation on it. Azeez (2006) observes that “a large section of visual artists especially in Nigeria opposed the attempt by the Western press and some African artists in diaspora, impose installation art as a new art form in Africa, while it is obvious that, the concept is not new to Africans as well as in Nigeria." Nigerians live and create installations every day, so using installation art according to Azeez as a serious art form may not fascinate the African audience as the concept of installation is seen in market places, farms, water ways, living environment and even among the mad people who creatively arrange numerous objects and items unconsciously but the result achieved can be classified as successful installation art as situated in other part of the world.

Another view by Duniya (2009) is that before installation was introduced on Africans,

Nigerian artists have been widely known to exhibit their works in galleries where the elites acquire them. This according to him also brought about the manipulation of the art process by gallery owners and patrons to suit their mutual benefits. Thus, installation art and Biennials for such performances were geared towards a concept that upholds the philosophy of ‘free art’. Upon this it may be an effort to equally free art from the exclusiveness that patrons of galleries and the elites benefit from. He stated further that the ideas were to create avenue with which everyone could

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enjoy art not necessarily as a product but more fundamentally, as an experience that has been lived.

Nwagbodu (2009) states that, "African art has for Centuries been prefiguring what modern

Europeans fondly imagined to be their innovations. For example, the concept of ‘Installation art’ is nothing new to Africa: African art has always been an installation art. Traditions such as masquerade, body painting and combining incantatory poetry with visual art have always invited participating and interaction, and broken down the walls separating the “artist” on the one hand from the “audience” or “observer” on the other. African shrine were and are installation pieces."

How many higher institutions in Nigeria have accepted and introduced this concept of installation art into the curriculum? Perhaps some of these institutions will include Nsukka, where some lecturers encourage students to execute sculptural installations. And recently installation art has been introduced into the course content of sculpture in Department of Fine Art, Ahmadu Bello

University, Zaria.

Delinda (2008) reports a major controversy erupted in Nigeria art critical circles following the “New Energies” exhibition by the students from the University of Nigeria, his alma mater. The exhibition, hosted by the Goethe Institute, Lagos, was organized by Nsukka professor El Anatsui.

Consisting of installations, video, and sculptures constructed from organic and synthetic materials sourced mostly from the local environment, the exhibition was different but not necessarily unprecedented. He observed that critics of the show, in their traditional conservative reaction against new/modernist art since the nineteen century, charged that there was no “art” in the exhibition. Thus; installation art was Western and hegemonic, while painting was the quintessential medium of contemporary Nigerian art. Leading from this, while the critical question is this: what kind of art curricular programme subsists in the University of Nigeria, Nsukka? The crux of the matter is how artistically mature are undergraduate students to understand the concept

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of installation art and be able to create them? The fundamental training in Universities today at the first degree programme is to teach students the basics, which includes – Art Education, Art

History, anatomical studies in painting and sculpture, drawing from still life and general drawing, aspects of abstraction/conceptual art and some other areas of art that will help develop students.

At the post graduate level at least, they would have been matured artistically to venture into some other aspect of art like installation art.

Review of Installation Art in Nigeria

Today, the contemporary trends in art practice have encouraged artists in Nigeria to imbibe the concepts of conceptual art which include Installation art, multimedia, and performance art.

Some of these art forms might not have received acceptable visibility compared to the traditional arts like painting and sculpture, yet some few artists still have the hope that one day they will be visible to the Western world and this has encouraged artists to embrace Installation art. For the contemporary trends in art practice in Nigeria to compete considerably with the global world, Art

Institution across the country have also introduced conceptual art into the Curricula of their art programmes, this is to allow visibility also to the global world.

This universal trends could be noticed from the works of undergraduate and postgraduate students in some of the Institutions in Nigeria that offers fine art, applied and industrial arts; notably amongst the “Art Schools” are the Ahmadu Bello University, Zaria, University of Nigeria,

Nsukka, Obafemi Awolowo University, Ile-Ife, Delta State University, Abraka, University of

Benin, Benin, Nnamdi Azikiwe University, Akwa and University of Uyo, Uyo among others. All these Art Institutions in Nigeria want to be seen as contemporary Universities, so they include some of these contemporary trends in art practice in their curriculums. The point here is that some

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of these trends like performance and Installation art might not be needful to the undergraduate students but more appropriate for the postgraduate students. This author is of the opinion that undergraduate students should be given deeper knowledge of basic courses in drawing and anatomical studies before embarking on Installation art. There is no doubt that Installation art is universally accepted, yet artists should grow to understand abstraction first and gradually build the capacity to understand the concept of Installation art before embarking on it.

To support that Installation is globally accepted, Dellinda observes that “African artists working in London or New York is far more likely to receive critical recognition than one in other parts of Africa, not because of any conspiratorial power- brokerage as often time alleged but because of the far greater visibility in the West of his or her practice”. So why artists in Nigeria shouldn’t imbibe the concept of Installation art and looks for ways to get to Europe? This simply put, encourages Nigerian young artists to want to get to Europe through any means. So, they stick to installation art for the hope that one day they will become visible to the West and could be invited over to exhibit their works. However, this review acknowledges the works of Western

Installation artists like Marcel Duchamp, Kurt Schwitters, Lucio Fontana and Allan Kaprow which are the pioneers of Installation art. But for the purpose of this review only some selected Nigerian artists’ works are discussed.

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El Anatsui, Skyline, 2008, Installation, Aluminum and Copper wire

Plate I: El Anatsui, Skyline, 2008, Aluminum and Copper wire, 245x825mm, Photo: Jonathan Great, 2012

Mixed media is experimentation that enables the artist to seek for substitute and thought- provoking ways of conception, production and expression which leads to installing the work.

Mixed media installation gives character to both artists and the artwork. Cotter in Anidi (2005) elaborates that some of El Anatsui’s installation (Plate I) are made from thousands of crushed aluminum bottle caps cans seals stitched together with copper wire that symbolically represents his African concept. The incorporation of various materials into an artwork is referred to as mixed media. The results are supple, fabric like hangings that look like a cross between Kente cloth of

Ghana, abstract paintings and magic carpets. Mixed media has a variable dynamic usage in sculpture depending on the thought process of the sculptor. Mixed media installation, especially in sculpture has become generally acceptable concept for functional and aesthetic expressions in the visual art. This has made it now easier for sculptors to collect waste or junk materials from the environment to interrogate or interpret their visual vocabularies. This sculpture is an example of

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mixed media installation among some of the earlier dynamic use of mixed media in sculpture, even though; there are uncountable varieties in this contemporary time.

Yinka Shonibare MBE, Untitled: 2015, Installation and Girl Balancing Knowledge, 2015, Installation.

Plate II, Untitled: Installation Photo © Royal Academy of Arts, London; photographer Marcus Leith

Plate II, entitled ‘Untitled’ is an Installation sculpture of a male figure holding a gun on his right hand. The standing figure is made using Shonibare’s regular approach of creating using a mannequin, which the artist usually dresses in real clothing. In this installation art, the mannequin is clothed with the ‘Textile wax fabric’ made into a shirt and trouser. The shirt bears bulb motifs with combination of purple, light blue with a little touch of pink. The trouser is created out of brownish and reddish horizontal zigzag lines. While wearing a combination of a greenish and black

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boot, the emphasis is on the textile fabrics used. The simplicity of the artist could be felt on the way he dressed the mannequin using the textile materials. The artist in his wisdom created the head of the sculpture with a black rounded globe, which looks like the globe of the world map.

The black head of the sculpture possibly made to represent his idea of creating a black skined man; this could also be noticed in the other female figurative sculpture.

According to Pearl Lam Galleries (2017) in disparity with the Shonibare’s previous work, which addresses universal political concerns, this new series is based on the “essence of the imagination, an exploration of the subjective and the subconscious that is inspired by surrealism”.

He utilises his childhood memories in Nigeria, dividing the exhibition into two parts: new surrealist sculptures along with several screen prints. Shonibare draws on surrealism as both an artistic and political movement aimed at the liberation of the human being from the constraints of capitalism, the state, and the cultural forces that limit the reign of the imagination.

The first part of the exhibition comprises two new fascinating sculptures based on the artist’s childhood memories when he lived in Lagos, Nigeria. Shonibare was born in London, but his family moved to Lagos when he was three years old. These dreamlike sculptures evoke poetic surrealist juxtapositions, exploring the artist’s half-remembered childhood tales, as well as the constructed and fictitious memories of childhood, folklore, and tradition of his parents.

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Kainebi Osahenye, Casualty, installation, 2009, Empty cans

Plate III, Kainebi Osahenye, Casualty, installation, 2009, empty crushed cans in C.C.F, Lagos,

photography C.C.F, Lagos

In an exhibition hosted by Centre of Contemporary Art, Lagos featuring the works of Kainebi entitled trashing, 2009. This current direction Trash-ing builds on continuous process of exploration which signals a new departure from his paintings towards the incorporation of more conceptual aspiration through a shift into installation art. Trash-ing focuses on the issues that have pervaded his work for a long period of his artistic journey. His thematic expression covers political, religious and everyday activities, his works moves from the metaphysical to the physical, from the unreal to the real, foregrounding issues for which he is well – known and extending on other global discuss.

His installation “Casualty”, 2009, made out of thousands of beer cans- the work is less about the contemporary trend of recycling. According to Kainebi “on sighting the burnt cans near

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a garbage dump of a hotel in Auchi, he says that he was instantly confronted with thoughts of war, cruelty, melancholy, pain, displacement, anguish and deformity, and started contemplating ideas of installing this large-scale work to express the force and power that he felt.

Sokari Douglas Camp, RSW bus & London Eye

Plate IV, Sokari Douglas Camp, RSW bus & London Eye, Anita Roddick memorial | Courtesy the artist

Nigerian-born Sokari Douglas Camp belongs to the first generation of African female artists to have attracted the attention of the international art market. Originally from a large

Kalabari town in the Niger Delta, Douglas Camp’s work is greatly inspired by Kalabari culture and traditions. Employing modern sculptural techniques with the predominant use of steel,

Douglas Camp creates large, semi-abstract figurative works, adorned with masks and ritual clothing, reflecting her close relationship to Nigeria despite having lived in London for many years. Douglas Camp has had numerous solo and group shows all over the world and permanent collections of her work can be found in the Smithsonian Institution in Washington DC, and the

British Museum in London.

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The “Bus” was executed as “A Living Memorial” installation art to which calls attention to the environmental degradation and economic deprivation in which the ogoni people live, despite being naturally blessed with enormous deposits of crude oil. After being on display at various places in the United Kingdom for nine years, at the request of Ogoni Solidarity Forum-Nigeria and a few other Civil Society Groups, the Bus was shipped from Tilburg outside London to Nigeria via Lagos. When the Bus got to Lagos it was impounded by the Customs official who claimed that it had “Political value” which could threaten national peace in Nigeria. The Bus displays the name of Ken Saro-Wiwa on a small white steel banner, and the names of other eight people on the eight barrels of oil on the bus (Platform London, 2018, Sothebys.com, 2018).

Ngene, Economic Meltdown, 2013 ‘Plastic Plates and Buckets, Installation

Plate V: Eze Ngene, Economic Meltdown, 2013, Plastic Plates and buckets, 61 × 60 × 92cm. Collection of the Artist

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This sculpture explored ‘readymade’ food vessel as a metaphorical representation of socio- political appraisal of the Nigerian economy. The artist uses irregular components to enhance the regular forms that are found objects in an installation art form. The artist uses repetition of materials and forms but invariably with some changes, which are represented differently in the presentation of the concept. The materials were assembled by tying them together with copper wire and glue to create thought and form based on the ideas gathered.

“Economic Meltdown portrays the explorative and intellectual involvement of metaphor beyond concept of language”. The forms are thrown in different directions which unifies into vertical and horizontal balance to create meaning. The sculpture installations have become carrier of meaning, in 'readymade food vessels materials that is different from verbal metaphor.

The sculpture explores verbal metaphors used to discuss phenomenon of hunger based on what it takes to survive and the management of wealth in Nigeria.

Lasisi Lamidi, Free Flow II, 2014, Installation

Plate VI: Free Flow II, Installation, 2013, Found Objects, Mild Steel, Rope, Canvas and Acrylic Paint, 184cm high 238cm high Free-Flow II is a mixed media Installation art, the upper part of the figure was executed with found objects, mild steel rods and pieces of square pipe, while the legs are constructed with

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square pipe and mild steel rod. The upper part of the body was left bear exposing the metal, while the legs are clad with fabric and rope. White glue was also applied to bind the fabric and rope to the welded metal structure and the sculpture was finished with acrylic paint. What qualifies this sculpture as installation art is the way it was installed with strings of fish line, which was tired on the back of the neck of the figure. The line was then attached to an upper support with about 300cm away from the sculpture. Because the line is not quite visible the viewer will not see the line from afar, which gives an illusion as if the sculpture is moving or standing without a base.

Findings:

The following are some findings established in this paper;

1. The concept of Installation Art encourages upcycling as an aspect of waste to wealth creation in the visual art. Upcycling also allows the use of economical sourced materials in upgrading a discarded object to the statue of an artwork. This is mostly effective on the use of discarded objects as a piece of Installation art like the Urinal of Marcel Duchamp. 2. This paper has shown and will hopefully create awareness of the extent to which Installation artists in Nigeria can be visible to the global world. 3. The paper established that Nigerian artists that are in the Diasporas are more visible because of the awareness, acceptability, befitting artistic environment to work and the economic sustainability in the West compared to the African environments. 4. Some Art Institutions in Nigeria do not focus much on the foundational courses compared to the way they lay emphasis on conceptual art at the undergraduate levels. This mostly will Lead to weak draftsmanship in realist figurative drawing and anatomical modelling in the students. The strength of conceptual art generally relies on solid elementary artistic training in realism.

Recommendations

1. Introductory classes on installation art could be taught to students at the undergraduate level, while final year projects should not be directed towards Installation art. However, it can be fully explored at the postgraduate level. 2. Nigerian artists should consider indigenous subject matters and concepts in executing their installation arts, as this will promote Nigerian cultural and traditional heritage 3. The spirit of the “Natural Synthesis” should be imbibed in contemporary art practice in Nigeria. That is to pay more attention to synthesizing traditional concept with the Western.

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Conclusion

In Nigeria today; artists have been exposed to “global arts.” Installation art can be appreciated in more than one way, and is susceptible to many different interpretations like any conceptual form of art. It is no exaggeration to say that Nigeria arts have evolve generally over the last two decades and it has resulted into creation of master pieces globally. Installation art has been given some consideration in Nigeria in this contemporary time compared to the past and this has encouraged artists that work in all media to be more visible internationally. A lot of artists have embraced Installation art without reservation. Nigerian artists in the likes of El Anatsui, Yinka

Shonibare, Dilhumphry Umezulike, Jerry Buhari, Victor Ekpuk, Victor Ehikhamenor, Peju Alatise and host of others have been known over the years to have shown some high level of Installation

Art around the world.

This paper notes that, Nigerian artists, especially those that ventured into installation arts in the diasporas received more recognition than the Nigerian based artists because Installation art is more encouraged and accepted in the West. Though, art is a universal language, it is a fact that;

Installation art generally cannot be accepted in Nigeria compared to the West, yet some Nigerian artists live by it. It is the position of this paper that basic arts courses should be taught strictly to

Nigeria undergraduate students before introducing them to Installation art. Introductory basis of conceptual and installation arts is accepted after the students have good knowledge of the foundational courses in drawing and anatomical studies. It is now a challenge to African artists; especially Nigerian artists, to articulate its own artistic concepts and establish which trends and forms of art to include in its higher institutional curriculum. Installation art originates from Africa and was never a new concept to Nigerian artists; but came as a new nomenclature from the West and embraced by Africans. In summary; the opinion of this paper is that even though most art

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expressions originate from the West, at least Nigerian artists should imbibe indigenous subject matters and concepts form their geographical ambiance, which will uplift their cultural and traditional heritage.

Reference:

Anidi.O (2007). Teach Your Self: Creative Art & Design: A catalogue of Art Everywhere: (pp. 20-22) Exhibition: Published by Fund for Culture and Development. Department of Fine and Applied Arts, Institute of Management and Technology (I.M.T) Enugu Artlex Art Dictionary (2018) Installation: Retrieved January 16, 2018, http://www.artlex.com/artlex/ij/installation.htm Azeez W.A (2006) Potentials of Visual Arts and Creative Industry in Africa, a Publication of Culture and Creative Art Forum, Lagos Buhari. J. (2015). Conceptual Works: Installations, Inaugural Lecture titled (The) Visual Arts as Knowledge Production, Department of Fine Arts, Faculty of Environmental Design, Ahmadu Bello University, Zaria. 9th September, 2015, Abuja, Yaliam Press Limited. pp.46 and 47 Delinda, C (2001). New Energies, Goethe Institute, Lagos, An Exhibition of Nsukka School of Art, Nsukka, Delinda, C. (2008). African Arts/Vol. 41, No.3, The (Dis) placement of Nation Art in a Transnational Art world. Autumn, 2008, pp.10-12, UCLA James Coleman Center, African Studies Centre, Retrieved https://www.Jstor.org/stable/20447896 Duniya, G.G (2009) “The Studio” A Journal of Contemporary Art Practice And Theory Maiden Issue, Department of Fine Art, Ahmadu Bello University, Zaria. pp. 40-49 Filani, K (1998) USO: Nigerian Journal of Art, vol. 2 No (1&2) Jan-Dec, published by National Gallery of Art, Nigeria, p.67 Gombrich, E. H (2005). The Story of Art: The Gombrich Achieve, Retrieved from https: achvive.org. details/internet. dli2005.29158/page/n5 Phaidon, Installation Art, (2018) Retrieved January 16, 2018. http;//en.wikipedia.org/wiki/installation art. Lamidi, A.L (2015). ‘Static Motion”: ‘Static Motion’: An Exploration of Stilt Dance Postures in Mixed Media Sculpture, An unpublished PhD. Theses, Department of Fine Arts, Ahmadu Bello University, Zaria. Oxford English Dictionary (2018). Installation, Retrieved from https://en.oxforddictionaries .com/ definition/installation. Kaprow, A (2003) “Notes on the Creation of a Total Art” In Essays on the Blurring of Art and Life” University of California Press, p.54 Nwagbodu, k (2009) Catalogue of 11th Juried Art Exhibition of Society of Nigerian Artists, Lagos State Chapter, “October Rain 2009” at the National Museum- Lagos. Published by Revilo Company Limited, Lagos.p.28 Mohammed. Y. (2014). The Concept of Art: A Hand Book for Art Teachers, Zaria, Ahmadu Bello University Press Limited. pp.3, 4

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Myartguides.com (2017). Yinka Shonibare: My Art Guides, http://myartguides.com/art- space/galleries/pearl-lam-galleries-Singapore Sani. M. M. (2010). Derivation of Artistic and Design Concepts from Refuse Dumps Perceives as Accidental Installation Art Form. Design Review, Journal of Industrial Design, Maiden Edition, Vol 1, no 1, Department of Industrial Design, Faculty of Environmental Design, Ahmadu Bello University, Zaria. pp. 170-17 Sothebys.com, (2018). Sokari Douglas Camp, Retrieved from https.//www.sothebys.com/en/articles/sokari-douglas-camp-between—boguma-london Tate.Org. Uk, (2018). Installation Art, Retrieved from https://www.tate.org.uk/art- terms/i/installation-art The Art Story, (2018). Installation Art, Retrieved fromhttps://www.m. theartstory.org/ movement-installation-art.htm Pearl Lam Galleries, (2017). Yinka Shonibare: My Art Guides, http://myartguides.com/art- space/galleries/pearl-lam-galleries-Singapore Platform London, (2018). The Bus its Seizure and Story, Retrieved from https//plateformlondon.org/2018/05/14/update Visual Arts Cork, (2018). Installation Art: History and Characteristics of Installation-Form of Conceptual Art Retrieved from https://www.visual-arts-cork/installation-art-htm Wikipedia, (2018). Installation Art, Retrieved from https://en.m.wikipedia.org/installation, March, 28, 2018.

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REVIEW OF TECHNIQUES AND PRACTICES OF METAL SCULPTURE

LAMIDI, A. L.1 and PAUL, J.O.2 1. Department of Fine Art, Ahmadu Bello University, Zaria 2. Department of Visual and Performing Arts, University of Maiduguri, Borno State

Abstract ______Different media may be used at specific stages in the process of creating a work of art. The choices an artist make is determined by the characteristics of the material used and the methods of application of such material. In fact, the material selected by the artist defines the form of visual expression the artist can develop in an art work. The various media offer both distinctive limitations and opportunities for the artist. Welded sculpture however, is an art form in which sculptures are made using the various available welding techniques. Practice –led methodology; an off-set of qualitative research is employed in this study, which involves documentation, review and the analysis of the selected sculptures. This paper therefore, is a review of metal sculptures of selected artists that have used hard and obdurate medium. Some of the works appraised in this study include; “La Grande Vetesse” by Alexander Calder, “Spider Web Gate” by Dan Nauman, “School” by Richard Howie, “Orisa Ogun” by Matthew Ehizele, “Musical Things” by Lasisi Lamidi among others. In conclusion, the authors established some findings which include a perspective that material, materiality and form determine the creative predisposition of the sculptors. Also, geographical ambiance affects and determines the types of subject matter explored by the artists.

Keywords: Technique and Practice, Welded Sculpture, Metal and Steel, Practice-led Research, Material and Materiality. ______

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Introduction

Material and materiality are two words that carry unsure meanings in English language vocabulary and have reappeared as a highly contested topic in recent art. According to

Dictionary.com (2016), material is “having to do with matter”, the substance or substances of which a thing is made or composed. It is something worldly, physical as opposed to spiritual; that is having significance or tangibility. It can also be seen as things that are material which emphasizes the physical aspect of things. On another hand, material also means (in various non- physical applications) something which can be worked up or elaborated, or of which anything is composed. This makes material stands as that which pertains to a matter as opposed to form, that also concerns body; formed or consisting of matter; corporeal. Thus, although material designates physical substance, it also assumes potential from its associating with non-physical matter. In the context of this paper; the authors refer to the physical materials which are steel and related alloys like copper and bronze that can be welded. And in term of works; sculptures by selected artists are looked at considering materials, tools, forms, techniques and practices. These artists are Alexander

Calder, Dan Nauman, Richard Howie, Alifabs, Rubin Eynm, Silvestre Monnier, Leni Satsi,

Matthew Ehizele, and Lasisi Lamidi.

Aim of the Study

The aim of this study is to review and document techniques and practices of welded sculptures of selected Western and Nigerian sculptors, in the view to establish their inspirations, techniques and the use of metals as media of expression.

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Background to the Study

The multi-valence nature of material, charged with philosophical and aesthetic implications throughout the modern period, often accompanied by the word “materiality” which means; the quality or state of being material has surfaced as one of the crucial aspects framing the characteristic of the various art media. Petra (2015) opines that, criticism in modern times tend to privilege form over matter. It considers material as the essential basis of medium specification. In sculpture however, material is based upon the anxiety of a sculptural piece whose value can be judged by its material quality as an object. In this light, a material that has been merely part of form in antithesis to content becomes the defining factor of what is a sculptural piece and what is not.

Over the years, one of the most fundamental challenges encountered by artists especially sculptors has been the decision to choose that appropriate medium of expression that could convey the content and the visual context of an intended sculpture, as well as maintaining and covey its aesthetic value. Art media are in abundance, they range from the prehistoric stones and ivory for carving, through the traditional melting and casting of bronze and its alloys to “found” or waste objects and welding of various type of metals in modern times.

The uniqueness and the use of metal as a medium of expression became visible in the

Nigeria academic art arena in the 1980s (Oladugbagbe and Kalilu, 2013). Before then, art has been explored through metals in the hand of craftsmen, by shaping, bending, beating, forging, melting and pouring in molten state into a mould. The abundance of iron for construction has particularly tended its usage in creative pastiche in architecture. Architects and building owners now prefer

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artistic wrought iron installations that also act as security gates for homes rather than the regular and plain ones (Ogunfuwa, Oladugbagbe and Emeriemen, 2013)

Automobile part, galvanized iron rods are few of the new materials that predominate and are easily accessible to artist nowadays. Metal works produced in such media serve aesthetic purpose, tactile and sensuous qualities that are sometimes expressed in their varied style and techniques. This has made the metal sculpture an exploration ground for sculptors with zeal and enthusiasm for the wild and weird adventure.

Fabrication and construction in sculpture relays on the type of material in which the sculptor choices to use, while the technique the artist want to employ also determines a specific welding machine that can be adequately carried out in the work. There are welders for specific metal type ranging from alloys, mild steel to stainless steel, because these welders work differently.

According to brighthubengineering.com (2018);

Welding is a material joining process performed by application of heat with or without pressure and addition of filler material. The applications of welding are so varied and extensive that it would be no exaggeration to say that there is no metal industry and no branch of engineering science that does not make use of welding in one form or another. Welding is applied in the construction of large ship, bridges, huge buildings, railways, roadways, automotive and aircrafts construction, pipeline, tanks and vessels, machinery parts and creative artistic construction by the sculptors.

The art of welding has liberated artists from some ancient method of using bending wire to join pieces of metal together; when hundreds of pieces of metal can be welded together in a short period of time. The welding technology has made sculptors to look into the viability of the techniques of metal sculpture using variety of materials at the dispositions of the artists.

Assemblage sculptures, found objects, mild steel, stainless steel, copper, bronze and other

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approach come to bear using the welding technology in this contemporary time. The paper seeks to look into various techniques of expressions of select artists in welded metal sculpture.

Literature Review This section of this paper is based on an aspect of visual expression; welded sculpture, which looks at material and materiality in metal sculptures of some selected artists. The perspective of metal welded sculpture in Africa and in the western world are different from concept development, style, techniques to the choice of materials. In this literature review, the authors address techniques and practices of welded sculpture, the development of steel, and some methods of welding.

The Development of Steel The development of steel (Bell, 2018) can be traced back to 4000 years to the beginning of the Iron Age. Bronze has previously been the most widely used metal before the advent of iron that is harder and stronger than bronze. Iron began to displace bronze in the making of weaponry and tools owing to its tensile strength and viability. The quality of iron produced depended as much on the ore available as on the production method. By the 17th century, iron’s properties were well understood, but increasing urbanization in Europe demanded a more versatile structural metal by the 19th century, the amount of iron being consumed by expanding railroads provided metallurgists with the financial incentive to find a solution to iron’s brittleness and inefficient production processes. Meanwhile, the breakthrough in steel history came in 1856, when Henry Bessemer developed an effective method to use oxygen to reduce the carbon content in iron; this brought about the modern steel industry. The breakthrough brought the era of mass iron production, which at high temperature; iron begins to absorb carbon, which lowers the melting point of the metal resulting in cast iron at 2.5 to 4.5% carbon.

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According to Bell (2018) the Chinese were the first to use the blast furnaces in the 6th century BC but more widely used in Europe during the Middle Ages with increased in production of cast iron. Pig iron is molten iron which runs out of the blast furnaces and cooled in the main channel and adjoining molds. Cast iron is stronger but suffers from brittleness because of its carbon content, making it less than ideal from working and shaping into desirable composition especially in making sculptures. This discovery allowed metallurgists to be informed of the high carbon content in iron was central to the problem of brittleness and decided to explore new methods for reducing the carbon content that make iron more workable. Bell further states that by the late 18th century, iron makers learned how to transform cast pig iron into a low-carbon content wrought iron using puddling furnaces which was developed by Henry Cort in 1784. As the carbon content decreases, iron’s melting point increases, so masses of iron would agglomerate in the furnace.

These masses would be removed and worked with forge hammer by the puddler before being rolled into sheets or rails. By 1860, there were over 3000 puddling furnaces in Britain, but the process remained hindered by its labour and fuel intensiveness. One of the earliest forms of steel, blister steel began production in Germany and England in the 17th century and was produced by increasing the carbon content in molten pig iron using a process known as cementation. This process allowed bars of wrought iron to be layered with powdered charcoal in stone boxed and heated. After a week, the iron would absorb the carbon in the charcoal. Repeated heating would distribute carbon more evenly and the result, after cooling was blister steel. The higher carbon content made up the blister steel much more workable than pig iron, allowing it to be pressed or rolled (Bell, 2018).

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The use of Steel in Sculpture The industrial production of steel in the 1950’s and 1960’s generally offered modern sculptors the opportunities to explored large scale steel sculptures. Artists such as Sir Anthony

Caro, Richard Serra, David Smith and John Chamberlain all used steel in creating their sculptures

(Absolutearts.com, 2018). Welding is the process in which two pieces of metal are joined using heat and electricity. The type of metal used by sculptors will also determine the technique of execution because the welding machines are numerous and work differently. The skill of the art of welding should be mastered in progressive step by step. Some of the most used metal will include mild steel, aluminum, copper and bronze (Bakersgas.com, 2018).

The practice of welding originated in the Middle Ages by way of a relatively crude method called “forge welding” in which fire is used to heat metal objects until they became malleable enough to hammer together. This method changed by the industrial revolution, when a faster, safer method was invented using electricity or gas-flame tools. Today, a number of different welding methods are commonly used (Cemetalfabcrication.com, 2016). The techniques of welding using one machine to the other are different. The following are some of the known welding techniques as affirmed by Cemetalfabcrication.com (2016);

Arc Welding: This welding device produce an electric current that can pass through even non-conductive material. It is the most widely used among artists in Nigeria.

Flux-Cored Welding: an automatic welding favoured for projects that need to be done quickly. This is a versatile welding machine in terms of types of materials and uses that it is suitable for; it is effective for work on construction of large-scale steel projects.

Gas Tungsten: Arc Welding: this welder is among the most difficult, time-consuming process than most other form of welding. It requires skill and control to use because of the tiny amount of space that must be maintained between the flame and the materials being welded. It provides durable and quality weld.

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Electro slag Welding: this is used for joining large objects together such as thick steel plates. It is commonly used and designed to weld objects in an up- right, vertical position.

Metal Inert Gas (MIG) Welding: a gas is employed to shield the material being welded in order to prevent it from being affected by oxygen and other natural elements of the environment. It enables welders to work quickly at a smooth, continuous chip.

Plasma Arc Welding: the same approach is employed as used in Gas Tungsten-Arc Welding, but it employs a different touch. This method enables a more detailed work that is why it becomes one of the most effective welders for sculptors if it can be afforded.

Shielded-Metal Arc Welding: it is also called “stick welding” which is a manual process and is one of the most popular and most used by artists and local welders in Nigeria. It’s inexpensive compared to most other welding machines known.

Submerged Arc Welding: this welder is effective on metals such as stainless steel owing to its carbon content. A fairly speedy process, given that it can be done in automatic and semi-automatic methods, the electrical arc needs to be covered or submerged continually by flux-a chemical purifying agent; to protect the metal as it is being welded.

Analysis of Works

The paper further addresses a review of some contemporary sculptors that have utilized the vast opportunities embodied in the use of metal as in an interesting medium of artistic expression.

Plate I: “La Grande Vetesse” Alexander Calder,1969 Metal, Grand Rapids, Michigan, 1,310.64cmx1,645.92cm x 914.4cm, www.city-data.com

Designed to give dramatically different view from each corner of square, this ‘stabile’ sculpture stands on the Calder plaza in front of the Grand Rapid City Hall, Michigan. As typical of the world renowned steel metal sculptor, Alexander Calder, a thorough study of the

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architectural, plans, scale and materials of the building adjacent to this monumental art piece was carried out before work commenced. This expansive eye-catching steel sculpture painted in the artist’s signature red and standing about four stories high, measures 1,310.64cm high, 1,645.92cm long and 914.4cm wide. Although the sculpture is stationary, it gives the appearance of movement and seem to pull its viewer around it. The sculpture is created using flat metal sheets similar to that employed in ship construction. Industrial fabrication, characteristic of Calder’s work offers an engaging counterpoint to his curving, organic forms. The octuple nature of a spider’s legs probably has inspired this work. This is evident in the about eight pointed ends of each plane on which the sculpture achieves its stability on the ground. The bright reddish orange colour of the work gives those planes a smooth texture resembling Calder’s mobiles. The colour also affords the work a solipsistic contrast to the buildings surrounding it (www.city-data.com).

Plate II: “Bird in Flight” Alifabs, 1991, Metal, Jeddah, Alifabs.users37.interdns.co.uk

Birds as a symbol of freedom, peace, strength and independence are used all over the world and from all times. From ancient times, birds were the subjects of artistic and sculptural creations.

Contemporary sculptors and artists still use birds as a subject referring to these elements. Spreading proudly across the motorway of Saudi Arabia’s king Abdul-Aziz University, this polished metal sculpture glints majestically in the Saudi sun. The magnificent sculpture of “bird in flight” has

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3700cm wingspan. The choice of steel for the execution of this work is just perfect as it would have been a lot more of unnecessary hard work and less durability if other sculptural material such concrete or fiber glass was used. This could only suggest that the artist in this case is very well conversant with the ever changing thermal movements associated with Jeddah’s extreme temperatures.

From afar, the segmented horizontal lines that run across the entire sculpture indicates that the work was built in pieces and assembled together, probably on site. One could conveniently argue that such a gigantic master piece could not have been transported in whole from its Alifab’s factory in England (Alifabs 2014).

Plate III: “Spider Web Gate” Dan Nauman, 2009, Metal, Cedarburg, Wisconsin, USA, 183cm x 183cm https://bighornforge.wordpress.com

After a critical study of the terraced flower garden, as well as the field-stone walled vegetable garden this client have created, Dan Nauman, who is a specialist in forged gates and archways sculpture came up with this captivating garden gate. The use of mild steel rod and pieces of metal sheets enhances the beauty of this gate in the rendition of artistic innovation in

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architecture. The intricacy of the spider’s self-woven trap and its victim insects form the basic inspiration for the 183cm by 183cm sized garden entrance. When closely and more analytical looked at, a representational parts of insects parts such as, abdomen of a spider, jointed legs and wings begin to appear in the eyes of the viewer. The curvy nature of each line (both delicate and bold) on the gate gives it an organic flow that compliments the ever changing life force surrounding the garden. When viewing through, the black colour of which this art work was painted offers a sharp contrast against the background foliage and yet a clear and an unobstructed view of the garden is enjoyed (Nauman, 2014).

Plate IV: “Castle Gate” Rubin Eynon, 2014, Metal, CaerphillyCastle, South Wales, http://www.walesonline.co.uk

Following a design competition, Glynneath artist Rubin Eynon was engaged to create a gate that could tell a story about the Cearphilly Castle in South Wales. Rubin succeeded in using metal sheets and iron rods as a canvas to depict a milestone in Cearphilly castle story. The gate acts as a timeline. At a glance, a picture of almost all the characters connected with the castle is seen. The cut-out steel on the main panel depicts a battle scene in full throw. Not just any battle though but a famous battle involving the owner of the castle and his men. It is interesting to note

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that such an aesthetic sculptural piece becomes such an engaging picturesque, so artistic and plays its full functionality role of a castle gate.

Horizontal, wavy lines from one end of the gate to the other forms the top and bottom frame for the see-through picture. Between each strip of the frame are sections of shorter panels painted in brilliant red, yellow and variations of green resulting in a fantastic display of colours

(Jones 2014, http://www.walesonline.co.uk).

Plate V: “School”, Richard Howie, 2011, Metal, Currunbin Beach, Australia, www.trendhunter.com

This work is located in the Currumbin beach, Australia; this enthralling art piece is a true representation of the power of the sea and its creatures within. According to its creator, Richard

Howie, in (Lope, 2011) “there is something wonderful in the shining, flashing, darting pattern formed by a school of fish”. Based on such mindset, he produced this magnificent piece consisting of a school of silver fish that appear to be swimming in the middle of an open air. The blue sky and the open sea add an incredible artistic power to the installation. Painted in a natural whitish silver colour, the metal school sculpture educates onlookers on the movements of fish and how marine species travel in the sea. In addition, by being eco-inspired this art project centers the public attention to the richness and importance of oceanic fauna.

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Reflections of light from the sun as one move around the work give a real feeling of movement. This is probably because of the way each of the beaten metal fish is thoroughly polished. Each fish is joined to an adjacent one in a neatly and almost invisible joint that shows a high level of fabrication expertise. Attention was paid to the modelling of each of the fish in this elegant sculpture to achieving very close realism. A great sense of balance was also carefully calculated as the swirling position captured, provide a stability that allow the sculpture to stand without any supportive base.

Plate VI: “Flames”, Silvestre Monnier, 1985, Metal, Jeddah, www.sculpturesof Jeddah.com

A void is generally seen sculpturally as a vacuum or a non-subject but in the case of this French architect and sculptor Sylvestre Monnier, the empty space was used to produce this prodigious master piece. Standing on a high concrete pedestal in the Jeddah Museum, “Flames” is a steel metal sculpture that catches the attention of any passer-by. The sculpture is made up of two rectangular panels boxed adjacently close to each other in the vertical orientation. An irregular shape of a growing flame is cut out at the middle, forming the subject of the work. The remaining solid form around the void is a well glazed, rough square-checked surface that reflects the slightest

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ray of light, either by day or night. The idea is to create an illusion of fire that burns around the real shape of the flame, especially at night. (Edge of Arabia, 2015)

Plate VII: “Orisa Ogun” (god or iron and war), Matthew Ehizele, 1988, Metal, Fine Arts Department, Ahmadu Bello University, Zaria 570cm, Photograph: Oche Paul

“Orisa Ogun” is a monumental free standing metal sculpture by Matthew Ehizele, an expert in generating large-scale metal sculptures within visual narratives of Nigerian art. He often utilizes traditional motifs and repetitive designs. Standing gallantly in the premises of the Fine Art

Department, Ahmadu Bello University, Zaria, the sculpture has shown handling and control of this medium coupled with the technical understanding in the use of metal as a sculpture medium. More so, the accentuation of positive and negative spaces in the work also tells so much about the mastery of metal.

As an ardent believer in tradition, the artist chose the Yoruba mythology of “Ogun” cult as source of inspiration for this work. The brutality, aggressiveness and indestructibility associated

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with metal in similarity with the icon of “Ogun” form the bases for this sculptural endeavour. In this gigantic, stylized, larger than life sculpture, the strength and confidence of a native African traditional warrior is effectively portrayed through exaggerated muscles (though in broken down forms). The deliberate use of such aesthetic elements as contrast, repetition and continuity, enhances the overall unity of the sculpture. The figure lifts up in both hands a very massive sledge hammer as if to smash or break any thing that is on the ground in front. Selected found metal objects used as amulets in the forms of twin arrowheads, hammer, padlocks and pincers hanging from different parts of body of the work, serve as identifying emblem of the “Orisa Ogun”, which also provide sufficient contrast and enhance its aesthetics.

In line with the assertion of Fatunmbi (2006), that when we think of “Ogun”, we think about blacksmith and tool makers, the posture of the figure also brings to mind the hard labour of a blacksmith, the fire wood axe men at work and the manual stone breakers, who worked exhaustively under the rain and sunshine in stone quarries for a very low income. Rendered in broken, curvilinear and simple geometric shapes, the form created by this robotic sculpture could easily be grouped into a class of cubism of its own.

Plate VIII: “Musical Things”, Lasisi Lamidi, 2010, Metal, Artist collections, 80cm x 152cm, Photograph: Oche Paul

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“Musical Things” is an abstract sculpture piece by the Zaria Art School trained artist, Lasisi

Lamidi. The work is a typical expression of his interest and mastery ofthe combination of various mundane found objects with other artistic media, in producing aesthetically pleasing art works. As a skillfull and talented Nigerian studio artist, he strongly believes in experimental paintings, sculptures and drawings which, according to Adeyemo and Duniya (2016), has been a source of both admiration and inspiration for several younger artists. In this work, a careful composition of metal automobile parts are welded at different points to a number of twisted mild steel rods, resulting into a sort of linear metal lanscape drawing.

Some car parts such as piston valves and ball bearings were randomly placed facing various directions all around the work to represent trumpets. Used milk tins were also rolled over horizontally placed rods that could only suggest traditional musical drums. Fascinatingly, in this

80cm by 152cm wall hanging sculpture, the artist creatively inculprated other non-metal materials such as, rubber and canvas in the work. Some square shaped metals with rubber tops were welded at some points of the major horizontal lines,signifying a representaion of side loud speackers, while, a wider circular plane was placed at the central top of the work, which stands for the main sound outlet (woofer). Although, a more averall look at the work, the large circular shape, overlayed with canvas at the central top of the work gives a feeling of either a full moon shine or the sun in its brilliance over the music filled lanscape. An utmost factor to behold also is the artist’s ability to bring life into the sculpture via the spread of patches of intense primary and secondary colours on some components of the sculpture.

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PlateVIII: “Concerted” Leni Satsi, 2011, Metal, Artist’s collections, 65cm x 60cm, Photograph: Leni Satsi

“Concerted” is one in the series of works produced by Leni Satsi as part of her Master of

Fine Arts (MFA) studio research works on flowers at Ahmadu Bello University, Zaria. It is produced using pieces of flat metal sheets of about 0.3cm thick. In this case, the artist chose to cut out individual shapes that could better be described as petals of flower. The petals are carefully welded together in a deliberate side by side arrangement. As the name “concerted” implies, the arrangement form a ring of distorted, oval shapes, with a centre circular shape forming a core for the composition. Each of the oblong forms that are forged to give the three dimensionality of a leaf or a petal tapers toward one end, all pointing toward the core, suggesting a deliberate intention of pulling the viewer’s attention toward a focal point. The yellow ochre painted relief work has a height of about 65cm by 60cm wide. A well-polished shinny look of the sculpture aids its solidity while, negative spaces formed around the middle circular plate result in a radiant effect. When placed against a white wall, the effect of shadow cast from a source of light tends to visually lift the work off the background, thereby, giving it an illusion of depth.

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Plate IX: “Royalty”, Fidelis Odugwu, 2011, Metal, 77.50cmX63cm, Artsalesindex.artinfo.com

Fidelis Odugwu is known for his ability of adapting metal and using its characteristics to shape soft and elegant wall and free standing sculptures. In this fascinating relief sculpture, the malleability of metal is revealed in the way twisted trips of metal sheets were used to make each of the turbans on the heads of the emir and his entourage. A semi-circular umbrella is formed at the top of the oval shaped work, proposes the position of the emir, who is surrounded by his guards all in their imperial regalia, as it is in the northern part of Nigeria traditional royal array. The artist was able to depict depth and perspective as the sizes of the multiple figures reduces from the lower toward the top part of the wall sculpture. Two long trumpets held across by different figures at both sides of the emir could only suggest a kind of protection for him (BlouinArt 2012).

Findings: The study established the following;

1. The perspective and direction of metal sculptures varied from one artist to the other, while the artist location/environment also determines the style and inspiration of the artists. For example, the works of Matthew Ehizele connotes concepts indigenous to his Nigerian setting, while the works of Calder and Dan Nauman are western inclined. 2. The availability and the cost of welded sculpture equipment and materials either affects or enhances the creativity and dexterity of production of metal sculpture generally looking at the global point of view in welding technology. The Western artists seem to

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be more in flexibility in term of the use of pneumatic tools than African sculptors; this is owing to accessibility of electrical tools and constant electricity supply in the Western countries compared to Africa. 3. The Nigerian and the Western artists are all inclined toward abstraction of forms, yet few traces of animal and geometric forms could also be observed in their sculptures. 4. Metals as media of expression in sculpture offer artists variety of possibilities in direct welding techniques and is faster to create than any other media in the practice of sculpture depending on the size in question.

Conclusion

Virtually everything that exists in physical form is an available medium to sculptors for artistic expression. However, the material a sculptor uses has lasting effects on the sculpture, from the moment of inspiration right to the impact on the viewers. Although the interpretation of the viewer is a personal thing, yet the material undeniably contributes to the meaning proposed by the artist. Metal, both ferrous and non-ferrous and its alloy have been materials for artistic visual communication from pre-historic times. The choice of this is probably not just because of its malleability but also its over-all strength and durability.

In welded metal sculpture, the constructive process in welding negates the universal know destructive force of fire, however, Ehizele (1989) affirms that, “students and young sculptors in

Nigeria probably see metal as a hard and intractable material, therefore, hard to manipulate, as against clay, cement, wax and other soft and pliable material”. Perhaps, venturing into it, they could discover that the availability of divers welding methods and the tensile strength of metal in this modern time, as expressed by these artists above could open up many possibilities. More so, welded metal sculpture, whether monumental or miniature have proven to last longer than most materials, withstanding any extreme weather and environmental conditions, so the desired and adequate treatment and maintenance culture should be imbibed by both the artists and the collectors.

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Reference

Absoluteart.com, (1995). Steel Sculpture, Retrieved from https://www.absoluteart. com/sculpture/steelscultures- worldwideresources Adeyemo, P. A. and Duniya, G. G. (2016) An Analysis of Lasisi Lamidi’s Metal Sculptures. In: International Journal of Innovative Language, Literature and Art Studies 4(2); 1-7 Bakersgas.com, (2012). Different Welding Techniques, Retrieved from https://www.bakersgas .com/weldingmyworld/diffrent-welding-techniques Bell. T. (2018). The History of Steel from Iron Age to Electric Arc Furnaces, Retrieved from https://www.the balance.com/steel-history-2340172 BlouiArt (2012) Blouin Art sales Index. Retrieved from blouinartsales index,com/aunctions/fidelis-odogwu-eze 5208141/null Brighthubengineering.com, (2018). Mechanical Engineering, Types of Methods of Welding: Understanding the Basics of the Process, Retrieved from https://www.brighthubengineering.com/manufacturing- technology/classification-of- welding Cemetalfabrication.com, (2016). 8 Types of Welding Techniques, Retrieved from https://www.cemetalfabrication.com/8-types-of-welding-techniques City-data.com (2015). La Grande Vitesse, Grand Rapids Michigan, an Artistic Steel Sculpture and Symbol of The City. Retrieved from: www.city-data.com/article/La-Grande-Vitesse-Grande-Rapids-Michigan.html

Nauman, D. (2014) Forged Gate and Archways by Dan Nauman. Bighorn Forged’s weblog. Retrieved from: https://bighornforge.wordpress.com/2014/02/27/forged-gate-and-archwas-b-dan-nauman Dictionary.com (2016). Material, Random House Inc. Retrieved from: www.dictionary.com/browse/material Edge of Arabia (2015). Sculpture of Jeddah; flames. artjameel. Retrieved from: www.sculpturesof jeddah.com/sculptures/detail/flames Ehizele, M. O. (1989) The Plastic Essence of Welded Metal Sculpture: An Exploration into the Development of Forms (An unpublished M.F.A Thesis in Sculpture) submitted to the, Department of Fine Arts, Ahmadu Bello University, Zaria. p.43 Fatunmbi, F. A. (2006) Ogun, Ifa and the Spirit of Iron; Retrieved from: Amazon.com/ogun-spirit-Awo-Falokun- Fatunmbi/dp Jones, E. (2014). Welsh History Month: The New Gates of History at Caerphilly Castle. Retrieved from: www.walesonline.co.uk/lifestyle/nostalgia/welsh-history-month-new-gates-7830556 JeeHee, H. (2003). “Material and Materiality” Department of Art History. University of Chicago. Retrieved from: Cmt.uchicago.edu/…/material.htm Lopez, A. (2011) The Richard Howie School Installation is a Whirlpool of Creatures. Fascinating Fish Sculpture. Retrieved from: www.trendhunter.com/trends/richrd-howie-school Ogunfuwa, T.O., Oladugbagbe, F.E.A. and Emeriemen, O.K. (2013) “Art and Life in Security Context” in IOSR Jurnal of Humanities and Social Science. Vol. 13 issue 3 Oladugbagbe, F.E.A. and Kalilu, R.O. (2013) “Iconography Arts and Design of metal Sculpture in: Nigerian Art Institutions” in Journal of Research on Humanities and Social Sciences vol.3. No.13 Petra, L.B. (2015) “Materiality”. Massachusetts Institute of Technology. Document of Contemporary Art. Mitpress.mit.edu/books/materiality

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THE GENESIS OF EGUNGUN MASQUERADES IN YORUBA LAND: A REVIEW OF CONFLICTING STANCES

ADEYEMO, P. A.1 & SALIU, A. R. 2 1. Fine and Applied Arts Department School of Vocational and Technical Education Aminu Saleh College of Education, Azare Bauchi State, Nigeria

2. Fine Art Department Faculty of Environmental Design Ahmadu Bello University, Zaria Kaduna State, Nigeria

Abstract ______The general assumption in the West and Europe about a masquerade centres on its peculiar characteristics which are pretense, disguise and ridicule. In Africa also, these characteristics come to fore but with a unique difference in the sense that, a masquerader disguises to be whatever spirit or ancestor being incarnated with awe. Thus, exhibiting or putting up another character other than the real person in the costume can be said to be the ideal of a masquerade anywhere. However, the concern of this paper is to review the genesis of Egungun masquerades in Yoruba land. This is consequent upon the gap observed in the literature which made art scholars find it difficult to reach a consensus on the actual place of origin of Egungun owing to divergent views, myths, oral traditions, written accounts, among others. The paper also attempts to x-ray the various theories of masquerades’ origins in Africa and the misconception about Egungun masquerades in Yoruba land. In conclusion, this paper, after a careful analysis of various submissions, gives credence to Nupe land, as the potential source of Egungun masquerade tradition, from where it diffused to Yoruba land.

Keywords: Genesis, Egungun, Ancestor, Myths, Theories. ______

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Introduction Africans generally have the mindset that, there is a hierarchy of spiritual forces. God, being the

Supreme Being, is considered to be the head of these forces. So, the spirits and other deities, which include masquerades, otherwise known as Egungun in Yoruba, are perceived to be God’s intermediaries on earth. Hence, Aremu, Biodun and Olanipekun (2012) posit that the general picture in African societies is that regular communal prayers to God directly, are very rare, and so,

He is approached through His intermediaries to intercede for the good of the living. Ebhomienlen and Idemudia (2014) also confirm that “the African recognises the place of the ancestors and gives them appropriate veneration and reverence, as they are seen as human representatives in the spirit world.” The Yoruba saying, o ku tan, o d’orisa, o d’eni a-kunle-bo, meaning “having died, he

(human being) becomes a divinity, to be worshipped on bent knees” therefore, becomes a significant maxim which further underscores the Yoruba’s belief in ancestral worship. Beier in

Adegbola (1998) confirms further the Yoruba’s belief in ‘spiritism.’ The worship of the ancestor is, thus, based on a firm belief that the ‘spirit’ of a human being never dies, but it will continue to influence the life of the community from another sphere, after it has left the physical body, if at death the necessary funeral rites are undertaken. Strong (2011) further comments that the ancestral spirits of the Yoruba are much more than just dead relatives, they play an active role in the daily life of the living. They are sought out for protection and guidance, and are believed also to possess the ability to punish those who have forgotten their familial ties or consanguineous bonds. There are numerous and unique ways through which the ancestors are believed to communicate with the living, one of which is their manifestation on earth in the form of masked spirits, known as

Egungun (masquerades). Besides the physical manifest form of masquerades, other ways through which the living keep in touch with their ancestors include dreams or trance as noted by Idowu in

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Adegbola (1998) and that, they can, through those channels, impart information or explanation, or even give instructions on any matter about the family when it finds itself in a serious predicament.

They can also send messages through other persons, mediums or through certain cults.

Concept of Masquerade

Masquerading or masquerade ceremonies are said to be rites or cultural events carried out in many parts of the world particularly in the Caribbean and most parts of Africa (Ganyi, Inyabri and

Okpiliya, 2013). It is, however, needful to understand what the term masquerading is all about even before reviewing its origin accounts, so as to help one gain a better grasp of the concept in its entirety. Looking through the dictionary meaning, Hornby (2015) defines masquerade in three ways as: (a). A way of behaving that hides the truth or a person’s true feelings, (b). A type of party where people wear special costumes and masks over their faces to hide their identities, (c). To pretend to be sth (sic) that one is not; commercial advertisers masquerading as private individuals.

From these definitions, masquerading can be likened to an assembly of people wearing costumes and masks to disguise their selfhood, perhaps to amuse themselves or others with dancing, rejoicing, conversations and even drumming, as the case may be in a party-like form. It can also be deduced to simply mean an attempt to cover with a mask in order to hide, conceal or disguise the true identity of a person. Anyebe (2015) further substantiates the concept of masquerade by stating that; mask is etymologically explained as being derived from the Spanish word ‘mascara’ and the Arabic word ‘barah.’ It is noted that ‘Mascara’ in the Spanish language means ‘clown,’ while in Arabic ‘barah’ means ‘to ridicule.” The author, thus, elaborates that, “it would then be correct to say that contemporary English evolution and meaning of the word ‘mask’ traces its origin to the Arabic and Spanish typologies.” The author concludes that “it is also clear that the

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use, to which the word is put, as presented in English drama, suggests mimicking or acting like another person, or grotesque representations.” From the foregoing also, these explanations seemingly capture parts of what masquerade stands for, especially the concluding statement. That is, masking or and masquerading, are described as secular human amusing activities that take over the characters of others, other than the mask wearers, perhaps meant for audience’s enjoyment, entertainment and veneration.

Similarly, Akubor (2016) corroborates that, “literally scholars have defined masquerade as a covering, concealment and a disguise device by an individual or group, with the view to represent a spirit, an animal, philosophy or an idea; while they consider costumes associated with masquerades, as the physical representation of this disguise.” This submission entrenches the fact that, masquerading is all about hiding, covering and disguising to be someone or something else through the instrumentality of costume.

By and large, from all the readings, it is deduced that the idea of masquerading all over the world is to hide the identity of the masker or wearer for one reason or the other. It is also noted that, when the wearer is in costume, he loses his original personality and then becomes the spirit or character of the mask. Additionally, it is obvious from the foregoing that the perception of other parts of the world outside Africa, like in America and Europe about masquerades seems restricted to objects of pleasure, entertainment and even ridicule. To them, perhaps, anything under a mask or cover can mean a masquerade, but to Africa, masquerades are usually ancestral spirits and even the active cult of spirit figures and gods. Therefore, Egungun in Yoruba masking culture, as the paper posits, can be referred to as all covered figures with masks costumes, which are associated with the veneration and worship of ancestors. It is imperative also to note that, not all masquerades wear

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masks. Some cover up with costumes only. Aremu et al (2012), from a professional perspective, reinforce the paper’s view on Egungun as “the ancestors, better referred to as Egungun masquerades, representing people who died and represented physically in costumed figures.”

Thus, the succeeding figure is typical examples of Egungun masquerades.

Figure 1: Egungun masquerades. Retrieved on November 15, 2016, from http://www.yorubaperformance.weebly.com/uploads/1/4/1/0/14106517/9752326_orig.jpg?340_

An Overview of Masquerades’ Origin in Africa and Elsewhere

Masks are said to have existed for 17,000 years, appearing in infinite variety and in widely scattered societies and cultures throughout the world (Ruttenberg, 1993). The author further notes that, “evidence of the prehistoric use of masks has been found in both Europe and Africa, and masks survive from the ancient civilizations of Asia, Africa, Europe, and the Americas.” Famule

(2005) also attests that, “the history of African masking traditions cut across the ages from prehistoric through modern.” The author, however, observes further that, “scanty evidence has

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been advanced to support most speculations about the age and the earliest forms of masking in

Africa.” These assertions are possibly tenable, going by the understanding of what masks or masquerades mean and their functions in many cultures of the world. Turner (2016) also holds that, “the word ‘masquerade’ has its roots in the French word ‘mascarade’ and the Italian word

‘maschera,’ but masquerades likely originated on the West African coast. Similarities exist between the Italian Commedia dell’ Arte and the Nigerian Yoruba masked comedy.” It is noted by the author that, masquerade first became popular in Venice, Italy and the practice of masquerade balls quickly spread throughout Europe and England in the eighteenth century. The author concludes that, “during the same period, African ceremonial masquerades spread to the Caribbean and the South-eastern United States, where it evolved into carnivals.” From the foregoing, one can first perceive another etymological and linguistic perspective from both French and Italian words that describe masquerade, though the meanings in their original contexts are not mentioned by the author. In any case, it can be assumed that, masks and or masquerades are ubiquitous objects and perhaps, are used all over the world, and that different societies use the masquerade objects differently. Thus, an enquiry in the Yoruba masquerade will further confirm or dispel such assumptions.

Various theories of origin exist though, according to Asigbo (2012), with each trying to explain how masquerades came about. In the author’s submission, however, two separate theories are highlighted namely; the Power Balancing theory and the Omnipresent theory. In the Power

Balancing theory, it is established that many African communities practise witchcraft, which is said to be dominated by women who use it to oppress and intimidate the menfolk, mostly at night.

In order to provide a counter force to this supported conspiracy by women, the menfolk also got

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together to form the masquerade cult, which widely excluded women. It is thus, noted that whenever witches cried at night and something untoward happened, masquerades are usually summoned to unmask the faces behind such acts. From this theory, witchcraft is perceived to be one of the societal evils or vices, virtually in many African cultures, that bring nothing good but undesirable experiences, sorrows and undue oppressions. Generally, it is also believed to be an evil association comprised of women. To inhibit and bring under control their wickedness, therefore, explains the emergence of masquerade tradition by menfolk, who hide their identities under masks and costumes, so that nobody recognises them, including their wives as well, to demystify the mystery of witchcraft, expose the members’ identities and bring to judgement whoever is found culpable. This also, possibly, explains why masquerading is a man’s affair in most traditional African societies.

In the Omnipresent theory, the author holds that masquerades are believed to be ancestors in many cultures, where masquerade traditions exist, and that they are seen as ancestors on a momentary journey to the world of the living. This belief is noted to stem from the cosmic view of the African world, which conceives of the world as cyclical, tripartite and interdependent, with each plane of existence believed to be incomplete without the company of the next. Therefore, the ancestors, according to the author, overcome by an incomprehensible nostalgia and yearning for the company of a man, manifest as masquerades to exhibit the characteristics of specific ancestors, and can as the occasion demands, protect the future and perform other ritual functions. It is thus believed that the Spirit manifests as physical manifestations of the continuous presence and interest of the ancestors in the affairs of the living. These two theories, as this paper observes, corroborate with the most accounts on the origin of masquerades in many African cultures that practise it, such as

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the Chewa, Mang’anja, Dogon, Baule, Bambara, Mossi, Kuba, Kifwebe, Igbo, Ebira and Yoruba, among others.

The Genesis of Egungun Masquerade in the Yoruba Land

The genesis of Egungun in the Yoruba land, which is the thrust of this paper, is surrounded with varied myths, oral narratives and written accounts. These, therefore, make it difficult to ascertain where, when and how masquerading began precisely. For example, Olajubu and Ojo in Adolphsen

(2012) expound that, when informants are asked about the origin of Egungun, some would profess ignorance, others would narrate ‘stories of origin,’ others, especially cult members, would refuse to divulge what they regard as cult secrets. These authors further assert that other informants would even say: “It is our fathers’ tradition, we inherited it, and no one knows how it began.”

Nevertheless, there are diverse myths suggesting how Egungun came to being. For example,

Babayemi in Strong (2011) reveals that the earth was very unstable and so, Olodumare (God) sent masquerades down to help. These heavenly spirits secretly landed in a sacred grove. It is said that they had to disguise themselves to carry the necessary rituals to the four corners of the earth, and after that, it is recorded that, the earth became stable. AyeAkamara (2012) also narrates another myth that, “Egungun (masquerade) became a known deity in two different ways.” In the beginning, it was noted that Egungun was among the great divinities (Irunmole) that came directly from heaven. The history was said to have created awareness that, there once lived a great man, whose name was called Lapanpa, noted to have started the cult of Egungun based on an Ifa verse. All these are just testimonies to affirm that, the variation in mythical beliefs on the origin of masquerades appear to be assumptions of individuals or certain groups, possibly based on their different histories, cultures, localities, among others. Additionally, there are also other conflicting

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written narratives and documentation of Egungun origin. For example, Adolphsen (2012) expounds about Egungun’s origin, as narrated by Joel Adedeji in his essay titled “The Origin and

Form of the Yoruba Masque Theatre,” that Sango is believed to have reigned as the Alaafin of

Oyo, probably about the fourteenth century, and is thought to have introduced the phenomenon of ancestral worship called Baba (father), which later transformed into Egungun tradition. It is revealed that Sango had tried in vain to secure the remains of his father, Oranyan, the founder of

Oyo, for burial at Oyo after his death at Ife but was told that Oranyan had metamorphosed into

Opa Oranyan (a stone staff). As an alternative, therefore, Sango designed a new funeral obsequy for Oranyan in Oyo at a special ceremony, and he is noted to have brought the reincarnated spirit of his father to the outskirts of Oyo, and set up the bara (royal mausoleum) for his worship and placed Iyamode (the old woman of the palace) in charge of the mystery. The duty of Iyamode, therefore, was to worship Oranyan’s spirit and to bring him out as a masquerade during an evocation ceremony. Later, this ceremony of bringing the spirit of the deceased head of the lineage to the homestead is noted to become formalised as a permanent feature of Yoruba funeral ceremony. As an institution, it came to be administered by the Oje (a guild of mask actors) based at the court and supervised by the Iyamode. It is observed however that, by the middle of sixteenth century, during the reign of Alaafin Ofinran (c. 1544), the guild had been consolidated and fully constituted as the Egungun Society with a hierarchy of officers and priests.

From the preceding, this paper perceives that the origin of masquerade ritual was, to some extent, socio-political in nature and equally attached to a desire by leaders in Yoruba land to make a god out of past leaders, who probably lived exemplary lives, by deifying them, and in so doing, solidifying chronicles of power that would help legitimate royal authority. Adolphsen (2012) also

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notes that the origin of masquerades was also spiritual occurring as they did in sacred spaces and evolving into a permanent feature of Yoruba funeral ceremony. This narration, when compared, gives credence to the Omnipresent theory, as postulated by Asigbo (2010), since it is premised on ancestral worship. However, from another perspective, Na’Allah (1996) believes in Nupe’s origin and thus, opposed to Oyo as the source of Egungun. He admits that, though it is difficult to come by any written document explaining the Nupe’s theory on the origin of Egungun, his interviews with native speakers, revealed that the Nupecize (sic.) themselves have a very interesting existing oral tradition that presents the Nupe theory on the origin of masquerade that:

Long before the inception of the Nupecizi on earth, the men folk decided to plan strategies that would ensure security for the people and properties in the community. They wanted their strategies kept secret and therefore, decided to meet at night. They kept women and children out of the meeting believing that they could easily leak out their plans. However, each time a particular woman fought with her husband, she made a jest of him referring boldly to his submissions at the men folk’s secret deliberations. The news soon spread among the menfolk and they decided to find out how the woman got her information. The oracle told them that this woman changed into a cat and always attended their meetings. True enough, the cat appeared during the following three meetings, and all their efforts to kill it were abortive. Each time they attempted to capture the cat, it disappeared into thin air. The men changed their meeting schedule to once weekly. The day before the meeting, some men put on masques and covered themselves with dark (sometimes red or pink) clothes. They scared women and children away and some holding canes. Some of the men were tall, and some were short. This developed into what now is a religious tradition of tall and short masqueraders among the Nupecize.

Firstly, the above assertions also explicitly give credence to the Power Balancing theory on the origin of masquerade. Secondly, the issue of some men being tall and short indicates the different types of masquerades as available today, known as Igunnuko or Igunnu and Egungun, among the

Tapa and other parts of Yoruba land. Igunnu is the type of masquerade that is very tall, often reaching 450 cm or more in a cylindrical shape, and can extend or shorten its height at will unlike the Egungun type that is short, usually in normal human height. Hence, Na’Allah (1996) concludes

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that “Egungun cult started from the Nupe town.” This though is against other scholars’ arguments to debunk the purported Nupe origin of the Egungun Cult. For example, the author reminds the readers that, Nadel and Olajubu at separate times disagreed with the claim that the Egungun originated from the Nupe town, and argued that, the only worshippers of Egungun among the

Nupecize were the Nupe-lized Yoruba. He recounted various Yoruba oral traditions that accounted for the origin of masquerade among the Yoruba. One of such is traceable to Ile-Ife and that, all awo (secret knowledge) had a common origin; they were all born at the creation of the world at

Ile-Ife.

Be that as it may, Ekpo (1977) affirmatively posits that, the Egungun cult originated in the Nupe land and that, it is widely adopted in many Yoruba kingdoms, though it is not observed in Ile-Ife.

Nonetheless, Ile-Ife now has and observes Egungun tradition (Aworeni, 2009). To further debunk the Yoruba origination of masquerade, Na’Allah (1996) conclusively reiterates that, masquerading took root from Nupe, and that evidence presented by other scholars on the origin of masquerades also negate the popular belief that masquerades sprang from the Yoruba religion. With these submissions, it is evident that there are too many sides pointing to the origin of masquerade tradition among the Yoruba which make the origin of Egungun appear cloudy due to the lack of unanimity. Thus, Araba Ifa (2014) confirms that the origin of Egungun is not really known, because there are different versions of the story. On the whole, the deduction and summary are that these conflicting stances of scholars about the origin of Egungun in Yoruba land in general, make a consensus origin difficult to be established. However, it is informative to know that,

Adegbola (1998) reveals that, “Sango, the son of Oranyan, was given birth by a Tapa woman during Oranyan’s military expedition in Nupe land.” Thus, this may suggest that it was Alaafin

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Sango’s related Tapa origin that possibly influenced him in associating the mask with the Oyo-

Yoruba funeral ceremony, as well as using it in the ritual worship of his dead father.

Egungun (Masquerades) in Yoruba land

This segment x-rays what Egungun masquerade implies in Yoruba land due to misconceptions.

Some scholars see Egungun masquerades as a tautology and conclude that using Egungun and masquerade together is a redundant use of words or vain repetition. Meanwhile, the term

“masquerade” is a generic connotation in the Yoruba language that is applied to different masquerade types or secret societies with costume and mask cultures, and such include among others, Egungun, Gelede, Epa, Agemo, Eyo. Makinde (2005) opines that “the word Egungun in the literal sense is applicable to masquerades found among the Oyo-Yoruba.” The author believes that

“Egungun diffused to other parts of Yoruba land, where they were identified with names like

Gelede among the Egbado, Epa among the Ekiti, and Agemo among the Ijebu.” This paper is sceptical about this opinion, in the sense that, these masquerades are different from one another in their appearances, functions and other elements. For instance, in appearance, most masquerade types are with carved headgears and the rest of the costumes may be clad with the hands of the masqueraders left bare, as in the case of Gelede, or a combination of palm fronds and clothes, with hands and feet visible, as in the Epa type. In the case of Egungun however, it is the whole figure that is covered, with or without headgear, depending on the Egungun type. To strengthen the foregoing, Ikpakronyi (1991) attests that, “While Egungun represents the ancestors; the other types are used in religious rituals.” Famule (2005) further elaborates that, “Gelede masks among the

Egba, Egbado, Awori and other neighbouring Yoruba sub-groups are used to celebrate the women’s spiritual power. The purpose of this masquerade tradition is to make the great mothers

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(Iya Nla) use their spiritual power positively.” Hence, it is apparent that aside from their varied appearances, Egungun functional roles are also a bit different from other masquerade types, and its focus is mainly on the worship and veneration of deceased ancestors.

Conclusion

Sequel to the diverse myths, oral traditions and arguments on the origin of Egungun in Yoruba land that made a consensus of exact place of origin difficult to reach by many scholars, this paper notes that three distinct places, as the likely origins, stood out; they are Oyo, Ife and Nupe land.

However, the origin of Egungun from Oyo may not be completely true to have preceded that of

Ife, for two reasons: First, Oyo was traditionally founded from Ife, and second, the father of Alaafin

Sango, Oranyan, who founded Oyo, was from Ife and even died there. Therefore, it seems most probable that the origin of Egungun was from Nupe land, in the sense that, the mother of Alaafin

Sango was of Nupe origin, as Adegbola (1998) divulges. Hence, in all likelihood, Oranyan, the father of Alaafin Sango, might have learnt about masquerade culture during his temporal military expedition to Nupe land, where he possibly got the woman, Alaafin Sango’s mother, as a wife, or as a slave to Ife and married her afterwards, and also might subsequently introduced the masking tradition to Ife, the place where many scholars argued to have been the origin of Egungun. Though, the writers have not been able to establish whether the Egungun in Nupe land is also associated with ancestral spirits or not. This is because Na’Allah (1996) comments that, “Nupe people developed Egungun to put fear in women and children, and also, to witch-hunt and bamboozle their neighbours to submission.” Also, the Nupe’s theory on the origin of masquerade, which is to counter the forces of witches, as articulated by the author in his preceding texts, validated the

Power Balancing theory by Asigbo (2010).

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References

Adegbola, E.A.A. (1998). Traditional Religion in West Africa. Ibadan: Sefer Book Ltd. pp.117-120 Adolphsen, P. (2012). Yoruba Performance. Retrieved on September 20, 2015, from https://www.yorubaperformance.weebly.com/index.html pp.3-5 Akubor, E.O. (2016). Africans Concept of Masquerades and their Role in Societal Control and Stability: Some Notes on the Esan People of Southern Nigeria. In Asian and African Studies, Vol. 25, No. 1 Anyebe, T. (2015). Reincarnation in Ritual Display: A Discourse of the Alekwu Mythopoeia in Idoma Traditional Dramaturgy. In International Journal of Social Science and Humanity. Vol. 5, No. 6 Araba Ifa Temple (2014). Egungun Suit. Retrieved on April 4, 2016, from http://www.arabaifatemple.org/egungun/ Aremu, P.S.O., Biodun, B.O., and Olanipekun, Y. (2012). Egungun Tradition in Trado- Modern Society in South-Western Nigeria. Mediterranean Journal of Social Sciences. Vol. 3(1). Asigbo, A.C. (2012). Transmutations in Masquerade Costumes and Performances: An Examination of Abuja Carnival 2010. Unizik Journal of Arts and Humanities. Vol. 13, No. 1. Retrieved on June 4, 2016 from https://www.ajol.info/index.php/ujah/....73299 pp.3-5 Aworeni, B. (2009). Egungun Masquerade. Retrieved on April 4, 2016 from https://www.orisha.com/wordpress/?p=519 Ebhomienlen, T.O. and Idemudia, M.O. (2014). (Ekpo) Masquerade in Edo Belief: The Socio- Economic Relevance. IOSR Journal of Humanities and Social Science (IOSR-JHSS) Vol. 19, Iss. 1, Ver. VIII. P.64. Retrieved on February 12, 2016 from https://www.iosrjournal.org p.64 Ekpo, E. (1977). Two Thousand Years Nigerian Art. Lagos: Federal Department of Antiquities. p.170 Famule, F.O. (2005). Art and Spirituality: The Ijumu Northeastern Yoruba Egungun. PhD Dissertation, Department of Art: The University of Arizona. pp.214-217 Ganyi, F.M., Inyabri, I.T. and Okpiliya, J.O. (2013). Performance Aesthetics and Functionalism: The Legacy of Atam Masquerade of the Bakor People of Ogoja Local Government Area. In International Journal of Humanities and Social Science Invention ISSN (Online). Retrieved on June 13, 2016 from http://www.ijhssi.org

Hornby, A.S. (2015). Oxford Advanced Learner’s Dictionary. New 8th Ed. New York: Oxford University Press. p.912 Ikpakronyi, S.O. (1991). The Artistic Features of Masquerade Dance of Abakpa, Ayita and Ogrinya Cultural Dance Groups of Gabu in Cross-River State. Unpublished B.A. Project. Zaria: Ahmadu Bello University. pp.18-20 Makinde, D.O. (2005). Reconstruction of Egungun Ajomogbodo’s Costume in Ogbomoso. Unpublished M.F.A. Thesis. Ife: Obafemi Awolowo University. pp.12-20 Na’Allah, A. (1996). The Origin of Egungun: A Critical Literary Appraisal. African Study Monographs. Vol. 17(2). pp.59-62 Ruttenberg, W. (1993). History of West African Masks. Retrieved July 12, 2016 from http://www.ehow.com/about_5434236_history-west-african-masks.html Strong, L. (2011). Egungun: The Masked Ancestors of the Yoruba. Retrieved on September 15, 2014 from https://www.mythicarts.com/writing/Egungun.html Turner, L.L. (2016). What is the Purpose of the Masquerades and their Meaning? Retrieved on June 12, 2016 from https://www.demandmedia.com

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EMERGING TRENDS, ADVANCING THE FRONTIERS OF VISUAL ARTS CULTURE: A REVIEW OF THE 29TH AND 30TH UNIVERSITY OF JOS CONVOCATION EXHIBITION 2018 ONOJA, J.E. and JOSHUA, J.O. Department of Fine and Applied Arts Faculty of Environmental Sciences University of Jos Jos, Plateau State Nigeria

Abstract ______Exhibitions of various products form the hub of visual display of the various productions and disciplines in the University of Jos. Visual arts exhibition and exhibiting works usually add colour to all types of displays in the University. That is why this aspect was prominent in the 29th and 30th University of Jos combined convocation ceremony. Art exhibitions date back to prehistoric man. The early man created his art for sympathetic magic in order to make the animals drawn by him to be vulnerable to him as prey, in contemporary times; visual artists record events, discuss issues and stir emotional responses from the viewers of artworks. Artists, through joint efforts as seen in this convocation exhibition, have staged this art exhibition to bring to the public space, works created in their studios in order to engage actively with art enthusiasts, connoisseurs and the general public on societal issues. The main thrust of this paper is to review the artworks displayed in the course of the exhibition. Experimental drawings, paintings, prints, textile designs, ceramics and innovative inventions embellished the exhibition hall for the University community to engage their vision and intellectual prowess to build on a visual culture. The paper documents and analyses some artworks using purposive sampling. It concludes and recommends that periodic exhibitions should be encouraged to add to the understanding of visual statements, icons, symbols and allegories of visual arts in order to sustain a virile practice of art culture in the University and beyond.

Keywords: Trends, visual arts, exhibition, exhibits, analysis. ______

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Introduction

Exhibitions have created good grounds of synergies and developments in the various fields of human endeavours. People move to such places to have firsthand experiences of innovative products and services.

The same is true of visual arts exhibition and culture. Onoja (2016) reports that, “Art exhibition is the display of visual art works for the public to engage with and understand the artist space and paradigm of thoughts, ideas and ideals”. Visual arts created in the precincts of studios and the ephemeral space of the artists can only be engaged with in an exhibition setting, hence, the place of visual arts exhibition cannot be over emphasised in the visual arts field. Artists make tangible statements in art exhibitions, thereby bringing to the fore potent and poignant issues to the society. Mastrogiannis (2018:25) gives an epigram on artists by stating that, “I believe artists come from another planet. They are special people. They know how to put beauty together – God gave them that gift.” Visual art exhibition is another way of putting beauty together and adding spice to events in the University as seen in this convocation exhibition.

The 29th and 30th combined convocation ceremony of the University of Jos had various events lined up for the success of the programme, and the exhibition component to add zest, allure and glitz to the ceremony. The visual arts exhibition which started on Tuesday 19th to Monday 24th June 2018 was a microcosm of the display of wealth of artistic knowledge, virile and thriving visual arts culture in the

University. The ultra-modern University of Jos Library complex served as the venue of the exhibition. The environment and pristine arrangement of the interiors of the Library added flavour to the exhibits. The

University management, staff, students and the general public visited the exhibition with positive feed backs.

Various authors have eulogized the place of art exhibition in the promotion of visual arts culture in the society. Exhibition is the life line of the visual arts, helping to propagate the emergence of new trends and innovative designs. According to Cline (2012:3):

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The art exhibition has had a long and complex history, evolving with the ever-changing demands of society while at the same time challenging those very demands. Exhibitions act as the catalyst of art and ideas to the public; they represent a way of displaying and contextualizing art that makes it relevant and accessible to contemporary audiences. The art exhibition, by its nature, holds a mirror up to society, reflecting its interests and concerns while at the same time challenging its ideologies and preconceptions. Keeping art relevant to society and to a diverse audience at any given point in history is one of the main goals of the art exhibition and one of the reasons it is so important to the history of art.

The effectiveness of understanding art is propagated through the instrumentality of exhibitions of which the Department of Fine and Applied Arts, University of Jos has been avant-garde in this area. Duniya and

Onoja (2015: 144) report that, “Art works produced by artists in their studios have at one time or the other been displayed in galleries or exhibition halls, during solo or group exhibitions, for the public to appreciate and probably buy and use as decorative items or collections”. Exhibition is no doubt an intellectual exercise; it generates reactions from the content and context of the exhibition, thereby making it an engaging exercise while it has economic benefits. In talking about visual arts exhibition, Onoja (2016) opines that, “visual artists have used it to display their works, and actively dialogue with the public on new trends, movements, styles materials, techniques and philosophies in the works, which no doubt, the understanding of the works can be equated to as written text”. Furtherance to that, Buhari (2015:14) avers that, “The requirements of an art exhibition, however, are more critical and more ideological”. The ideologies of artworks can only be better articulated through engagement with artists, a platform which this exhibition readily provides.

Setting up the Exhibition The choice of a venue is critical in setting up an exhibition. For this particular exhibition, the choices were between the multi-purpose auditorium basement and the Ultra-Modern Library complex. The choice of the later was picked due to the following vantage points; accessibility, adequate lighting, security and importantly, a good atmosphere for academic engagement, as the library is the hub of academic activities in any institution. Artworks of staff and some selected students whose works show promise were critiqued and selected for mounting. Exhibition boards were fixed in an L – shaped formation in the allocated space for easy flow of human traffic in the exhibition. Sculpture stands were also strategically

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placed for sculptures and ceramics display. The staff of the National Gallery of Arts, Plateau State outstation helped in the set up with staff and students of the Department of Fine and Applied Arts. The artworks were professionally mounted to make visual statements and advance aesthetics (Plate I).

Plate I: Collage of mounting of exhibition boards in the setting up phase of the exhibition.

The Opening The tastefully staged exhibition attracted various visitors, staff, students, alumni members of the

University of Jos who came for the convocation ceremony and the press. The University’s management team was part of the early callers at the show lead by Professor Nelson Ochekpe, the Deputy Vice

Chancellor (DVC) Academics, Professor Theresa Nmadu, the Deputy Vice Chancellor Administration and

Mr. Monday Danjem, the Registrar. These where accompanied by other staff present. The team was given a guided tour of the exhibition by Dr. Jacob Onoja who curated the exhibition. The relaxed atmosphere of the exhibition added attraction to the show and encouraged other viewers of the pride of place the department of Fine and Applied Arts is taking in the institution (Plates II & III).

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Plate II: Collaged images showing a tour of the Convocation exhibition with some members of the University of Jos Management team.

Plate III: Collaged images showing some staff and students during the opening of the 29th and 30th Convocation exhibition with some members of the University of Jos Management team.

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Plate IV: Some staff and students of the department during the exhibition

Plate V: Interview sessions with some of the exhibiting artists. Dr. Y.C Datiri (Head of Department), Dr. J.E Onoja (Exhibition Curator) and Mr. M.A Adawus speaking on recent innovations.

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The Exhibits The artworks collected for the exhibition form a microcosm of the department’s modest contribution to the University of Jos repository of visual exhibits. The various sections of the Department of Fine and Applied Arts presented works for the exhibition. There was no restriction to the number of works to be exhibited by staff, however, for students, especially specializing students, two works are to be documented in the exhibition catalogue. Ceramics, graphic designs, textiles, paintings and sculptures which cover a wide range of subject matters were screened for the exhibition. Since the exhibition was not directed at a specific theme, different artists presented their current research works in their areas of specialization to show ongoing research interests. Drawing, biscuit wares, glazed ceramics, textile designs on paper, dyed fabrics, ornate bead works, experimental sculptural pieces, paintings of various oeuvres and innovative products designs filled the exhibition space. All the exhibits have their individual merits and showcase the aesthetic dexterity of the emerging department.

The exhibits were documented in a catalogue to give the convocation exhibition a scholarly presentation. Buhari (2015:15) eulogises the place of a catalogue when he states that, “The other component of an art exhibition is that it has documentary aspects where the works are given technical description, notes and critical essays illustrated in a catalogue”. Although, the catalogue was lacking in essays and other technical analysis, the modest effort to document the images and the exhibitors is a welcomed development.

Historically, people can pick up the catalogue and see how the department has grown over the years as the staff of the department are following their forebears from the Zaria art school. A bulk of the Staff had some training in Zaria. This only brings to remembrance the statement of Samuel (2009:213) as he opines that,

“Perhaps as Africans, it is not enough to have many children, but to have children who can farm. In the writer’s assessment, the Zaria Graduates are breeds that really are farming in the field where they find themselves”. In this exhibition, the staff and students alike worked concertedly to produce highly appealing artworks in terms of aesthetics, philosophy and bring to bear societal issues in the exhibits following the

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footprints of the Zaria Art School, however, following the emergence of a unique trend which can be named after the art school of Unijos.

The fusion of highly sculpted forms can be seen in the ceramic pieces of Dr. Yohanna Datiri.

Maikifi, Maiden and Oga Ba Wuya are titles given to some of the highly tactile and burnish finish of the works on exhibition from this celebrated ceramist who is also the current Head of Department of Fine and

Applied Arts. Takalmin Mallam, Tea Pot, and Lidded Casserole are ceramic works exhibited by the astute

Professor of Ceramics, Habila Joel Gukas. The technical and aesthetic finishes of the works bear credence to years of dogged practice and teaching. The titles of some of the ceramic pieces also draw attention to the use of local content in describing a work of art. Takalmin Mallam (Shoe of the Teacher) by Gukas for instance and Oga Ba Wuya (Boss without a neck) by Datiri, satirizes the teacher and Boss in different contexts. While the works are highly technical in their finishes, they draw attention to daily genres found in our society. Doemeh Dapoet’s Computer Generated Images (CGI) show known landmarks on the

Plateau. The creativity of manipulating images for graphic renditions make this artist a rare gem in his field of graphics. Jos Rocks, Rocks and Beauty Queen are some of his prints in the exhibition. Samuel Thomas

Pam’s unique product designs dots the exhibition space. In the same vein, Michael Adawus Angyol’s

Quadripartite Chair was quite a stare in the exhibition. Invention and innovations to the existing products makes life of a graphic artist interesting.

The bulk of the exhibits are paintings in various media and presentations. Traditional canvas paintings, collages and mixed media adorn the exhibition space. Ephraim Dankyes’ chiaroscuro like figure painting of the Joy of Motherhood gives him a unique signature of his work. Dr.John Oyedemi’s Blackboard

Series carries philosophical undertones of early childhood education and the nostalgic feeling it brings adds to education and visual arts culture. Dr. Jacob Onoja’s landscape paintings, especially the mist series, draws attention to the pristine climate of Plateau State. The landscapes also appraise the rich tourism potentials of

Plateau State and the welcoming appeal presented in the painting narratives. Victor Oluwawemimo’s

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paintings show the influence of John Oyedemi who mentored him during his Industrial Training programme. Shantock Kromyon, Benjamin Dankyes, Shem Ngbako, Philip Kenneth Dakas and Kyesmen

Benjamin are students whose paintings document various areas in the University of Jos Campus through class assignments presented in the exhibition.

Beadworks and textiles drew the interest of the males and especially the female folks who attended the exhibition. Faith Shemfe, a student in training, displayed The Queen’s Bead, a Victorian - like bead designs and fabric designs for educative and entrepreneurial advancements, While Kutshak Iliya and

Kaburuk Donatus ceramic works show creative dexterity garnered from their Lecturers in the department.

The youngest exhibitor is Topa Daniel Ozaveshe, a 100 level student whose paintings show great promise in the visual arts. The mixed grill of the various works exhibited; give impetus to the growing visual culture in the university community.

SELECTED ANALYSES AND DISCUSSIONS

Blackboard Series

Plate VI: Blackboard Series III, John Oyedemi, Oil on Canvas, 100 x 100 cm, 2018. Collection of the Artist, Jos.

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John Oyedemi has been in practice over the past three decades. His oeuvres cover a wide range of subject matters and he is still experimenting. The latest to his body of works is the “Blackboard Series”

(Plate VI). According to an online article, Evolution of technology in teaching: Blackboard and beyond in

Medical Education (2016), “The blackboard is referred to as ‘an old method of teaching aid and allow students to keep pace with the teacher”. It goes on to state that, “As an old method of teaching aid, the blackboard has advantages of being inexpensively reusable, allow students to keep pace with the teacher and not dependent on electricity”. This series is made up of seven paintings of which three were exhibited which seek to mimic the teacher on one hand and the pupils on the other. It explores the connection and intimacy which exist in the classroom between the teacher and the pupil in its primordial form. The backboard could represent what the thought of a person is as at the time of writing, be it temporal or exact and yet not as the first. A noticeable attribute is its flexibility when mistakes are made. It may be wiped off, rewritten or affirmed to be correct and given legitimacy. In the same way, the canvas offers such experimental and matured masterly childlike expressions of the artist’s thoughts on canvas. On any blackboard, the transmission of a specific idea from the teacher to the pupil is prevalent, in the same vein, the artist records issues of importance in the society for the public, in this case, allegorical of the pupils, follows the teacher (artist) to learn the rubrics of the symbols represented on the blackboard (Canvas). It can also be a copy session with illustration, gesticulation in a dramatic sequence over a period of time. On the blackboard, the consciousness of the pupils is reawakening to the environment around them. This is what this series seeks to bring to the fore. The concept of the blackboard is borne out of the artist quest to create paintings that is interactive by using identifiable elements which both adult and children can relate with i.e. letters and numbers interlaced with colours and other amorphous forms in space. The paintings on

Blackboard series create a platform where a child and parents interact without opening pages of paper, and where family and friends’ interests are aroused. It also reveals the bond of relationship between a child and parent.

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The process of creating these paintings in the Blackboard series is cutting out workbook pages and pasting directly on prepared canvas showing assignments given to pupils to portray a synergy between a parent and child in learning and development. The careful and sometimes random arrangement of the workbook creates a collage like surface where black, white and gray colours are introduced to the canvas to finish the painting. The overall effect is masterfully finished, like a teacher whose lessons are planned for effective delivery to the learner and driving home the points.

Mist Series

Jacob Onoja’s exhibits show a great understanding of landscape genre in paintings. The mist series which reveals the pristine atmospheric condition on the Plateau show various landscape with mountainous ranges covered with mist. The overall effect is cooling and relaxing, drawing the viewer to the tourism potential of Plateau State and also the mastery of capturing atmospheric effects in a landscape painting

(Plate VII).

Plate VII: Lets Go Fishing, Jacob Onoja, Acrylic on Canvas, 60 x 90 cm, 2017.Collection of the Artist, Jos.

Kyesmen is a 300 level student in training who has shown good understanding of colours and good narratives in paintings. His painting on Herdsmen and Farmer clashes (Plate VIII) draws attention to a burning issue in the nation’s security apparatus and the need to pursue peace and tranquility on the

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Jos-Plateau especially. Paintings have premonitory roles, and the contribution of Kyesmen only draws attention to peaceful coexistence on the Plateau and Nigeria as a nation.

Plate VIII: Herdsmen and Farmer, Kyesmen, Oil on Canvas, 60 x 90 cm, 2018.Collection of the Artist, Jos.

The painting (Plate VIII) depicts a landscape with a stream, farmlands, a cactus plant to contextualize the painting to Jos – Plateau, a farmer cultivating and herdsmen with cattle to the background of the painting. The careful interplay of atmospheric perspective in this composition gives the work a good balance in the narrative. The painting is laced with deep seated meanings and calls for sober reflection.

Viewers Comments

Comments from visitors to the exhibition written in the comments book and also discussed verbally with the artists serve as feedback on how best to improve on the artworks and subsequent exhibitions. While some comments are constructive in nature, others are obtuse in their presentations. The comments are acid tests of public acceptance or rejection of the exhibits. Modern arts stemmed from artists’ rejection of the

Status quo and public outcry to some works which served as propaganda. In this wise, the comments will

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help the artists to return to the studios with renewed vigour to improving the service delivery of the visual arts and advancing entrepreneurial frontiers. Some of the purposively selected comments are as follows;

Very impressive. Please document developments in the University to form part of the history of University of Jos. Prof. Nelson Ochekpe D.V.C Academics, V.C Office Awesome, creative, fabulous effort. Prof.Teresa M. Nmadu D.V.CAdministration,V.C Office

Very wonderful and beautiful paintings. It is quite empowering. Please keep it up. Mr. M.M Danjem Registrar

Awesome and mind blowing. David Victor Student Beautiful ideas and exceptional Odunu Victor Student

Sleek, above the surface touches, Very impressive and above all divine Domnan Nathaniel Student

The works are wonderful. They are full of magic; I respect the works of Onoja Jacob. Gideon Yakubu Student Very impressive, admirable, interesting and motivational Art works. Peter Miracle Student A beautiful art exhibition from Nigeria and Africa. We are proud to be a part of it. Keep it up G.I Nwokedi Libarian Very amazing exhibition, colorful and inspiring paintings. Dr E.N. Mwantu Lecturer

We are making progress remarkably in spite of our challenges Dr. Dinshak Luka Lecturer

Marvelous, inspiring, creative and adventurous. The world needs to see this. Yusuf Tawakalin Student

Beautiful exhibition. I am much impressed with it

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Godiya Danep Ex- Student

Creative! Amazed that such massive talent resides in the minds of University of Jos Students. With art we send messages worth telling through the delicate brushstroke and careful carves of these art works. Abimike Favour Student

Wow! Simply amazing what lovely work of Art you’ve all displayed here!!! Dr. L. Ademola Lecturer

Great works and quite inspiring cultural landscape with element Dr. Ryalivet M.B Lecturer

I must say I am impressed by the paintings here. For the other exhibits; Textiles, Graphics, ceramics and most especially sculpture need to be on top of their games. Kudos John Oyedemi, Ph.D. and Jacob Onoja Ph.D. Keep the brushes oiled at all times.

Dr. Agaku Amos Lecturer

A great display of gifted talents. Bravo and more grease to your efforts. Sani Augustine Unijos Library

Items on display very commendable Dr.G.G.Gupiyem Lecturer

There is nothing as fascinating as these works. There is no imperfection in art. Faga-ishwa Stephanic Student

This is one art that has attributed the taste of time…. Obviously, there is none other. My daughter is practicing hard to become one of the best artists in this generation Mancha Godwin Davou Unijos Library

It is Very Natural and beautiful I love art with passion Zamnaan Saanbet Stanley

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Conclusion This exhibition which was staged to add colour to the 29th and 30th Combined University of Jos

Convocation ceremony is a display of the artistic ingenuity of a new and advancing department. The emergence of new styles garnered from trainings in different institutions, is finding expressions in the department of Fine and Applied Arts, University of Jos. This modest effort is only bringing to the fore great scholars and talents in order to build on the visual culture, appreciation and documentation of the visual arts. In these wise, periodic exhibitions is recommended to help in advancing the frontiers of knowledge in this highly celebrated field which is gaining understanding and acceptance in the university community. It is hoped that, art enthusiast, collectors and connoisseurs will patronize the department through grants and commissions to enable the visuals arts to take a pride of place in the Academia.

References Buhari, J. (2015). Inaugural Lecture [The] Visual Arts as Knowledge Production. Zaria: Yaliam Press Ltd. Cline, A. C. (2012). The Evolving Role of the Exhibition and its Impact. Retrieved February 14, 2017, from Trinity College Digital Repository: http://digitalrepository.trincoll.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=1275&context=theses Duniya G.G and Onoja J.E. (2015). Effervesces 15: A Random Review of the Final Year Painting Students Exhibition. Journal of Arts and Idea (J.A.I), Vol.23, 144. Evolution of technology in teaching: Blackboard and beyond in Medical Education . (2016, October 03). Retrieved June 29, 2018, from Nepal Journal of Epidemiology: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC5082488/ Mastrogiannis, C. (2018, June 30). Alexis Gallery: The Art, The Artists and The Muse. Saturday Sun, pp. 23 - 25. Onoja, J. E. (2016). A Review of the Art Exhibition to Commemorate the Celebration of the University of Jos at 40. International Journal of Innovative Literature, Languages and Arts Studies, 1-15. Samuel, C. (2009). Zaria Art School:The Centre For Breeding Nigeria's most Vibrant Modern Artists. In J. S. Buhari, & Buhari, J.,Ikpachronyi, S.O.,Samuel, C., and Lamidi, L.Zaria Art School 50th Anniversary Exhition (p. 213). Abuja: National Gallery of Art.

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SYMBIOTIC RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN ART AND CULTURE MBAHI, A. A. and ADIWU, T. O. Department of Visual and Performing Arts Faculty of Arts University of Maiduguri

Abstract ______This article is focused on the collaborative relationship between art and culture, fusion of art and culture and its influence on human behaviour and interaction. The arts are an important part of culture and culture is said to be everything we do as humans; a way of life of a people. most aspects of an individual’s life are largely determined by the culture he/she live in. Art and culture stir up dialogue, induce reflection and charter new relationships and ideas. They provide a commanding and democratic means of shaping, sharing and expressing human values. Art and culture help in shaping the manner in which we view and understand the world around us. They act as the frame through which we can develop stories to tell ourselves and those around us regarding the most important things in our lives. Art influences culture, and culture influences art. Art influences society by changing opinions, instilling values and translating experiences across space and time. Art works are often considered to be the repository of a society’s collective memory. Art preserves what fact-based historical records cannot.

Keywords: Symbiotic, Relationship, Influence, Art, Culture ______

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Introduction

Art is a diverse range of human activities in creating visual, auditory or performing artifacts

(artworks), expressing the author’s imaginative, conceptual idea or technical skill, intended to be appreciated for their beauty or emotional power. These activities include the production of works of art, the criticism of art, the study of the history of art and the aesthetic dissemination of art

(Wikipedia, https://en.m.wikipedia-org). Music, theatre, film, dance and other performing arts, as well as literature and other media such as interactive media, are included in a broader definition of art. Until the 17th century, art referred to any skill or mastery and was not differentiated from crafts or sciences. In modern usage after the 17th century, where aesthetic considerations are paramount, the fine arts are separated and distinguished from acquired skills in general, such as the decorative or applied arts. The nature of art and related concepts, such as creativity and interpretation, are explored in a branch of philosophy known as aesthetics. Fine arts and applied arts exclusively focus on human creativity or focus on different media such as architecture, sculpture, painting, film, photography and graphic arts. In recent years’ technological advances have led to video art, computer art, performance art, animation, television and video games. Art is an individual means of expression, it is a source of beauty, communication, reflection, pride and immortality for a culture. The art created in a culture communicates important ideas about religion or politics or just contemporary life. Art presents what the culture of a certain place is. At the same time, culture is reflected on art. Art shows every aspect of a culture, including festivities, traditions, amongst others. In some way culture inspires art. According to the Encarta Encyclopedia, art is the product of creative human activity, in which materials are shaped or selected to convey an idea, emotion, or visually interesting form. Art comprises a remarkable diversity of styles, movements, and techniques. Art can refer to the visual arts, including painting, sculpture, architecture, photography,

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decorative arts, crafts, and other visual works that combine materials or forms. Also, the word art is used to encompass other forms of creative activity, such as dance and music. In anthropology, culture is the pattern of behavior and thinking that people living in social groups learn, create and share. A people’s culture includes their beliefs, rules of behavior, language, rituals, art, technology, styles of dress, ways of producing and cooking food, religion, and political and economic systems. Culture developed together with the evolution of the human species. It has several distinguishing characteristics; which can be based on symbols, which are abstract ways of referring to and understanding ideas, objects, feelings, behaviour and ability to communicate with symbols using language. Culture is shared; people in the same society share common behaviour and ways of thinking through culture. Culture is learned, meaning that it is socially inherited. A person must learn culture from other people living the in same society. Culture is adaptive. Art is manifested and therefore inspired by culture.

There are many definitions of culture. Ayandele (1993) sees culture as “what man interposes between himself and his environment in order to ensure his security and survival”. Yakubu’s

(2002) concept of culture is broader. He suggests that for human beings to build houses, cultivate farms, construct bridges, dams or electricity generating plants, provide qualitative formal education, manage successful business organizations, control population growth, law and order, etc. they need an established body of ideas and beliefs, designs, techniques and methodologies, rules and regulations i.e. culture. An age-long, but still relevant definition of culture was espoused in 1871 by the English anthropologists, E.B. Taylor. He defined culture as that complex-whole which includes shared ideas, knowledge, belief, art, morals, law, custom and any other capabilities and habits acquired by man as a member of society. Culture cannot be transmitted biologically, hence can only be preserved from the past and transmitted into the future by learning. It is generally

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agreed that the value, volume and complexity of culture grow with time, even though some parts of it are lost or discarded in the process.

Culture is the subtotal of the material and immaterial tools, art works and works of art of people and knowledge accumulated by the people (Obafemi, 1986). The peculiarity of a given culture is a function of its distinctiveness as it relates to its impact on the attitudes, aspirations, motivations, representations, skills and behavior of the people celebrating some and discarding others. Culture is a summation and distillation of the past that provides sound basis for living in the present and marching into the future. Culture largely controls and guides social behavior. A considerable part of culture is ideas that bear directly or indirectly on behavior. It can be sustained and kept alive only by social behaviour. Behaviour often alters culture when it changes from what culture prescribes. It precedes and becomes attendant upon social behavior. Values, norms and roles are three concepts which are instrumental to meaningful understanding of the relationship between culture and social behavior. Values are a conception of desirable states of affairs that are utilized as criteria for preference or choice or as justifications for proposed or actual behavior. Those that are widely accepted as being vital to the survival and well-being of such groups, organizations or society. Norms specify appropriate or requisite behavior of designated persons or group of individuals. Sometimes norms are seen as rules that are widely accepted in a social situation. Role is a pattern of behavior prescribed by one or more members of a group.

Santrock (2005) defines culture as the behavior patterns, beliefs and all other products of a particular group of people that are passed on from generation to generation. Brislin (1993) described a number of features of culture including these:

1. Culture is made up of ideals, values and assumptions about life that guide people’s behavior. 2. Culture is made by people.

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3. Culture is transmitted from generation to generation, with the responsibility for transmission resting on the shoulders of parents, teachers and community leaders. 4. Despite compromises cultural values endure. 5. When cultural values are violated or when cultural expectations are ignored, people react emotionally. 6. It is not unusual for people to accept a cultural value at one point in their lives and reject it at another point. For example, rebellious individuals might accept a culture’s values and expectations after having children of their own.

Durowade and Taiwo (1998) defined culture as a complex whole that includes knowledge, beliefs, art, morals, laws, customs and any other habits and capabilities acquired by human beings as members of society. It refers to all those ways of thinking, feeling, and behavior that are socially and not biologically transmitted from one generation to the next. They outlined the characteristics of culture:

1. Culture can be learned or acquired by man in the society as he undergoes the process of socialization. 2. It is cumulative. 3. It is transmitted from one generation to another. 4. It is dynamic change which occurs on a regular basis. This change also affects the culture of that society, and 5. Culture depends for its existence on the continued functioning of the society and not upon the individual or group per se. According to Durowade and Taiwo, cultural values are communicated through various perceived symbols. The most important of the symbols systems used to achieve these objectives are:

1. language (oral and written), 2. fine, applied and performing arts, 3. technology (applied sciences), 4. religion and general world news

In other words, different disciplines inculcate our cultural values, ideas, beliefs and needs. Fine, applied and performing arts deal with material culture, norms, customs and ways of life of our people. This is the aspect of our way of life which everybody should have the knowledge.

Philosophers, sociologists, historians, lawyers, physicians and medical people require the knowledge of their material culture. Another definition of culture is the totality of the way of

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life evolved by a people in its attempt to meet the challenges of living in its environment. The environment is influenced by the social, political, economic, aesthetic and religious norms and modes of organization which together distinguish one group from another.

Art influences Culture, Culture influences Art

Art can have effect on culture. Sensitivity and imagination are what makes a culture. Artists have the ability to manipulate the form of their art therefore manipulating the experience of that art. Art is everywhere; it is in the car we drive, the magazine we read, and in the food that we eat. Art is something that influences many parts of our lives. Art influences society by changing opinions, instilling values and translating experience across space and time. Research has shown that art affects the fundamental sense of self. Painting, sculpture, music, literature and other arts are often considered to be the repository of a society’s collective memory. Art preserves what fact-based historical records cannot; how it felt to exist in a particular space at a particular time. Art in this sense is communication; it allows people from different cultures and different times to communicate with each other via images, sounds and stories. Art is often a vehicle for social change. It can give voice to the politically or socially disenfranchised. A song, film or novel can rouse emotions in those who encounter it, inspiring them to rally for change. In 2013 researchers from New Castle University found that viewing contemporary visual art had positive effects on the personal lives of nursing home-bound elders (https://www.masterpiecemixers.com/art).

Art also has utilitarian influences on society. Art is beneficial for the artist as an outlet for work.

It is economically viable. The creation, management and distribution of art employs many. In order for culture to survive; every man, family and language must participate. Language here, does not just mean verbal articulation between men and women as means of communication but, it also a

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means and a form of communication that includes: music, architecture, poetry, sculpture, etc.

These alternative forms of language can be viewed as physical representations of a culture for posterity sake. Without the arts; the visual representation of certain abstract aspects of culture become either lost in time, translation or are completely misunderstood. The said carriers of culture represent the meanings and values of all of his or her civilization at that moment in time. Each form of art has a story to it. The story is the lives and times of the people in the moment in which the work was created.

Every single thing that we create is part of our culture. Art is one of the most important aspect of culture. It is a very defined creative approach to making objects or making concepts. Culture and art are not the same. Culture is really about developing society and it is about the quality of life, it is about every aspect of human behavior. Culture is the space that we create within the environment as human beings and that is the difference between us and nature. Nature develops in its own freedom. We are part of nature then as a sub-section we are creating this culture, thus cultural development is totally a human endeavours. Art can help change culture because culture is everything that human beings create in our world, which include but are not limited to language, agriculture, food, buildings, clothing/fashion, religion/belief systems and many more. Every single thing that we create is culture. Art is a thing we create and thus a significant component of culture.

It is a physical thing that we create be it a painting, or a film or whatever. It is a craft or a skill by which we create an object. Whereas the culture is everything; what we are surrounded by

Ancient craft industries existed over the millennia from which have followed a considerable quantity of art and craft products for uses and display at individual, communal and regional levels in order to define the ideals of individual and corporate life. These were complemented by ancient traditions of music making accompanied by elaborate rituals which marked critical points of social

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transition within the cycle of life. Art traditions of sculpture in wood, bronze, brass, ivory, textiles of woven cloths, resist dye cloth or batik, leather work, crafts of making musical instruments, masks for festivals and rituals became aspects of culture. Oral tradition of folktales, epics, ballads, drum language, children’s songs, lullabies, myths, legends, riddles, proverbs and poetry. Local dance troupes and traditional puppetry began. Many craft industries still flourish like metal works, cloth weaving, carved doors and panels. Festivals provide the artistic contexts for the display of a variety of costumes and wooden masks, dance displays and musical instrumentation. Oba’s palace has royal costumes, bronze plaques, coral beads, swords, carved ivory tusks, masks and bells and ornamented utensils. The Oba provides an ideal context for the display of art objects and royal costumes which display culture. There is a very strong tradition of gourd carving. These are used in the context of fishing festival, for covering babies carried on mother’s backs when the sun shine is unbearable, and as musical instruments. There are the living art traditions of brass work, glass work, bead work and blacksmith. There is a flourishing tradition of decorated calabash, leather works, metal works, tie dying, jewelry and stringed musical instruments.

These rich and prosperous art traditions are complemented and extended by contemporary art works created by artists in the areas of sculpture, painting, graphics, ceramics and textiles using both imported media and local traditional media. The contemporary art works depict ways of life of the people. Nigeria is rich in musical and dance traditions. The rituals, festivals, musical traditions, bronzes, metal works, leather works, pottery all constitute aspects of culture. The art works are cultural items and wares. Aniakor (2001) reported:

In Britain biologists and botanists accompany explorers in order to study natural habitats (animals and plant specimens) as well as exotic objects which were brought back home. Later artists accompanied the teams and made sketches of artifacts of societies and cultures. This culminated in their removal of artifacts following the advent of missionary activities and colonial rule (Pp. 10 – 11).

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These tools are considered aspects of culture of the people and many of these artifacts and crafts now constitute the permanent holdings of many galleries, private collections, ethological museums, agencies and organizations in Europe and North America. The attainment of independence brought about the recognition of the material culture of the people.

How Art Affects Culture and Society

Traditionally, we have believed that art imitates life. The painter represents what he or she sees by producing a scene on a canvas. The sculptor does the same with bronze or stone or cement. A photographer or film maker does it even more directly. A writer describes life in his or her books.

But some have questioned the one-way nature of mimesis by arguing that art also changes the way we view the world and in fact, life sometimes imitates art rather than the other way around. To what extent is our outlook on life altered by ideas we read in book? The portrayal of people in films? The styles we see in fashion photography? (https://www.theoryof knowledge.net/…art).

Throughout history, it has always been the case that art has the power to change society, especially when new media are used to express an idea. During the first World War, for example, movie cameras were used for the first time to record trench warfare (https://www.master piecemixers.com/art…).

Art influences society by changing opinions, instilling values, and translating experiences across space and time. Research has shown that art affects the fundamental sense of self. Painting, sculpture, music, literature and the other arts are often considered to be the repository of a society’s collective memory. Art preserves what fact-based historical records cannot, how it felt to exist in a particular place at a particular time. Art in this sense is communication, it allows people from different cultures and different times to communicate with each other via images, sounds and

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stories. Art is often a vehicle for social change. It can give voice to the politically or socially disenfranchised. A song, film or novel can rouse emotions in those who encounter it, inspiring them to rally for change.

Researchers have been interested in the relationship between art and the human brain. For example, in 2013 researchers from Newcastle University found that viewing contemporary visual arts had positive effects on the personal lives of nursing home bound elders. There is a demonstrable positive correlation between schoolchildren’s grades in math and literacy and their involvement with drama or music activities. For the artist, art is an outlet for work and it is economically viable.

The creation, management and distribution of art employs many.

Culture affects an artist’s work by shaping the worldview of the artist and associations they may have with colour, shapes, patterns, symbols, people, places and things. The message they try to convey in their artwork is done so through their own cultural language of symbolism. Religious art is a good example of how culture can shape the content of an artist’s work. The Sistine Chapel ceiling painted by Michelangelo has a mural of God and man. This piece is a cornerstone work of

High Renaissance Art. Throughout Christian art, popular subjects have included the figures of

God, Jesus Christ, the Virgin Mary and the Saints. The use of colour, shapes, and patterns are suggestive of feelings, values, people, places, things, and actions. For example, in the United States of America the colour red may be associated with romantic life, whereas green is suggestive of love in Hinduism. (Wikipedia, https://en.m. wikipedia. org/.../ Sistine).

Depending on the culture artists come from, their choice of material or medium for their work may be limited. Some tools or materials are not always available in parts of the world or they may not be preferred for other reasons. Other cultural values may influence an artist’s attitude towards certain kinds of art and whether or not the medium is worthwhile. Culture makes artists react on

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the canvas, in the recording studio, or through whatever medium they choose. During war, for example, songs of peace and protests dominate the airwaves. Artists echoes the public’s confusion, anger, fear, and sadness over the seemingly endless war.

Conclusion

Art plays a role in sustaining and altering culture. Art enhances almost everything that humans manufacture. Art is fundamental as a vehicle of expression and communication. Art contributes to learning about the past and other cultures. Becoming historically and culturally literate is facilitated by studying the arts of the world, cutting across both cultures and time. By being exposed to images associated with culture and periods of history, our understanding is maximized.

Concepts as diverse as Paleolithic and Neolithic societies, tribal rituals, Pharaonic culture, classical ideals, Muslim and Christian values, Medieval, spirituality, Eastern Monasticism and Asceticism and royalty and aristocracy would be vague without the existence of relevant images. Our understanding of ancient civilizations and tribal societies, as well as historical periods in the east and west such as Dynastic China, Medieval Europe and the Renaissance is greatly facilitated through the images presented in relevant works of art. Works of art reveal the physical character and the dominant social values of the period or culture in which they are produced. They also convey or transmit a feeling for the culture or period. Through art we learn the social, the political and the economic background of people. Religion has always provided the moving force behind the greatest arts in human civilization.

The clothes people wear, the way they wear them, their use of body paintings/tattoos, their body movement tell other people who and what they are, the culture they come from and their values.

Structures tell us whether buildings are post office or church, shopping Centre, or school, mosque, cinema hall, or prison yard. The style of a building tells when it was built. Our coins and paper

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money are made real with images. Flags, emblems, models and trophies with symbols. Without images or symbols, it is hard to prove the reality of an object. Nigeria is a prolific producer of arts and crafts. Art traditions abound everywhere and attached to social and cultural institutions of different people, societies and cultures. The arts and crafts offer prospects as export commodity for foreign exchange earnings. According to Wangboje (1985):

Art is a means by which people assert its cultural identity because of their use of symbols, myths, and other use of symbols inherited. The arts use techniques and materials found in culture to express and interpret that particular cultural experience. Culture manages to maintain a certain identity through art. The content of art works retains certain degree of uniqueness through a selection of subject-matter (p.27).

The methods and materials are no longer authentic. The cultural identity which the artist once projected through artistic expression is now eroded. Artists should recognize the uniqueness and value of each culture as an important aspect of mankind’s heritage. The art forms of various cultures should flourish so that the contributions which those cultures can make to the general well-being of mankind will not be lost.

References Aniakor, C.C. (200). Culture and tourism as aid to development in Nigeria (A perspective), Nigeria Magazine, Federal Ministry of Culture and Tourism, Garki, Abuja Ayandele, E. A. (1993). Holy Johnson 1936 - 1917: Pioneer of African Nationalism. London: Frank Cass. Brisline, R. W. (1993). Understanding Culture's influence on Behaviour. San Diego: Harcourt Brace Jovanovich. Durowade, O. and Taiwo, O. (1998). Culture and society in Africa: The essentials of African studiers, Vol.2 Fusion art and culture essays, https://brightkite.com/essay... fusion art, retrieved on 15th August, 2018 Greenberg, C. (1961). Art and culture, Boston: Beacon Press Google arts and culture, https://art and culture, google.com, retrieved on 15th August, 2018 Grieder, Y. (1990). Artists and audience, Holt Rinehart and Winston Inc., Orlando, Florida, USA Hatacher, E. (Ed) (1999). Art as culture: An introduction to the anthropology of art, https: www.amazon.com > Art-Culture …retrieved on 22nd August, 2018 How does art affect culture and society? https://www.masterpiecemakers.com/art, retrieved on 15th August, 2018 MacFee, J. and Degge, R. M. (1980). Art, culture and Environment, Belmont, Wadswroth

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Publishing Company Mbahi, A.A. (2017). Language of art, Concepts in art, design and theatre: An anthology of current issues, Department of Visual and Performing Arts, University of Maiduguri Noel, C. (2000). Theories of art today. https://uwpress.wisc.educ retrieved on 22nd August, 2018 Obafemi, O. (2005). Cultural diversity and national development, Guest Speech at the World Culture Day Celebration, organized by the National Institute for Cultural Orientation (NICO), at the Sheraton Hotels and Towers, Abuja, May 21, 2018 Okoronkwo, J.U. and Okoronkwo, S.O.C. (2014). Art, society and culture: Inseparable tripartite Phenomena, Conference of the International Journal of Arts and Sciences, University Publication, Net,7 (1), pp. 29-33 Relationship between art and culture, https://blablaqastring.com; https:// www.slideshare.net, retrieved on 12th August, 2018 Santrock, J.W. (2005). Adolescent (10th Edit.), New York: McGraw Hill Companies Skinner, L. (2003). The invention of art: A cultural history, Chicago: University of Chicago Press Wangboje, S. I. (1986). Cultural identity and realization through the arts: Problems, possibilities and projections, Journal of Art and Design Education, Vol.5, Nos. 1&2 Wikipedia: Relationship between art and culture, 22effeycff6a/culture.figher.e. u//web/scripts/-trieda-mysq/.php, retrieved on 1st of August, 2018 Yandele, E.A. (n.d.). Using Nigerian culture for nation building: In perspective in Nigerian cultural diplomacy, Abuja, National Institute for Cultural Orientation (NICVO), pp.77 Yakubu, U. (2002). Cultural erosion and the crises of development in Nigeria. Journal of Cultural Studies, Vol.4, No. 1, p.4

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STANDARDIZATION OF FINE AND APPLIED ARTS TEACHING METHODS: A PROGRESSIVE APPROACH

KANALE, M. D.

Department of Fine and Applied Arts, Kaduna State College of Education Gidan Waya, PMB1024, Kafanchan, Kaduna State.

Abstract ______This study on standardization of Fine and Applied Arts teaching methods: A progressive approach; exposes teaching methods that have been used and found suitable and effective disseminating knowledge to learners across various levels of the education system. Fine and Applied Art (FAA) is practiced all over the world. The teaching methodologies vary from one locality to the other, and also from one nation to another depending on their peculiarities. The teaching methodologies adopted in the formal institutions of learning needs to be harmonized internationally for more efficiency. Consequently, this paper strategically looked at the acceptable methods of teaching that can be utilized internationally to effectively teach Fine and Applied Arts. However, some of these methods include, but are not restricted and limited to; The Observation Method, Demonstration Method, Project Method, Critique Method, Excursion Method, and Resource Personnel as techniques for internationalization of Fine and Applied Arts teaching. The researcher also observed the situation where an untrained personnel would be used as teachers within the formal school system, as they mar rather than make artist especially from the cradle. Conclusion, and recommendations were drawn, and among the recommendations was that institutions and employers of labour should employ only professionally trained and qualified staff for the teaching of Fine and Applied Arts.

Keywords: Standardization, Teaching Methods, Fine and Applied Art, Observation, Demonstration.

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Introduction

Internationalization has become the order of the 21st century. This paper dwells on the methods that could be internationally accepted in teaching. Therefore, teaching methods should also follow the trend of world civilization. Fine Art deals with beauty or aesthetics, while Applied Arts deals with the production of functional products. Fine and Applied Art (FAA) has a critical place in school curriculum. Hence, the National Policy on Education (2014) clearly recognizes the subject areas of Fine and Applied Arts to be taught at all levels of education in Nigeria. Sadly, specialists to teach the subjects are in short supply as observed by Efejika (1994) and worst still the few that are available lack the basic teaching methods required to impact the learners with basic skills that would make them become proficient as their counterparts in other nations of the world. (James 2004).

In his opinion, Gukas (2005) opined that, one of the imperatives for effective vocational art inclusive Educational Development is the provision of sufficiently equipped facilities. He added that staff should be equipped with both knowledge of the subject matter and the methodologies of impacting such subjects matter to the learners. Egbo, (2005) stated that, the entire Educational system from primary, secondary and tertiary institution must have the necessary human resources required to do the job. The human resources required in this case should be equipped with the necessary methodologies that are required to motivate learners sufficiently to awaken or arouse their interest in Art. Poor motivation could dampen the morale of most learners not just in Fine Arts but in all subjects’ areas.

Basic Teaching Methods in Fine and Applied Arts

In their contributions, Uzoaba (1982) and Ifejika (1990) opined that it is important and desirable that every child studies Arts from the primary school, due to its importance in acquiring knowledge of the appearance of things and the techniques of draughtmanship. Unfortunately, at this level many schools de-emphasized the teaching of Fine and Applied Arts. The time allocated to Art on the schools’ time -table for instance is not enough compared to other subjects offered in the same schools. Unlike English, Mathematics and other subjects that feature daily on the time table, the highest allocation of time to Art as a subject in a week, may be one double period in some rare cases an additional single period may be added. However, the limited time allocated to Fine Art in

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school time-table seems to be adequate to most schools’ head teachers and monitors from relevant monitoring bodies, but to professional artist, this is grossly inadequate and unfair to Art as a subject, due to the fact that it requires sufficient time for both teaching and practice.

This may not directly be our concern for now, the major thrust of this paper is internationalization of teaching Fine and Applied Arts methods a progressive approach that could be used in impacting knowledge and skills to the learners. Datiri, Yusuph, and Momot, (2017) identify the following methods that could be very effective in the teaching of Fine and Applied Arts (FAA) as a subject but not limited to; Observation Method, Demonstration Method, Critique Method, Excursion Method, and the use of Resource Personnel Method, of teaching, right from the cradle to tertiary level of education.

Observation Method

This is a method in which the assigns a task to the student while the teacher goes round to observe them. The students also observe their teacher as he demonstrates. Observation methods according to Datiri, Yusuph and Momot (2017), is Perhaps one of the commonest Methods used in teaching Art. To them, observation is a situation where learners are expected to develop coordination between the eyes and hands. Objects are arranged while learners are expected to use their eyes and translate what they see using the medium of expression. The objects from which the learners observe could be still life or life objects to be produced either in two or three dimension (2D or 3D).

While 2 dimensional (2D) art works are those art works produced on surfaces. 3 Dimensional (3D) art works are mostly solid form of Arts that are produced in “the round”. They have length, breadth, and height. Examples of 2- dimensional works include art works like Drawings, Painting, Graphics as well as Textiles, which have only two dimensions (Length and breadth), and are mostly produced on surfaces. Examples of 3- Dimensional works on the other hand are art works produced mostly in the areas of Ceramics and Sculpture which are mostly solid in nature. In this method, the pupils’ role is more pronounced compared to the teacher’s, who goes round the class guiding students where necessary.

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Demonstration Method

In its strict sense, Demonstration Method is a teacher-pupil method of teaching. Unlike observation method, the teacher does the exercise for the students to see first of all, then the students repeat the steps demonstrated by the teacher, exercises like colour mixing, portrait drawing, the different repeats in textiles, pot making techniques and a host of others are exercises that can be demonstrated for students to emulate their teachers. In this method, the teacher demonstrates to students the steps involved in a particular task or project. He also shows the students the right materials to be used and how to use them. For example, mixing RED with BLUE to get PURPLE colour, YELLOW with BLUE to get GREEN colour and YELLOW with RED to get ORANGE colour.

Accordingly, Mbahi (1990) stated that, demonstration methods create excitement, motivates student and encourage active participation in the class on the part of the students. It is however sad to note that most teachers do not employ this useful method of teaching, due to the simple fact that they are poorly motivated in their job. To say the least, according to Mazila and Gukas (2009), lamented that, Teachers’ salaries especially in Nigeria are nothing to write home about as they can hardly make ends meet from their take home pay. To worsen matters, the payment is very epileptic and teachers find it very difficult to afford working materials which they can use for demonstration, since the government and other schools’ proprietors are unable to provide such materials needed for work. To the teachers, motivation and encouragement are key for effective class room learning, as a matter of fact, motivation is not just designed to be enjoyed by pupils alone, the teachers deserve such.

Use of Resource Persons as a Method of Teaching Fine Arts.

Due to the fact that, Fine Arts has several areas of specialties, it is internationally accepted that specialists in the various aspects of Art be used to teach their areas of specialty to the students. Use of resource personnel therefore becomes obvious and inheritable. Resource persons are specialists that are invited by the teacher from another school or within the same school but not officially the class teachers. Importantly, specialists are only brought into the classroom when expressed permission has been granted by the school authority upon the request of the class teacher. When resource personnel take the role of the teacher to demonstrate a specific skill, the

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class teacher assumes the position of an interpreter if the resource personnel is a local craftsman who is not familiar or conversant with the official school language.

The major disadvantage with this method of teaching is that for the early part of the lesson, the students are usually distracted by the presence of a stranger. They would have to take time to adjust the voice they are hearing for the first time and the methods being used. This may result in time lost. However, as the lesson progresses they get to adjust and appreciate the new teacher before them as he imparts positively specific specialist skill which their teacher could not give them.

Project Method

There is hardly any meaningful Arts class (lesson) taken that a project is not embarked on. Projects generally are meant to make student master skills that are taught by the teacher. Projects therefore can either take the form of a class work or an assignment that a students take home. projects could either be individual or group project depending on the goal the teacher and students wants to achieve. It is this project that form the bases for critique classes. In the light of this, Ewule (2004) contributed that project method of teaching is a major source of skills development as well as a necessity for learning.

Critique Method

To a class of matured people, this is perhaps the most useful method of making students understand their areas of weakness and possible steps to be taken to bring about improvement. Projects undertaken independently by students are displayed in a class session. Each student is made to state areas he assumes he had problems with in the process of production. Suggestion are made to him/her on possible approaches he should have adopted to help him overcome such problems in handling future projects. Both student and teachers alike, make positive criticisms of each student’s works with the aim of improving future performance. This method has its problems. Except constructive criticism are made, the method is likely to weaken and bring discouragements especially to beginners. It is therefore a method that is recommended only for professional classes. Another problem common to critique method is that, it can be very time consuming. If not properly planned, it can span through many hours especially when the class is very large. It is therefore most suitable for very small groups.

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Excursion Method

Commonly referred to as a field trip or educational visit, this method involves the process of taking students out of the school environment to production areas, studios, galleries of professionals, or to museums where artifact are kept, preserved or documented. Unlike use of resource person as a method of teaching where the resource persons goes to the school/class, this method(Excursion) takes the students to the resource persons in their places of practice. It is important to note that all educational visits must be properly planned in order to make them successful no matter how close by the place of excursion is. The school management and parents should be aware that students will be taken outside the school for excursion. In like manner, the place to be visited must give their consent stating clearly the time they will be free to welcome people on educational visits all these put together will help the teachers plan his movement well. Well planned educational visits offer students the opportunity to make quality decision on likely careers in Art, since students are giving the opportunity to meet with professionals and the real life situations confronting artist outside the school system. It is also worthwhile to mention that impression made during educational visits are long lasting. As such, visits should be properly planed and students should at the end be made to write reports on their visits. Such reports are usually assessed and recorded. The essence is to make student take every visit serious and not as mere jamboree.

Conclusion

The methodologies for teaching Fine Art discussed in this paper have in no way exhausted all the methods that can be used to internationalize the teaching of Fine and Applied Arts. They are however suggested to confirm that Fine Art could be internationalize by teaching methods.

Recommendations

To effectively internationalize FAA teaching methodologies, the study proffers the following recommendations. i. Teachers of Fine Arts should strive to embrace teaching methods discussed in this paper as they have been reliably confirmed to be effective at all level of education internationally. ii. Institutions and employers of labour should ensure only qualified teachers with professional teaching qualifications are employed to teach fine art. iii. Skillful artists who do not have teaching qualifications but are already in the employment of educational institution should be given the opportunity to attend professional Diploma

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courses in education to enable them acquire the requisite teaching methods for effective subject delivery to meet international standard.

References

Datiri, T. C Yusuph, R. D, Mamot D. M (2017). The sad stae of art in Nigerian Primary schools. Focus on the class Teachers international journal of Innovative language, Literature and art studies Vol 5 No 2. Egbo, B. (2005) The state of future of Education in Sub- Saharan Africa. Lessons from developed countries. A paper presented to the 2005 National conference of Nigeria primary teacher education association. Ewule, E.E. (2004) Ceramics in education. overview of general art with pottery craft in school, colleges, and ceramics in education. Ashakuwu Journal of ceramics, Vol. 1 No. 2. Zaria Dasma Press. Federal Government of Nigeria, (2004) national Policy on education, (NPE) Gukas, H.J (2005) “Towards a model curriculum for ceramics teaching in Nigeria Ashakwu Journal of Ceramics. Zaria Dasmas Press. Ifejika, A (1990) The role of Formal education and Technology for National Diploma, Ceramics Zaria Dasmas Press. James. A (2004) effective Development of Human and material resources for the development of Vocational and Technical Education. Journal of education Issues. Vol 2 No. 1 Mazila E.A & Gukas, H.J (2009) Problems of art curriculum and its implementation in Nigerian schools; the need for a separate curriculum for ceramics, Ashakwu Journal of ceramics Vol. 6 P.A Sabon Gari, Zaria, Ndahi Press. Mbahi, A. A (1990) An investigation into the factors which determine students’ choice of Art education in secondary schools. Unpublished Ph. D Thesis. University of London Institute of education, Books (Nig) LTD. Uzoaba I. N (1982) Understanding Art in General Education, Onitsha; African Publish LTD.

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IMPROVISING ALPHABET MODELS USING FOAM AND DESIGNED FABRICS TO ENHANCE PRE-PRIMARY EDUCATION IN NIGERIAN SCHOOLS

Angyol, M.A.1, Adawus, D. L.2 and Pam, S. T.3 1&3. Department of Fine and Applied Arts Faculty of environmental sciences, University of Jos-Jos, Nigeria 2. Department of Home Economics, School of Vocational and Technical Education College of Education, Gindiri, Plateau State, Nigeria

Abstract ______The concept of improvisation goes beyond the literary use of words and materials. It involves values, believes, and characters the objects coveys as an alternative to the real thing. The model like the real object can communicate the inside and the outside information. Models are replicas of the real objects designed and developed. They are usually produced to any size to address any stipulated goal and can be made of any assorted media. Models can have major impact on the way we think and act (exhibit attitude towards ourselves and the world around us). This study unveils that models approach is a concrete technique creatively employed through improvisation for the development of instructional materials to pave way for active learning and robust achievements (performances). Thus the study was undertaken using quasi-experimental (studio practical) research design based on problem-solving model prescribed as DAISIE: Define, Analyze, Ideate, Select, Implement and Evaluate to design and develop Alphabet models using foam and designed fabrics to fast-track learning among pre-primary school pupils. Judgmental (non-probability) sampling technique was used in selecting the materials for the design and development of the models. The choice of bright colours designed fabrics for use on the models was ensured to enhanced sustained attraction of the pupils’ interest and attention for active engagement to attain effective learning. The designed and developed models were evaluated using on the spot visual and tactile appraisal and were found to be splendid and spectacular likewise possess no hazard to the learners. The study, therefore, recommends the transferability of the improvisation these models beyond the immediate context through the training of teachers to do same. This is in line with the philosophy behind this study that schools should learn to improvise using local resources to simulate the unavailable real objects to make learning active and relevant.

Key Words: Improvisation, foam, Fabrics, Models, Learning and Pre-Primary School Pupils.

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Background of the Study

Improvisation is the making of substitutes from local materials found at home or school premises or our environment in the absence of the original material. Kadage (2012:14), thus explained that “the improvised models of instructional materials should be able to convey special instructional massages just as the original material.” According to Hartford & Baird in Kaduhur and Mohammed (2009) “a model is a three dimensional representation of an object, person or structure.” Models development therefore deals with the transformation of shapes to forms i.e. from two dimensional flat drawings on paper to three dimensional objects. Models are used to represent real or original objects during instruction in the classroom for various reasons. Nelson in

Kaduhur and Mohammed (2009:2) asserted that “models are reproduced replicas of things.”

Models could be produced smaller than the real objects so that they can be brought into the class for use as study samples or studied in details. Examples of such models could be models of animals, human beings, planes and machines. On the other hand, when the models being produced are larger than the real (original) object, its purpose is to show the details of the object so that it could be easily seen and understood. This concurs with the view of Brown, Lewis and Harcleroad in Kaduhur and Mohammed (2009:2), that “the most reliable thing for specific learning experiences may be very impractical for class study.” Thus, the real (original) thing may be:

i. Too large to be convenient. ii. Too small to be handled or seen with the physical eyes. iii. Too delicate to transport, handle, keep or carry. iv. Too complex to understand. v. Too covered or enclosed for an explanation. vi. Too complex in nature to make meaning of it. vii. Too difficult to find near home. viii. Too expensive to afford or have in every classroom. ix. Too dangerous to be manipulated especially by children. x. Unavailable to access and acquire for use in class.

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Models, therefore, make the integration of instructional materials in the teaching of pre- primary pupils’ easy thus enhancing effective learning. According to National Teachers Institute

(NTI) (2007);

“Integration refers to step by step presentation of instructional materials in teaching. This is because in integration the instructional materials are used at the introductory stage to introduce the lesson, at the presentation stage to present the content of the lesson and at the summarizing stage to summarize (round up) the lesson (i.e. it’s used throughout the lesson).” This simply means that models can be used during the introduction of the lesson, at the presentation of the lesson, during pupil’s activity and at the end (summary) of the lesson. Thus the models should be arranged in a systematic way so that they are used effectively when they are needed.

In order to effectively promote teaching and learning in schools the improvisation of models for the teaching of pre-primary pupils is very paramount. Kadulur and Mohammed

(2009:2) reveal that;

“It is fundamental to recognize that models are valuable resources in matters of teaching and learning (especially in nursery education) particularly in a country like ours where the utilization of other forms of instructional materials such as computers, satellite broadcasting, closed circuit television, multimedia presentation, projected visuals etc., are tempered with by lack of adequate financing and in some cases lack of power supply that is necessary for the operations of such equipment.” Similarly, Simpath and Santhanam (2007), revealed that;

“for the fact the real things are not readily available in their natural form or always adequate for the teaching of pre- primary pupils and pre-primary education is particularly based on the use of models as a necessity to help explain forms of objects, animals, plants and machines besides concepts and abstract concepts.”

Explaining things verbally or with writing on blackboards or in other instances with visuals on paper, considering the age of the children makes it difficult for them to comprehend because they remain abstract. Therefore, the use of models becomes the most viable option, since models simplify reality, evoke great interest, concretize abstract concepts and simplify complex objects.

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A simple model will help simplify the stated or needed shape of the object or animal and make learning more concrete and more meaningful.

Furthermore, Models facilitate the demonstration and manipulation of skill very effectively. Hence it’s a way of teaching and learning which allows the teacher and learner to verify if the new skill has been successfully taught and learned. This is because the use of models encourages demonstration and manipulation (practical). It facilitates simulation, the aim of which is to be close to the real activity (practically) as possible. Hence, Mcllrath and Huit (2001) revealed that “the utilization of models as learning materials makes the process of learning a domain of knowledge much easier.” The result of the study they undertook showed that those students’ who study with models before a lecture, recall as much as 57% more of the information than students who receive verbally without seeing (demonstration and manipulation) and discussing the model.

The use of verbalization supported by chalkboard which are conventional teaching methods in Nigerian schools especially in the public pre-primary schools have failed to spur interest which encourage and motivate pupils to effectively learn. This has made the teaching and learning in pre- primary schools to decline drastically (Angyol, Maman, Baba and Zira, 2018). This therefore calls for a shift in focus from the conventional approach to an enriched approach using concrete materials known as models which are to be developed via improvisation. The study therefore seeks to improvise letters of the alphabet models using foam (soft textured material) and designed fabrics

(patterned yards) to enhance pre-primary pupils efficient teaching and effective learning.

The study identified the right types of fonts (capital letters) of the alphabet via analyzing their characteristics (structure of the capital letters/fonts) of the alphabet. (see appendix 1 figure

2a-c), then designed and developed capital letters of the alphabet models using foam (soft textured

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material) and designed fabrics (patterned yards) via improvisation for enhancing teaching and learning of pre-primary pupils.

Materials and Methods

Instructional models can be improvised using different materials e.g. metal, wood, plastics, clothes, papers etc. depending on their uses and who is to use them. Improvisation helps us attain set objectives in a lesson in place of unavailable materials. The teacher must make sure that he/she prepares in advance (make readily available) all relevant and appropriate instructional materials and practice how to use them before the lesson so as to simplify the instructional process and make learning interesting and enthusiastic. The materials to be used for the improvisation of the alphabets models for teaching pre-primary school pupils include Paper, Fabrics and Foam (See appendix 3).

The research design adopted for this study was a quasi-experimental research design. This is a studio practical which deals with the development of simulated objects in a practical and systematic way ((Angyol, Baba, Zira and Maman, 2017). Zagi and Iliya (2015), reveal that “in practical researches especially studio practical population is used in a more specialized sense to include not just people or animals but also events, institutions, plants, and objects or things who or which are members of the study as defined by the objective of the study.”

Judgmental sampling (non-probability sampling) techniques were used in selecting the samples for this study. This is in line with the view of Mallum (2003) that a “researcher uses purposive sampling techniques to select samples which can be used to determine the suitability of the instrument.” The instruments of data collection were observation, and hand feel of the developed letters. The primary and secondary data were also derived from publications in books,

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journals and online materials while specimen designs and the result of the study were analyzed using visual and tactile (hand feel) appraisals.

The study thus utilized a problem-solving model to attain the improvisation of the capital letters of the alphabet models. The problem-solving model was prescribed as DAISIE model by

Wallschlaeger and Busic-Snyder (Ebigbagha, Ejembi & Aboderin, 2010 in Angyol, 2015). The

DAISIE model consists of six steps outlined as follows;

i. Define: To have a clear and thorough description of the problem,

ii. Analyze: To separate the whole into parts which are critically examined. iii. Ideate: To generate ideas from the various parts examined. iv. Select: To choose the idea that is most suitable.

v. Implement: To combine selected ideas in new form and carry-out (develop). vi. Evaluate: To assess the outcome and if necessary repeat any of the above steps that

justifiably is not attained in the development of the capital letters of the alphabet model

(s).

The problem-solving model involves planning the structure, the operating technique and appearance of the product with aesthetic and utilitarian value which deals with solving the problem through form generation (developing the product shape into three dimensional form). According to Philips in Angyol (2015);

This type of research starts from a particular problem in the real world and bring together all the intellectual resources that can be brought to bear on its solution. The person working in this way may have to create and identify original problem solutions in every step of the way (p.9).

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This is because the decision to embark on product design and development (improvisation) of the alphabet model starts with the identification of an existing problem (Dakyes in Angyol, 2015). The models were therefore designed and developed using problem-solving model (DAISIE) as follows:

(a). Defining the Problem

The study deals with the improvisation of letters of the alphabet models using designed fabrics (patterned yards) and foam (soft textured material) for enhancing teaching and learning of pre-primary pupils in Nigerian schools.

(b). Analyzing the Problem

The study deals with form generation of the letters of the alphabet based on their nature.

The structure of each letter of the alphabet (A-Z) to be developed as a model defers from another.

Hence each letter of the alphabet has to be treated/executed (designed and developed) as an entity.

(c). Ideating the Problem

The primary purposes of using models are to concretise ideas. Hence very suitable material for improvising the alphabet models should be chosen. Likewise, the models improvised should be affordable and customized in fabric designs with variety of colours to attract and sustain attention. The materials chosen for improvisation too should give room for easy manipulation into different sizes and shapes, and should have soft textures so as not to injure the learner when using it. In the same vein, such models should be;

i. “easy to work with (to be handled by children). ii. easy to manipulate into various shapes and forms. iii. relatively cheap and readily available. iv. with minimal hazards and v. familiar to Children for ease of use (Angyol, Baba, Zira and Maman, 2017).”

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(d). Selecting the Most Suitable Idea

Arial black fonts were therefore chosen to be used for the alphabet models. The selection was carefully done because of its boldness and non-serif nature so as to give room for easy identification. The materials i. e. the designed fabrics (patterned yards) and foam (soft textured material) used were also carefully selected noting the colour and motif patterns on them to attract attention and sustain interest during learning.

(e). Implementation

The requirements for good design are form and function. These two must be harmonized if a model is intended to be developed to attain efficient teaching and effective learning. This study utilizes two types of designs namely decorative and structural i.e. two and three dimensional designs respectively (See appendix 2 figures 2 steps i & ii and iii & iv) respectively. The development of the alphabet models is broken down as follows.

Step i: Budgeting

In designing and developing the capital letters of the alphabet, the size must be considered in relation to the available funds to foot the total cost of materials for the production. Thus a budget has to be undertaken in this regard given estimates for all required materials within the provided funds (money) available.

Step ii: Selection of Capital Letters of the Alphabet Fonts

The Arial black fonts (capital letters) of the alphabet generally have only body and counters

(see appendix 1 figure 1 iii & iv). Their construction is undertaken with straight, slanting, straight

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and curved lines. They are usually without ascenders, descenders and serifs and fall into the family of gothic (block) letters e.g. A B C - Z (See appendix 1 figure 1 iii & iv, and appendix 3). The

Arial black fonts capital letters of the alphabet are best (more suitable) for children due to their simplicity in form structure (See appendix 2 figure2(a).

Step iii: Construction of the Capital Letters

In constructing capital letters seven horizontal rows and one to five columns are used to form the letter depending on its shape (form/structure). Here is a demonstration of the construction of capital letters of the alphabet using Arial black manually and using CorelDraw. (See appendix

2 figures 2 steps i & ii).

Step v: Cutting the Capital Letters of the Alphabet Models on a Foam (Soft Textured

Material)

The capital letters of the alphabet are cut on a foam (soft textured material) to give a three dimensional outlook and feel visually and when felt tactilely with the hand. (See appendix 2 figure

2 step iii).

Step v: Customization of the Capital Letters of the Alphabet Models with Designed Fabrics

Selected assorted wrapper designed fabrics (patterned yards) were snapped (photographed) using a digital camera and the input of the pictures into the computer for use to customize the capital letters digitally then later executed practically in a structural format. (See appendix 2 figure

1(a)-(d) and 2 step iv).

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(f). Evaluation

The visual and tactile (hand feel) appraisal of the pictorial exhibition of the improvised capital letters of the alphabet shapes developed into models (forms) through knitting technique using designed fabrics (patterned yards), foam (soft textured material), gum, threads and needles were splendid. (See appendix 2 figure 2 step iv). This shows the models instructional materials of the capital letters of the alphabet produced in three dimensional form. This concretizes the capital letters of the alphabet into their various structures to be used in making teaching and learning practical.

Conclusion This study reveals that an immediate acquisition and use of needed instructional models to the benefit of the learner cannot be effectively accomplished now and in the future without improvisation. It is therefore important to enhance the resourcefulness (creativity) by teachers via training them to design and develop their instructional materials especially at the pre-primary level of education. This is because the inability of teachers to be resourceful and innovative will indicate a failure from them as professionals to play their vital roles in the process of education ((Angyol,

Baba, Zira and Maman, 2017). Hence teachers being the stewards of desired knowledge to the learner should be innovative, creative and imaginative in improvising their needed models especially at the pre-primary level of education.

Recommendations

The following recommendations are made based on the analysis of this study:

1. Pre-primary teachers should be trained to engage themselves in improvising models for effective instruction and activity learning in pre-primary schools.

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2. Stakeholders: Government, Proprietors, School administrators, Educational technologists, Designers, Artists and Craftsmen should be sensitized to support the production of models for pre-primary pupil’s instruction. 3. Professionals artist, designers and craftsmen should be encouraged and used as resource persons in the improvisation of models for use in pre-primary education via National, State and local exhibitions and workshop on improvisation of models for pre-primary pupils’ education which should be held yearly. 4. Improvisation of numerals, shapes and mathematical symbols models using foam and fabrics should also be undertaken as models for the teaching and learning in pre-primary schools. 5. A step should further be taken to test for the efficacy of the designed and developed customized alphabet models in enhancing active learning of the alphabet by pre-primary pupils is schools.

References Angyol, M. A. (2018). Studio Practice: Alphabet Design and Development. Department of Fine and Applied Arts. University of Jos, Nigeria. Angyol, M. A., Baba, J., Zira, B. G. and Maman, I. (2017). Improvisation of Alphabet and Shapes Models with Paper Using Packaging Technique to enhance Pre-Primary Pupils’ Education in Nigerian schools in MAJASS: Maiduguri Journal of Arts and Sciences. Special edition: Arts and Design, Vol. 14, 2017, pp97-108. Angyol, M. A. (2015). Design and Fabrication of Portable and Collapsible Multi–Purpose Table and Stool for Enhancing Art and Design Education in Nigerian Schools. A Research Sponsored by Tertiary Education Trust Fund (TETFund) for 2013 Intervention. Conference proceedings of the 6TH COEASU Gindiri National Conference: Contemporary challenges and their implications on education. Kadage, A. T. (2012), Teachers guide to improvisation and utilization of instructional materials: Zaria: A.B.U Press Ltd. Kaduhur, D. B. and Mohammed, T. G. (2009), The production of models for use in teaching vocational and technical subjects being a paper presented at the 7th Annual conference of the Nigerian Association of vocational and Technical educators (NAVTED) held at C.O.E. Akwanga, Nassarawa state from 7-10/07/2009. Mallum, J. O. (2003) Practical steps to home economics research. Jos. Clestinno Press. Mcllrath, O. and Huit, W. (2001). The teaching and learning process: a classroom of models. Retrieved June 5th2005 from Valdusta State University Website http:/chiron. Vodusta.edu. /whuit/papers/modeltah. hotml NTI Kaduna (2007) Manual for the Re-Training of Primary School Teacher: Improvisation of Instructional Materials. Millennium Development Goals’ Project, Kaduna NTI Simpath, A. and Santhanam, K. (2007). Introduction to Educational Technology. New Delhi: Sterling Publishers Private Limited. Zagi, D. and Iliya, A. (2015) Fundamentals of Educational Research. Kaduna. Cypress Integrated Services Ltd.

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Appendix 1 Figure 1: Characteristics of Letters

Source: Angyol, Baba, Zira and Maman (2017). Figure 2: Sample selection of capital letter fonts using capital letter A

(a). Arial Black (b). Bauhaus 93 (c) Times New Roman Source: Researchers, 2019

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Appendix 2 Figure 1: Samples of assorted photographed designed fabrics

a. b. c. d. Source: Researchers, 2019 Figure 2: The Design and Development of Sample Customized Alphabet Model

STEP i: Construction of the capital letter A STEP ii: The capital letter A font in font in two-dimension outline drawing two-dimension outline drawing

1 2 3 4 1 2 3 4 5 6 7

STEP iii: The cut out foam of capital letter STEP iv: The capital letter A model customized A model in three dimensional outlook with designed fabrics (yards) via gluing and hand stitching.

Source: Researchers, 2019.

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Appendix 3 ALPHABET CHART

Source: Angyol, Michael Adawus (2018). Studio Practice: Alphabet Design and Development. Department of Fine and Applied Arts. University of Jos, Nigeria.

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THE IMPORTANCE OF ART EDUCATION AS A BASE FOR TEACHING OTHER SUBJECTS IN SCHOOLS SALEH, H.M. and ADIWU, T. O. Department of Visual and Performing Arts Faculty of Arts, University of Maiduguri

Abstract ______Art is more than just a form of creative expression. It has been the dominant theme of art education for much of the twentieth century. Expression is considered to be important in all forms of education; so much so that, there have been a lot of researchers/researches which are centred on finding connections between learning in the visual arts and the acquisition of knowledge and skills in general. According to a 1993 Arts Education Partnership Working Group study, the benefits of art programmes include intensified student motivation to learn, better school attendance, increased graduation rates, improved multicultural understanding, and the development of high-order thinking skills, creativity, and problem solving abilities (Davis, 2017). Art education has always had its root in drawing, which, with reading, writing, singing, playing with the instrument, comprised the basic elementary school curriculum in the seventeenth century. Drawing continues to be a basic component of the core curriculum. Educators see drawing as important in teaching handwork, nature study (biology), geography, and other subjects. Art education later expanded to include painting, design, graphic arts, and the ‘plastic arts’ which are sculpture and ceramics. Art continues to be valued, though less of a core subject. Core subjects have since shifted to mathematics and the sciences. While art education has reached a low point since the 1970’s. This and the serious national energy crisis contributed to bringing about the closing of many schools as well as program cuts, art programs were among the first to be eliminated or reduced. This article sets out to reaffirm the importance of arts based education to the general learning process and also its core significance to a school’s curriculum.

Keywords: Art, Education, Expression, Knowledge, Skill, Drawing. ______

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Introduction

Art is an expression, an idea, emotion or experience. Art helps us to see, feel, and appreciate the world around us. Art is a practical skill, an appreciation which is guided by principles and human skills, and the production of beauty and works of creative imagination. Art is an individual’s style of expression; it is also, a form of expression that has the capability to give order to human thoughts, as well as the relationship between man and his environment. Art is a form of social, consciousness, a component of the spiritual culture of mankind, a particular way of perceiving the world in both physical and spiritual terms. A general definition of art can be termed as a unified type of activity which is important to education. Read (1958), defines art as an attempt to create pleasing forms, a simple foundation of learning how to express one’s ideas as it is seen in our everyday life. Okechukwu (2014), explains that:

Art is universally termed as the quality, technique and expression in the production of an aesthetic significance expressed in any language. It is a language that records man’s response to a multiplicity of environmental impulses. The tone of the language could depict either the social, political, cultural or religious perspectives of the same society (p. 132). He goes further to state that, the …arts like other disciplines has its own vocabulary with the alphabets embedded in its formal elements. Every artistic statement involves the combination and manipulation of the said elemental ingredients in a regularised principle. The subject of art commands a visible language with universal acceptance and significance to both human and infrastructural development that cuts across nations. This position is affirmed by Oloidi (2010) when he states thus:

“…artists have seen their profession beyond mere aesthetic achievement or preoccupation. To them, art is a powerful humanistic tool and language of human life. Thus in Africa today, including all countries still struggling for freedom, art is a weapon that is being used progressively to defend the existence of the masses and, in some cases, to support the aspirations of good governance (p. xix).

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Art according to Read is one of those things which like air or soil, is everywhere around us, but which we rarely stop to consider. For art is not just something we find in museums and art galleries or in old cities like Florence and Rome. Art however we may define it, is present in everything we make or encounter that pleases our senses. When we ask, what is art? We really are asking what is the quality or peculiarity in a work of art that appeals to our senses? The web dictionary says that art is the conscious use of skill and creative imagination especially in the production of aesthetic objects.

Okechukwu (2014) posits:

that the learning and professionalism of art in Nigeria in recent times have consistently received a dwindling approach. There is a wide crevice in the quality, content and precision in delivery of the earlier generation of Nigerian artists and that of the present brigade of practitioners. A visible manifestation of obliteration in quality, standard, focus, real professionalism and passion hugely lurks around the arts profession (p. 131).

The above position of Okechukwu is not only limited to the professionalism of the arts as he has indicated, it also affects the position of art teaching and its value as regards other subjects/fields of study. Despite artists and art educator’s incessant attempts to correct and uphold the important position of art to the development of society in general, it has still suffered significant loss as a result of unbalanced implementation of policies that succeed to the detriment of the general society to back bench the arts.

Education in general is an instrument for national development irrespective of which country it applies too. The importance of education cannot be overlooked in any way. This is so, because the degree of effectiveness of any sound and balanced economy is practically hinged on how well the educational system of that area or community fares (Aghenta, 1988:5). The planning in respect to the cohesion of ideas which are or can be ultimately aimed at setting up an effective national system for the development of human resources who in turn would employ their competencies to

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service some established national needs in the dimensions that could either be social, political or economic. The educational plans and programmes of any nation should always be articulated in her policies and should be regarded as a document that has far reaching effects on the future of such a nation (NPE, 2004:6).

Arts Education

The arts are amongst the many subjects that are offered at all levels of education of a nation. It has however suffered more loss than gains as compared to other subjects of study. This is largely based on faults created largely by policy implementers as aforementioned. Such setbacks range from a poor sense of policy implementation that leads to an unequal distribution of resources in government circles to a lopsided attitude of administrators or learning in most institutions.

Okechukwu (2014) indicates that irrespective of all these setbacks, “by sense or by character, the arts remain the drivers of entrepreneurship…” (p. 132). The engine room of any sound national economy largely resides within the forceful activities of the small and medium scale industries of which the arts are active players. The arts therefore, are embodiments of inventiveness, hyper creativity and dependable job creators anytime.

Education in the arts is an integral part of the development of the human being. Studies throughout the ages have emphasized the importance of the arts in education process. Arts Education is education in the disciplines of music, dance, theatre, and the visual arts. Design applied to practical fields such as commercial graphics and home furnishings are also aspects of art education.

Contemporary topics in Art Education include photography, video, film, design and computer art.

Art Education, according to Mohammed (2016), is a dynamic and unifying activity with a potential role in the education of children in aesthetic vision. Education and engagement in the fine arts are very essential parts of a school curriculum and are key components in improving learning

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throughout all academic areas. According to Jensen (2001), education and engagement in fine arts is beneficial to the general educational process. The arts develop a system that produces a broad spectrum of benefits raging from motor skills, to creativity and improved emotional balance as well as the capability to solve given problems. Judith Burton, at the Colombia University shows that, subjects such as mathematics, sciences and languages require complex cognitive and creative capacities “typical of art learning” (Burton, Horowitz & Abeles 1999). The system which they nourish, include our integrated sensory, cognitive, emotional and motor capacities that are in fact the driving forces behind all learning (Jensen, 2001).

Art Education is crucial in developing skills that are needed in the 21st century to prepare one for the workforce. A study in art education increases test scores across every subject area. Arts

Education is an area of art learning that is based on the kind of art that one can see example: drawing, painting, sculpture, pottery among others. So much of life requires creativity for example, a business person, a scientist, an engineer; all have aspects of creativity and innovation that are necessary for their work, therefore, art education/knowledge is very crucial to the learning process since it involves every aspect of life. Art Education is also about supporting individuals to develop artistically for the benefit of themselves and the society.

Philosophers have helped in understanding how important art education is, Plato, a Greek philosopher established the notion that art should be at the centre of all education, Dewey, an influential American philosopher explored the functions of art in human experience and provided an understanding of where an art program fits into primary education. He believed that art was purposeful in the art curriculum as a means for utilizing children’s energy in a constructive manner

(Mbahi, 2015). Aristotle on the other hand, recognized the positive role of art, claiming that it ‘can

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present the kind of thing that might be’, thereby suggesting that the arts can reveal the possibilities of an experience (Johnson, 2011:143).

Art Education promotes the habit of creativeness where one captures the passion for art, it allows one to explore new ideas, new cultures and brings joy to aspects of our lives. Art education teaches us about the world around us. Life itself can be seen as a work of art in progress; since life is part of a community, the values we emulate from and to each other whilst interacting with our students, families, and other community members are significant in shaping, moulding and celebrating the lives we touch.

The philosophy of art education, according to Mohammed (2016), should provide the child with diverse basic knowledge and skills for entrepreneurship, wealth generation, job creation, poverty eradication, value orientation and educational advancement. This view is further enhanced by

Aristotle’s position that the arts show what is possible via mimesis of human actions, this goes a long way in establishing the prominent positon of arts education in human action and productivity.

Though the subject of art has been on the national curriculum, the focus has been more on literacy, maths and the sciences. According to Jolley (2013), art educationists and psychologists who have studied children’s art have claimed that art promotes educational benefits that other school subjects cannot. These benefits come both from practicing art and from learning about art. Jolley posits that, art is an essential part of personal development. This suggests that the continued marginalization of art in schools prevent children from receiving a broad and well-rounded education. In Martin’s (2014) opinion, art helps children develop on many fundamental levels, that there is no doubt that the arts are fun for children. The subject of art, though found in the curriculum, is generally taken for granted, it is considered more of an extracurricular activity than a subject of learning thus is almost abandoned in many schools.

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Art has been neglected for many years and it is a source of concern. Enamhe (2013) said that this neglect runs across all educational institutions, if there is a proper understanding of Art Education, much would have been done to redeem the subject from its current status of neglect. Art Education is a very important subject and should be given adequate consideration. This should start from the very beginning of education, and should be made compulsory. When children are encouraged there will be success in their academics.

Value of Art in Schools

Arts education according to Talabi (1979:1) forms the basis for, and an integral part of, the total educational process of an individual. Talabi orates that, long term experimentations and researches in education have revealed the value of art in schools as well as in the overall development of the student and their capacity to understand and learn other subjects. Art has a direct effect on academics, it teaches numerous skills such as team work, communication, thinking out of the box, leadership, and it also exposes one to different cultures and different life styles. It inclusively, broadens the mind of the participant or pupil in terms of finding alternative solutions to problems.

With art, the thinking capacity of a student can be improved greatly as he or she strives to come up with creative and unique ways of interpreting information either as an individual or as a group.

Art is a child’s suitable choice of speech. It is the vocabulary that enhances vocal expression.

Through the arts, a child’s thoughts are made clearer. Art allows for the visual translation of ideas, which otherwise may not be vocally expressed adequately.

It has been adequately established that other subjects relay on the arts to effectively translate an idea which in turn leads to better understanding and assimilation. Art situates itself as the main thrust of life and other subjects and should therefore be in the core of contemporary living. Weather

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it is practiced or not, art surrounds life both in the visible and invisible sense. It provides the mirror through which all the other disciplines of life are seen clearly.

However numerous and flattering the pros of art can be for the educational system in general, the arts cannot be learned through occasional or random exposure any more than math or science can.

It then becomes essential that art becomes a part of the curriculum and an important component in the educational program. Art therefore, should be given as much consideration on the timetable as subjects such as maths and sciences enjoy. The study and the participation of art is a key component in improving, all forms of learning throughout all academic areas. It is no accident that the arts are traditionally connected with the idea of being educated; according to Earle (2013), a twentieth century German Philosopher Ernst Cassirer explained the importance of the arts as follows: ‘science gives us order in thoughts, morality gives us order in action; art gives us order in the apprehension of visual, tangible and audible appearance. He further said that a good education includes a good art education, introducing children and young people to great literature, dance, visual arts, music and film.

The arts also provide learners with non-academic benefits such as promoting self-esteem, motivation, awareness, cultural exposure, creativity; it also improves emotional expression, as well as social harmony and a certain appreciation for diversity.

Art education also enhances a child’s self-worth and discourages self-destructive attitudes because artistic activity is geared towards the spirit of Talabi again indicates that in art one is able to differentiate between what is good and what is bad. This is possible in the sense that spiritual involvement is the essence of art education/practice, seeking the highest form of enlightenment and development of both mind and body of the creative spirit of man, rather than the usual classroom approach which can be mechanical. To further understand the point made above; it is

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suggested that any activity which does not involve the emotional senses is at best a mechanical form of activity that only involves doing and not feeling. Art education effectively teaches satisfaction in self, thus by and large eliminating to a comfortable degree; greed, envy and the general disregard for one’s fellow man (Talabi, 1979:4). creation. For instance, in a group activity the child is taught how to interact and work with others thus de-emphasising self and emphasising others; this typifies the concept of espirit de corps; a coming together to achieve a common set goal. Plato believes that ‘aesthetic education’ (a type of arts education) is the only form of education that brings grace to the body and nobility of mind.

He continues to state that, “until man in his physical and sensuous mode of being has been accustomed to the laws of beauty, he is incapable of spiritual liberty” (Fleming, 1963 in Talabi,

1974:4).

Parent’s Confrontational Attitude to Art in Schools

It is in the home that a child’s future is being nurtured or guided towards being a better person tomorrow. The role of parent’s in monitoring the child’s development in learning is therefore considered to be very crucial since their contribution to the child’s growth in life could either ruin his or her carrier or make him or her succeed in life. A child’s dream of becoming a lawyer, doctor, architect, engineer, journalist, creative writer, an artists, starts from the home. The parent’s level of involvement or commitment to the child’s interest in learning is very important towards guiding him/her even at the school environment.

Parenting children in the home could be in two different ways, one which could be positive and the other negative. Good parenting, according to Steinberg (2004), is parenting that fosters psychological adjustment elements - like honesty, empathy, self-reliance, kindness, cooperation,

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self-control and cheerfulness. In other words, good parenting helps children succeed in school, it promotes the development of intellectual curiosity, motivation to learn and desire to achieve. Parents from all works of life want their children to be happy, responsible, scholastically successful, socially acceptable and well behaved, but they all do not necessarily know how to achieve these goals (Steinberg, 2004).

Igbinovia (2011) supports the view of Steinberg on good parenting in the home; she said that, what we pay our attention to and expend more energy on, is an indication of what we place real value on which invariably becomes our greatest asset. She postulates that most parents still see their children as a burden or hindrance to their dreams. She adds that often, parents say things like: “I would have been this or that a long time ago, but for my children.” Some parents consider the resources and time spent on their children as waste of time or an unfruitful venture. They have forgotten the Chinese proverb that “anyone with proper guidance will excel at whatever he desires,” because when the root is firm, the branches flourish. When parents spend good and quality time with their children today, tomorrow they will be honoured, and the parents will also be equally honoured. However, this cannot come on a “platter of gold,” it calls for hard work and real commitment of parents in the upbringing of their children in the house.

Most parents in Nigeria hardly spare some time to spend with their children after office hours, at least to make them feel their warmth or presence in the house and perhaps enjoy their support too on academic matters. In a family for instance in any typical urban city in Nigeria, a parent will leave his/her house very early in the morning and may not return home until evening or very late at night; the child by that time would have been

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fast asleep. Such a child can only see his/her father or mother the next day or in the morning. This is the practice of many Nigerians. Oguntuga (2012) revealed that the realities of today do not permit parents to be at home and spend quality time with their children. However, in an attempt to educate or give our children any form of instruction in the home, we should be very mindful or critical of whatever thing we want them to learn from us, so that we may not be feeding their minds with poisonous ideas instead of what will better their tomorrow. A very good example is when parents insist on what their children should study in school, the fact that the art subject is looked down on, the parents fail to realise that the art is as important as any other subject, and art can be seen in all subject areas. Children’s ability to do well in school could be based on genetic factors inherited or acquired from their parents. Steinberg said again regardless of one’s child’s genetic makeup, what one does as a parent matters tremendously. It is the Parent’s influence that affects how those genes are expressed. Parents influence the development of their

Children’s personality, interest, character, intelligence, attitudes and values. Parents could also influence the child’s likes or dislikes in many things. How a child behaves at home or in the school environment depends on the kind of training he/she gets from his parents in the house.

Negligence of Art by Administrators

Art has long been recognized as an important part of a well-rounded education. When it comes to setting budget priorities, the arts rarely rise to the top, even though art is known as a subject that is important to the academics. There has been research by people who are weaving the arts into everything they do and finding that the approach not only boost academic achievements but also promotes creativity, self-confidence and school pride. The art curriculum itself can encourage or

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discourage creativity. The curriculum should therefore, be designed to equip learners with basic knowledge, skills to deal effectively with the challenges of life as well as improve dexterity in the handling of tools and materials (Mbahi, 2015). Mbahi further says that the curriculum is the first part of preparing to teach, it tells us the best ways to organize learning materials and appropriate time to use different media. The curriculum also enables children to explore and express their ideas and feelings and also their experiences through art. This is because art expresses creative skills and imagination; it also expresses culture, social, economic and many aspects of the society. Then art education itself is a tool that helps explore different talents, abilities that are hidden in individuals, especially children. The balance between the child’s natural development, needs and education, specific developmental needs are balanced within educational settings.

The properly planned art curriculum should be carefully implemented otherwise it will make children lose interest and their creative ability. This could affect their development because children get captivated in doing art and are always willing to do more and bring out good results.

Art and creativity should be compulsory in all schools. The government and school authorities can help by enabling these rules, providing amenities and employing more art teachers who have knowledge of art.

Peer Influence on Art among Children in Schools

Peer groups are children of same age group or level that move together to share common interest or to enjoy mutual relationships. Williams (2003) defines it as a social group that consists of individuals of same social status who share similar interests and are close in age. Peer group influence among children has serious positive or negative effects on children’s achievement in learning; the experience they share with one another may last for a long time in a child’s life. Barbour (2010) observes that as early

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as the age of three, early friendships among children begin to form and this relationship begins to have a more lasting influence in their lives. Barbour (2010) maintains that peer groups have an even stronger influence than that of parents; although that extreme position has been refuted by other researchers (Berk, 2005). Peer group could mould or create a serious impact on the behaviour of a child beside the home or the community.

Clark (1991) further asserts that, after the family peer relations are perceived as the second most important source of social support affecting school adjustment. The value of peer relations increases because of their connection to the social and academic adjustment of adolescents. Kimpton (1997) conducted a research on the importance of peer relationships outside the home environment and found that children in their early years of development even before entering or going to school and adolescence compare themselves to their peers and learn about norms, values and structure through interactions with peers. Their understanding of other children’s culture will help them to perceive how they also feel about their own families.

Maslow (1954) suggests that in basic behaviourist theories, relationships between people affect learning only as much as people reinforce each other (or not) in the academic arena. For example, if the peer group encourages education and learning, then the individual student within that group will value learning; because the individual is reinforced or rewarded for behaviour that learning is valued. Students in peer groups that do not value education however, lack the stimulation and reinforcement needed to encourage personal learning. These peer groups presumably stimulate and reinforce learning. Bandura (1996) notes that if the student views and works with people who appreciate learning by engaging in learning activities then the student too will engage in

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learning and might work harder at learning. Peers with positive attitudes and behaviours towards education will allow and teach each other to set goals that include opportunities to learning and achieve their dreams or objectives; however, if peer models do not convey positive attitudes towards learning then, the student observing these models will not prioritize learning in their lives. They will learn to prioritize other goals instead.

Such goals might not be positive in nature but could be harmful to the students or unfortunate individuals. Such goals too cannot also benefit members of the society or the community the students come from.

To encourage positive learning behaviour among peers in the classroom, there is the need to plan a positive learning environment; this is because only a positive environment could produce creative behaviour in children’s learning. Providing children with enriching learning opportunities with peers who model positive learning values will set the learner on a path leading towards positive academic achievement. The habit of encouraging children to relate with or interact with their peers who have strong learning desires can support and motivate Children’s development as learners; although peer influences may not be as powerful as they will become in Children’s achievement, the effects of young learners’ interactions among peer groups cannot be over emphasized.

Relationship of Art with other Subjects

Art is a valuable tool for children to learn how to express themselves, work through a process, work cooperatively and gain respect and understanding for others (Learner, 2015). The integration of art with other subjects helps student’s grasp important ideas within and outside the academics.

The way we visualize structures, proportions, shapes, plans, diagrams through art is also essential

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to the study of other subjects like Biology, Physiology, Medicine, Botany, Zoology, Geography,

Agriculture, Engineering and Architecture and many other subjects. All these subjects value visual representations developed from concrete realities in the form of drawings, sketches and illustrations.

Every individual should be able to observe and understand the impressions in memory or grasp the full meanings of diagrams, drawings or photographs. Students of geography, for example, who have no knowledge of art may find perspective drawings difficult and may not be able to interpret photographs and maps adequately. So also with the students of Engineering and Architecture, they also require art to design their projects. English students require knowledge of art to understand scenery and composition, an English student visualises things, scenes, objects or people and retains them in memory. Art is also needed in the area of History.

There is a saying that science is the ‘knowing’ and art is the creative act involved in giving an object a form, but can science advance without art? Science cannot advance its investigation without the aid of art, in industrial production, the artists creates the possibilities of a new product through his creative skill, while the scientist creates the knowledge of its realization through the systematic study of natural phenomena and the Engineers deals with the organized skill to solve the problems.

Incorporating the Arts in all other Subjects

Since art is a valuable tool for students to learn how to express themselves, it can be done by working through a process, work corporately, and gain respect and understanding for others and other subject areas. Integrating the art with other subjects combines the creative engagement of arts activities with content from other subject areas like the Maths, Sciences, Language and also technology. Example is when students are studying the early explorers in Social Studies; an art

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teacher can extend their learning with arts-based activities such as creating maps, costumes and plays based on the life of the early explorers, or designing a flag to make a new settlement. The art teacher can also incorporate reading and writing skills in an art-based activity by making illustrations for a book based on a certain theme in Social Studies. When an art-based activity is developed, it taps student’s interest into exploring opportunities, expressing themselves and presenting something that incorporates their learning with other subject areas.

Having knowledge of connecting art with other subject areas, it broadens the knowledge in various ways:

. Critical thinking: it helps one to observe, reflect, explore, and engage in other activities, understanding the community and the different ways of life. All these habits develop critical thinking. . Collaboration: ideas are formed best when two are more minds meet. Students can collaborate on projects like framing research questions, developing murals, writing a script for an animation. . Communication: when students collaborate, they communicate, when there is no communication, nothing will be achieved. Students need to communicate ideas. . Creativity: art naturally drives creativity, art drives one to create, art drives one to inquire, it is through creative inquiry that we unlock questions and try to solve problems and discover new possibilities.

How does Art Contribute to Education?

Arts education provides all categories of learners with the much needed skill set that enables them to think resourcefully, to transform and to become learners that are fully equipped and ready to solve problems that may encounter. Art educational activities are centred around the creation of art as well as the learning of how to censure or appreciate art.

Art has the capacity to leave an imprint on an individual’s mind which can go a long way in helping one to refocus and recall things, events and even experiences vividly and also to make one an active participant.

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Art helps the participating individual in many ways such as the development of motor skills. It enhances the motion involved in the making and processing of creative ideas that lead to the manipulation of art tools such as the paint brush, pencil or crayon while scribbling or doodling.

All these are essential to the creative development of the child or individual partaking in the art activity. Art education’s dynamic range of influence extends to language improvement. It provides one with the opportunity to learn new words, newer ways to communicate and express themselves through art. The learning of how to use basic colours and shapes as well as the action of putting them together and the ability to link them to daily life situations is a unique aspect of art education.

Art education is able to strengthen the problem solving skills and the critical thinking capacity of its participating individuals. The result of making art leads to the enhancement of decision making skills in creating art which invariably carries over into other aspects of life when exploring, thinking, and experimenting and trying new ideas, creativity is thus, given room to bloom. Art education is crucial to visual learning. This form of learning is what is needed more by children when learning about the word around them. Through visual learning, children are able to identify, interpret and retain objects, signs, symbols more than when learning in text and numerals. Through arts capability to teach through the creative juxtaposition of colours and shapes, the child is able to learning how to interpret, criticize and use visual ques effortlessly.

Art encourages its participants to express themselves and take risk while creating. It helps in the development of a heightened sense of innovation that will be important later in life. It exposes to us the variety of cultures, ways of life, ways of doing things, the differences between each culture and also the historical background. It also teaches the relationship between different cultures. Art improves academic performance by its active nature thus, improving the chances of increased academic performance. Arts gives an individual self-confidence when participating in various art

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activities like getting on stage, acting in front of a large crowed or group, it gives one confidence to face any situation.

Art ensures a spirit of hard work and the making of constant effort towards problem solving keeps one going without thinking of giving up. As one endures in the practice of art doings, paying attention is important and certain to redirect one’s focus to what is vital for learning in class as well as in the practice of learned skill later in life.

Through the collaborative nature of art activities; the spirit of co-operation is achieved through team work during practical art activities. This brings about a general sharing of inborn skills and knowledge which in turn enhance the productivity of the group as well as the achievement of the projects goal and output. Every person involved in a set art activity is considered responsible for the group; all individuals partaking of the activity must be held accountable to other group members as well as him/herself. Where slipups occur, it is the general responsibility of all members participating to accept, learn from them and collectively find a solution to problem.

Conclusion

According to Purtee (2016), the role of educators is preparing learners for the future, and that teaching art involves problem-solving among others. Creative expression allows participation in a range of activities that allow creative imagination, expression, like music, art, drama. Arts engage an individual’s mind, body and sense, which is the practical application of artistic knowledge that enables students to express themselves in visually creative ways. Art benefits students because it cultivates the whole person, gradually building many kinds of literacy, while developing intuition, reasoning, imagination and dexterity into unique forms of expression and communication.

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According to Reyner (2010), art is important to learners especially during the early development; art activities develop the brain capacity because it engages the learner’s sense in open-ended play and develops their cognitive, socio-emotional and multi-sensory skills.

In Shaw’s (2015) research, she said that 85% of people agree that creative thinking is critical for problem solving. And with the challenges we are facing in the world today, in our environment, and in social issues, the need for creative ideas has never been greater. Therefore, we must find ways to bring art into learning in all careers. She believes that the art is now the number one on skill in demand for employment. The educational system and the society’s perception tend to emphasis more on the science subject, although some art educators had already brought up the importance of arts in education system for a more holistic development of the person (Olorukooba,

2006 and Mamza, 2007).

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