CURRENT STATUS AND DISTRIBUTION OF NILGAI {Boselaphus tragocame/us) IN ALIGARH DISTRICT
DISSERTATION SUBMITTED IN PARTIAL FULFILMENT OF THE REQUIREMENTS FOR THE AWARD OF THE DEGREE OF iHasfter of ^t)iIos(opf)p IN WILDLIFE SCIENCE
BY KHURSID ALAM KHAN
UNDER THE SUPERVISION OF PROF. JAMAL A. KHAN
DEPARTMENT OF WILDLIFE SCIENCES ALIGARH MUSLIM UNIVERSITY ALIGARH-202 002 (INDIA) 2014 ^ ^ MOV 20M
DS4336 Dedicated to My Tarents
I DEPARTMENT OF WILDLIFE SCIENCES CONSERVATION MONITORING CENTRE ALIGARH MUSLIM UNIVERSITY, ALIGARH-202 002 Phone«:91-571-2701052 (0), 2700920:Ext 1700,01,02, Telefax:2701205, e-mail :vwiesanch«m«Lln
CERTIFICATE
This is to certify tliat the dissertation entitled "Current Status and Distribution of Nilgai {Boselaphus tragocamelus) in Aligarh District" submitted for the award of M.Phil Degree in Wildlife Science, Aligarh Muslim University, Aligarh is the original work of Mr. Khursid Alam Khan. This work has been done by the candidate under my supervision.
(Prof. Jama! A. Khan)
Chairman & Supervisor
Developing quality human resource in wildlife is our mandate Seeking scientific solutions to conservation problems is our mission Table of Contents Page I i
TABLE OF CONTENTS
CONTENT Page DECLARATION & CERTIFICATES DEDICATED TO ACKNOWLEDMENT iii
LIST OF TABLES V LIST OF MAPS AND FIGURES vii LIST OF PLATES ix CHAPTERS
1 GENERAL INTRODUCTION 1-6 1.1 Rationale 2 1.2 Distribution of Nilgai 4 1.3 Description of Nilgai 5 1.4 Objectives 6 2 STUDY AREA 7-12 2.1 Topography 8 2.2 Vegetation of study area 9 2.3 Fauna of study area 12 3 STATUS, ABUNDANCE AND POPULATION COMPOSITION 13-37 3.1 Introduction 14 3.2 Methods 15 3.3 Results 17 3.4 Discussion 35 4 FOOD HABITS AND HABITAT USE 38-46 4.1 Introduction 39 4.2 Methods 41 4.3 Resuhs 42 4.4 Discussion 51 5 ACTIVITY PATTERN 47-52 TableofContents Page|ii
5.1 Introduction 48 5.2 Methods 49 5.3 Results 49 5.4 Discussion 51 6 HUMAN-WILDLIFE CONFLICT 53-59 6.1 Introduction 54 6.2 Methods 55 6.3 Results 55 6.4 Discussion 59 REFERENCES 60-71 PLATES 72-81 CHECKLIST 82-88 Acknowledgment Pagejiii
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
I am blessed; I bow to almighty ALLAH, the Gracious and the most Merciful for giving me desire, ability and zeal to complete my research work.
I am grateful to the Department of Wildlife Science, Aligarh Muslim University,
Aligarh for providing me an opportunity to work in this esteemed institution.
I am also thankful to my supervisor. Professor Jamal A. Khan, who has admitted me
under his supervision, guided me time to time and gave his vital time during my entire
research work. I express my sincere gratitude to him for his patient, enthusiasm and
enormous knowledge that he provided me during my research work. He has not only
supervised me in my research but also taught me how to be a good human being.
I am also thankful to the other faculty members of the department Prof.
H.S.A.Yahya, Dr. Afiffulah Khan, Dr. Satish Kumar, Prof. Wazahat Hussain, Dr.
Athar Ali and Dr. Orus Ilyas for their guidance and valuable comments.
I am thankful to the seminar librarian Mrs. Rafat Yasmeen who provided me all essential book and journal during my whole study period.
I am thankful to the Forest Department of Aligarh, Uttar Pradesh and specially
Abhishekh, who provides me essential primary data regarding the Prosopis plantations and their areas in Aligarh. Acknowledgment Page|iv
I am thankful to the my seniors Dr. Zunaid Nazir Shah, Dr. Samshad, Siraj Bhai ,
Meraz Bhai, Ahmad Masood Bhai, Azram Tahoor and specially Dr. Naazneen Zehra for their time to time discussion, advice, guidance, comments and also she taught how to be a patientful during my research work.
I also extended my gratitude to my friends Dr. Shadab Alam, Syed Mohd. Waseem,
Dr. Ehasn, Dr. Mumtaz Alam, Abre Alam, Syed Qamar, Maroof Alam and classmates
Shoeb, Tahir, Rohit, Tanveer for their constant supports and love.
I Specially want to thank my dearest friend Asim Rizvi & his Sister Dr. Tabassum
Suraiya as they not only stood with me in my bad and good days, but without their constant support it was not possible to complete this research work.
I shall ever remain grateful to my dear parents for their everlasting love and blessing without which I would never able to complete my thesis work.
(KHURSID A. KHAN) List of Tables Page I V
LIST OF TABLES
TABLE 1 DENSITY OF NILGAI IN DIFFERENT FOREST PATCHES OF ALIGARH DISTRICT. TABLE 1.2 DENSITY (NO./KM^) OF NILGAI IN DIFFERENT AREAS IN INDIA. TABLE 2.1 ENCOUNTER RATE OF THE NILGAI ON DIFFERENT ROADS OF ALIGARH DISTRICT IN WINTER SEASON. TABLE 2.2 ENCOUNTER RATE OF THE NILGAI ON DIFFERENT ROADS OF ALIGARH DISTRICT IN SUMMER SEASON. TABLE 3.1 NUMBER OF VISITS, GROUPS SEEN, TOTAL INDIVIDUALS SEEN AND MEAN GROUP SIZE IN DIFFERENT LOCATION OF ALIGARH DISTRICT IN WINTER SEASON. TABLE 3.2 NUMBER OF VISITS, GROUPS SEEN, TOTAL INDIVIDUALS SEEN AND MEAN GROUP SIZE IN DIFFERENT LOCATION OF ALIGARH DISTRICT IN SUMMER SEASON. TABLE 4.1 POPULATION STRUCTURE OF NILGAI IN ALIGARH DISTRICT IN WINTER SEASON. TABLE 4.2 POPULATION STRUCTURE OF NILGAI IN ALIGARH DISTRICT IN SUMMER SEASON. TABLE 4.3 OVERALL POPULATION STRUCTURE OF NILGAI IN ALIGARH DISTRICT. TABLE 5.1 NUMBER OF MALES, YEARLINGS AND CALVES PER 100 FEMALES IN WINTER SEASON. TABLE 5.2 NUMBER OF MALES, YEARLINGS AND CALVES PER 100 FEMALES IN SUMMER SEASON. TABLE 5.3 NUMBER OF MALES, YEARLINGS AND CALVES PER 100 FEMALES IN ALIGARH DISTRICT. TABLE 6.1 THE FEEDING PREFERENCE OF NILGAI ON DIFFERENT PLANTSPECIES IN WINTER. ListofTables Page|vi
TABLE 6.2 THE FEEDING PREFERENCE OF NILGAI ON DIFFERENT PLANT SPECIES IN SUMMER. TABLE? DIFFERENT SCARING DEVICES USED BY FARMERS TO PREVENT CROP RAIDING IN ALIGARH DISTRICT. TABLES MAJOR CROPS, PRODUCTION AND PRODUCTIVITY IN ALIGARH DISTRICT. List of Maps and Figures Page I vii
LIST OF MAPS AND FIGURES
FIGURE 1 PRESENT DISTRIBUTION OF NILGAI. FIGURE 2 LOCATION MAP OF INDIA SHOWING THE UTTAR PRADESH. FIGURE 3 LOCATION MAP OF ALIGARH DISTRICT. FIGURE 4 SATELLITE IMAGE OF ALIGARH DISTRICT WITH BLUE BOUNDARY. FIGURE 5 LOCATION MAP OF ALIGARH DISTRICT WITH BLOCKS. FIGURE 6 LOCATION MAP OF ALIGARH DISTRICT WITH MAJOR ROADS. FIGURE 7 PERCENTAGE OF MALE, FEMALE, YEARLING AND CALF. FIGURE 8 PERCENTAGE OF ANIMALS IN DIFFERENT GROUP SIZE CATEGORIES IN WINTER SEASON. FIGURE 9 PERCENTAGE OF ANIMALS IN DIFFERENT GROUP SIZE CATEGORIES IN SUMMER SEASON. FIGURE 10 PERCENTAGE OF ALL MALE, ALL FEMALE AND MIXED GROUPS OF NILGAI RECORDED IN WINTER SEASON. FIGURE 11 PERCENTAGE OF ALL MALE, ALL FEMALE AND MIXED GROUPS OF NILGAI RECORDED IN SUMMER SEASON. FIGURE 12 HABITAT USE BY NILGAI IN WINTER SEASON. FIGURE 13 HABITAT USE BY NILGAI IN SUMMER SEASON. FIGURE 14 PERCENTAGE OF ACTIVITIES OF NILGAI RECORDED IN WINTER SEASON. FIGURE 15 PERCENTAGE OF ACTIVITIES OF NILGAI RECORDED IN SUMMER SEASON. FIGURE 16 PERCENTAGE OF MIXED GROUP LED BY MALE AND FEMALE NILGAI IN ALIGARH DISTRICT. FIGURE 17 THE PERCENTAGE OF MALE AND FEMALE FARMERS WORKING IN THE AGRICULTURE FIELDS. FIGURE 18 PERCENTAGE OF PEOPLE FOUND IN DIFFERENT AGE ListofMapsandFigures Page| viii
GROUPS WORKING IN AGRICULTURAL FIELDS IN ALIGARH DISTRICT. FIGURE 19 PERCENTAGE OF CROP RAIDING INCIDENCES BY DIFFERENT SPECIES IN ALIGARH DISTRICT. List of Plates Page I ix
LIST OF PLATES
PLATE 1 HERD OF FEMALE NILGAI INSIDE A CROP FIELD. PLATE 2 SUB ADULT MALE IN OPEN SCRUB LAND. PLATE 3 HERD OF FEMALES AND YEARLINGS IN PROSOPIS FOREST. PLATE 4 HERD OF ADULT MALES. PLATE 5 CROP DAMAGE BY NILGAI AROUND THE FOREST PATCH. PLATE 6 OPEN AND PROSOPIS FOREST PATCH OF GHURSIKARAN. PLATE 7 NILGAI INSIDE THE MUSTARD CROP. PLATE 8 HERD OF NILGAI INSIDE OPEN PROSOPIS FOREST. PLATE 9 AN ADULT FEMALE WITH CALF. PLATE 10 NECK FIGHTING BETWEEN TWO SUB ADULT MALES PLATE 11 NECK FIGHTING BETWEEN TWO SUB ADULT MALES PLATE 12 NECK FIGHTING. PLATE 13 COMPETITION OF NILGAI WITH LIVESTOCKS FOR GRAZING IN MANY FOREST PATCHES. PLATE 14 MACHAN USED TO LOOKAFTER THE CROP. PLATE 15 STATUE, PROSOPIS FENCE AND WIRE FENCE USE TO PREVENT THE CROP RAIDING. PLATE 16 MUSTARD CROP RAIDED BY BLACKBUCK. PLATE 17 FUEL WOOD COLLECTION BY VILLAGERS. PLATE 18 PERL MILLET CROP DAMAGED BY NILGAI AND BLACKBUCK. General Introduction
CHAPTER 1 General Introduction Page |2
1. Introduction
1.1 Rationale
India is one of the mega biodiversity country in the world. There are about 410 species of mammals and 1260 species of birds reported from India.There are different kinds of eco-zones like desert, high mountains, highlands, tropical and temperate forests, swamplands, plains, grasslands, areas surrounding rivers, as well as the island archipelago in India. There are 31 species of ungulates found in India of which 25 ungulate species are protected in Wildlife Protection Act, 1972. There are six antelope species, namely Nilgai, Four homed antelope, Chinkara, Blackbuck, Tibetan antelope and Tibetan gazelle found in India among them three are endemic to the Indian subcontinent. The nilgai or blue bull (Boselaphus tragocamelus) is one of the largest antelope in Indian sub continent. Nilgai belongs to the family Bovidae, subfamily
Bovinae and tribe boselephini.
The populations of many species have declined, some species have been extinct and some are at the verge of extinction.Some species have become pest species due to their over abundance in some areas. Nilgai {Boselaphus tragocamelus) is one such species which is over abundant in some states of India and it may be regarded as pest.
The estimated population of nilgai is about 1,00,000 to 1,50,000 individuals(Sankar et al. 2004). Nilgai has been studied in protected areas(Schaller 1967, Berwick 1974, General Introduction Page |2
Introduction
1.1 Rationale
India is one of the mega biodiversity country in the world. There are about 410 species of mammals and 1260 species of birds reported from IndiaThere are different kinds of eco-zones like desert, high mountains, highlands, tropical and temperate forests, swamplands, plains, grasslands, areas surrounding rivers, as well as the island archipelago in India. There are 31 species of ungulates found in India of which 25 ungulate species are protected in Wildlife Protection Act, 1972. There are six antelope species, namely Nilgai, Four homed antelope, Chinkara, Blackbuck, Tibetan antelope and Tibetan gazelle found in India among them three are endemic to the Indian subcontinent. The nilgai or blue bull {Boselaphus tragocamelus) is one of the largest antelope in Indian sub continent. Nilgai belongs to the family Bovidae, subfamily
Bovinae and tribe boselephini.
The populations of many species have declined, some species have been extinct and some are at the verge of extinction.Some species have become pest species due to their over abundance in some areas. Nilgai {Boselaphus tragocamelus) is one such species which is over abundant in some states of India and it may be regarded as pest.
The estimated population of nilgai is about 1,00,000 to 1,50,000 individuals(Sankar et al. 2004). Nilgai has been studied in protected areas(Schaller 1967, Berwick 1974, General Introduction Page|3
Haque 1990, Sankar 1994, Khan et al 1996, Chundawat 1999, Biswas & Sankar 2002,
Bagchi et al. 2003 and Benerjee 2005) and few studies (Qureshi 1991, Khan 1992 and
Ramveer 1995) have been conductedon nilgai outside the protected areas. Due to overabundance of nilgai in some states, there is a growing human and nilgai conflict due to crop raiding.The present study has been conducted in Aligarh district, where over abundance of nilgai was observed and crop raiding by nilgai was reported in past
(Khan 1992). Crop raiding occurs as the nilgai survives in agro ecosystem.
1.2 Distribution of Nilgai
Nilgai is endemic to the Indian subcontinent. Historical records point out that all the
Mughal emperors were extremely fond of hunting nilgai, especially Jehangir, credited with hunting down, among other animals, nearly 899 nilgai (AH 1927). Historically nilgai was distributed from the base of the Himalayas to the south of Mysore. Nilgai was neither distributed in Ceylon (Sri Lanka) nor near the Malabar coast in the
Madras Presidency, although the nilgai inhabits the Konkan near Bombay. Nilgai was common in parts of the East Punjab, the North-west Provinces, Gujarat and the
Central Provinces, rarer to the southward (Blanford 1891). Niigai was not found in
Eastern Bengal, Assam, east of the Bay of Bengal and west to the river Indus.Later on the nilgai were distributed in open vegetation types all over India, down to
Mettupalayam (latitude: 11° N) in south India (Brander 1923, Pythian-Adams 1951,
Prater 1971).
The current distribution of nilgai ranges from the foothills in Himalayas in north, southward through central India, down to the southern districts of Andhra Pradesh above the Salem. Bhagalpur in Bihar and Asansol in West Bengal forms the boundary General Introduction Page I 4 on the eastern side, while in the west h ranges along the border of the India and
Pakistan near Bahawalnagar (Mirza and khan 1975).
They are found in 114 Protected Areas of the country, in 19 States: Andhra Pradesh,
Bihar, Chhattisgarh, Gujarat, Haryana, Himachal Pradesh, Jammu and Kashmir,
Madhya Pradesh, Maharashtra, Orissa, Punjab, Rajasthan, Uttar Pradesh, Uttrakhand,
Jharkhand and West Bengal. They are absent in the northeast India, southern most parts of the peninsula and coastal region. Nilgai have also been reported in Pakistan, mainly along the border with India (Mirza and Khan 1975, Roberts 1977) and southernmost part of Nepal (Dinerstein 1979). Introduced nilgai populations occur in the U.S.A., Mexico and South Africa (Lever 1985).
if^'^pf^ '"^ •*.. .TAi
PMr£-4C &:F riBS/
ong \MYANMAR I BUR MA NayPyiTaw
yangon (Rargoon) 3 d/ of ennai I . : adra s) B e n g- a / 'T ,./,. 'An daman • Colombo l^NKA \ ^*^ Sn Jayerwarden^yra Kott>e
Figure I: Present distribution of Nilgai General Introduction Page |5
1.3 Description of Nilgai
The nilgai is somewhat horse like in build with high wither and low rump. Nilgai stands 1.1 to 1.5 m (3 ft 7 in to 4 ft 10 in) at the shoulder and measure 1.7 to 2.1 m
(5 ft 7 in to 6 ft 10 in) in head-body length, with a 45 to 50-cm (18- to 20-in) tail.
Males are larger than females, weighing 109 to 288 kg (240 to 630 lb), with a maximum of 308 kg (680 lb), compared with the adult female weight of around 100 to
213 kg (220 to 470 lbs) (Walker 1968, Prater 1971, Leslie 2008).
The nilgai has thin legs and a robust body that slopes down from the shoulder. They show marked sexual dimorphism, with only the males having horns. Adult males have a grey to bluish-grey coat, with white spots on the cheeks and white colouring on the edges of the lips. They also have a white throat bib and a narrow white stripe along the underside of the body that widens at the rear. The tips of the long, tufted tail and of the ears are black. They also possess a tubular-shaped "pennant" of long, coarse hair on the midsection of the throat.
The males have two black, conical horns, arising close together just behind the eyes.
The horns project upwards, but are slightly curved forward; they measure between 15 and 24 cm in a fully grown adult. Although the horns are usually smooth, in some older males, they may develop ring-shaped ridges near the base. In contrast, females and young are tawny brown in colour, although otherwise with similar markings to the male; they have no horns and only a very small "pennant". Both sexes have an erect mane on the back of the neck, terminating in a bristly "hog-tuft" just above the shoulders. General Introduction Page |6
1.4 Objectives
The present study was carried out from 12 August 2013 to 8 June 2014 with the
following objectives:
1. To determine the current status, abundance and Population composition
of nilgai in Aligarh district.
2. To assess habitat use and dietary spectrum of nilgai in Aligarh district.
3. To quantify seasonal activity pattern of nilgai in Aligarh district.
4. To assesscurrent human-wildlife conflict in the study area with reference
to nilgai in Aligarh district. STUDY AREA
CHAPTER 2 study Area Page |8
Study Area
2.1 Topography
The Aligarh district is situated in the northern Indian state of India. It is bounded by the river Ganga and Yamuna for short distances only, they forms separately the district from Badaun while the later constituted the dividing line between Aligarh and
Gurgaon district of Haryana bounded in the north by Anoopshaher and khurja tehsil of Buland shaher district. To the west and south-west lie the Tehsil of Mahabar and
Sadabad of Mathura district, while to the east and the south-east lie Hathras, Etah and
Kasganj district. The extreme parallels of latitude are 27° 29' and 28*^ 11' north and if 38' and 78°38, east longitude with an area of 3747 kml The length from north to south is 72 km and breadth from east to west is about 112 km.
The average temperature in November to February is around 16''c and from March to
June is 35*'c. And the maximum temperature in-between may to June is around 46°c while minimum temperature is 8°c in December to January.
The average rainfall from July to September is around 241-285 mm and in the month of June is 44.8 mm.Aligarh has uniform surface material. The soil of the study area has a high moisture retaining capacity with pH vary from 6 to 7.5. The principal formation is of Pleistocene and recent origin. The region is mostly constituted by study Area Page |9 alluvial filling. The area consists of silts and bhanger tracts and the sand ridges alternated by depression.
2.2 Vegetation
The vegetation of the study area is classified as an arid open scrub commonly known as 'Rakhs' (Champion & Seth 1968). The vegetation of the study area may be divided into "usarland", Prosopis plantation and agricultural land. Most of the forest patches are dominated by Prosopisjuliflora followed by the other species like Acacia catechu,
Prosopis cineraria, Prosopisspecigera, Meliaazadirachta, Azadirachtaindica,
Cordiadichotoma, Pongamiapinnata, Syzygiumcumini, Dalbergiasissoo,
Buteamonosperma, Acacia nilotica, Acacia leucophloeaand Phoenix syhestris. Among the shrubs Capparis decidua and Capparissepiaria were dominated in the study area followed by other shrub species like Calotropisprocera,
Zizyphusmauritiana, Salvadoraoleoides etc.
The herbs which are common in the crop field are Boerhaviadiffusa,
Malvastrumcoromandelianum, Fumariaindica, Melilotusalba, Viciahirsuta,
Potentillasupina, Chenopodium album, Argemonemexicana, Spergulaarvensis, Oxalis corniculata, Erigeron bonariensis, Pulicariacrispa, Corchorusaestuans, Indigofera spp. andAchyranthesaspera.
The grasses which are common in the study area are Saccharummunja,
Saccharumspontaneum, Cynodondactylon, Imperatacylindrica, Digitariabicornis,
Dichanthiumannulatum, Vetiveriazizanioides, Setariaverticillata,
PanicumantidotaleandDendrocalamusstrictus.SomQ climbers which are foimd the study area are Rhynchosia minima, Cocciniacordifolia, Ipomeapes-tigridis, and
Mukiamaderaspatana Study Area Page I 10
Figure 3: Location map of Aligarh district. Study Area Page I 11
Figure 4: Satellite image of Aligarh district with blue boundary.
Figure 5: Location map of Aligarh district with blocks. Study Area Page I 12
Figure 6: location map of aligarh district with roads.
2.3 Fauna
Aligarh district falls under the upper gangetic plane of the bio geographical region.
The densely populated Aligarh district has very little forested patch and about negligible natural forests. The 'Usar' areas were planted with Prosopis juliflora to protect the soil in different part of the district.
Among the mammalian species Golden jackal (Canis aureus), Indian fox
(Vulpes bengalensis). Palm civet {Paradoxurus hermaphrodites). Common mongoose
(Herpestes edwardsii) and Jungle cat {Felis chaus) are the medium size carnivore found in the study area. Rufous tailed hare {Lepus nigricollis), Indian gerbille {Tatera indica). Five striped palm squirrel {Funambulus pennantii), and bush rat (Golunda ellioti) are common in the study area.
Among the ungulates Nilgai {Boselaphus tragocamelus) Blackbuck {Antilope cervicapra) and Wild boar {Sus scrofa) are common in some part of the study area.
The rhesus macaque {Macaca mulatta) and Common langur (Presbytis entellus) are common apes found in the study area. status, Abundance and Population Composition of Nilgai
CHAPTER 3 Status, Abundance and Population Composition Page | 14
Status, Abundance and Population Composition
3.1 Introduction
The Nilgai is placed inSchedule III of Wildlife Protection Act, (1972). International
Union of Conservation of Nature and Natural Resources (lUCN) rank it in the "Lower
Risk Category" and Convention of International Trade in Endangered Species of Wild
Fauna and Flora (CITES) has not assigned any rank to it.The estimation of nilgai population in India is more than 1,00,000 (Rahmani 2001) and later Sankar et al.(2004) estimated population of nilgai around 1,00,000 to 1,50,000. Nilgai is abundant in agricultural areas in the states of Haryana, Uttar Pradesh, Rajasthan and
Gujarat. The Nilgai has become extinct from the Bangladesh. No figures are available for Nepal and few are surviving in Pakistan. About 37,000 feral nilgai are established on Texas ranches (Rahmani 2001).
The population may be defined in various ways, but the ecological definition of the population is "All the organisms of an interbreeding group which can produce fertile young ones and occupy a particular space". The population is characterised by density. Density is number of individuals occupying definite unit of space.
Expressions of population density and biomass have been used to investigate the complex relationship between a species and its environment (Brown 1983) and Status, Abundance and Population Composition Page | 15 interspecific relationship in a community (Sinclair et al. 1990). Density estimation is one of the parameters for effective management and conservation of wild animals
(Karanthe/ al. 2004, Sutherland 1996, O'Connelese/ a/. 1999).
Tropical forest and their fauna are under increasing pressure to meet the resource needs of growing human population in the Indian subcontinent (Panwar 1987). The large herbivore play important role in ecosystem as they influence the forest structure, composition, productivity, nutrient cycling, soil structure and succession (Mc
Naughton 1979). Conservation of large herbivores is relatively difficult because they possessa large home range, low population density and tendency to come in conflict with the human through crop raiding behaviors. Several recent studies (Karanth and
Sunquist 1995, Karant and Nichols 1998) have found that abundance of predators such as the tiger and lion are influenced by the distribution and abundance of its prey species.
Nilgai abundance was studied in protected areas (Schaller 1967, Berwick 1974, Haque
1990, Sankar 1994, Khan et al. 1996, Chundawat 1999, Biswas &. Sankar 2002,
Bagchi et al. 2003 and Benerjee 2005) and outside protected areas (Mirza and Khan
1975, Qureshi 1991, Khan 1992 and Ramveer 1995).
3.2 Methods
Investigations were carried out in five tehsils of Aligarh District namely Koil, Khair,
Atrauli, Gabhana and Iglas to find out the current status and distribution of nilgai.
Direct and indirect methods have been used for population estimation of the herbivore species. Direct method used visual sighting of animals. Line transect sampling is practical, efficient and relatively inexpensive for estimating many biological Status, Abundance and Population Composition Page | 16 populations (Anderson et al. 1979, Bumham et al. 1980, Buckland et al. 1993). While the indirect methods used pellet group counts (Putman 1984).
3.2.1 Questionnaire survey
Basic information (location of forest patches, their areas and nearby villages) were obtained from the forest department before initiating the questioimaire survey. A questionnaire survey was carried out to know the approximate number of nilgai, activity pattern, crop damage and various methods used by villagers to control the crop damage in 14 villages of Aligarh District.A total of 140 people were selected in all localities. The nilgai population was confined in and around the forested patches
and therefore the survey was carried out in the villages which were adjacent to these
forest patches. The preferences were given to those villagers who were working in the
crop fields during the survey. The selected villages were Nagla Beeriya (Pala sallu),
Haivatpur and Kiratpur Nimana (Andala), Kasthali vaishya (Pala Kasthali),
Madhawgarh (Junglegarhi), Sikanderpur(Sikandapur Cherat), Shekha (Shekha),
Mahua khera and Ghursikaran (Ghursikaran), Ladhawan (Akrabad ladhawan)
Kakethal,Nagla kosalpur, Gazipur, and Gijrauli (Atrauli).There is no natural forests left in Aligarh and only the plantation of the Prosopis julijlora were formed the forest patch.
3.2.2 Vehicle transect
All the major roads and sub roads were used as transects. A motorcycle was used to carry out the survey.A total of 1541 km was travelled on 12 major roads and sub roads which were leading towards the adjacent district. The roads were passing through the Tehsils, blocks, Panchayats, villages, canals, and plantation. These transects were marked on the map and travelled on a monthly basis. During the Status, Abundance and Population Composition Page | 17 vehicle transects number of encountered animals,their activity pattern and habitat along with the perpendicular distance were recorded.
3.2.3 Total count
Some forest patches were selected to conduct total count. Transects were laid in entire forested patches to count the nilgai. As nilgai prefers the edges of the forested patches
(Sankar 1994) transects were laid at the edges of the forest patch and later on in the zig zag manner in entire forest patches to count all possible numbers of the nilgai. The number of nilgai along with the age, sex, habitat, activity and perpendicular distance were recorded during the line transects. All nilgai groupencountered were classified as
(a) An adult male (b) adult female (c) sub adult male (d) sub adult female (e) yearlings and (f) calves.
3.3 Results
Questionnaire survey was carried out to determine approximate number of nilgai, in
14 villages of Aligarh District. A total of 140 people were selected in all localities.
The numbers of nilgai reported by villagers in their areas in each location were compared with the observed data in each locality. The results were found insignificant (Z=-2.547, p=0.011) because the number of nilgai reported by people were found substantially higher than that of observed in the field. This suggests that figures reported by villagers appeared to be exaggerated.
3.3.1 Density
Table 1. Provides the density of nilgai in different forest patches of
Aligarh.Thedensity of nilgai was found to be 34 animals per km^ in winter season and status. Abundance and Population Composition Page | 18 it was 42 animals per km^in summer in same patches. The overall density was founded to be 38 animals per km^ in the forest patches. The density was found maximum in and around the Shekha jheel i.e. 132 individuals per km followed by the
Pala sallu where it was 126 individuals per km^. The density in Shekha is much higher because the protected area is only 25 ha, and rest of the area is crop land.
Nilgai utilizes all the areas including the crop field, but only the protected area is taken in the density estimation. The minimum density of nilgai was found in the Pala kasthali and Akrabad Ladhawan where the density was 14 and 15 individuals per km respectively. Table 1.1 provides the data of overall density, encounter rate and mean group size of the nilgai in Aligarh district. The density was found 0.49 individuals per W.
3.3.2 Encounter rate
Table 2.1 and 2.2 provides the data onthe encounter rate of the nilgai in different season, on different roads of Aligarh district. The encounter rate was found maximumon Atrauli - pali road (0.86) followed by 0.82 individuals per km on
Aligarh - Khair road and the minimum was on Aligarh - Gonda road i.e 0.16 individuals per km in winter season. The overall encounter rate was 0.41 individuals per km in winter season. No nilgai group was sightedon Aligarh - Jawan and Aligarh
- Iglas road during the winter. The encounter rate was found maximum on Aligarh -
Khair road 2.55 and minimum 0.11 individuals per km on Aligarh - Jawan road. The overall encounter rate was found 1.01 individuals per km in summer season. The overall encounter rate in Aligarh district was found 0.66 individuals per km.
3.3.3 Mean group size Status, Abundance and Population Composition Page | 19
Table 3.1 and 3.2 provide data on the mean group size, number of visits, group seen and maximum and minimum number of individuals seen in specific sites. A total of
108 groups comprising of 1845 individuals were recorded and the mean group size was found to be 17.10 ± 4.08. The maximum number of individuals were recorded in
Pala sallu (61)while the minimum was in Sikandarpur Cherat (1).
54 groups of nilgai were recorded in winter, comprising 612 individuals and the mean group size was found to be 11.38 ± 2.76with maximum number recorded in
Ghursikam (58) and minimum on road sides (13). The maximum mean group size was found in Pala sallu 12.81±2.19 and minimum in Sikandarpur Cherat (7±2) in winter season. 54 groupswere also recorded in summer season, which comprising of
1233 individuals.The mean group size was 22.83 ± 5.40. Mean group size was found maximum in Pala sallu (32.16 ± 7.87) and minimum in Sikandarpur Cherat (14.25 ±
3.06).
3.3.4 Population structure
Table 4.1 and 4.2 provide data on population structure of nilgai in winter and summer.
Table 4.3 provides data on the overall population structure of nilgai in Aligarh district. A total of 54 groups of nilgai were encountered during winter season, which comprised of 612 individuals. There were 70 adult males, 65 sub adult males, 174 adult females, 98 sub adult females, 52 yearlings, 147 calves and 6 were unidentified.
The maximum numbers were recorded in Pala sallu (147 individuals) followed by
Ghursikam (90), while the minimum was recorded in Pala kasthali (24 individuals). A total of 1233 individuals in 54 groups were recorded in summer, which comprised of
179 adult males, 147 sub adult males, 292 aduh females, 245 sub adult females, 161 yearlings and 209 calves. Status, Abundance and Population Composition Page | 20
Overall 108 groupswere encountered in Aligarh district, in which 1845 individuals were recorded. These comprise of 249 adults, males, 212 sub adult males, 466 adult females, 343 sub aduh females, 213 yearlings and 356 calves.
3.3.5 Sex ratio
Table 5.1 and 5.2 provides the data on sex ratio in winter and summer season, while
Table 5.3 provides the data of overall sex ratio.The male - female ratio was 50:100, female to yearling ratio was 100:19 while the female - calf ratio was 100:54 in winter season. The maximum male to female ratio was found in Atrauli 92:100 and minimum 33:100 in Pala sallu. The maximum number of yearling - female ratio was recorded on road sides (46:100) and minimum in Pala sallu (7:100).The maximum number of calves- cow ratio was recorded in Shekha 78:100 and minimum 38:100 in
Ghursikam, in winter season. While in summer the male - female ratio was 61:100, female - yearling ratio was 100: 30 and calf- cow ratio was 39:100. The maximum male to female ratio was found in Akrabad(94:100) and minimum in Pala kasthali
(33:100). The maximum number of yearling - female ratio was recorded in Akrabad
44:100 and minimum 20:100 in Pala kasthali, the maximum number of calves - cow ratio was recorded in Atrauli 45:100 and minimum 30:100 in Andla, in winter season.
The overall sex ratio of the male - female was 62:100, yearling to female ratio was
26:100 and calf cow ratio was 44:100. The male female ratio was the maximum in
Andla (85:100) and minimum in Pala kasthali (41:100). The maximum number of yearling female ratio was recorded in Shekha (37:100) and minimum in pala kasthali
(14:100), while the calf cow ratio was maximum in Pala sallu (51:100) and minimum in Pala kasthali (34:100). Status, Abundance and Population Composition Page | 21
Figure 7provides the percentage of total males, females, yearling-calves and unidentified individuals. 1845 individuals comprised of 25.06% males, 43.99% females, 30.94% yearling and calves and 0.3% could not identify individuals.
Figure 8 and 9 provide the percentage of animals in different group size categories.
26% groups comprised of 0-5 group category, 22% comprised of 6-10 group category,
20% were in the 11-15 group category, 22% in 16-20 group category and 10% in >21 group category in winter season. While in summer 11% groups were comprised of 0-
5 group category, 24% comprised were 6-10 group category, 13% were in the 11-15 group category, 22% in 16-20 group category and 30% in >21 group category.
Figure 10 and 11 provides the data of the percentage of all male, female and mixed groups. In winter season, 11.11% male, 11.11% female and 77.77% mixed groups were recorded. While in summer the group composition changed and 46.29% female groups followed by the 29.62% male groups and 24.07% mixed groups were recorded. rt in in in 00 in 00 >n (U -t^ 04 CM rn O g o d d d d d d d
rM .S « rsi Tf •n vo m r- (N ON vo r^ n e8 B TT (N •—I (N "—I (--• (N r~; »n •* r-4 d d d d d d ,_^ d d 01 ^Q 1g CUO CO a. C u, •*-* o — w 0^ U-) (N (N oo VO 00 in •* O (^N •—; (N (N "••-H» m r~; oo fj CO 1—1 d d d d d d d d d 'Q^ 1> 1 ^5" o f-H 00 ;i^ (N o q >n 00 (N 1-H so o O d d d '4- 1—H o 00 1/3 ON 1) o .^
CO ^ vo >o m '^ ^ o ^ oo ^ § 1 ^ (N '"^ "* (N >n (N '^ in •*-! d e;
'3 ^ _a ^ S3 •^ ti • 1-4 VO 00 00 in 00 (N o C!3 ;z: .S r- •<* vo 00 u •*
ON ^ ON ON OS ON ON o ON o CO ON ON C/3 o o C/5 O ON o ON o < C3 _t3 J3 (U PQ s oo U s
u N CO C/} 00 ^ o O •*' u GO -H O (U < as '^ OS < ON < < -a 1—1 (S (N :^ in Z 2 _g z.
-•-
o I—( (N m •* >n \o r-~ 00 OS
OzJ •*-• e s o u -* o 00 SO oo 1—1 00 o c5 o o o o O o o o o o C^M C3 O CO ] nj IH (L>
a
is s "2 '.> •i •3 o 00 00 so 00 a 00 m OS o (N o 00 o l-H
on 73 cd O >H •*-c» u ^ u-l^ T} o o 00 o a o OS o in o o 00 o o o r- II T II II II II II II II '3 e T m T (N (30 in 00 T m 1 o X X X X X X X X u 7^ (/I X X X X 00 00 o o 00 o VO o o a Q o OS zU o JH •c -a « <+-i s o a u •t-! BLo. 03
TJ VH s U o n •4-J 3 u T3 •<-a> s O ON in 1-H u IT) OS rn 00 CO 0\ o O a o o o o o O o d 1-H
a
]^ 00 -a m r- ro a t—H in 1—4 Ov o 00 00 fM 1—(
0) O a a. O
1 O o o o o o o Ti 00 Ti m (N O ll II II II II 11 ll II II II e II (N cs T (N (N (N (N 1 in X X X X X X X X X c^ CO o oo 00 o o O X 1—H f—4 § m o
o
o o c f00 "o w u s u < 9 c o u o 130 a 1 CS •a e i CO "So CO •T3 "3 » 43 'S o. "3 Xl o "ob a CL. KJ 1 o o o a i-J "ob •a o o o o O o o O O o e O •+-• « -4-» o ft -^ -•-» u •«-« 1 t3 •§ CiO CiO 60 13 1 •*-» s bO 1 ts es GO • 1—4 o -a o s < < < H s 0< < c5 s 1-H »M ro •* tn ve t- 00 o\ 1-H s 3 n- 00 00 oo 00 CO s s o o Tj- m •o^ o en a s >n in in in 00 o 00 m ^ fM im 00 r-- O 00 ON O 1—1 0* a c« ra "35 a Cl, o tiO a „ S 5^ 00 00 o 1—* O ,> 00 m OS & C3 3 3 1—1 O V r- r<^ >n >n m 00 •^ •^ •^ I I. <» s Q 00 (N Os 00 VO •^ - r-- '^t ^ gB 1> :s s ai a _fl 3 -4-» >r> oo 00 >o Tl- r- o CN s 1—H 'C ••-» '• SffN C/3 s ^ ^ 60 *w^ < r-- «o o o VO ^ r- C-- (N 00 o u 00 o 0\ o o -H o rn o ir5 a 1-H o •*•-* a o _o V -4-» .a u;-i a. s VO >n o ^ s s 0^ o 0\ 0\ •* o > •* CS 1-H CN 1-H c H ;a5 w HH t T3 l-H a 0 0 0 0 l-H fN (N 0 0 *-H NO D «i Tf 0 m 00 ON 1—1 1—t VO c 1-H o U cJ u (U ec 0 3 • PN h V-) r- ON >ri w-> 'O NO .s hRi ^ "* ^ •^5 V >^ u o c -t-" u b »o 00 •^ r-~ 00 00 (N <^ <: (N ON •5 CZ3 D • I—I c (N IT) < S >o (N VO CN ro m TT f-H >o NO tZ OS (N 0 0 0 •"^l- < < a, t-H < < Q l-H ID < Q 0 < H < N^ 0 s l-H < w < C/3 Q H 0 < 1-1 Q 2 0 Q < < 5 < 0 00 ;D 0 H < < < II 0 < 1—» OH 1 < CO < E •*-* 3 d 0 < (N cn •* >o VO r-«- 00 ON ^ Z "^ II m •*< OS OS o ON W1 en o en so H 1-H (N -a HN d o o O o o o o o o O o P en VO 00 OS oo so o 1—1 in o U M) S 00 1—( OS m r~ r- o r-- t^ m so (N 1-H « >^ IT) VO OS ro SO so m fM (N CN (N in 0) no ra Q. 00 (N so ts r- 1—1 (N (N C/3 ;>< r- 00 OS OS S r- m OS OS 00 t-H OS O Os ^ m 1—( -a (N u o t^ (N m •^ >r) t^ m <0 ;i; ^ < o u ^ 1—( U u a X < s x» < Q w o 0 X ^ Q •a cS < H < 1 Q a H < C/3 < 00 ^, 9 00 Q 00 H a. < Q o o < 2 9 O a. h-3 O P < H •n < 00 CQ < c < O w O u fin PH 1—» i u c 00 « < -a e 3 < d o Z ""^ r-i rn '^ »n so r- 00 OS s CZ3 iS C/3 OS o OS oo 00 00 o T—1 -a hH fl o O o o r—< «i 9i (N VO o • o tA u •*-> bC eft 3 a -o VO VO VJD (N >0 r-1 ,—1 (N 00 •* 1—( > (N C~l ^^ "—' (N CN •—' (N m •f) V n >^ u c __. •vO »n o *r) O O -^ SO so r2 < O t~- 00 > •^ m 00 ON 00 m Os so "3 r- o o C3 3 II < < X 1-1 Q X l-H w a < < Q hJ s < S < at 00 W on H (J a < o < 2 Pi Q O o Q < 1 < H XI 5 05 O < < < II fcu ex, < O >—> < on 1 3 o o Z -; CN (^ ^ >o vd i> 00 OS < II CZJ <: Status, Abundance and Population Ecology Page I 31 Table 5.1 Number of males, yearlings and calves per 100 females in winter season. S.No. Location Males Yearlings calves 1. PALA SALLU 32.86 7.14 61.43 2. ANDLA 63.89 19.44 61.11 3. PALA KASTHALI 35.71 7.14 28.57 4. JUNGLE GADHI 38.89 25 44.44 5. SIKANDARPUR (C) 35.71 35.71 71.43 6. SHEKHA 50 27.78 77.78 7. GHURSIKARN 71.79 15.38 38.46 8. AKRABAD LADH. 45 20 40 9. ATRAULI 91.67 33.33 50 10. ROAD SIDE 61.54 46.15 69.23 TOTAL 49.63 19.12 54.04 Table 5.2 Number of males, yearlings and calves per 100 females in summer season. S.No. Location Males Yearlings calves 1. PALA SALLU 44.56 22.82 42.39 2. ANDLA 79.74 36.70 30.37 3. PALA KASTHALI 33.33 20.00 40.00 4. JUNGLE GADHI 76.19 33.33 38.09 5. SIKANDARPUR (C) 70.83 29.16 37.50 6. SHEKHA 81.63 40.81 36.73 7. GHURSIKARN 53.96 26.98 39.68 8. AKRABAD LADH. 93.75 43.75 37.50 9. ATRAULI 79.24 33.96 45.28 10. ROAD SIDE 42.40 25.60 40.00 TOTAL 60.70 29.98 38.91 Status, Abundance and Population Ecology Page I 32 Table 5.3 Number of males, yearlings and calves per 100 females in Aligarh district. S.No. Location Males Yearlings calves 1. PALA SALLU 39.50 16.04 50.61 2. ANDLA 85.21 31.30 40.00 3. PALA KASTHALI 41.37 13.79 34.48 4. JUNGLE GADHI 59.64 28.07 42.10 5. SIKANDARPUR (C) 63.15 31.57 50.00 6. SHEKHA 65.67 37.31 47.76 22.54 7. GHURSIKARN 72.54 39.21 30.55 38.88 8. AKRABAD LADH. 83.33 33.84 46.15 9. ATRAULI 80.00 47.82 27.53 42.75 10. ROAD SIDE 26.32 44.00 TOTAL 61.55 Status, Abundance and Population Ecology Page I 33 Figure 7: Percentage of male, female, yearling and calf. 0-5 6-10 11-15 16-20 21-25 Group size catagory Figure 8: Percentage of animals in different group size categories in winter season. Status, Abundance and Population Ecology Page I 34 35 30 29.62 24.07 25 22.22 w 20 ID C a9) 15 0) 12.96 Q. 11.11 0-5 6-10 11-15 16-20 >21 Group size catagory Figure 9: Percentage of animals in different group size categories in summer season. 90 77.77 80 70 60 50 a> nbjo *•> 40 c u u 1. 30 v 20 11.11 11.11 10 0 Male Female Mixed Groups Figure 10: Percentage of all male, all female and mixed groups of Nilgai recorded in winter season. Status, Abundance and Population Ecology Page I 35 50 45 40 35 S, 30 n t 25 v u QJ 20 Q. 15 10 5 0 Male Female Mixed Groups Figure 11 :Percentage of all male, all female and mixed groups of Nilgai recorded in summer season. 3.4 Discussion Densities of nilgai in India vary widely depending on habitat conditions; competition with domestic livestock, predation, and degree of protection. Table 1.2 provides data on nilgai densities recorded in different areas. The nilgai density ranges from 0.43 to 7 individual/ km^. The minimum density was recorded in Pench Tiger Reserve (0.43 individual/ km') and maximum was recorded in Keoladeo National Park (7 individual/ km^). The density of nilgai was found to be 0.39-1.47 individual/ km^ in Gir Lion Sanctuary (Berwick 1974, Berwick and Jordon 1971, Khan 1997 and Khan et al. 1996), 0.44-7.81 individual/ km^ in Panna National Park (Chundawat 1999), 6.60-11.36 individual/ km' in Ranthambhore National Park (Bagchie/ al. 2003), 5.67 individual/ km^ in Haryana (Singh, R. 1995) and 3.93 individual/ km^ in Kuno Wildlife Sanctuary (Banerjee, 2005). All the above studies were Status, Abundance and Population Ecology Page | 36 conducted inside the protected areas except (Singh 1995); he estimated 5.67 individual/ km in Haryana. While in Aligarh district the density was found 0.49 individual/ km^. The density is lower than the study conducted in Haryana and this is due to the population of the Aligarh district is much higher in respect of the area. The forested area in Haryana is 1684 km while the forested area in Aligarh is only 23.48 km . There is seasonal change in mean group size of the nilgai. Nilgai is less gregarious in winter and gregarious in summer. Adult males segregate from females and sub adults during non breeding seasons. Annual group sizes in India are 1.92 individuals (Bagchie/ al. 2004; Berwick 1974; Khan et al. 1996); in Gir mean group size was 1.9 (Khan et al. 1996); in Sariska 2.4 individuals (Sankar 1994); in Ranthambhor 2.9 individuals (Bagchie/ al. 2003) and in Haryana 5.97 (Singh 1995). The mean group size was higher than other studies because the nilgai were congregated in the forest patches. This congregation is due to the protection from the farmers as they chase and harass the nilgai to avoid the crop damage. In summer the herd of 35 to 40 individuals were continuously seen in Atrauli, Pala Sallu and Andla. In India, the sex ratio (male:female) of free ranging adult nilgai favours females: 0.59:1 in Bharatpur (Schaller 1967), 0.39:1 in Vanvihar Sanctuary (Schaller 1967), and 0.4:1 in Sariska (Sankar 1994), 0.89:1 (Berwick and Jordan 1971) to 0.71:1 (Khan et al. 1995). In Texas, the observed male:female ratio was 0.81:1 (Sheffield et a/. 1983). The female:calf ratios for free- ranging nilgai are: 1:0.23 in Gir (Khan et al. 1995), 1:0.48 in Sariska (Sankar 1994), and 1:1.03 in Texas (Sheffield et al. 1983). In Aligarh the male: female ratio was also female biased i.e. 0.61:1. The ratio of yearlings- females were very low (0.26:1) due to high mortality in calves, either due to accidents or due to natural deaths. The calf: female ratio was 0.44:1 in Aligarh. High Status, Abundance and Population Ecology Page | 37 rates of mortality are common for males in particular, but also females, before age 3 (Berwick 1974; Brown 1976). In Gir Forest, India, 34% of calves die each year, and there is a general linear decline of 52% of 2-10-year-olds of both sexes (Berwick 1974). Habitat Use and Food Habits of Nilgai CHAPTER 4 Habitat Use and Food Habits Page | 39 Habitat use and Food habits 4.1 Introduction Habitat use is the way an animal uses the physical and biological resources in a habitat. Habitat may be used for foraging, cover, nesting, escape, denning, or other life history traits. These categories (e.g., foraging and escape) divide habitat, but overlap occurs in some areas. One or more categories may exist within the same area. An area used for foraging may be comprised of the same physical characteristics used for cover, denning, or both (Litvaitis et al. 1996). The various activities of an animal require specific environmental components that may vary on a seasonal or yearly basis. A species may use one habitat in summer and another in winter. This same habitat may be used by another species in reverse order (Morrison et al. 1985). Habitat is a place where animal inhabits and fulfil their necessary requirements. Habitat supporting any wild animal population includes food, water and shelter. Food, water, cover and space are basic requirements of an animal (Dasmarm 1981). Generally, animal selects best habitat, which fulfils their all requirements. High quality resources are used more than lower quality resources. There are some other factors which influence the habitat use and those factors are terrain, weather, slopes. Habitat Use and Food Habits Page I 40 human influence and other animals (Schaller 1967, Eisenberg and Lockhart 1972, Newton 1984 and Putman 1988). These factors ultimately determine the pattern (purpose, time of day, duration of the day and season) of use of habitat (Schaller 1967, Eisenberg and Lockhart 1972, Newton 1984). Habitat selection by herbivore is a function of several factors, among which food availability, mate availability, and predation are of major importance (Jarman 1974). All animals follow the rule of optimum foraging theory. This theory states that organisms forage in such a way as to maximize their net energy intake per unit time (Mac Arthur and Pianka 1966). Understanding of food and feeding habits of wild animals is of great importance for proper management of wildlife. Knowledge of diet selection is also fiindamental to understanding many aspects of ungulate ecology (Hobbs et al. 1983). Diet selection is influenced by body size, rumen anatomy, social structure and energy requirements (Bell 1971, Geist 1974, Jarman 1974).Nutritional problems of wild herbivores usually arise as a consequence of qualitative or quantitative food shortage in their habitat. Animal in good health generally has higher rates of reproduction and are more resistant to diseases (Haque 1990). Nutrition thus affects birth and mortality rates and it plays an important role in dynamics of managed population (Haque 1990). Several methods are used for diet determination of wild herbivore. Direct observation, pasture analysis before and after grazing (Stodard 1952) and examination of digestive tract contents are some of the commonly used methods (Norris 1943, Lamprey 1963). Direct observation is subject to observer error and personal biases. The pasture analysis method may be difficult because several species of herbivore are feeding together and there could be already grazed species of vegetations present. Determination of utilisationof plant species in a group of different species of ungulates is almost impossible. Analysis of rumen contents requires an availability of Habitat Use and Food Habits Page | 41 intact caracas.Faecal analysis has been increasingly advocated to avoid the disadvantage of the other methods for determining the diets of free ranging ruminants. (Smith and Shandruk 1979). The micro histological technique has been used by Martin (1955) and Stewart (1970).Faecal analysis method has some disadvantages such as differential digestion of plant species affecting the faecal representation of different species and thus causing bias in determination of dietary spectrum. Some studies have been done to determine the food habits and habitat use by the nilgai (Abies 1972, Fall 1972, Schaller 1967, Berwick 1974, Mirza and Khan 1975, Dinerstein 1980, Sheffield 1983, Haque 1990, Qureshi 1991, Khan 1992, Gautam 1992, Sankar 1994,Singh 1995, Khan et al. 1996, and Bagchi et al. 2003). 4.2 Methods Direct observations were taken on feeding nilgai on a daily basis while conducting regular vehicle and line transect counts. Scan and focal animal sampling methods were used for data collection (Altman 1974). The animals were observed as long as feeding activity continued and the group was in sight with the help of 10x7 binocular. While in scan sampling, the activity of all individuals in a group was recorded at ten minutes sampling intervals, a particular individual was selected in a group in the focal animal sampling and its activity recorded at the same time intervals. The monthly direct observations were summarized on a seasonal basis to calculate the contribution of different plant species. Direct observations were taken whenever the animal was seen and the habitats were categorized as a wheat crop field. Sugarcane field, Prosopis forest, open scrub, Bajra and Mustard crop field. Habitat may be used for foraging, cover, nesting, escape, resting, or other life history traits. Habitat Use and Food Habits Page | 42 4.3 Results Table 6.1 provides the data of the food habits of nilgai in Aligarh district in winter season.In winter season "Rabi"crops were sown and wheat cultivation is done on 222714 ha of area, in the Aligarh district along with Bajra, Sugarcane and Pulses. The nilgai fed maximum on the wheat Triticum aestivum (45.82 %) because of its easy availability and most nutritious followed by the Cynodon dactylon (20.71%), Zizyphus mauritiana (9.7\%),Imperata cylindrica {8.95Vo),Peimisetum glaucum(6.9%),Saccharum officinarum(5.1 IVo), Prosopis julijlora (4.6%) Cassia fistula{2M%) and 10% unidentified trees, shrubs and grasses. There is mark seasonal change in the food habits of nilgai as the food availability changes. Table 6.2 provides data on food habits in summer season and it was found that nilgai fed maximum on Cynodon dactylon (38.40%), because of its easy availability, followed by the Zea mays {\2.\2),Imperata cylindrica {\\A\%),Pennisetum glaucum (11.29),Saccharum officinarum (6.04%), Zizyphus mauritiana (5Al%)JSaccharumspontaneum{3.80yo),Prosopis julijlora (3.32%) Cassia fistula (2.04%) and 7% unidentified trees, shrubs and grasses. Figure 12 and 13 provides the number of nilgai groups recorded in different habitats in different seasons. Figure 12 provide the data of habitat use by nilgai, in winter season 38% groups were recorded in Prosopis forest followed by wheat cropland (34%), open scrub land (17%), Sugarcane Field (8%), mustard field (2%) and in Bajra field (l%).The scenario changed in summer as the crops were harvested. The maximum nilgai groups were recorded resting beneath the Accasia or Prosopistree (41%), followed by Open field (24%), Prosopis forest (13%), Sugarcane field (9%) open scrubland (8%) and 5% in Maize field. Habitat Use and Food Habits Page I 43 Table 6.1 The feeding preference of Nilgai on different plantspecies in winter. S.No. Plant species No. % 1. Triticum aestivum 225 45.82 2. Pennisetum glaucum 27 6.9 3. Cynodon dactylon 81 20.71 4. Imperata cylindrica 35 8.95 5. Zizyphus mauritiana 38 9.71 6. Saccharum officinarum 20 5.11 7. Cassiafistula 8 2.04 8. Prosopis juUjlora 18 4.6 9. Unidentified grass 12 3.06 10. Unidentified Plant 16 4.09 11. Unidentified Shrub 11 2.81 491 Table 6.2 The feeding preference of Nilgai on different plant species in summer. S.No. Plant species No. % 1. Zea mays 102 12.12 2. Pennisetum glaucum 95 11.29 3. Saccharum spontaneum 32 3.80 4. Cynodon dactylon 323 38.40 5. Imperata cylindrica 96 11.41 6. Zizyphus mauritiana 43 5.11 7. Saccharum officinarum 51 6.06 8. Cassiafistula 12 1.426 9. Prosopis juliflora 28 3.32 10. Unidentified grass 23 2.73 11. Unidentified Plant 24 2.85 12. Unidentified Shrub 12 1.42 841 Habitat Use and Food Habits Page I 44 Mustard Bajra 2% I Wheat I Sugarcane I Prosopis I Open scrub I Mustard I Bajra Figure 12: Habitat use by nilgai in winter season. I Maize I Open field Beneath the tree 41% I Prosopis forest I Open scrub I Sugar cane I Beneath the tree Open Sugar cane scrub f9% 8' Figure 13: Habitat use by nilgai in summer season. Habitat Use and Food Habits Page | 45 4.4 Discussion The shape of Premaxillary dentine of nilgaisuggests a mixed feeder (Solounias and Moelleken 1993). Dietary selection varies seasonally and includes grasses (Cenchrus, Cynodon dactylon, Desmostachya bipinnata, Scripus tuberosus, and Vetiveria zizanioides), woody vegetation {Acacia nilotica, Acacia Senegal, Acacia leucophloea, Clerodendrum phlomidis, Crotalaria, Indigofera oblogifolia, Morus alba and Zizyphus nummularia), and herbaceous species {Cocculus hirsutus, Euphorbia hirta, and Sida rhombifolia (Khan 1994, Mirza and Khan 1975, Prajapati and Singh 1994, Sankar and Vijayan 1992). Nilgai fed on 91 plant species in Sariska that included 20 trees, 9 shrubs, 29 herbs, 12 creepers, and 21 grass species (Sankar 1994). Availability is a major factor which influences the food habits of nilgai. Aligarh district has no natural forest left except some Prosopis plantation which comprises about 2348.22 ha area. The nilgai were compelled to feed in crop fields because of less availability of vegetation in plantation areas. Beside this factor there is a lot of competition between the nilgai and livestock in these forest patches. Nilgai consumed more grass during summer and less in winter because only grasses were remaining in the areas and crops were already harvested. While in winter more nutritious and palatable crops are available. Nilgai is a habitat generalist (Mathai 1999) but tends to occur in "thin bush with scattered low trees or alterations of scrub and open grassy plains" with "either level or undulating" topography, rarely in thick forest but often in cultivated areas (Blanford 1888, Prater 1980). In agricultural areas, nilgai will feed throughout the night in open fields and retreat to the cover of forests during the day (Bohra et al. 1992; Mathai 1999; and Singh 1995). During the study it was found that the nilgai groups utilized different crop lands during the day and night. Even at different Habitat Use and Food Habits Page | 46 locations where the forest patches were present the nilgai were found resting outside the forest patches. This is due to the protection reason. Nilgai were found to prefer open grassland with shrubs and bushes. Nilgai used all the habitat types. There was a seasonal variation in habitat use. Activity Pattern of Nilgai CHAPTER 5 ActivityPattern Page) 48 Activity Pattern 5.1 Introduction Activity pattern of animals provides a lot about the ecology of a species (Georgii 1981). The effective management of the species requires knowledge of time budget, activity pattern and movement pattern (Singh 1995). Ungulate divides the whole day in various activities that include foraging, resting, walking, standing, vigilance and other social interactions (Jarman 1974). Daily activity pattern of an ungulate is influenced by energy requirement, distribution of food, predator and thermal stress (Parker and Robbins 1985, and Schmidth- Nielsen 1997). The time spent by ungulates in different activities is influenced by two major factors first the energy demand of ungulate and second is the restrictions that the ungulate encounter (Lucas 1987, Bunell and Harestad 1989). The demand is indicated by the amount of the time that an animal spends in foraging (Bunnell and Gillingham 1985). The energy demand is influenced by age, sex, weight and physiological states of ungulates (Robbins 1993, Schmidth- Nielsen 1997). The other factors are day light time, temperature, anatomical structures, metabolic attributes, potential predation, time demand for social interactions, etc. (Jarman 1974, Owen-Smith 1994). ActivityPattern Page|49 Several behavioural studies have been conducted on nilgai (Asdell 1946, Dharmkumar Singhji 1959, Crandell 1964, Schaller 1967, Jarvis 1968, Lacey 1969, Lucas 1970, Jarman 1974, Mirza and Khan 1975, Dinerstein 1980, Sheffield 1983, Haque 1990, Oguya and Eltringham 1991, Qureshi 1991, Khan 1992, Gautam 1992, Sankar 1994,Singh 1995, Khan et al. 1996, and Bagchi et al. 2003) in different protected areas and in captivity. 5.2 Methods Direct observations were taken for sampling of behaviour. Following categories of activity were recorded (a) feeding (b) walking (c) resting and (d) standing. Focal animal sampling methods were used for data collection (Altman 1974). Scan sampling were also used when all the herds were found to perform the activity of the above categories. The animals were observed on every 10 minute interval with the help of 10x7 binocular. While in scan sampling, the activity of all individuals in a group was recorded at ten minutes sampling intervals, a particular individual was selected in a group in the focal animal sampling and its activity recorded at the same time intervals. Beside these activities other activities were recorded like fighting and chasing of the other animal, but data of these activities were very few. Along with these activities, group size and the group leading pattern were also recorded. 5.3 Results Figure 14 and 15 provides the data of different activity pattern in Aligarh district in different seasons. 43% individuals were found feeding, 40.66% were resting, 11.33% were walking and 5% were resting in winter season. The maximum activity was feeding and minimum was resting, recorded in winter, while in summer 52% individuals were resting, 25.30% were feeding, 12.81% were standing and 8.92% were walking. The maximum activity was resting and minimum was walking Activity Pattern Page I 50 recorded in summer. Figure 16 provides the data of the group leading pattern by male and female in mixed groups. 43.47% of mixed groups were led by adult females while 56.53% of mixed groups were led by adult males. 50 45 43 40.66 40 35 30 ** 25 (SJ 20 0. 15 11.33 10 5 5 0 Feeding Resting Standing Walking Activities Figure 14: Percentage of activities of nilgai recorded in winter season. 60 52.96 50 40 Q> M re c 30 25.3 0) u '^ 20 12.81 8.92 10 0 Feeding Resting Standing Wall Activities Figure 15: Percentage of activities of nilgai recorded in summer season. Activity Pattern Page I 51 Group Leading Pattern 60 56.53 50 43.47 40 V ra u 30 u I. a. 20 10 Adult female Adult male Figure 16: Percentage of mixed group led by male and female nilgai in Aligarh district. 5.4 Discussion A variety of activities are performed by animals for the food, shelter and protection. Each activity has certain cost and benefits (Sharatchandra and Gadgil 1980). Food availability and temperature influence the activity pattern and time budget of the animal. The activities change with season. In winter the nilgai spent more time in feeding while in summer they spent more time in resting during the day. The reason was the temperature and visibility. In winter the temperature and day light were very low and animal required more energy to maintain body temperature. While in summer the days ware very hot so they rest much of the time. The feeding activities were higher followed by standing in early morning. The resting activity is high followed by the standing in noon. The standing activity is high followed by the walking in evening. ActivityPattern Page|52 Fights among the male nilgai were recorded occasional (N= 8). There are two types of fights which occur between males these are Head butting with horns and Neck to neck fighting (Lundrigan 1996 and Walther 1958). Neck fighting of male is relatively unique among ungulates (Sheffield et al. 1983). Neck fighting occurs mostly in bachelor herds among sub adults and yearlings (Fall 1972). The thick dermal shield on the neck and chest of male is protective, but fighting of either type can result in serious gore and mortality. The fighting among the males was common in the summer while in the winter it was not recorded. During the neck to neck fight sub adult males stands on their hind limbs (Plates 10,11 and 12). Human-Wildlife Conflict CHAPTER 6 Human-WildlifeConflict Page|54 Human-WildlifeConflict 6.1 Introduction Human-wildlife conflict refers to the interaction between wild animals and people and the resultant negative impact on people or their resources, or wild animals or their habitat. It occurs when growing human populations overlap with the established wildlife territory, creating a reduction of resources (Madden 2004). Today human- wildlife conflict is a hot topic in conservation (Macdonald and Services 2007). The main cause behind the conflict is growing human as well as wildlife population and decreasing space and recourses. The transformation of forest, grassland and other ecosystem into the farm lands as a consequence of the increase demand of land, food production, energy and raw materials, has led to the decrease in wildlife habitat. The conflict is either for crop raiding, predation of livestock andinjury or death of the people. (Trigood et al. 2005). Human wildlife conflict in terms of crop raiding is a major problem in the agriculture industry (Shabekova 2013). Crop raiding may be defined as an occasion when an animal cause damage to agricultural crop either in the feeding or other activities. The wildlife gets benefit for this crop damage while there is a negative impact on the farmer economy. This damage may compel the farmer to either seriously injure or kill the animal. Human-WildlifeConflict Page|55 6.2 Methods A questionnaire survey was carried out to assess the extant of crop damage and various methods use by the villagers to control the crop damage in 14 villages of Aligarh District. A total of 140 people were selected in all localities. The nilgai population was confined in and around the forested patch. So the survey was carried out in the villages which were adjacent to these forest patches. The preferences were given to those villagers who were working in the crop field during the survey. The selected villages were Nagla Beeriya (Pala sallu), Haivatpur and Kiratpur Nimana (Andala), Kasthali vaishya (Pala Kasthali), Madhawgarh (Junglegarhi), Sikandarpur (Sikandapur Cherat), Shekha (Shekha), Mahua khera and Ghursikaran (Ghursikaran), Ladhawan (Akrabad ladhawan) Kakethal, Nagla kosalpur, Gazipur, and Gijrauli (Atrauli). People were interviewed to know about the agricultural practices, scaring devices used and their effectiveness, attitude towards nilgai,another conflict species and their mitigation. ^t^^-i^ '^'*'*'-C*V^ 6.3 Results t\ h V^- .-'tT A total of 140 people were interviewed to know the damage and conflict with wildlife in Aligarh district. Figure 17 provides the data of the percentage of male-female farmer working in agriculture field. Out of 140 there were 81% male and 19% female farmers working in agricultural fields. Figure 18 provides data of different age group of farmers involved in agricultural activity. 49% workers belong to age category of 61-80 years, followed by 41-60 age group (22%), 21-40 age group (14%), 5-20 age group (12%), and>80 age group (1.42%). Figure 19 provides the data of crop damage by Blackbuck, Nilgai and Wild boarin the study area. According to farmers opinion 54%, 36.42% and 9.2% of crop raiding was done by Blackbuck, Nilgai and Wild boar H u ma n-Wi I d I if e Conflict Page I 56 respectively. Table 7 provides the data on the scaring devices used by the farmers for protecting their crops. These included statues with different colour of clothes (64.28%), Prosopis fences (10%), different colour of ribbons (8.57%), sound (5.71%), wire fence (5%), firearms (3.57%) and fire (2.14%). Table 8 provides the data of major crop cultivation and its productivity in Aligarh district. Triticum aestivum followed by Pennisetum glaucum, Oyza sativa, Cajanus cajan, Zea maysandBrassica spp. Percentage of male and female farmer working in the field • Male • Female Figure 17: The percentage of male and female farmers working in the agriculture fields. H u ma n-Wi I d I if e Conflict Page 157 Different age group people working in the agricultural field 60 49.28 50 40 0> u 4-n1 C 30 « kw 0) 20 a. 12.85 14.28 10 0-20 21-40 41-60 61-80 Age groups Figure 18: Percentage of people found in different age groups working in agricultural fields in Aligarh district. 60 54.28 50 40 36.42 V BO ra I 30 Q. 20 9.28 10 0 Nilgai Biacl Figure 19: Percentage of crop raiding incidences by different species in Aligarh district. H u ma n-Wi Id I if e Conflict Page I 58 Table 7.Different scaring devices used by farmers to prevent crop raiding in Aligarh district. Devices No. of farmers % 1. Ribbons 12 8.57 2. Statue 90 64.28 3. Sound 8 5.71 4. Fire 3 2.14 5. Fire Arms 5 3.57 6. Wire fence 7 5 7. Prosopis fence 15 10.71 140 Table 8. Major crops, production and productivity in Aligarh district. Productivity Crops Area (Ha) Production (Qt) (Qt/ha) Kharif crop Pennisetum glaucum 83772 1438365.26 17.17 Oryza sativa 79239 2108549.79 26.61 Cajanus cajan 70930 641916.50 9.05 Zea mays 26381 419721.70 15.91 Vigna mungo 730 4095.30 5.61 Vigna radiata 593 3095.50 5.22 Rabi crop Triticum aestivum 222714 6360711.80 28.56 Brassica spp. 24760 274340.80 11.08 Hordeum vulgare 14643 408246.80 27.88 Sacharum officinarum 12617 7531844.30 596.96 Solarium tuberosum 5313 1266194.20 238.32 Lens culinaris 2191 19828.50 9.05 Pisum setivum 411 3974.40 9.67 Ha = Hectare, Qt = Quantity, Qt/Ha= Quantity per Hectare. Human-WildlifeConflict Page|59 6.4 Discussion As northern India has male dominated society, males are more involved in the agricultural activities. The females provided assistance to the male farmers. There are three species of wild ungulates involved in crop raiding. The maximum damage was done by the wild boar (Sus scrofa) as they digout the roots of the crop as well as raid, but this species is, very few in number and also less distributed in the study area. The overall maximum damage was done by Blackbuck {Antelope cervicapra) as they are overabundant, gregarious and have smaller home ranges rather than the Nilgai (Boselaphustragocamelus) which are less gregarious and have a large home range. So the damages were distributed in large areas rather than confined to small areas. People used different kinds of scaring devices to protect their crops from wild animals. Statues were used maximum because it is cost effective, while it is less effective device, but due to cost effective it is used everywhere in the study area. The most effective device is firearms which force the animal to run away, but it is much more costly. The permanent solution is electric wire fencing, but is is again, costly and farmers cannot afford such amount. The farmer also used the Prosopis fencing in the study area which was not effective as the wild animals jump over these fence and enter in the field (Plate 1). The farmers were not in favour of culling or even poaching of nilgai as it is considered sacred. Villagers collect the fuelwood throughout the year in the forest patches and this activity induce the animal to move inside the crop field (Plate 17). References References Page|61 ADAMS, A.L. 1858. Remarks on the habits and haunts of some of the Mammals found in various parts of India and the western Himalayan Mountains.Proceeding of the Zoological Society London 26:512-531. ALI, S. 1927. The Moghul emperors of hidia as naturalists and sportsmen.Jowr«a/ of Bombay Natural History Society31 (4): 833-861. ALTMAN, J. 1974. Observational studies of behaviour. Sampling methods.Behaviour 49:228-267. ANDERSON, D.R., LAAKE, J.L., GRAIN, B.R. AND BURNHAM, K.P. 1979.Guidelines for line transect sampling of biological population. The Journal of Wildlife Management 43(1): 70-78. ASDELL, S.A. 1946. Patterns of Mammalian Reproduction.Cornell UniversityPress. Ithaca. 670 pp. BAGCHI, S. GOYAL, S.P. AND SANKAR,K. 2003. Prey abundance and prey selection by tigers in semi arid, dry deciduous forest in western India. Journal of Zoology (London) 260:285-290. BAGCHI, S. GOYAL, S.P. AND SANKAR,K. 2004. Herbivore density and biomass in a semi arid tropical dry deciduous forest in western India.Jowma/ of Tropical Ecology20:475-47S. BANERJEE K. 2005. Estimating the ungulate abundance and developing the habitat specific effective strip width models in Kuno Wildlife Santuary, Madhya Pradesh. Ph.D Dissertation, FRI University, Dehradun. BELL, R.H.V. 1971. A grazing ecosystem in ^exQngeil.Scientific American 225:86- 89. BERWICK, S.H. 1974. The community of wild ruminants in the Gir forest ecosystems, India.?h.D Dissertation, Yale University, New Haven.266 pp. References Page|62 BERWICK; S.H., AND JORDAN, P.A. 1971.First report of the Yale-Bombay Natural History Society studies of wild ungulates at the Gir Forest, Gujarat, India. Journal of Bombay Natural History Society6S: 412-423. BLANFORD, W.T. 1888. The fauna of British India, including Ceylon and 5Mr/wa.Mammalia,Taylor and Francis. London. England.617 pp. BOHRA, H.C., GOYAL, S.P., GHOSH, P.K. AND PRAKASH, I. 1992.Studies on ethology and eco-physiology of the antelopes of Indian DesertAnimalsof AridZone.3\: ^3-96. BRANDER, A.A.D. 1923.Wild animals in central /«i//aEdward Arnold and Company London.296 pp. BROWN, B.A. 1976. The population dynamics of nilgai in southern Texas with some management consideration.Ph.D. dissertation, Texas A&M University, College Station. BROWN, J.H. 1984. On the relationship between abundance and Distribution of species.r/ie American Naturalist. 24 (2) 1-25. BUCKLAND, ST., ANDERSON, D.R., BURNHAM, K.P. AND LAAKE, J.L. 1993.Distance sampling: estimating abundance of biological population. Chapmann and Hall, New York. BUNELL, F.L. AND A.S. HARESTED.1989. Activity budget and body weight in mammals: How sloppy can mammals helCurrent mammalogy 2:245-305. BUNELL, F.L. AND GILLINGHAM, M.P. 1985.Foraging behaviour.Dynamics of dining out.Pp. 53-79 in (Eds.) R.J. Hudson and White, R.J. Bioenergetics of wild herbivore.CRC Press, Boca Raton, Florida. United States of America. References Page|63 BURNHAM, K.P., ANDERSON, D.R. AND LAAKE, J.L. 1980.Estimation of density from line transect sampling of biological population. Wildlife Monograph 72: 1-202. CHAKRABORTY, B. \99\.Habitat use by radio-instrumented chital, sambar and nilgai in Sariska Tiger Reserve.M.Sc. Dissertation, submitted toSaurashtra University, Rajkot. CHAMPION, H. G. AND SETH, S. K. (1968)^4 Revised Survey of Forest Types of India, Government of India Press, New Delhi, 404 pp. CHAUHAN, N.P.S AND SAWARKAR, V.B. 1989.Problem of over abundant population of nilgai and blackbuck in Haryana and Madhya Pradesh and their management./« CHELLAM, R. 1993. Ecology of the Asiatic Lion (Panthera leo persica). Ph.D. Thesis .Saurashtra University, Rajkot. CHUNDAWAT, R. S., GOGATE, N. & JOHNSINGH, A. J. T. 1999.Tigersin Panna: preliminary results from an Indian tropical dry forest. InRiding the tiger: tiger conservation in human-dominated landscapes:\23-\29. Seidensticker, J., Christie, S. & Jackson, P. (Eds).Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. CORBET, G. B., AND HILL. J. E., 1992. The mammals of the Indo-Malayan region: a systematic review. Oxford University Press, Oxford, United Kingdom. CRANDALL, L.S. 1964. The management of wild mammals in cop/mYy. University of Chicago Press. 769 pp. DASMANN, R.F. 1981. Wildlife biology.WmXey Eastern Ltd. DHARMAKUMAR SINHJI, K.S. 1959. A field guide to big game census in Indialndian Board for Wildlife, New Delhi. 2: 62-66. References Page|64 DINERSTEIN, E. 1979.An ecological survey of the Royal Kamali-Bardia Wildlife Refuge, Nepal. Part II. Habitat-Animal interactions.B/o/og/ca/ Conservation\6: 265-300. DINERSTEIN, E. 1980.An ecological survey of the Royal Kamali-Bardia Wildlife Reserve, Nepal.Part-III.Ungulate populations.5/o/og/ca/ Conservation 16: 5- 38. EASENBERG, J.F. 1980. The social organization of mainmals.//a«c/6oo^ of zoology 19(7): 1-92. EASENBERG, J.F. AND LOCKHART, H. 1972.An ecological reconnaissance of Wilpattu National Park, Cey\on.Smithsonian Contribution o/Zoo/ogy. 101: 1- 118. FALL, B. A. 1972.0n social organization and behavior of nilgai antelope, Boselaphus tragocamelus (Pallas), in south TexasM.S,. thesis, Texas A&M University, College Station. GEIST, V. 1966.The evolution of horn-like organs.5e/jav/owr 27: 175-214. GEIST, V. 1974.0n the relation of social evolution and ecology in ungulates.y4 wericaM Zoologist 14:205-220. GEORGII, B. 1981.Activity pattern of female Red Deer (Cervus elaphus L.) in the Alps.Oecologia 49 (1):127-136. GOYAL, S.P., SANKAR, K., AND JOHNSINGH, A.J.T. 1993.Monitoring isolated ungulate populations - A case study from Sariska Tiger Reserve. Poster paper: In: International Wildlife Management Congress,San Jose, Costa Rica. 19-25 September, 1993. References Page|65 HAQUE, N. l990.Study on the ecology of wild ungulates ofKeoladeo National Park, Bharatpur. Ph.D. Thesis. Centre for Wildlife andOmithology, Aligarh Muslim University, Aligarh. 308 pp. HOBBS, N.T., BAKER, D.L. AND GILL, R.B. 1983.Comparative nutritional ecology of montane ungulate during WmiQv.The Journal of Wildlife Management 47 (1) 1-16. JARMAN, P.J. 1974. The social organization of antelope in relation to their ecology.Behaviour 48:215-266. JARVIS, C. (ED.) 1968. Species of wild animals bred in captivity during 1966. International Zoo Yearbook. 8: 288-316. JOHNSINGH, A.J.T., GOYAL, S.P., RAWAT, G.S. AND MUKHERJEE, S. 1993. Food habits of tiger and leopard in Rajaji, North West India.Abstract. International Symposium on the tiger, 22-24 Feb., Ministry of Environment and Forest, Government of India, New Delhi. KARANTH, K. U., NICHOLS, J. D., KUMAR, N. S., LINK, W. A. & MINES, J. E. (2004). Tigers and their prey: predicting carnivore density from prey abundance. Proceeding of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States o/^mer/ca. 101:4854-4858. KARANTH, K.U. AND NICHOLS, J.D. 1998.Estimation of tiger density in India using photographic capture and recaptures.Ecology 79:2852-2862. KARANTH, K.U. AND SUNQUIST, M.E. 1995. Prey selection by tiger, leopard and dhole in tropical forest. Journal of Animal Ecology64: 439-450. KHAN, I. \992.Distribution and Crop raiding behaviour of nilgai in western U.P. in the village of Aligarh district.M.Phil Dissertation, Aligarh Muslim University, Aligarh.81 pp. References Page|66 KHAN, J.A. 1996.Factors governing habitat occupancy of ungulates in Gir lion Sanctuary, Gujarat, IndiaJntemational Journal of Ecologyand Environmental Science.!!: 73-83. KHAN, J.A., CHELLAM, R., AND JOHNSINGH, A.J.T. 1995.Group size and age- sex composition of three major ungulate species in Gir Lion Sanctuary, Gujarat, IndiaJournalofBombay Natural HistorySociety 92: 295-302. KINGDON, J. \9^!.East African Mammals: An Atlas of Evolution in Africa, IIIC. Academic Press, London. KYLE, R. 1990. An antelope for all seasons.A'ew Scientist. April 1990. LACEY, M. 1969.A note on breeding the nilgai (Boselaphus tragocamelusjat Stanley Zoo.International Zoo Yearbook.9: 115. LEUTHOLD, W. 1977African Ungulates: A Comparative Review of theirBehavioral Ecology. Springer-Verlag. New York. LAMPREY, H.F. 1963 .ecological separation of largr mammal species in the Tarangire Game Reserve, Tanganyika. African Journal of Ecology 1 •.63-92 LEVER, C. 19^5.Naturalized Mammals of the World.Longman Group Limited, London, United Kingdom 467 pp. LESLIE, D. M. JR. !00^:'Boselaphus tragocamelus (Artiodactyla: Bovidae)". USGS Staff- Published ResearckPaper 723. LEVER, C. \9S5.Naturalized mammals of the world.Longman Group Limited, London, United Kingdom. LUCAS, J. (ED.) 1970. Species of wild animals bred in captivity during 1968. International Zoo Yearbook.lO: 249-280. References Page|67 LUCAS, J.R. 1987. Foraging time constraints and diet choice. Pp 239-269. In A.C. Kamil, J.R. Krebs and J.R. Pulliam (Eds.) foraging behaviour. New York Plenum Press, New York. MACDONALD, D. AND SERVICES, K. 2001.Hot topics in conservation.Blackwdl Publishing, Oxford, U.K. MADDEN, F. 2004. Creating coexistence between hiiman and wildlife:Global prospective on local effort to address human- wildlife conflict. Human Dimensions of Wildlife 9: 247-257 MALLON, D.P. 2008. Boselaphus tragocamelus. In: lUCN 2008. lUCN Red List of Threatened Species. MARTIN, D.J. 1955. Feature of plant cuticle-an aid to the analysis of natural diet of grazing animals, with special reference to Scottish hill ship. Transactions and Proceedings Botanical Society 36:278-288. MATHAI, M.V. 1999. Habitat occupancy by tiger prey species across anthropogenic disturbance regimes in Panna National Park, Madhya Pradesh, IndiaM.S. thesis, Saurastra University, Rajkot, India. MCNAUGHTON, S.J. 1979. Grassland behaviour dynamics Pp 46-81.In (Eds.). Sinclair, A.R.E. and Norton - Griffiths, M. Serengiti: dynamics of an ecosystem. Chicago University Press. Chicago. MIRZA, Z.B. AND KHAN, M.A. 1975.Study of distribution, habitat and food of nilgai (Boselaphus tragocamelus)'m Punjab.Pakistan Journal Zoology!: 209- 214. NEWTON, P. 1984. Chital and langur monkeys - an unusual association.ln macDonald, D. (Ed.).The encyclopaedia of mammals. Vol II. George Allen and Unwin, London. References Page|68 NORRIS, J.J. 1943. Botanical analysis of stomach contents as a method of determining forage consumption of range sheep. Ecology 24:244-251. O'CONNELES, A.F., ILSE AND J. ZIMMER.1999. Annotated bibliography of methodologies to census,estimate and monitor the size of White Tailed deer population-Technical report, Department of interior National Park service, Boston. OWEN-SMITH, N. 1994 .Foraging responses of Kudus to seasonal change in food resources: Elasticity in constraints.£co/ogy 75:1050-1062. PARKER, K.L. AND ROBBINS, C.T. 1985.Thermoregulation in ungulates. Pp 161- 182. In R.J. Hudson and R.G. White (Eds.).Bioenergetics of wild herbivore.CRC Press, Boca Raton, Florida. USA. PANWAR, H.S. 1987. Project Tiger: the reserves, the tigers and their future. In: Tigers of the World: Biology, Biopolitics, Management and Conservation of an Endangered Species.pp. 110-7. R. Tilson and U. Seal, (Eds.), Noyes Publications, Park Ridge, New Jersey. PRAJAPATI, M.C. AND SINGH, S. 1994. A beneficial aspect of nilgai {Boselaphus tragocamelus) in scientifically utilise ravines- an observation. Indian Forester 120:890-897. PRASAD, K.N. 1996. Pleistocene Cave Fauna from Peninsular India.Jowrna/ of Caves andKarst Studies 58{\): 30-34. PRATER, S.H. 1934.The Wild Animals of the Indian EmpircJowrna/ ofBombay Natural History Society 37; 76-79. PRATER, S.H. 1971.The Book of Indian ^mmak Bombay Natural History Society, Bombay, India. PUTMAN, R.J. 1984. Facts fromfaeces.Mamma / review (14) 79-97. References Page|69 PYTHIAN-ADAMS, E.G. 1951.Jungle memories. Part IX - Antelopes and deer. Journal of Bombay Natural History Society 50( 1): 1-19. QURESHI, M.Q. 1991. Population status and movement of nilgai around the village Ghursikaran near Aligarh UniversityM.VMA. dissertation, Aligarh Muslim University, Aligarh. RAHMANI, A. R. 2001. India. Pp. 178-187 In: Antelopes. Part 4: NorthAfrica, the Middle East, and Asia (D. P. Mallon and S. C. Kingswood, comps, eds.). International Union for Conservation of Nature and Natural Resources, Gland, Switzerland. ROBERT, H. MAC ARTHUR AND ERIC, R. PIANKA 1966.0n optimal use of a patchy environment.r/ze American Naturalist volume 100: (916) 603-609. ROBERTS, T.J. 1977. The Mammals ofPakistan.Emest Benn Ltd., London. 361 pp. ROBBINS, C.T. 1993. Wildlife feeding and nutrition. New York Academic Press, New York. RODGERS, W.A. 1988. The Wild Grazing Ungulates of India: An Ecological Review. In: Singh, P. and P.S. Pathak (Eds.) Rangeland Symposium, Rangeland Management Society of India, IGFRI, Jhansi, Nov. 9- 12,1987.404-419 pp. SALE, J.B., FRANZMANN, A.W., BHATTACHARJEE, K.K. AND CHOUDHURY, S. 1988. Immobilization and translocation of nilgai in India using carfentanil. Journal of Bombay Natural History Society 85: 281-287. SANKAR, K. 1994. The ecology of three large sympatric herbivores (chital, sambar, nilgai) with special reference to reserve management in Sariska Tiger Reserve, Rajasthan.?h.D. Thesis. University of Rajasthan, Jaipur. References Page|70 SANKAR, K AND GOYAL, S.P. (EDS.) 2004.Ungulates of India.ENVIS Bulletin: Wildlife and Protected Areas, Vol. 07, No. 1. Wildlife Institute of India, Deheradun, India.448 pp. SANKAR , K., GOYAL , S.P. AND JOHNSINGH , A.J.T. 1993. Feeding ecology of tiger and leopard in Sariska Tiger Reserve .International Symposiumon the Tiger, 22-24 Feb., Ministry of Environment and Forest, Government of India, New Delhi. SCHALLER, G.B. AND SPILLETT, J.J. 1966.The status of the big game species in the Keoladeo Ghana Sanctuary, Rajasthan.r/ie Cheetal 8(2): 12-16 pp. SCHALLER, G.B. 1967. The Deer and the T/ger.University of Chicago Press, Chicago. 370 pp. SHABEKOVA, L. 2013.Creating co- existence between crop farmer and wildlife in 0«/er/o.Undergraduate thesis. University of Waterloo, Canada. SHEFFIELD, W.J. 1983. Food habits of nilgai antelope in Texas. Journal of Range Management 36 (3) 316-322. SHEFFIELD, W.J., FALL, B.A. AND BROWN, B.A. \9%3.The Nilgai Antelope.The Caesar Kleberg Program in Wildlife Ecology and Department ofWildlife and Fisheries Sciences.The Texas A&M University. 100 pp. SINCLAIR 1990. A gene from human sex determining region encodes a protein with homology to conserve DNA binding motif Nature 346: 220-244 pp. SINGH, R. 1995. Some studies on the ecology and behaviour of Nilgai with an assessment of damage to agricultural crop and development of strategy for damage control in south western Haryana.Ph.D. thesis, Aligarh Muslim University, Aligarh. References Page|71 SMITH, A.D AND SHANDRUK, L.J. 1979.Comparison of Faecal, Rumen and Utilization Methods for Ascertaining Pronghom DietsJournal of Range Management 32 (4):275-279. SOLOUNIAS,N. 1990. A new hypothesis uniting Boselaphus and Tetracerus with the Miocene Boselaphini (Mammalia, Bovidae) based on horn morphology. Annales Musei Goulandris 8:425-439. SOLOUNIAS, N. AND MOELLEKEN, S. M. C. 1993. Dietary adaptation of some extinct ruminants determine by premaxillary shape. Journal of Mammalogy 74:1059-1071. STEWART D.R.M AND STEWART, J. 1970.Food preference data by faecal analysis for African plains ungulates.Zoo/og/ca Africana 5(1): 115-129. STODDARD, L.A. 1952. Problem in estimating grazing capacity of ranges. Pp 1367- 1373. Proceeding of 6th international grassland congress. SUTHERLAND, W.J. 1996. Ecological census techniques.A handbook Cambridge university Press, Cambridge. THIRGOOD, S., WOODROFFE, R., AND RABINOWITZ, A. 2005.The impact of human-wildlife conflict on human lives and livelihood. Pp 13-26. In Thirgood, S., Woodroffe, R., and Rabinowitz, A. (Eds.), People and Wildlife: Conflict or Coex/x^ence.Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. WALKER, E.P. 1968. Mammals of the World.Wo\. II. The John Hopkins Press,Baltimore .1500 pp. WALTHER, E.P. 1974. Some reflections on expressive behaviour in combats and courtship of certain homed ungulates.In Geist, V. and Walther, F. {Eds.).The Behaviour of Ungulates and its relation to Management- a symposium.IUCN Publication. 24. Merges, Switzerland. 56-106 pp. Photographs Plates Plates Page I 73 Plate 1 .Herd of female Nilgai inside a crop field. Plate 2. Sub adult male in open scrub land. Plates Page I 74 Plate 3. Herd of females and yearlings in Prosopis forest. Plate 4. Herd of adult males. Plates Page 1 75 1 \\EvJH^|H|I^^H V ^^Vj • mt^i- iSHl 1 ^^" 1 ' k ( n%. ^ k J__L_ ^^1^^ iwf^^3£ijir^ii|^ «. 1 4. ' . 'H^^^^^^^^^^H Plate 5. Crop damage by nilgai around the forest patch. Plate 6. Open and Prosopis forest patch of Ghursikaran. Plates Page I 76 Plate 7. Nilgai inside the Mustard crop. Plate 8. Herd of Nilgai inside open Prosopis forest. Plates Page I 77 Plate 9. An adult female with calf. Plate 10. Neck fighting between two sub adult males. Plates Page I 78 Plate 11. Neck fighting between two sub adult males. Plate 12. Neck fighting. Plates Page I 79 Plate 13. Competition of nilgai with livestocks for grazing in many forest patches. Plate 14. Machan used to lookafter the crop. Plates Page I 80 Plate 15. Statue, Prosopis fence and wire fence use to prevent the crop raiding. Plate 16. Mustard crop raided by Blackbuck. Plates Page I 81 Plate 17. Fuel wood collection by villagers. Plate 18. Perl millet crop damaged by nilgai and blackbuck. f Checklist a Checklist Page I 83 Appendix 1. Checklist of mammals seen during the study period. S.No. Common Name Scientific Name 1. Golden Jackal Canis aureus 2. Indian fox Vulpes bengalensis 3. Jungle cat Felis chaus 4. Palm civet Paradoxurus hermaphrodites 5. Common mongoose Herpestes edwardsii 6. Rufous tailed hare Lepus nigricolis 7. Indian gerbille Tatera indica 8. Five striped palm squirrel Funambulus pennantii 9. Bush rat Golunda ellioti 10. Nilgai Boselaphus tragocamelus 11. Black buck Ant Hope cervicapra 12. Rhesus macaque Macaca mulatta 13. Hanuman langur Presbytis entellus 14. Wild boar Sus scrofa Appendix 2. Checklist of Birds seen in study area. ORDER- CICONIFORMES 1. Grey Heron (Ardea cinerea) 2. Pond Heron (Ardea grayii) 3. Large Egret (Osmeredius albus) 4. Cattle Egret (Bubulcas ibis) 5. Intermediate Egret (Mesophyx intermedia) 6. Little Egret (Egretta garzeta) 7. Black-Necked Stork (Ephippiorhynchus asiaticus) 8. Eurasian Spoonbill (Platalea lucorodia) 9. Painted stork (Mycteria leucocephala) ORDER-PALECANIFORMES 10. Black Headed Ibis (Theskiornis melanocephalous) 11. Black Ibis (Pseudibis papillosa) ORDER-ANSERIFORMES Checklist Page I 84 12. Rudy shell Duck (Tadorna ferruginea) 13. Spot bill Duck (Anus poecilorhyncha) 14. Common Teal (Anus crecca) 15. Bar Headed goose (Anser indicus) 16. Comb Duck (Sarkidiornis melanotus) ORDER-FALCONIFOMES 17. Shikra (Accipiter badius) 18. Black Shoulder Kite (Elanus caeruleus) 19. Egyptian Vulture (Neophron percnopterus) 20. Pariha Kite (Milvus migrans) ORDER-GALLIFORMES 21. Grey Francolin (Francolinus pondicerianus) 22. Common peafowl (Pavo cristatus) ORDER-GRUIFORMES 23. White Breasted Water hen (Amaurornis phoenicurus) 24. Indian Moorhen (Gallinula chloropus) 25. Purple Swamp hen (Porpbyrio porpyrii) 26. Sarus crane (Grus antegone) ORDER-CHARADIFORMES 27. Red Wattled Lapwing (Vanellus indicus) 28. Yellow Watteled Lapwing (Vanellus malabaricus) 29. Common Sandpiper (Tringa hypoleucos) ORDER-COLUMBIFORMES 30. Indian Rock Pigeon (Columbia livia) 31. Laughing Dove (Streptopelia senegalensis) 32. Yellow Footed Green Pigeon (Treron phoenicoptera) 33. Ring Dove (Streptopelia decaocta) 34. Spotted Dove (Streptopelia chinensis) ORDER-PSITTACIFORMES 35. Rose-Ring Parakeet Psittacula krameri ORDER-CUCULIFORMES 36. Greater Coucal (Centropus sinensis) Checklist Page I 85 37. Koel (Eudynamys scolopacea) ORDER-STRIGIFORMES 38. Spotted Owlet (Athene brama) ORDER-CORACIFORMES 39. White Throated Kingfisher (Halcyon smyrnensis) 40. Indian Roller (Coracias benghalensis) 41. Common Hoopoe (Upupa epops) 42. Indian Grey Hombill (Tockus birostris) 43. ORDER-PICIFORMES 44. Golden Backed Woodpecker (Dinopium benghalensis) 45. Coppersmith Barbet (Megalaima haemacephala) 46. Brown Headed Barbet (Megalaima zeylanica) 47. Common flame back (Dinopium javanense) ORDER-PASSERIFORMES 48. Wire Tailed Swallow (Hirundos smithii) 49. Magpie Robin (Copsychus saularis) 50. Black Redstart (Phoenicurus ochrurus) 51. House sparrow (Passer domesticus) 52. Tree pipit (Anthus trivialis) 53. Paddy field pipit (Anthus rufulus) 54. Indian Robin (Saxicoloides fulicata) 55. Common Babbler (Turdoides caudatus) 56. Jungle Babbler (Turdoides striatus) 57. Yellow Wagtail (Motacilla flava) 58. Grey Wagtail (Motacilla cineria) 59. Citrine Wagtail (Motacilla citreola) 60. White Wagtail (Motacilla alba) 61. Red Vented Bulbul (Pycnonotus cafer) 62. Flycatcher (Muscicapa parva) 63. Purple Sunbird (Nectarinia asiatica) 64. Common Myna (Acridotheris tristris) 65. Pied Myna (Sturnus contra) Checklist Page I 86 66. Bank Myna (Acridotheres ginginianus) 67. Black Drongo (Dicrurus macrocerus) 68. Rufous Treepie (Dendrocitta vagabunda) 69. House Crow (Corvus splendens) 70. Large Billed crow (Corvus macrorhynchos) 71. Plain Prinia (Prinia inornata) 72. Ashy Prinia (Prinia socialis) 73. Jungle Prinia (Prinia sylvatica) 74. Skyes's lark (Galerida deva) 75. Indian Bush lark (Mirafa erythroptera) Appendix 3. Checklist of plants found in the study area. Trees 1. Prosopis juliflora 2. Acacia catechu 3. Prosopis cineraria 4. Prosopis specigera 5. Melia azadirachta 6. Azadirachta indica 7. Cordia dichotoma 8. Pongamia pinnata 9. Syzygium cumini 10. Dalbergia sissoo 11. Butea monosperma 12. Acacia nilotica 13. Acacia leucophloea 14. Phoenix sylvestris Checklist Page I 87 Shrubs 1. Capparis decidua 2. Capparis sepiaria 3. calotropis procera 4. Zizyphus mauritiana 5. Salvadora oleoides Herbs 1. Boerhavia diffusa 2. Malvastrum coromandelianum 3. Fumaria indica 4. Melilotus alba 5. Vicia hirsuta 6. Potentilla supina 7. Chenopodium album 8. Argimone maxicana 9. Spergula arvensis 10. Oxalis corniculata 11. Erigeron bonariensis 12. Pulicaria crispa 13. Corchorus aestuam 14. Indigofera spp. 15. Achyranthes aspera Checklist Page I 88 Grasses 1. Saccharum munja 2. Saccharum spontenum 3. Cynodon dactylon 4. Imperata cylindrica 5. Digitaria bicornis 6. Dichanthium annulatum 7. Vetiveria zizanioides 8. Setaria verticillata 9. Panicum antidotale 10. Dendrocalamus strictus Climbers 1. Rhynchosia minima 2. Coccinia cordifolia 3. Ipomea pes-tigridis 4. Mukia maderaspatana