I the ENGLISH SOUND CHANGE in the PRONUNCIATION of THE

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THE ENGLISH SOUND CHANGE IN THE PRONUNCIATION

OF THE FIRST GRADE STUDENTS OF SEKOLAH MENENGAH

KEJURUAN NEGERI 2 DEPOK SLEMAN YOGYAKARTA

A THESIS

Presented as Partial Fulfillment of the Requirements to Obtain the Sarjana Pendidikan Degree in English Language Education

By Linda Gusviariani Student Number: 041214131

ENGLISH LANGUAGE EDUCATION STUDY PROGRAM DEPARTMENT OF LANGUAGE AND ARTS EDUCATION FACULTY OF TEACHERS TRAINING AND EDUCATION SANATA DHARMA UNIVERSITY YOGYAKARTA 2010

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ABSTRACT

Gusviariani, Linda. 2010. The English Sound Change in the Pronunciation of the First Grade Students of Sekolah Menengah Kejuruan Negeri 2 Depok Sleman Yogyakarta. Yogyakarta: English Language Study Program, Department of Language and Arts Education, Faculty of Teachers Training and Education. Sanata Dharma University.

Pronunciation is one of the difficulties on the process of English language teaching learning activities for the first grade students of Geologi Pertambangan (GPB) class. The students often mispronounce English words. Students’ mispronunciation happens because the students tend to substitute the English sounds with other sounds which are easier for them to pronounce. This research was intended to provide information about the types of the English sound change of the first grade students of Sekolah Menengah Kejuruan Negeri 2 Depok Sleman Yogyakarta and the English speech sounds as the result of the sound change. This research was a descriptive research qualitative. The reason for using qualitative approach was that the data analyzed were in the form of words. The participants of this study were the first grade students of Sekolah Menengah Kejuruan Negeri 2 Depok Sleaman Yogyakarta. The number of the students in this research was twenty-two students of GPB (Geologi Pertambangan) class. The researcher analyzed the sound changes phenomena in the students’ pronunciation. The researcher used observation as the instrument in this research. The students’ pronunciation was recorded by using audio recorder. After recording, the researcher made the phonetic transcription based on the recording of the students’ pronunciation and compared the phonetic transcription of the students’ pronunciation with the phonetic transcription based on Pronunciation Longman Dictionary (2008), Longman Dictionary Contemporary English (2001) and Oxford American Dictionary (2003). The researcher observed the emerging of the sound changes phenomena. The researcher found six types of sound changes which occurred in the students’ pronunciation. They were assimilation, deletion, sound addition, monophtongization, strengthening, and other findings. The researcher discovered twenty-nine English speech sounds as the result of the sound change. Based on the conclusions, the researcher suggested the English teacher to give clear comparison between the English sounds with their native sounds. The students should have a lot of opportunities to pronounce English sounds so that they are accustomed to listen and to practice their pronunciation.

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ABSTRAK

Gusviariani, Linda. 2010. The English Sound Change in the Pronunciation of the First Grade Students of Sekolah Menengah Kejuruan Negeri 2 Depok Sleman Yogyakarta. Yogyakarta: Program Studi Pendidikan Bahasa Inggris, Jurusan Pendidikan Bahasa Inggris dan Seni, Fakultas Keguruan dan Ilmu Pendidikan. Universitas Sanata Dharma.

Pelafalan adalah salah satau kesulitan dalam aktifitas belajar mengajar bahasa Inggris bagi siswa kelas satu Geologi Pertambangan. Siswa sering salah mengucapkan kata-kata dalam bahasa Inggris. Kesalahan siswa dalam pengucapan terjadi dikarenakan siswa cenderung untuk mengganti bunyi dari bahasa Inggris dengan bunyi lain yang lebih mudah untuk di lafalkan bagi para siswa. Penelitiain ini di maksudkan untuk memberikan informasi tentang tipe- tipe dari perubahan bunyi dalam bahasa Inggris yang terjadi pada siswa kelas satu di Sekolah Menengah Kejuruan Negeri 2 Depok Sleman Yogyakarta dan bunyi- bunyi bahasa Inggris yang di hasilkan dari perubahan bunyi tersebut. Penelitian ini merupakan sebuah penelitian deskripsi kualitatif.Alasan untuk menggunakan pendekatan kualitatif ini adalah bahwa data dianalisa dalam bentuk kata-kata. Peserta dalam penelitian ini adalah siswa kelas satu di Sekolah Menengah Kejuruan Negeri 2 Depok Sleaman Yogyakarta. Total siswa dalam penelitian ini berjumlah dua puluh dua orang siswa dari kelas GPB (Geologi Pertambangan). Peneliti menganalisa gejala perubahan bunyi dalam pelafalan siswa. Peneliti menerapkan obseerfasi sebagai metode untuk mengumpulkan data dalam penelitian ini. Pelafalan siswa direkam dengan menggunakan alat perekam. Setelah merekam, peneliti membuat transkrip fonetik berdasarkan dari rekaman pelafalan siswa dan membandingkan dengan transkrip fonetik berdasarkan kamus Pronunciation Longman (2008), kamus Longman Contemporary English (2001) dan kamus Oxford American (2003). Peneliti mengobservasi perubahan- perubahan suara yang terjadi pada pengucapan para siswa. Peneliti menemukan enam tipe perubahan suara yang terjadi pada pelafalan siswa. Peneliti menemukan gejala asimilasi, penghilangan bunyi, penambahan bunyi, perubahan bunyi rangkap menjadi bunyi tunggal, penguatan bunyi, dan penemuan yang lain. Peneliti juga menemukan dua puluh sembilan bunyi bahasa Inggris sebagai hasil dari perubahan suara. Berdasarkan kesimpulan diatas, peneliti menyarankan para guru bahasa Inggris untuk memaparkan perbedaan antara bunyi dari bahasa Inggris dan bunyi dari bahasa ibu siswa. Siswa harus mendapatkan banyak kesempatan untuk melatih pelafalan mereka sehingga mereka terbiasa untuk mendengar dan mengembangkan kemampuan produksi pelafalan mereka.

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How many miles to Babylon?

Three score miles and ten.

Can I get there by candlelight?

Yes, and back again.

If your heels are nimble and light,

You may get there by candlelight.

Hey world.... Give a girl the right shoes and She can conquer the world

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ACKNOWLEDGMENTS

I would like to address my first and greatest gratitude to Allah S.W.T who guides me all the time and gives me strength to finish this work. I address my deepest gratefulness to Dr. Retno Muljani, M.Pd., as my major sponsor for her assistance in guiding me through many confusing processes of this work. I would like to express my sincere appreciation for her patience to be the listener and advisor on my complaints and problems. I deeply thank for the willingness to spare time in giving me precious criticism, advices, and many corrections on my work even during her busy days. I would also like to extend my deepest thankfulness to all of PBI’s lecturers for all shared knowledge and intellectual experiences and secretary staff for openhandedly giving me their time in preparing all administration data. I address my indisputable thanks to my father, Karno for giving a sincere love, patience, and support, and to my mother Darmi, who has been a though, responsible, and inspirational woman that I ever have. I acknowledge profound gratitude for their hard work in paying my tuition fee and trust to make me achieve my degree. Genuine thank is also to my brother Agus for his helps during the computation problems. I am grateful to thank all friends in PBI for all great shared moments during my study. Special thanks are given to Dita, Agnes, Valen, Pepni, Ayu, Etsa, Mayora, Esti, Hebi, Seno and Rico for memorable friendship and for giving such a combination of mutual friendship and partnership experience. I also express my thankfulness to CERIA’s family especially for SMILE class and Miss Komang for giving me such an experience about teamwork, working world and new world. I specially thank Danti, Mba Ami and Titis, for being the apple of my eye the biggest motivation to finish this work. I am indebted to have such a partner who has given me not only support, understanding, and encouragement but also quarrels and hesitancy.

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I also thank for Taufik, Bu Niken and Geologi Pertambangan B class in the academic year 2008-2009 to show me a new world. I shall always miss every chat and cheerful moment we have shared together. I also express my thankfulness to Yudi, Jansen, Hendri and all Jayapura’s family for keeping my spirit on with their warm and open-minded reception. Finally, I would like also to show my sincere appreciations and thankfulness to everyone who has been involved in my effort to finish my work. At least, I realize that this research still has many weaknesses. So, I will openly receive any suggestions and criticisms to improve this thesis. Hopefully, this research can be useful for all the readers who are involved in the educational field.

Linda Gusviariani

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TABLE OF CONTENTS

TITLE PAGE...... i APPROVAL PAGE...... ii STATEMENT OF WORK’S ORIGINALITY...... iv ABSTRACT...... vi ABSTRAK...... vii DEDICATION PAGE...... viii ACKNOWLEDGMENTS...... ix TABLE OF CONTENTS...... xi LIST OF TABLES...... xiv LIST OF FIGURES...... xv LIST OF APPENDICES...... xvi

CHAPTER I. INTRODUCTION A. Research Background...... 1 B. Problem Formulation...... 3 C. Problem Limitation...... 3 D. Research Objectives...... 4 E. Research Benefits...... 4 F. Definition of Terms...... 4 CHAPTER II. REVIEW OF RELATED LITERATURE A. Theoretical Description...... 6 1. Language change...... 6 a. Morphological change...... 7 b. Syntactic change...... 7 c. Semantic change...... 8 d. Phonological change...... 8 2. Sound change...... 8 a. Articulatory simplification...... 9 b.Spelling pronunciation...... 9 c. Analogy and reanalysis...... 10 d. Language contact...... 10 3. Kinds of sound change...... 11 1) Assimilation...... 11 a) Palatalization...... 11 b) Final devoicing...... 11 c) Nasalization...... 11 2) Dissimilation...... 12 3) Deletion (elisison)...... 12 a) Syncope (atata > atta)...... 12 b) Apocope (tata > tat)...... 12 c) Aphaeresis or apheresis (atata > tata)...... 13 4) Sound Addition (asta > asata)...... 13 a) Prothesis (tata > atata)...... 13

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b) Anaptyxis or anaptyctic (VCCV > VCVC).... 13 c) Excrescence (amra > ambra)...... 14 d) Paragoge (tat > tata)...... 14 5) Metathesis (asta > atsa)...... 14 6) Diphthongization...... 14 7) Monophthongization...... 14 8) Lenition (weakening)...... 15 9) Strengthening...... 15 4. The Potential Problems in Learning English Pronunciation...... 15 a. The sounds [θ] and [ð] by the initial letter ‘th’...... 15 b. The sounds [∫], [ʒ], [z] and [v]...... 16 c. The sounds Diphthong and Vowel...... 16 5. The English Sounds Production...... 17 a. Consonant...... 17 1) Bilabial plosives [p,b]...... 18 2) Alveolar plosives [t,d]...... 19 3) Velar plosives [k,g]...... 19 4) Palato - alveolar affricates [t∫, ]...... 19 5) Labio - dental fricatives [f,v]...... 20 6) Dental fricatives [θ,ð]...... 20 7) Alveolar fricatives [s,z]...... 20 8) Palato - alveolar fricatives [∫,ʒ]...... 21 9) Glottal fricatives [h]...... 21 10) Bilabial nasal [m]...... 21 11) Alveolar nasal [n]...... 21 12) Velar nasal [ŋ]...... 22 13) Lateral [l]...... 22 14) Post–alveolar frictionless continuant [r]...... 22 15) Unrounded palatal semi–vowel [j]...... 23 16) Labio–velar semi vowel [w]...... 23 b. Clusters...... 23 c. Vowel...... 24 1) Front, central, and back vowels...... 24 a) Front vowels...... 24 b) Central vowels...... 25 c) Back vowels...... 25 2) High, mid, and low vowels...... 25 3) Rounded and unround vowels...... 25 d. Diphthong...... 26 B. Theoretical Framework...... 27 CHAPTER III. METHODOLOGY A. Research Method...... 29 B. Research Participants...... 30 C. Research Instruments...... 31 1. Observation Sheets...... 31

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2. Questionnaire...... 31 3. Interview...... 32 D. Data Gathering Technique...... 33 E. Data Analysis Technique...... 34 F. Research Procedure...... 38 CHAPTER IV. RESEARCH FINDINGS AND DISCUSSIONS A. Types of sound change which occur in the process of pronunciation among the first grade learners of SMKN 2 Depok Sleman Yogyakarta...... 39 1. Assimilation...... 39 a. Final devoicing...... 39 2. Deletion...... 41 a. Apocope...... 41 3. Sound addition...... 42 a. Anaptyxis (anaptyctic)...... 43 b. Excrescence...... 44 4. Monophthongization...... 44 5. Strengthening...... 45 6. Other findings...... 47 B. The English speech sounds as the result of the sound change to pronounce ...... 48 CHAPTER V. CONCLUSIONS AND SUGGESTIONS A. Conclusions...... 51 B. Suggestions...... 53

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LIST OF TABLES

Page

Table 3.1. Table to analyze the data...... 34

Table 4.1. The sound changes that were categorized as final devoicing...... 41

Table 4.2. The sound changes that were categorized as apocope...... 43

Table 4.3.1. The sound changes that were categorized as anaptyxis...... 44

Table 4.3.2. The sound changes that were categorized as excrescence...... 45

Table 4.4. The sound changes that were categorized as monophthongization. 46

Table 4.5. The sound changes that were categorized as strengthening...... 49

Table 4.6. The sound changes that were categorized as other findings...... 49

Table 4.7.. Sound changes...... 50

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LIST OF FIGURES

Figure Page

Figure 2.1. English Consonantal Articulation...... 18

Figure 2.2. English Vowel Sounds...... 24

Figure 2.3. English Diphthong Sounds...... 26

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LIST OF APPENDICES

Page

Appendix 1 Permission Letter...... 59

Appendix 2 Passages...... 61

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CHAPTER I

INTRODUCTION

This chapter presents a discussion of the background of this study. There are seven parts to deal with in this chapter. They are the research background, the problem formulation, the problem identification, the problem limitation, the research objectives, the research benefits, and the definitions of terms.

A. Research Background

“Pronunciation is a way a certain sound or sounds are produced (Richards and Webwe 1992:296)”. Pronunciation is one of the English language elements which are used as a means of mastering the sounds in speaking. In Sekolah

Menengah Kejuruan Negeri 2 Depok, pronunciation is an important element in determining the success of speaking for second language learners. Sekolah

Menengah Kejuruan Negeri 2 Depok English teachers use interview test to evaluate the students’ speaking skills through how students pronounce the English words and how students deliver the message.

Considering the important role of pronunciation in speaking, it is necessary to pay attention to the students’ pronunciation. One reason for paying attention to the students’ pronunciation is to clarify the development of the students’ language acquisition especially their speaking abilities. Pronunciation determines the success of speaking. It can be said that wrong pronunciation causes poor intelligibility. On the other hand, correct pronunciation results in good

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ineligibility (Morley, 1999:118). Students, who have good pronunciation, show that they are able to pronounce words, phrases, and sentences correctly. Besides, they are able to deliver their message understandably.

Since the researcher conducted practice teaching at that school in the first year of Geologi Pertambangan (GPB) class, the researcher explored that the first grade students found difficulties in teaching learning pronunciation.

The researcher found that the students often mispronounce the English words. According to Longman Dictionary of Contemporary English (2001),

“mispronounce means to pronounce a word or name wrongly”. In this study, mispronunciation is related to the way of students to pronounce the English sounds. Students’ mispronunciation happens because of students’ simplicity to pronounce other sounds than the sounds which appear in the English word.

The students often substitute the English sounds with other sounds which are easier for them to pronounce. According to Crystal (1991:335), “substitution refers to the process or result of replacing one item by another at a particular place”. In this study, the substitution is related to the replacement of one sound with other sounds in a word which are easier the students to pronounce the word, for example, Indonesian students often substitute the [ð] sound, which is represented by the initial letters [th], with the sound [d]. As in the word they [ðe ] in English language, the students found it easier to pronounce it as dei. Students often pronounce English words such as this [ð s] and that [ðæt] as dis and dat.

Considering the substitution that occurred on the students’ pronunciation, it motivates the researcher to study the sound change occurred in the

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pronunciation of the first grade students of Sekolah Menengah Kejuruan Negeri 2

Depok Sleman Yogyakarta. The sound change in the students’ pronunciation causes wrong pronunciation that determines the success of speaking. The focus of this research is the sound change of the first grade students’ pronunciation.

B. Problem Formulation

As mentioned previously, this research focuses on the sound change that occurs in the pronunciation of the first grade students of Sekolah Menengah

Kejuruan Negeri 2 Depok Sleman. The researcher would make it more specific by formulating the problems as follows:

1. What are the types of the English sound changes of the first grade students of

Sekolah Menengah Kejuruan Negeri 2 Depok Sleman Yogyakarta?

2. What are the English speech sounds as the result of the sound change?

C. Problem Limitation

This research is limited on the English sound change in the pronunciation of the first grade of Sekolah Menengah Kejuruan Negeri 2 Depok Sleman

Yogyakarta. The researcher intended to know the phenomena of sound change that occurred on students’ pronunciation. Since there are many pronunciation elements in English language, in this research the discussion is limited only on the articulation. It would not include the process of the pronunciation which consists of pitch, stress, intonation and spelling. This research would not discuss the correct incorrect of the students’ pronunciation.

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D. Research Objectives

The objectives of this study are presented as follows.

1. To find out the types of the English sound change of the first grade students of

Sekolah Menengah Kejuruan Negeri 2 Depok Sleman Yogyakarta.

2. To find out the English speech sounds as the result of the sound change.

E. Research Benefits

The results of this study should be beneficial for:

1. The English teacher in SMKN 2 Depok Sleman

Completing this research, the researcher hopes that the results of this research

could help the teacher to analyze the sound changes that are occurred in the

students’ pronunciation.

2. Students of Sekolah Menengah Kejuruan Negeri 2 Depok Sleman

Hopefully this research could facilitate the students to improve their English

pronunciation and minimize students’ difficulties in pronouncing the English

sounds.

3. Future researchers

This research is expected to provide several new significant ideas and to be

investigated further.

F. Definition of Terms

In order to avoid misinterpretation of several terms used in this research; the researcher would like to define and clarify some terms.

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1. Sound Change

Crystal (1991) defines the sounds change as a change in the sounds systems of language. Meanwhile, Saussure gives more specific information that the sounds change is a part of the language process that occurs in the production of vowels and consonants.

According to O’ Grady (2001: 318), the sound change is a modification in the sounds pattern of a language in particular phonetic environment. In this study, sound change refers to a modification of the English sound with other sounds in

English language.

2. First grade of vocational high school

First grade of vocational high school refers to students at the age of 16-17 years old. The vocational high school which is used to collect the data on English pronunciation mastery is Sekolah Menengah Kejuruan Negeri 2 Depok Sleman

Yogyakarta.

3. Pronunciation

Pronunciation is a way a certain sound or sounds are produced (Richards and Webwe, 1992:296). In this research, pronunciation refers to a way students pronouncing the English sounds.

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CHAPTER II

REVIEW OF RELATED LITERATURE

Chapter two presents discussions about the theories related to the study.

This chapter consists of the theoretical description and the theoretical framework.

A. Theoretical description

The theoretical description involves the discussion about the sound change, the potential problems in learning English pronunciation, and the English sounds production. Sound change deals with phonological change. Phonological change is one of language change.

1. Language change

O’grady (1996) said that all languages change continually. For example, the differences between the English of the late fourteenth century and the modern

English. In the late fourteenth century, the English words as in see, tooth, make, and open were pronounced as [se:], [to:θ], [ma:kən], and [ :pən] (almost, like say, toath, mahken, and ahpen), while in modern English those words are pronounced as [si:], [tu:θ], [me k] and [ə pən]. The pronunciations of the English words from the late century are different from the modern English. These examples are taken from Fasold and Linton’s theory of the languages change (2006:276).

Foreign students who learn English language often experience the process of the language change. According to Fasold and Linton (2006), languages are accustomed to meet the changing contexts and needs of their speech communities.

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In this research, the English language changes itself as the needs of the students as a community. The most noticeable changes happen on students’ pronunciation and vocabulary. In this study, the researcher focuses on the pronunciation change, particularly English sound change.

Fassold and Linton (2006) mentions four types of language change as described in the following part. a. Morphological change

“Morphological refers to any change in the morphophonemic system (the morphemes and their phonemic representation) of a language (Fasold and Linton,

2006:283)”. For example, the changes in English language involved how nouns were morphologically marked to indicate certain kinds of information as in the word ground [grud] was inflected as follows.

Singular Plural

Nominative and accusative [grud] [grudas] ground/grounds

Genitive [grudəs] [gruda] of ground/of grounds

Dative and instrumental [grudə] [grudum] to, with ground/to,

with grounds b. Syntactic change

“Syntactic change refers to change in the grammatical system of a language (Fassold and Linton, 2006:284)”. For example, came vnto[unto] him they to the Modern English equivalent, they came to him, there has been a syntactic change. This example was taken form Campbell’s theory of language change (2004:7).

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c. Semantic change

According to Fasold and Linton (2006:284), “semantic change is mainly concerned with changes in the meanings of words”. For example, in the Modern

English words nice and silly are the results of odysseys of semantic change. In

Middle English nice means ‘foolish, simple, fastidious, delicious’, while in

Modern English its meaning are solely positive as enjoyable, polite. The word silly in Old English means timely, while in Middle English it changed to seli [seli] or sili [sili] with the meaning of happy, blessed, innocent. In Modern English, silly means stupid, frivolous, dazed. Those examples are taken from Fasold and

Linton’s theory of the language change (2006:284). d. Phonological change

According to Fasold and Linton (2006:281), “phonological change refers to any change in the sound system’. Sound change becomes the focus in the phonological change.

2. Sound change

Sound change is one of the language changes which belong to phonological change. Fasold and Linton (2006:281) state that “sound change is a change in the way members of a speech community pronounce particular sounds”.

In this study, sound change refers to the change of the sound which is produced by the first grade students as the speech community. Sound change is classified according to whether they are unconditioned or conditioned (Campbell, 2004:18).

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Unconditioned sound change occurs not dependent on the phonetic or neighboring sounds in which it occurs (Campbell, 2004:18). Unconditioned sound change is a change that affects the sound in all contexts, for example, the most varieties of Latin American Spanish have changed palatalized [l] to [y] unconditionally. Every case of [l] has change to [y].

Conditioned sound change occurs dependent on the phonetic or neighboring sounds in which it occurs, for example, the Spanish change of [p] to

[b] is conditioned. Only those [p] which are between vowels become [b], while [p] in other positions do not change. Those examples are taken from Campbell’s theory of the language change (2004:18).

O’grady, Dabrovolsky, and Katamba (1996:315) describe four causes of sound change as mentioned in the following part. a. Articulatory simplification

According to O’grady, Dabrovolsky, and Katamba (1996:315), articulatory simplification refers to the idea of ‘ease of articulation’. If there is a sound or sounds in a language which is difficult to pronounce, it is likely to be simplified. Articulatory simplification is always occurred on everyday speech as in the deletion of consonant in cluster, the insertion of a vowel in cluster

(O’grady, Dabrovolsky, and Katamba, 1996:315). For example, in the deletion of consonant [θ] in [fifθs] becomes [fifs]. The example is taken from O’grady’s theory of language change (2005:247). b. Spelling pronunciation

According to O’grady, Dabrovolsky, and Katamba (1996:315), “since the

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written form of a word can differ significantly from the way it is pronounced, a new pronunciation can arise which seems to reflect more closely the spelling of the word”. For example, in the word often, since the letter [t] was retained in the spelling, [t] has been reintroduced into foreign speaker’ pronunciation and they pronounced it as [ ftn]. The example is taken for O’grady’s theory of the language change (1996:315). c. Analogy and reanalysis

“Analogy reflects the preference of speakers for regular patterns over irregular ones (O’grady, Dabrovolsky, and Katamba, 1996:316)”.

“Reanalysis is particularly common in morphological change (O’grady,

Dabrovolsky, and Katamba, 1996:316)”. Morphological reanalysis more refers to the attribute For example, on the basis of its phonological similarity such verbs as sting/stung and swing/swung, in some dialects bring has developed a form brung. d. Language contact

“Language contact occurs when speakers of one language frequently interact with the speakers of another language or dialect (O’grady, Dabrovolsky, and Katamba, 96:316)”. As consequence, borrowing can occur where there are significant numbers of bilinguals or multilinguals. For example, English has borrowed many French words such as parent, cousin, animal, soup, colour, and major. The examples are taken from O’grady’s theory of the language change

(1996:317)

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3 Kinds of sound changes

In this study, the researcher would like to use nine types of sound changes based on the theory by Crowley (1992) and Campbell (2004).

1) Assimilation

“Assimilation is process when one sound causes another sound to change so that the two sounds end up being more similar (Crowley, 1992:49)”.

Assimilation was divided into palatalization, final devoicing, and nasalization. a) Palatalization

According to Crowley (1992:53), palatalization is the change of non-palatal sounds become palatal sounds. Palatal sounds include the affricates [t∫, ] and fricatives [∫,ʒ]. Usually, palatalization is occurred before the front vowel such as

[i:], [e] or before the semi-vowel [j]. The example is taken form the word did you

[d d ju]. The sound [d] in the last word did has influence by the semi-vowel [j] from the word you. So the word did you will be pronounce as [d j ju]. b.) Final devoicing

According to Crowley (1992:54), “final devoicing is a process where the final voiced sounds in the word change into voiceless sounds”. As an example in the word have [həv]. The final sound [v] changes into [f] sound which is voiceless.

So, the word have will be pronounce as [həf]. c.) Nasalization

Nasalization is a process which change vowels adjacent nasal stops become nasalized. According to Campbell (2004:44) “vowels often become nasalized in the environment of nasal consonant and cost the lost of the nasal sound”. The

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example is taken form the word pan [pæn]. The vowel [æ] is nasalized by the [n] as nasal sound.

2) Dissimilation

“Dissimilation is change in which sounds become less similar to one another (Campbell, 2004: 30)”. Dissimilation process is much rarer and usually a sporadic phenomenon. This process often happens at a distance. For example, the word February [februəri] is pronounced as Febyuary, arctic [αrtık, αtık] becomes

[αrktık, αktık].

3) Deletion (elisison)

“Deletion or elision is the omission of one or more sounds (a vowel, a consonant or whole syllable) in a word or phrase (wikipedia)”. Deletion is one type of sound changes that is easy to find in the language process. This process is divided into three types, namely syncope, apocope, and aphaeresis (or apheresis). a) Syncope (atata > atta)

“Syncope is the deletion of a vowel from the interior of a word (not initially or finally) (Campbell, 2004: 33)”. For example, the omit of the medial vowel [i] in the word family [fæməli] becomes fam(i)ly [fæmili] and the medial vowel [o] in the word memory [meməri] becomes mem(o)ry [mem ri] (Campbell,

2004: 33). b) Apocope (tata > tat)

“Apocope refers to the deletion of a sound, usually a vowel, at the end of the word (Campbell, 2004: 33)”. The two examples are taken from the language change from Old English to Modern English (O’Grady, 2001:323).

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Old English Modern English Word na:ma ne m name sticca st k stick c) Aphaeresis or apheresis (atata > tata)

“Aphaeresis refers to changes which delete the initial sound (usually a vowel) of a word (Campbell, 2004: 34)”. For example in Spanish language in the word ahora becomes hora which means now.

4) Sound Addition (asta > asata)

Sound addition also knows as epentheses or insertions. It is a process in which phonological rules can add the entire phonemic segment (Fromkin and

Rodman, 1975: 104). The loss of sounds is a very common kind of sound change, but sounds are sometimes added rather than dropped. The example is taken form the word something [sΛmpθIŋk] rather than [sΛmpθIŋ]. In sound change, sound could be inserted in several different ways. a) Prothesis (tata > atata)

“Prothesis is a kind of sound addition in which a sound is inserted at the beginning of a word (Campbell, 2004: 35)”. For example in French language in the word scola which is inserted the sound [e] becomes escola means school. b) Anaptyxis or anaptyctic (VCCV > VCVC)

“Anaptyxis is a kind of sound addition in which an extra vowel is inserted between two consonants (Campbell, 2004: 36)”. For example in the words athlete

[æθli:t] as [æθəli:t] and in the word film [f lm] as [f ləm] which are added with the extra vowel [ə].

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c) Excrescence (amra > ambra)

“Excrescence is a type of a sound addition which refers to a consonant being inserted between other consonants (Campbell, 2004: 36)”. d) Paragoge (tat > tata)

“Paragoge is added a sound (usually a vowel) to the end of a word

(Campbell, 2004: 37)”.

5) Metathesis (asta > atsa)

“Metathesis is the transposition of sound which is a change in which sounds exchange position with one another within a word (Campbell, 2004: 39)”.

Metathesis does not involve the loss or addition of sounds, or a change in the appearance of a particular sound. Metathesis is simply a change in the order of the sounds. For example, the words ask [æsk] is pronounced as [æks].

6) Diphthongization

“Diphthongization refers to any change in which an original single vowel changes into a sequence of two vowel segments which to gather occupy the nucleus of a single syllable (Campbell, 2004: 42)”. For example in Spanish language the vowel [ ] and [ ] diphthongizied to ie and ue as in the word p tra becomes piedra mean stone, b no becomes bueno means good.

7) Monophthongization

According to Campbell, monophthongization is the changed of diphthong into a single vowel (2004: 42). For example in the monophthongization of [ai] to

[a:] before r in some dialects as in fire [fa ə] becomes [fa:(r)] and tire [ta ə] becomes [ta:(r)].

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8) Lenition (weakening)

According to Campbell, Lenition is a process that involves some weakening of sounds (2004:44). Lenition typically include voicing or sonorization refers to changes of voiceless sounds to voiced as in [f]Æ[v], affrication refers to changes of a stop or fricative to affricative as in [t]Æ[ts] and [k]Æ[ ], deaffrication refers to changes of a affricatives to a fricative as in [ ]Æ[ ], and deaspiration refers to changes of an aspirated sound to an unaspirated sound.

9) Strengthening

“Strengthening shares a loosely defined notion which the resulting sound

is somehow stronger in articulation than the original sound (Campbell, 2004:

44)”. Fro example in Mayan language the sound [w]Æ[kw] as in winqÆkwi:nq means person and [y]Æ[ty] as in iyaxÆityax. The sounds [kw] and [ty] are stronger than the sounds [w] and [y].

2. The Potential Problems in learning English pronunciation

Languages all over the world have sounds that other languages do not have. English language also has sounds that Indonesian language does not have.

So, Indonesian students find difficult to pronounce new English sounds because students are not familiar with those sounds.

Here are some of the new English sounds for Indonesian students. It does not explain all sound. a. The sounds [θ] and [ð] by the initial letter ‘th’

According to Syafei (1988:2) [θ] and [ð] are new sounds for Indonesian

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students and they often substitute those sounds with [t] and [d] sounds which almost similar to pronounce. As an example is in the word think [θ ŋk] and that

[ðæt], students tend to substitute the sound [θ] in the word think with the sound [t] and the sound [ð] is substituted with [d]. As a result students might pronounce the word think as ting and that as dat. b. The sounds [∫], [ʒ], [z] and [v]

In Putut’s study, he finds that the Indonesian students find difficult to pronounce the sounds [∫] and [ʒ] because of the absence of those sounds in

Indonesian sounds. Students tend to substitute sound [s] for [∫] as in the word shop and they might pronounce it as sop. The sound [ʒ] is substituted with [s] or [z] sounds as in the word usually which might sound as usuali or uzuali. The sound

[z] is often substituted with the sound [s] as in the word rose which might pronounce as ros. [f] and [v], these sounds articulate each pair similarly but in fact they are different. c. The sounds diphthong and vowel

There are English vowel and diphthong which are often mispronounced and confused by the Indonesian students. The difficulty in diphthong sounds may be caused the absence of English diphthong sounds in Indonesian language. While the difficulty in vowel sounds may be caused by the absence of long vowel in

Indonesian language. There are vowel and diphthong which are difficult to pronounce for Indonesian students as follows.

1.) The absence of long vowel in Indonesian language, so students often

pronounce the long and short vowel with the same sounds.

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[I] and [i:] often pronounce as [I]: this/these,

[e] and [æ] often pronounce as [e]: bed/bad,

[ ] and [u:] often pronounce as [ ]: foot/food,

[ ] and [ :] often pronounce as [ ]: don/dawn,

[ ] and [a:] often pronounce as [ ]: cat/cart.

2.) Students often pronounce the vowel sounds as in written form.

world [w :ld] students read it as w ld,

women [w m n] students read it as women,

household [ha sh ld] students read it as hoshold,

hugs [h gz] students read it as hugs.

3.) The absence of the English diphthongs [eə], [ ə], [ ə], [e ], [a ], [ ], [ə ], and [ ]

in Indonesian sounds. Students often pronounce those sounds as in written

form.

phone [fə n] students read it as pon,

sound [sa nd] students read it as son,

clothing [klə ð ŋ] students read it as klot ng.

3. The English Sounds Production

There are four parts of the English sound production; they are the English consonant, the English cluster, the English vowel and the diphthong. a. Consonant

Consonant is a type of sounds used before or after a vowel or diphthong to form a syllable. Figure 2.1 shows the articulation of the English consonant

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sounds. The figure of phonetic chief English consonantal articulation was taken from Indriani’s (2003:11).

According to O’grady (2001:7), there is constriction or complete closure in the vocal tract, which might be at the lips, at the back of the mouth and on the teeth, that interferes the flow air out the mouth when produces the consonant sounds. In this part the consonant sounds would be discussed based on the place of articulation and the manner of articulation. Here are the details of the English consonant sounds.

Figure 2.1. English Consonant Articulation (Indriani, 2003: 11)

1) Bilabial plosives [p,b]

According to Fromkin (2000:215-221) based on the place of the articulation when we produce [p,b] sounds, we articulate by bringing both lips together which is called bilabials. Based on the manner of the articulation the sound [p,b] are called plosives because the air that is blocked in the mouth explodes when the closure is released.

[p,b] are two examples sounds of the English consonants. [p] is voiceless sound and [b] is voiced sound. Those sounds are produced by involving two lips

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which causes the air stream stop at the mouth; for example, path [pæt], part [p :t], but [bət], and both [bə θ].

2) Alveolar plosives [t,d]

Fromkin (2000:221) explains that “these sounds are produced by blocking the air in the mouth and exploding when the closure is released”. Fromkin

(2000:215) states that based on the place of the articulation [t,d] sounds are produced by bringing the tongue to the alveolar ridge and complete stop of the air stream and let it goes suddenly. Based on the manner of the articulation, [t,d] sounds are called plosives; for example, time [ta m], take [teik], and day [dei].

3) Velar plosives [k,g]

Fromkin (2000:216) states that [k, g] sounds are produced with the back of the tongue against the velum. Based on the manner of the articulation “[k,g] sounds are called plosives because these sounds are produced by blocking the air in the mouth and exploding when the closure is released (Fromkin, 2000:221)”; for example, come [k m], close [klous], go [go ], and good [g d].

4) Palato - alveolar affricates [t∫, ]

According to Fromkin based on the place of the articulation to produce these sounds, the front part of the tongue, tip and blade, is raised to the heard palate (2000:216); for example, choice [t∫ s], cheap [t∫i:p], joke [ ə k], and subject

[səb ekt]. Based on the manner of the articulation, “[t∫, ] include as affricates sound, because these sounds are produced by a stop closure followed immediately by a slow release of the closure characteristic of a fricative (Fromkin, 2000:222)”.

5) Labio - dental fricatives [f,v]

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Labio- refers to lips and –dental refers to teeth. Accoring to Fromkin

(2000:215), [f,v] sounds are called labiodentals because the use of lips to produce those sounds by touching the lower lip to the upper teeth and blocking the airstream and having the air push through the narrow opening. “Based on the manner of the articulation these sounds are also called fricatives because in the production of these sounds, the airstream is not completely stopped but is obstructed from flowing freely (Fromkin, 2000: 221)”; for example, fine [fa n], after [ :ftə], love [l v], and above [əb v].

6) Dental fricatives [θ,ð]

According to Fromkin (2000:215), [θ,ð] sounds are called interdental because these sounds are formed with insert the tongue tip between the upper and lower teeth and block the airstream and have the air push through the narrow opening. According to Fromkin (2000:221) based on the manner of the articulation these sounds are include as fricatives sound. Because when these sounds are produced there is the air coming out of the mouth; for example, thin

[θ n], healthy [helθi], the [ðə], and with [w ð]

7) Alveolar fricatives [s,z]

According to Fromkin (2000:215), “based on the place of the articulation, alveolar sound such as [s,z] are articulated by raising the front part of the tongue to the bony tooth ridge”. Like [θ,ð] sounds, based on the manner of the articulation [s,z] sounds are also include as fricatives sound because when these sounds are produced there is the air coming out of the mouth (Fromkin,

2000:221); for example, sing [s ŋ], ask [ :sk], and does [də z].

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8) Palato - alveolar fricatives [∫,ʒ]

According to Fromkin, these sounds are produced by raising the front part of the tongue, tip and blade, to the heard palate (2000:216). Like [t∫, ] sounds in the place of the articulation, [∫,ʒ] sounds are also called Palato – alveolar sounds or sometimes also called alveopalatals. According to Fromkin (2000:216), “based on the manner of the articulation when producing these sounds there would be air which coming out of the mouth which put this sound in to fricatives sound”; for example, shop [ p], she [ i], and vision [v n].

9) Glottal fricatives [h]

Based on the place of the articulation the [h] sound includes as glottal sound. ”The glottal sound is produced when the glottal is open and no other modification of the air stream mechanisms occurs in the mouth (Fromkin, 2000:

216)”; for example, house [ha s], who [hu:], and hair [heə].

10) Bilabial nasal [m]

Fromkin (2000:215), explains that [m] sound is one of bilabial sounds because this sound is produced by bringing both lips together. Based on the manner of the articulation [m] sound also include as a nasal sound because when this sound is produced the air escapes through the nose (Fromkin, 2000:220); for examples, miss [m s], maybe [me bi], and simple [s mpl].

11) Alveolar nasal [n]

According to Fromkin, “based on the place of the articulation the [n] sound is one of the alveolar sounds which are articulated by raising the front part of the tongue to the bony tooth ridge (2000:215)”. Fromkin explains that, based

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on the manner of the articulation this sound also includes as one of nasal sounds because when this sound is produced, the air escapes through the nose (2000:

220); for examples, so [nə ], month [m nθ], coin [k n], and none [n n].

12) Velar nasal [ŋ]

Fromkin (2000:215) explains that “based on the place of the articulation the sound [ŋ] is also one of velar sounds which are produced by raising the back of the tongue to the soft palate or velum”. Like [n] sound, Fromkin states that “on the manner of the articulation [ŋ] sound also includes as one of nasal sounds because when this sound is produced, the air escapes both the mouth and nose

(2000: 215)”; for example, uncle [ ŋkl], thing [θ ŋ], link [l ŋk], and single [s ŋgl].

13) Lateral [l]

According to Fromkin (2000: 223) “based on the place of the articulation to produce [l] sound, the tip of the tongue raises to the alveolar ridge with the sides of the tongue down, permitting the air to escape laterally over its sides”; for example, leave [li:v], allow [əla ], will [w l], and call [k :l].

14) Post–alveolar frictionless continuant [r]

Fromkin (2003:242) explains that “based on the place and the manner of the articulation there are variety ways to produces the sound [r] one of them is by curling the tip of the tongue back behind the alveolar ridge”; for example , read

[ri:d], sorry [s ri], and library [la brəri].

15) Unrounded palatal semi–vowel [j]

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Based on the manner of the articulation, Fromkin explains that “semi- vowel [j] is produced by raising the blade of the tongue toward the hard palate

(2000:223)”. This sound is produce with little or no block of the air stream in the mouth; for example, yesterday [jestəde ], university [ju:n v :səti], year [j ə], and new [nju:].

16) Labio–velar semi vowel [w]

Based on the manner of the articulation, Fromkin (2000:223) states that

“the glide [w] is produced by both raising the back of the tongue toward the velum and simultaneously rounding the lips”; for example, which [w ], twelve [twelve], water [w :tə], and away [əwe ].

b. Clusters

English allows many clusters of consonants or knows as consonant cluster. According to Colins and Mees (2003:72) “consonant cluster is a sequence of consonant at the margin of a syllable”. It means in one syllable can consist from two up to five consonants. Clusters may occur in the beginning, middle and final of words. In the beginning of the word as in words draw [dr :] CC V C with two consonants or scream [skri:m] CCC V C with three consonants. In the middle of the word as in words lifting [l ft ŋ] C V CC V CC with two consonants or complete [kəm pli:t] C V CCC V C V with three consonants. In the final of the word as in words helps [help] CV CCC with three consonants or self [self] C V

CC with two consonants. c. Vowel

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According to Fromkin (2000:478) vowels are a sound which there is little construction is made in the vocal tract and the sound is louder and longer than consonant. Vowel sounds is produced by different positions of the tongue within the mouth cavity and by round and surround lips. Table 2.3 shows the English vowel sounds and the manner in which each individual sound is produced.

Table 2.3. English Vowel Sounds Ungrounded Rounded

Front Central Back

High [i:] = peat [u:] = boot

[I] = pit [ ] = put

Mid [e] = pet [ :] = pert

[ə] = ago [ :] = port

Low [æ] = pat [ ] = cup [ ] = pot

[a] = part

(Campbell, 2004:xxi)

1) Front, central, and back vowels

According to Fromkin (2000:227-229), the term front, central, and back refer to parts of the tongue raised. a) Front vowels

Front vowels are made by lifting the front part of the tongue. There are four sounds that belong to the front vowels. They are the sounds [i:] as in tea, [I] as in sit, [e] as in pen and [æ] as in sad.

b) Central vowels

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Central vowels are produced by lowering and flattening the tongue. There are tree sounds that belong to central vowels. They are the sounds [ə] as in adore,

[ :] as in bird and [ ] as in up. c). Back vowels

Back vowels are made by adjusting the back of the tongue. There are five sounds that belong to back vowels. They are the sounds [u:] as in food, [ ] as in look, [ :] as in all, [ ] as in on and [a] as in car.

2) High, mid, and low vowels

Fromkin (2000:228) and (2000:508) explains that the term high, mid, and low refer to the difference in the tongue height.

High vowels height of the tongue is greatest; the tongue is closet to roof or

mouth.

Low vowels height of the tongue is least.

Mid vowels height of the tongue is intermediate positions neither high nor

low. All vowels in the central vowels are mid vowels.

3) Rounded and unround vowels

The third method of describing vowels is something to do with the position of lips. In English Language the front vowels are unround, the back vowels are round, and the central vowels are ordinary unround (Fromkin, 2000:508).

Rounded vowels have lips pulled close together and pushed out from the face. The lips’ position in unrounded vowels is in a neutral position or they are spread out to press against the face. b. Diphthong

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A diphthong is a sound that is made by gliding from one vowel position to another (Jones, 1919:22). Figure 2.4 shows the English diphthong sounds which consists of eight sounds.

Figure 2.4. English Diphthong Sounds (Indriani, 2003:77)

Diphthong is represented phonetically by sequences of two letters, the first showing the starting point and the second indicating the direction of movement.

According to Collins and Mees (2003: 98) there are two diphthongs.

First is centering diphthong, produced by the movement of the tongue from peripheral to central position. Centering diphthong is end with [ə] sound as in the sound [eə] in the word where [weə], [ ə] in the word near [n ə], [ ə] in the word tour [t ə], and the sound [ ə] which for some people it includes in the long vowel [ :] as in the word more [m :].

Second is closing diphthongs, produced by the position of the tongue from mid or low to high position. Collins and Mees (2003:98) state that the closing diphthongs can be divided into two.

Fronting diphthong is produced by the movement towards a close front vowel. The characteristic of fronting diphthong is end with the sound [ ]. There

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are three sounds which are placed in fronting diphthongs. They are the sound [e ] in the word aim [e m], in the sound [a ] in the word ice [a s], and the sound [ ] in the word oil [ l]. Backing, end with the sound [ ], is produced with the movement towards a close back vowel. There are only two sounds which is placed in backing diphthongs, they are: the sound [ə ] in the word phone [fə n], and the sound [ ] in the word sound [sa nd].

B. Theoretical Framework

In this research, the first grade students experience the process of sound change in learning English language. This research is intended to find out the phenomena of sound change that occurred in the pronunciation of English words by the first grade students.

First problem formulation is to find out the types of English sound change of the first grade students of Sekolah Menengah Kejuruan Negeri 2 Depok Sleman

Yogyakarta. To answer the first research problem the researcher uses the sound change theory based on Campbell (2004) and Crowley (1992). According to

Campbell and Crowley’s theory there are 9 types of sound change process, they are: assimilation, dissimilation, deletion, sound addition, metathesis, diphthongization, monophthongization, lenition and strengthening.

Second problem formulation is to find out the English speech sounds as the result of the sound change by the pronunciation of the first grade students of

Sekolah Menengah Kejuruan Negeri 2 Depok Sleman Yogyakarta. After analyzing the types of the English sound change which occurs in students’

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pronunciation, the researcher discovers the difficult sounds which are occurred in the student’s pronunciation.

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CHAPTER III

METHODOLOGY

This chapter presents information on how this study was conducted. The discussions deal with the research method, the research participants, the research instrument, the data gathering technique, the data analysis technique, and the research procedure.

A. Research Method

The study is a descriptive research. According to Seliger and Shohamy

(1989:116) “descriptive research is concerned with providing descriptions on phenomena that occur naturally, without the intervention of an experiment or an artificially contrived treatment”. This study described the phenomena of the sound change that occurred in the pronunciation of the first grade students of Sekolah

Menengah Kejuruan Negeri 2 Depok Sleman Yogyakarta

Descriptive research could be qualitative or quantitative. This research is categorized as descriptive qualitative because this research deals with data that are in the form of words, rather than numbers and statistic. The data collected in this study are the participants’ pronunciation. The researcher tried to describe the phenomena that occurred on the students’ pronunciation.

The researcher recorded the learner’s pronunciation by giving students texts to read. The researcher analyzed the recording of the students’ pronunciation and transcribed the students’ pronunciation into the phonetic transcription.

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To solve the first problem, types of the English sound change of the first grade students of Sekolah Menengah Kejuruan Negeri 2 Depok Sleman

Yogyakarta, the researcher tried to compare the phonetic transcription of the students’ pronunciation with the phonetic transcription of Pronunciation Longman

Dictionary (2008), Longman Dictionary Contemporary English (2001) and

Oxford American Dictionary (2003).

After comparing the phonetic transcription, the researcher analyzed the process of the sound change that occurred in the students’ pronunciation. After finding the sound change that occurred in the students’ pronunciation, the researcher analyzed the phenomena that occurred on the students’ sound change by using the sound change theories by Crowley (1992) and Campbell (2004).

To answer the second problem formulation, the researcher made a list of the sound change that occurred in the students’ pronunciation and tried to find out the difficult speech sound for the students to pronounce.

B. Research Participants

In this descriptive research, the research participants were the first grade students of Sekolah Menengah Kejuruan Negeri 2 Depok Sleman Yogyakarta.

The participants of this study were students of Geologi Pertambangan (GPB) class. These participants were chosen because the researcher has been conducted practice teaching at this class and the researcher explored that the students experienced the sound changes on their pronunciation. The number of the students was twenty-two students. They consisted of five girls and seventeen boys.

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C. Research Instruments

1. Observation Sheets

According to Ary, Jacobs, and Razavieh (2002:430), observation is the most basic method for obtaining data in qualitative research”. In observation, the researcher may be a participant in the situation being observed or not. In this research, the researcher’s position was as a participant. Through observation, the researcher achieved the detail information for the research because the researcher saw directly the condition of the students’ pronunciation in class.

The researcher also recorded the students’ pronunciation to be observed by using an audio recorder. The recording helped to solve the first problem formulation by analyzing the phenomena of the students’ sound change. The recording also helped to solve the second problem formulation by finding the difficult speech sound for the students to pronounce.

The researcher asked students to read the texts, while the researcher recorded the students’ pronunciation. From analyzing the transcription of the students’ pronunciation, the researcher found pronunciation problems which happened in the students’ pronunciation, for example, the assimilation process which happened in students’ pronunciation. Students often substituted the sound

[θ] with the sound [t] as in the word think [θ ŋk] become [t ŋk].

2. Questionnaire

The researcher also distributed questionnaire to the teacher to collect the data. According to Seliger and Shohamy (1989: 172), “questionnaires are printed forms for data collection including questions or statements to which the subject is

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expected to respond.” Questionnaire can be divided in their degree of explicitness: unstructured questionnaire which has a low degree of explicitness and structured questionnaire which has high degree of explicitness.

In this research, the researcher used open questionnaire which belonged to unstructured questionnaire. It is a kind of question that gives freedom to the respondent to answer by using their own words. Seliger (1989) states that questionnaire is used to collect data on phenomena which are not easily observed, the process involved in using language and the background information about the research subjects. In this questionnaire, the researcher collected the data related with the students’ pronunciation. The questionnaire helped to solve the second problem formulation by checking the result of the difficult speech sound for the students to pronounce to the teacher.

3. Interview

According Ary, Jacobs and Razavieh (2002:434), “the interview is one of the most widely used methods for obtaining qualitative data”. The interview provides information that cannot be obtained through observation, or they can be used to verify the observation. There are three types of interview which can be differentiated by their degree of explicitness and structure. They are open, semi- open and semi-structured.

In this research, the researcher used open interview or described as “a conversation with a purpose”. In this interview, the researcher asks questions as the opportunity and uses the subjects; responses to decide on the next question

(Ary, Jacobs and Razavieh: 2002).

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This kind of interview allows the interviewee maximum freedom of expression and often unexpected information emerges. This interview is often more similar to a conversation rather than interview. The researcher made the condition of the interview liked shear season.

In this research, the researcher interviewed the English teacher of Sekolah

Menengah Kejuruan Negari 2 Depok. In this interview, the researcher collected the data related to the students’ problems in pronouncing English sounds. The interview helped to solve the second problem formulation by checking the result of the difficult speech sound for the students to pronounce to the teacher.

D. Data Gathering Technique

This section illustrates how the researcher gathered the data from the participants. Firstly, the researcher selected the reading texts which would be read by students. The reading texts were taken from the students’ English book.

After selecting the texts, the researcher asked students to read the text. By using an audio recorder, the researcher recorded the students’ pronunciation to collect the data. It was expected that the researcher could collect lots of important data to this study.

After recording the students’ pronunciation, the researcher transcribed the students’ pronunciation into phonetic transcription. The researcher made a list of phonetic transcription of the students’ pronunciation and compared it with the phonetic transcription based on Longman Dictionary of Contemporary English

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(2001), Oxford American Dictionary (2003) and Pronunciation Longman

Dictionary (2008). Table 3.1 showed the table which is used to analyze the data.

Table 3.1 Table to analyze the data Words Phonetic transcription

Pronunciation Oxford American Longman Dictionary Students’

Longman Dictionary (2003) Contemporary Pronunciation

Dictionary (2008) English (2001)

The reason of the researcher used Longman Dictionary Contemporary

English (2001) and Oxford American Dictionary (2003) because those

dictionaries were common dictionaries among students who learn English

language. By using those dictionaries, the teacher and students could check the

pronunciation of the English words. Because this research concerned to sound

change, researcher also used Pronunciation Longman Dictionary (2008) to check

the phonetic transcription in each word.

E. Data Analysis Technique

In this study, the researcher provided two analyses for analyzing data

collected. They are comparing the phonetic of students’ pronunciation with the

correct phonetic transcription based on Pronunciation Longman Dictionary

(2003), Longman Dictionary Contemporary English (2001) and analyzing the

sound changes phenomena by using the theory of sound changes form Campbell

(2004) and Crowley (1991).

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1. Comparing the phonetic of students’ pronunciation with the phonetic

transcription based on Longman Dictionary Contemporary English (2001),

Oxford American Dictionary (2003) and Longman Pronunciation Dictionary

(2008).

First, the researcher transcribed the recording of the students’ pronunciation into

the phonetic form.

Example: saveÆ[se v] thinkÆ[θ ŋk] countriesÆ[ k ntriz]

Second, after transcribing the recording of the students’ pronunciation, the

researcher compared the phonetic transcription of the students’ pronunciation with

the phonetic transcription based on the Longman Dictionary Contemporary

English (2001), Oxford American Dictionary (2003) and Pronunciation Longman

Dictionary (2008).

Example:

Words Phonetic transcription

Longman Oxford Longman Dictionary First Grade

Pronunciation American Contemporary Students’

Dictionary (2008) Dictionary (2003) English (2001) Pronunciation k ntriz k ntriz k ntriz k ntriz k(au)ntri(s)

save se v se v se v se (f)

think θ ŋk θ ŋk θ ŋk (t) ŋ(Ø)

After comparing the phonetic of students’ pronunciation with the phonetic

transcription based on dictionary, the researcher analyzed the sound change that

occurred on their pronunciation.

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2. Analyzing the sound changes phenomena by using the theory of sound changes

form Campbell (2004) and Crowley (1992).

After finding the sound change that occurred on the students’ pronunciation in pronouncing the English words, the researcher tried to analyze the phenomena of the sound change by using the theory of sound change from

Campbell (2004) and Crowley (1992).

From the previous example the researcher found three words which were the last sound on those words was substituted into the other sound. There are the sounds self [se (f)], think [(t) ŋ(Ø)], and countries [k(au)ntri(s)]. The researcher found two phenomena which discussed about the substitution on the final sound; they are final devoicing and apocope.

The final devoicing is the substitution of voiced final sounds into voiceless sound. Since the words save [se (f)] and countries [k(au)ntri(s)] experienced the substitution of the last sound from voiced sound [v,z] into voiceless sounds [f,s], so those words were experienced the final devoicing phenomena. Apocope is the deletion of consonant in the last word. Since the word think [(t) ŋ(Ø)] was experienced the lost of final sound, so this word was experienced the apocope phenomena.

The researcher found that the word think [(t) ŋ(Ø)] was experienced the substitution in the first sound. The fricative sound [θ] was substituted by the stop sound [t]. The researcher found one phenomena which described this substitution as strengthening. Strengthening is the substitution of weak sound into strong

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sound. The word think [(t) ŋ(Ø)] was experienced the strengthening process

because the weak sound [θ] was substituted by the strong sound [t].

The other problem was the substitution of the sound [ ] into sound [au].

The researcher found diphthongization phenomena which could explain the

phenomena that occurred in the word countries [k(au)ntri(s)]. Diphthongization is

the change of single vowel into two vowels, form single vowel [ ] into two vowels

[au]. As the result the researcher found that diphthongization phenomena also

occurred on the word countries [k(au)ntri(s)].

Example:

Words Phonetic transcription

Longman Oxford Longman Dictionary Students’

Pronunciation American Contemporary Pronunciation

Dictionary (2008) Dictionary (2003) English (2001)

Final devoicing

save se v se v se v se f countries k ntriz k ntriz k ntriz kauntris Apocope

think θ ŋk θ ŋk θ ŋk t ŋk Strengthening

think θ ŋk θ ŋk θ ŋk t ŋ Diphthongization

countries k ntriz k ntriz k ntriz kauntris NOTE: is used to symbolize the assimilation process that occurred is used to symbolize the dipthongization process that occurred is used to symbolize the anaptyxis process that occurred is used to symbolize the monophthongization that occurred

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F. Research Procedure

This research was conducted in five steps. The first was the preparation step. In this step, the researcher asked for the permission of the English teacher to conduct this research.

The second step was the identification of the participants, in which the researcher selected the first grade students, as the participants in this research.

The third was instrument preparation to collect the data. In this step, the researcher prepared texts which would be read by students and the audio recorder to record students’ pronunciation.

The fourth step was data collection. In this step, the researcher obtained the data by recording the students’ pronunciation and transcribing the students’ pronunciation into the phonetic transcription.

The fifth step was data analysis. The researcher compared the phonetic transcription of the students’ pronunciation with the phonetic transcription of the words based on Longman Dictionary Contemporary English (2001). Then, it is followed by observing the process of the sound change that occurred on students’ pronunciation and trying to find the English speech sounds as the result of the sound change.

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CHAPTER IV

RESEARCH FINDINGS AND DISCUSSIONS

This chapter discusses about the data collected in this study and the research findings.

A. Types of sound change which occur in the process of pronunciation among

the first grade students of Sekolah Menengah Kejuruan Negeri 2 Depok

Sleman Yogyakarta

The researcher found six types of sound change which occur in the students’ pronunciation. They are assimilation, deletion, sound addition, monophtongization, strengthening, and other findings.

1. Assimilation

Assimilation is process when one sound causes another sound to change.

Assimilation was divided into three phenomena; they are palatalization, final devoicing, and nasalization. Final devoicing is a phenomenon that occurred on students’ pronunciation. a. Final devoicing

Final devoicing is the changing process from voiced to voiceless sounds at the end of a word. There were nineteen words which experienced the final devoicing phenomena. They were presented in the table 4.1.

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Table 4.1. The sound changes that were categorized as final devoicing Word The phonetic transcription Longman Oxford Longman Dictionary Students’

Pronunciation American Contemporary Pronunciation

Dictionary (2008) Dictionary (2003) English (2001)

channels ænəlz ænlz ænlz ænls

comes k mz k mz k mz k ms

countries k ntriz k ntriz k ntriz k ntris expensive kspents v kspens v kspens v ekspens f

five fa v fa v fa v fa f

friends frendz frendz frendz frendz

hands hændz hændz hændz hænds

have həv//hæv həv//hæv həv həf

hours a əz a əz a əz ha wərs

hugs h gz h gz h gz h gs

leave li:v li:v li:v li:f

love l v l v l v l f

of v əv əv əf

pays pe z pe z pe z pe s

save se v se v se v se f

sounds sa ndz sa ndz sa ndz s nds

these ði:z ði:z ði:z di:s

tv ti:vi: ti:vi: ti:vi: ti:fi:

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twelve twelv twelv twelv tuweləf

NOTE: is used to symbolize the final devoicing process that occurred

Table 4.1 showed two sounds which experienced final devoicing process.

They were the sounds [z] and [v]. These voiced sounds were substituted by other

voiceless sounds. For example [z] as voiced sound was substituted by [s] as

voiceless sound as in the word countries [k ntriz]Æ[ kauntris]. According to Swan

and Smith (2001:281) “[v] sound is rare in Indonesian words. Indonesian students

are likely to replace [v] by [f], especially at the end of word”. The voiced sound

[v] was substituted by the voiceless sound [f] as in the word love [l v]Æ[l f]. This

substitution was caused by simplification. Students found easier to articulate [s]

and [f] sounds than [z] and [v] sounds.

2. Deletion

Deletion is the omission of one or more sounds in word. This process is

divided into three types, namely syncope, apocope, and aphaeresis (or apheresis).

Apocope is a phenomenon that occurred on students’ pronunciation.

a. Apocope

Apocope is the loss of consonant sound in word. Based on the data

collection, the researcher found ten mispronunciation words that experienced the

apocope process. The apocope processes in the students’ pronunciation were

presented in the table 4.2.

The researcher found four sounds which were deleted in the final sound.

They were the sound [t] as in the word most [mə st], the sound [z] as in the word

problems [pr bləmz], the sound [d] as in the word around [əra nd], the sound [k]

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as in the word think [θ ŋk], and the last the sound [s] as in the word six [siks].

Students did not familiar with double consonant in the last word and got difficulty

to pronounce those words. According to Swan and Smith (2001), “Indonesian

words cannot end in voiced stops [b.d.g], the fricatives [v,z, ]. Students are likely

to drop those sounds at the ends of words, especially after other consonants”. As

the result, the deletion eased students to pronounce those words.

Table 4.2. The sound changes that were categorized as apocope Word The phonetic transcription Longman Oxford Longman Dictionary Students’

Pronunciation American Contemporary Pronunciation

Dictionary (2008) Dictionary (2003) English (2001)

around əra nd əra nd əra nd ər nd excellent eksələnt eksələnt eksələnt eksələnt

first f :st// f :rst f :st// f :rst f :st// f :rst f :st

guitarist g t :r st g t :r st g t :r st g t :r st

most mə st//-o st mə st//-o st mə st//-o st most

percent pəsent// pərsent pəsent// pərsent pəsent// pərsent pərsent problems pr bləmz pr bləmz pr bləmz pr bləmz

six siks siks siks siks

think θ ŋk θ ŋk θ ŋk t ŋk

NOTE: is used to symbolize the apocope process that occurred

3. Sound addition

Sound addition is a process in which phonological rules can add the entire

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phonemic segment (Fromkin and Rodman, 1975: 104). In sound change, sound

can be inserted in several different ways; they are prothesis, anaptyxis,

excrescence, and paragoge. Anaptyxis and excrescence are a phenomenon that

occurred on students’ pronunciation.

a. Anaptyxis

Unlike apocope, anaptyxis is a kind of epenthesis or insertions process

where an extra vowel is inserted between two consonants (Campbell, 2004:36).

According to Swan and Smith (2001:282), “the most frequently occurring syllable

structure in simple Indonesian words is consonant-vowel-consonant. Indoneain

students are likely to insert a schwa vowel to simplify clusters”. The anaptyxis

processes in the students’ pronunciation were presented in table 4.3.

Table 4.3.1. The sound changes that were categorized as anaptyxis Word The phonetic transcription

Longman Oxford Longman Dictionary Students’

Pronunciation American Contemporary Pronunciation

Dictionary (2008) Dictionary (2003) English (2001)

hospital h sp təl h sp tl h sp tl//h :- h sp tal interesting ntrəst ŋ ntrəst ŋ ntrəst ŋ ntərəst ŋ

school sku:l sku:l sku:l səku:l

twelve twelv twelv twelv tuweləf

NOTE: is used to symbolize the anaptyxis process that occurred

The researcher found four words which experienced the anaptyxis process.

There were two sounds which inserted in the anaptyxis process. The insertion of

the sounds [a] and [ə] in the word personal [p :sənl] and school [sku:l]. Students

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pronounced the word personal as [p :sənal] and the word school as [səku:l]. The

insertion of the vowel [a] and [ə] eased the students to pronounce those words.

b. Excrescence

Excrescence is also one kind of epentheses or insertion process which refers

to the insertion of an extra consonant between two consonants (Campbell,

1998:36). There was one word which experienced the excrescence process, which

is the word songwriter [s ŋra tər] which could be easily to pronounce as

[s ŋwra tər]. The researcher found that students inserted the [w] sound between

[ŋ] and [r] sounds. The excrescence process was presented in table 4.4.

Table 4.3.2. The sound changes that were categorized as excrescence Word The phonetic transcription

Longman Oxford Longman Dictionary Students’

Pronunciation American Contemporary Pronunciation

Dictionary (2008) Dictionary (2003) English (2001) songwriter s :ŋra tər s :ŋra tə s :ŋra tə s :ŋwra tər

NOTE: is used to symbolize the anaptyxis process that occurred

4. Monophthongization

Unlike diphthongization, Monophthongization refers to the change of

diphthong into the single vowel. Table 4.5 showed three words which experienced

the monophthongization process. Students substituted the sounds [a ] with [ ] and

the sound [e ] with [a]. According to Swan and Smith (2001:280), “For

Indonesian learners, English diphthongs may be realized as pure vowels”, for

example, the students found it easier to pronounce the word about [əba t] as [əb t].

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Table 4.4. The sound changes that were categorized as monophthongization Word The phonetic transcription Longman Oxford Longman Dictionary Students’

Pronunciation American Contemporary Pronunciation

Dictionary (2008) Dictionary (2003) English (2001)

about əba t əba t əba t əb t administrator ədm n stre tə//-ər ədm n stre tə//-ər ədm n stre tə//-ər ədm n stratər

both bə θ//bo θ bə θ//bo θ bə θ//bo θ b t

close klə s//klo s klə s//klo s klə s//klo s kl s

clothing klə ð ŋ// klə ð ŋ// klə ð ŋ// kl t ŋ

klo ð ŋ klo ð ŋ klo ð ŋ

NOTE: is used to symbolize the monophthongization process that occurred

5. Strengthening

Strengthening or fortition is process which involves strong sounds. There

were twenty-one words which experienced the strengthening process. The

strengthening processes in the students’ pronunciation were presented on the table

4.5.

There were eight sounds which experienced strengthening. Those sounds

changed from weak sounds into strong sounds. They were sounds [θ]Æ[t],

[ð]Æ[d], [ʒ]Æ[s], [ ]Æ[s], [ ]Æ[t], [v]Æ[f], [z]Æ[s], and [f]Æ[p]. According to

Swan and Smith (2001:281) “Indonesian learners generally pronounce [θ] as [t],

[ð] as [d], and [ ] as [s]”. Students pronounced the word think [θ ŋk] as t ŋ(k) and

the word they [ðe ] as dei which may cause different meaning.

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Table 4.5. The sound changes that were categorized as strengthening Word The phonetic transcription Longman Oxford Longman Dictionary Students’

Pronunciation American Contemporary English Pronunciation

Dictionary (2008) Dictionary (2003) (2001)

actually æk uəli,- əli æk uəli,- əli æk uəli,- əli æktuəli

both bə θ//bo θ bə θ//bo θ bə θ//bo θ b t

cashier kæ ə//kæ ər kæ ə//kæ r kæ ə//kæ r kæs r

clothing klə ð ŋ//klo ð ŋ klə ð ŋ//klo ð ŋ klə ð ŋ//klo ð ŋ kl t ŋ

easier i:ziə, i:ziər i:ziə i:ziə i:siə fortunately f : ənətli//f :r- f : ənətli//f :r- f : ənətli//f :r- f :rtunətli

freshman fre mən fre mən fre mən fresmən

future fju: ə//- ər fju: ə//- ər fju: ə//- ər fju:tər

health helθ helθ helθ helt

music mju:z k mju:z k mju:z k mju:s k

phone fə n//fo n fə n//fo n fə n//fo n pə n

shake e k e k e k se k

shop p p p s p

situation s ue n, s tu- s ue n s ue n s tue sn

special spe əl spe əl spe əl spesial

there ðeər//ðeə, ðær ðeər//ðeə ðeər//ðeə deər

these ði:z ði:z ði:z di:z

they ðe ðe ðe de

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think θ ŋk θ ŋk θ ŋk t ŋk university ju:n vəsəti//-s ti ju:n v :səti//- :r ju:n v :səti//- :r ju:n f :rsəti

usually ju:ʒuəli//-ʒəli ju:ʒuəli//-ʒəli ju:ʒuəli//-ʒəli ju:suəli

NOTE: is used to symbolize the strengthening process that occurred

6. Other findings

There are some of the sound changes in the students’ pronunciations

which could not classify as the phenomenon of sound change that present in the

previous. The researcher classified it as other findings. The other findings process

was presented on the table 4.6.

Table 4.6. The sound changes that were categorized as other findings Word The phonetic transcription Longman Oxford Longman Dictionary Students’

Pronunciation American Contemporary Pronunciation

Dictionary (2008) Dictionary (2003) English (2001)

busy b zi b zi b zi busi

college k l k l k l k leg

countries k ntriz k ntriz k ntriz k ntris

expensive kspens v kspens v kspens v ekspens f

experience ksp əriəns ksp əriəns ksp əriəns eksperiəns

front fr nt fr nt fr nt fr nt

often fn fn fn ftn

women w m n w m n w m n w mən

NOTE: is used to symbolize the other findings process that occurred

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Table 4.6 showed that there were eight English words which belong to other findings phenomena, for example, the word busy [b zi] pronounced as busi and the word often [ fn] pronounced as oftn. Students pronounced those sounds as in a written form.

B. The English speech sounds as the result of the sound change

The researcher found there are six types of the English sound change of the first grade students of Sekolah Menengah Kejuruan Negeri 2 Depok Sleman

Yogyakarta. They are assimilation, deletion, sound addition, monophtongization, diphthongization, and strengthening. Those types of sound change experienced the changes of one sound into another sound. The researcher would try to discover the

English speech sounds as the result of the sound change. The English speech sounds as the result of the sound change were presented on the table 4.7

Table 4.7. Sound changes No. Sounds Simplification 7. s Ø

Final Devoicing Anaptyxis

1. z s 8. w

2. v f Excresence

Apocope 9. ə

3. t Ø 10. u

4. z Ø 11. a

5. d Ø Monophthongization

6. k Ø 12. a

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13. o a

14. e e

Strengthening

15. θ t

16. ð d

17. ʒ s

18. s

19. t

20. v f

21. z s

22. f p

Other findings

23. u

24. eg

25.

26. e

27.

28. ə

29. t

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Based on the findings in the first problem formulation, the researcher found that there were many English sounds which experienced the sound change process. Students tend to substitute and insert some diphthong, vowel and consonant sounds in the English words. For example, students tend to substitute the sounds [a , o and e ] by the sounds [ , , and a] in monophthongization process, the insertion of the vowel sounds [u], [a] and [ə] as in the anaptyxis process and the consonant sound [w] in the excrescence process. Those sound changes were caused by articulatory simplification. The result of simplification was the first grade students of Sekolah Menengah Kejuruan Negeri 2 Depok

Sleman Yogyakarta were easy to pronounce the English words.

The researcher found that the sounds [t, z, d, k, s, θ, ð, ʒ, , , v, and f] were the most common sounds which were substituted with other sounds by the first grade students of Sekolah Menengah Kejuruan Negeri 2 Depok Sleman

Yogyakarta. The researcher explored many English words; where those sounds occured, were always experience the sound change. Students tend to delete the sounds [t, z, d, k, and s] in the final sounds because students were easy to pronounce the English words where those final sounds occur.

Other sounds which were also substituted by the students were the sounds

[θ, ð, ʒ, , , v, z, and f]. Those sounds were substituted by the sounds [t, d, s, s, t, f, s, and p]. The most difficult sounds for students to pronounce were the sounds

[z] and [v] in the final words. Students substituted those sounds by the sounds [s] and [f]. These substitutions were easy the students to pronounce those English sound.

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CHAPTER V

CONCLUSIONS AND SUGGESTIONS

This chapter is divided into two parts. They are conclusions and suggestions. The conclusions present some conclusion of analysis results in this study. Meanwhile, the suggestions present suggestions for the English teacher and for other researchers who are interested in conducting the similar study.

A. Conclusions

This research was intended to provide information on the sound change phenomenon which occurred on the pronunciation of the first grade students of

Sekolah Menengah Kejuruan Negeri 2 Depok Sleman Yogyakarta. In order to gain the information about the sound change in students’ pronunciation, the researcher conducted observation and analysis on the students’ pronunciation.

From the analysis, the researcher found the information to answer the research problems that are summarized below:

1. The types of the English sound changes of the first grade students of Sekolah

Menengah Kejuruan Negeri 2 Depok Sleman Yogyakarta?

The researcher found the sound change phenomenon among the students’ pronunciation. The researcher found six types of sound changes which occurred in students’ pronunciation. They are assimilation, deletion, sound addition, monophtongization, strengthening and other findings. There are three sounds in final devoicing, which is one types of assimilation, substituted with other sounds.

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The change includes the substitutions of sound [θ] by sound [t], sound [ð] by sound [d], and sound [z] by sound [s].

In apocope, which one type of deletion process, there were five sounds which experienced the deletion process in the last words. They are the sound [t], sound [z], sound [d], sound [k], and sound [s].

In insertion process, there were two types which occur in the students’ pronunciation, they are anaptyxis and excrescence. In anaptyxis, there three sounds which experience the anaptyxis process. They are the insertion of [a] sound, [ə] sound, and [u] sound. While, in excrescence, there is only one sound which experiences the insertion process. There is the insertion of the sound [w].

In monohthongization process, there are three sounds which experience the sound change. They are the sound [a ] becomes [ ], sound [ə ] becomes [ ], and the sound [e ] becomes [a].

In other findings, there were some sound changes which did not belong to the sound change phenomenon. The substitution of the sound [ ] by sound [u], sound [ ] by sound [e], sound [ ] by sound [g], sound [ ] by sound [ ], sound [ ] by sound [ , ə] and the insertion of the sound [t].

2. The English speech sounds as the result of the sound change

Based on the research findings in this study, the English sounds [a , o and e ] in the middle of the words would be change into the sounds [ , a, and e], because English diphthongs might be realized as pure vowels by the students. The insertion of the vowel sounds [u], [a] and [ə] and the consonant sound [w]. Those sound changes were caused by articulatory simplification.

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Students were likely to drop the sounds [t, z, d, k, and s] in the final sounds, especially after other consonants because students were easy to pronounce the English words where those final sounds occur.

The other sounds which also substituted by the students were the sounds

[θ, ð, ʒ, , , v, z, and f]. Those sounds were substituted by the sounds [t, d, s, s, t, f, s, and p]. The most difficult sounds for students to pronounce were the sounds

[z] and [v] in the final words. Students substituted those sounds by the sounds [s] and [f]. These substitutions were easy the students to pronounce those English sound.

Spelling pronunciation is the cause of the other findings phenomena which occur in the students’ pronunciation. Students pronounce the English words as in written form which could differ significantly from the way it is pronounced, as the substitution of the sound [ ] by sound [u] and [e], sound [ ] by sound [g], sound [ ] by sound [ ], sound [ ] by sound [ , ə] and the insertion of the sound [t].

B. Suggestions

Based on the findings provided previously, the researcher has two suggestions which are aimed to English teacher and to other researchers who would like to conduct similar study.

The English teacher needs to analyze the sound changes that occur on the students’ pronunciation. The teacher should give clear comparison on the differences of the English sounds and their native sounds. The teacher can facilitate the students by giving example of the right pronunciation, so students

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could try to imitate it. The teacher could ask the students to read a loud a text so the teacher could correct their mispronunciation.

The researcher suggest for the future researchers who are interested to conduct the same research, that it is necessary for the future researchers to expand the topic of this research. The extension of the topics of the research could involve research of the influence of the sound change to the students’ pronunciation or related with the appropriate technique to teach pronunciation for SMKN students.

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REFERENCES

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Anonymous. 2003. Oxford American Dictionary and Thesaurus. Oxford: Oxford University Press

Avery, P., and Herlich, S. 1992. Teaching American English Pronunciation. Oxford: Oxford University Press.

Campbell, L. 2004. Historical Linguistics (2nd ed). Edinburgh: Edinburgh University Press.

Collins, B and Mees, I. M. 2003. Practical Phonetics and Phonology. London: Routledge Taylor and Francis Group.

Crowley, T. 1992. An Introduction to Hictorical Linguistics (2nd ed). New York: Oxford University Pres.

Crystal, D. 1991. A Dictionary of Linguistics and Phonetics. Oxford: Blackwell Publishers.

Crystal, D. 1987. The Cambridge of Language. New York: The Press Syndicate of the University of Cambridge.

Darjowidjojo, S. 2009. English Phonetics and Phonology for Indonesians. Jakarta: Yayasan Obor Indonesia

Fasol, R., and Linton, J.C. 2006. An Introduction to Language and Linguistics. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.

Fromkin, V., Rodman, R., and Hyams, N. 2000. An Introduction to Language. Boston: Thomson Corporation.

Goodwin, J. 1995. “Teaching Pronunciation.” In Marrianne Celce-Murcia (eds). Teaching English as a second or foreign language (3rd ed). Illinois: Heinle and Heinle.

Indriani, M.I. 2003. English Pronunciation: The English Speech Sounds Theory and Practice. Jakarta: Gramedia Pustaka Utama.

Kenworthy, J. 1997. Teaching English Pronunciation. London: Longman.

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Morley, J. 1991. “Te Pronunciation Component in Teaching English to Speakers of Other Languages.” TESOL Quarterly,25 (1), 51-74.

Paulston, C.B., and Bruder, Mary N. 1976. Teaching English as a second language: techniques and procedure. Boston: Little Brown and Company.

O’grady, W., Dobrovolsky, M., and Katamba, F. 2001. Contemporary linguistics an introduction. London: Longman.

Richards, J., Platt, J., and Weber, H. 1985. Longman dictionary of applied linguistic. London: Longman Group Limited.

Saussure, F de. 1992. Course in general linguistic. New York: Open Court.

Swan, M. 1995. Practical English Usage. Oxford: Oxford University Press.

Swan, M., and Smith, B. 2001. Lerner English Edition: A Teacher’s guide to interference and other problems. London: Cambridge University Press.

Syafei, A. 1988. English pronunciation: theory and practice. Jakarta: Departemen Pendidikan dan Kebudayaan.

Wells, J. C. 2008. Longman Pronunciation Dictionary. Edinburgh Gate: Pearson Education Limited.

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APPENDICES

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APPENDIX 1

PERMISSION LETTER

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APPENDIX 2

PASSAGES

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Passage 1. One example of Reading Aloud 1

MEETING AND GREETING CUSTOMS

How do you think the people in these countries great each other?

There are many different greeting customs around the world. Here are some

Chile People usually shake hands when they meet for the first time. When two women first meet, they sometimes give one kiss on the cheek. (They actually “kiss the air.”) Women also greet both male and female friends with a kiss. Chilean men give their friends warm abrazos (hugs) or sometimes kiss women on the cheek.

Finland Finns greet each other with a firm handshake. Hugs and kisses are only for close friends and family.

The Philippines The everyday greeting for friends is a handshake for both men and women. Men sometimes pat each other on the back.

Korea Men bow slightly and shake hands to greet each other. Women do not usually shake hands. To address someone with his or her full name, the family name comes first, then the first name.

The United States People shake hands when they are first introduced. Friends and family members often hug or kiss the cheek when they see each other. In these situations, men often kiss women but not other women.

(Taken from Interchange, Cambridge University Press, 1997)

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Passage 2. One example of Reading Aloud 2

THE DAILY GRIND

Is it good idea for a student to have a job? Why or why not?

Brandon Smith I’m a junior in high school, and I have a part-time job in a restaurant. I bus dishes on Saturdays and Sundays from 8:00 until 4:00. I earn $5.50 and hour. It isn’t much money, but I save almost every penny! I want to go to a good university, and the cost goes up every year. Of course, I spend some money when I go out on Saturday nights.

Lauren Russell I’m a senior in high school. I have a job as a cashier in grocery store. The job pays me well-about $56.75 an hour. I work every weeknight after school from 4:00 until 8:00. I don’t have time for homework, and my grades aren’t very good this year. But, I have to world, or I can’t buy nice cloth and I can’t go out on Saturday nights. Also, a car costs a lot of money.

Erica Device I’m a freshman in collage. Collage is very expensive, so I work in a low office for three hours every weekday afternoon. I make photocopies, the paper, and sot mail for $8.25 an hour. The job gives me good experience because I want to be a lawyer someday. But I don’t want to work every semester. I need time to study.

(Taken from Interchange, Cambridge University Press, 1997)

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Passage 3. One example of Reading Aloud 3

SHOP TILL YOU DROP

Look at the pictures of different kinds of shopping in the United States. What kind of shopping can you do in your country?

Catalog Shopping People in the United States often shop from catalogs. There are special catalogs for almost every need-including clothing, furniture, health and beauty products, and thins for the kitchen. People also order about 40% of their music from music club catalos. Customers say that music stores are too noisy.

Television Shopping Television shopping began in 1986. About 5% to 8% of the American public now shops by television. Some popular shopping channels are the Home Shopping Network and QVC. Customers say that television shopping is easier than shopping in a store. How do they buy thins? They make a phone call and charge the item to their credit card. And TV shopping channels are on late at night, so people can “go shopping” anytime.

Computer Shopping Is computer shopping the way of the future? About 37% of American households now have personal computers. And shopping by computer (or “shopping on-line”) is interesting to more people every day. Already, shoppers can use their computers to order many different products, such as computer products, flowers, food, T- shirt, and posters. And new on-line shopping services appear every day. Soon people may be able to shop for anything, anytime, anywhere in the world.

(Taken from Interchange, Cambridge University Press, 1997)

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Passage 4. One example of Reading Aloud 4

THE SOUND OF MUSIC

What are some traditional kinds of music in your country?

Do you like popular music from Latin America, the United States, or Asia? Many musicians from around the world blend their country’s music with popular sounds.

Caetano Veloso After thirty years, Caetano Veloso is still one of Brazil’s most important musicians. He mixes rock with the music of the Bahagia region. Bahagia is a state of Brazil that is strongly influenced by African culture. Ceatano Veloso is an excellent songwriter and poet. He says of his music, “I make my records like a painter paints his canvas.”

Bonnie Raitt Bonnie Raitt is an American singer, songwriter, and guitarist. Her music blends rock with country and the blues. The blues is a kind of folk music that is often sad. It is usually about love and the problems of life. Bonnie Raitt’s strong rougl

Cui Jian Cui Jien (pronounced “tsay jyan”) is a very important musician in the growth of rock music in China. Western styles, like jazz and rap, clearly influence his music. However, his music is very Chinese in its instruments and sounds. Cui Jien says his music express the feelings of Chinese young people.

(Taken from Interchange, Cambridge University Press, 1997)

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Passage 5. One example of Reading Aloud 5

THE CHANGING FAMILY

What kinds of problems do parents have in your country?

American families are changing. One important change is that most married women now work outside that home. What happens when both parents work? Read about the Morales family

Judy and Steve Morales have three children. Josh 12, Ben 9, and Emily 6. Steve is computer programmer. This year, Judy is working again as a hospital administrator. The family needs the money, and Judy likes her job. Everything is going well, but there are also some problems.

Now that Judy is working, Steve has to help her more with housework. He doesn’t enjoy it, however.

Judy loves her work, but she feels tired and too busy. She also worries about the children. Judy has to work on Saturdays, so Steve and Judy don’t have a lot of free time together.

Emily is having great time in her after school program. When Judy comes to pick her up, she doesn’t want to leave.

Unfortunately, Ben’s school doesn’t have an after-school program. Right now, he’s spending most afternoons by himself in front of the TV.

Josh is enjoying new freedom after school. He’s playing his music louder and spending more time on the phone. He’s also doing a few household chores.

(Taken from Interchange, Cambridge University Press, 1997)