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D nKwi n h ntdAa Arab United the and in Practices Gender and Policing, :Language, Ocean Indian the in Asians South h itrclCnet ot saadteGulf the and South Context: Historical The eerhCnesfrarsac rn htfne h research. the funded that Overseas grant American per- research a of to for Coalition Centers speaks Research the that thank 1995 I in experiences. work sonal sec- ethnographic second the on Gulf; draws the in tion expatriates Asian South of lives shaping the patterns the demographic and and relationships constraints, Asian/Gulf South opportunities, of history the detail, in hsatcei rw rmalne oki rprto nem- on preparation : in Hyderabad, work from longer igrants a from drawn is article This Leonard Karen h epta aiieTuesge ytepeetmmeso h UAE. the of members present the by signed Truce Maritime Perpetual the hp ihteGl oiiswr rtdrce ytepoica oeneto Bombay, of government provincial the by directed first were after polities then Gulf the with ships h evsvns fpwr u ntepwro culture.” of power the on on only but power, not focused of repeatedly pervasiveness has the “anthropology contem- domains, globalization cultural of on and Asia. forces also social economic South affect depend the strongly toward While but configurations. other determined demographic historically the and policies extent and porary some East to Middle different are in the experiences flow toward These currents society cultural The one settings. pointing Gulf directions, two these in experiences expatriate ent rcswt h rts oenet hspoesbgnin or treaties began separate process signed This Gulf government. the of British polities the small with the forces truces which British the and under with system, Shariqah of confederacy trucial Ash Qawasim empire the to in the maritime led of based the battles latter with Nineteenth-century the Khaymah. confederacy, dealing al tribal meant Ra’s Qawasim that to the efforts and and the to India, sultanate and led to Omani building route particularly empire trade British states, century, the Gulf eighteenth protect the the of In some long-standing. and are UAE, Asia South between ties Historical ahsae edn osprt as rvldcmnso asot,adutmtl national ultimately and passports, or documents travel flags, separate to leading state, each in1947 pendence ol:IdasHdrbdsAbroad Hyderabadis India’s World: rts oiac nteGl otne ob retdt ni.Biihrelation- British India. to oriented be to continued Gulf the in dominance British nte,lnug,plcn,adgne rcie eppouesgicnl differ- significantly produce help practices gender expatriates and Asian policing, South language, of them, the positioning in and similar Kuwait the of and states (UAE) Gulf Emirates Persian Arab United two the between similarities striking the espite 1873 yteclna oeneto ni,adatrIda n aitn inde- Pakistani and Indian after and India, of government colonial the by yteBiihFrinOfie rti odce eaaerltoswith relations separate conducted Britain Office. Foreign British the by oaigHm naChanging a in Home Locating h rtscindelineates, section first The . Comparative StudiesofSouthAsia,AfricaandtheMiddleEast Published by Duke University Press nunei untruhtete n19 n 1916. British and under 1899 in came treaties through turn and in Kuwait influence and 1861, in treaty arate Zahlan, Said Rosemarie 2. 1–27. and Anthropology Debate,” Citizenship Citizenship: New the “Exoticising Werbner, Pnina 1. tts uat ari,Qtr h ntdAa mrts and Emirates, Arab Oman United the Qatar, , Kuwait, States: Lno:UwnHmn 99,59 ari indasep- a signed Bahrain 5–9. 1989), Hyman, Unwin (London: 1 1820 n a eldin sealed was and h aigo h oenGulf Modern the of Making The abraAnthropology Canberra 2 1853 1(1998): 21 with 677 Vol. 25, No. 3, 2005A the Middle EastSouth Asia, AfricaComparative and Studies of

Duke University Press

VARIORUM Comparative Studies of South Asia, Africa and the

678 anthems.3 Thus the states, whose boundaries vice workers, and laborers have left their home and relations with each other had been histori- countries to become expatriate workers. But it cally fluid, developed distinct identities. is the Arab rulers who control these labor flows Yet British dominance also produced im- through laws that set a “steel frame” for work portant commonalities. The Indian was and family life.7 In the Gulf,8 we see a unique the principal currency in the Gulf, Indian example, perhaps, of transnationalism as a de- stamps were used (overlaid with state names), liberate strategy of economic and political gov- political officers applied British Indian regula- ernance. tions, and (Hindustani) words infiltrated The Gulf rulers launched their states in- Comparative the coastal dialect.4 Yemeni and other to the modern world with the help of expatri- Gulf worked as soldiers in Indian na- ates. The industry, on which most Gulf Studies of tive states, including Hyderabad.5 Other links states depended before the 1930s, was based to India included those developed through on indigenous technology and expertise, but South Asia, the pearl-diving industry, the mainstay of most the oil concessions brought in expatriates, and Africa and the Gulf economies before the oil discoveries com- as the Gulf states develop and diversify their menced in the 1930s. For example, Gulf mer- economies, their small and relatively unskilled Middle East chants sent to Hyderabad, India, for populations still need the help of expatri- stringing and setting into jewelry. The 1929 ate managers and workers.9 These - Wall Street crash, the resultant world eco- exporting states are exceptionally wealthy, and nomic depression, and the Japanese introduc- their citizens receive many economic benefits. tion of cultured pearls brought about the col- Home ownership is nearly universal for citizens, lapse of the pearl industry, plunging the Gulf and water, power, and telephones are heavily economies into crisis. But it was just at that subsidized; services are free. Free ed- time that foreign oil companies began arriving ucation often includes education abroad, and in search of concessions, and the oil conces- free or nearly free health care can include sions established a pattern of reliance on for- care abroad. The expatriate workers also ben- eign expertise and manpower that has persisted efit from some state subsidies. beyond the termination of the foreign oil con- The centrality of the state in the econo- cessions in the late 1970s.6 mies and a dependence on multinational cap- Thus the Gulf states rely heavily on ex- ital are features the Gulf states share with patriates, including South Asians, for whom other oil exporters,10 but there are sharp differ- there are opportunities to use their skills for ences, most notably the combination of a ho- higher pay and in better working conditions mogeneous class of citizens with large numbers than at home. Businessmen, professionals, ser- of heterogeneous noncitizens working within

3. Ibid., 16. A British political resident (stationed in 7. Sara Suleri argues that lived experience for women 9. Yusif A. Sayigah, “Problems and Prospects of De- southern to 1946 and thereafter in Bahrain) had can best be approached through the narratives pro- velopment in the ” (286–309, 293), several subordinate political agents posted in several vided by the law; this is true for all expatriates in and Frank Stoakes, “Social and Political Change in Gulf locations, and these agents conducted all for- the Gulf. Suleri, “Woman Skin Deep: Feminism and the Third World: Some Peculiarities of Oil-Producing eign relations for the Gulf states. the Postcolonial Condition,” Critical Inquiry 18 (1992): Principalities of the ” (189–215, 203), both 756–69, 766. in The Arabian Peninsula: Society and Politics, ed. 4. Ibid., 10–13. Oman too was affected by this system. Derek Hopwood (Totowa, NJ: Rowman and Littlefield, Even in the late 1920s mail for the west from Oman 8. When South Asians talk about the Gulf, they mean 1972); Zahlan, The Making of the Modern Gulf States, was routed through Bombay. The Omani sultanate the six of , Kuwait, Bahrain, 70–72. ruled part of the Pakistani (Makran) coast until 1958 Oman, Qatar, and the . These (W. D. Peyton, Old Oman [London: Stacey Interna- six belong to the , or GCC, 10. About Southeast Asian states, see Aihwa Ong, tional, 1983], 24, 54), although it had lost its Zanzibari formed in 1981 primarily for security reasons. There “Globalization and Zones of New ,” in outpost through British arbitration in 1861. Zahlan, are only two categories of residents in the Gulf states, Globalization under Construction: Governmentality, The Making of the Modern Gulf States, 108. citizens and noncitizens. The ruling families conceive Law, and Identity, ed. Richard Perry and William of the states as theirs, of their fellow tribesmen as Maurer (Minneapolis: University of Minnesota Press, 5. Smuggling of all kinds also linked western India, their subjects and citizens, and of the large num- 2003); about , see Fernando Coronil, The East Africa, and the Gulf states. bers of expatriate workers of all classes and national Magical State: Nature, Money, and Modernity in 6. The dependency of Gulf states on pearls ranged origins as perpetual outsiders. People point to some Venezuela (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, from 20 to 48 percent. Zahlan, The Making of the exceptions to this, particularly in in earlier 1997), 6–7. Modern Gulf States, 22, 70. decades when some Iranians and Indians were given passports.

Published by Duke University Press rdcin”in “In- Castels, troduction,” M. and Henderson J. citing 9, 7–16, (1991): and Geographies,” Images Postmodern Dialectical Identity: Imagining ference, Dif- Denoting Meaning, “Mapping Watt, J. Michael 12. 190–91. East,” Mid- dle the of States Gulf the in Workers “Asian Gardezi, 11. ansottr ia pnarvli h A,and thanks UAE, Kuwait, in the favored similarly in be arrival can ob- Americans upon can visas citizens British short-term to Qatar. tain entry and on Oman, visas UAE, state, given the GCC are any laborers, of menial visas except residence holding Those 13. rb fLbns,Plsiin n yinori- Syrian and Palestinian, Lebanese, of Arabs eosiue lc,lclt,addifference.” and locality, and place, “revalidates reconstitutes but difference, erase not does te rb n sasne visas. need while Asians and visas, Arabs without other countries en- other’s generally each can ter citizens Arab, GCC other and these Asian, (GCC), and UAE, Gulf the UAE, are In categories statistics. produce other to and categories crime “” some- use they times but about origins, statistics workers’ expatriate release the not do states Gulf treatment. Most and payment differential origin, of receiving places by ranked are workers Foreign the in countries GCC 1990 six these of total population the in- Of an workforce. with flexible rulers and ternational all its from providing world, Gulf the the over to come Workers state. each r foreigners, are edmn okr oteGulf. now the to Korea workers many South send and the , by , Lanka Sri and the in the in early countries Gulf the into moved and tries, South from was Gulf Asia, the in workforce that foreign in showed War) picture Gulf general the as the countries unit, GCC a six the steadily Treating have Asia increased. from workers but Arab neighboring countries, from and Persia from drawn and working classes. the professional of backbone the are patriates Development aitnLink ,etmtdat estimated s, ,floe n upse yIndians by surpassed and followed 1970s, hsgoaiaino h ao market labor the of globalization This tfis,sc xaraewreswere workers expatriate such first, At 30 ,wt togrpeetto from representation strong with 1980s, ora fCneprr Asia Contemporary of Journal ecn a rmohrAa coun- Arab other from was percent Lno:Sg,18) –7 10. 1–17, 1987), Sage, (London: 20 lblRsrcuigadTerritorial and Restructuring Global 6Spebr19;Hsa N. Hassan 1994; September 16 , ecn a rmSuhatAsia. Southeast from was percent 1 ilo fte ad.Teex- The . them of million egasaAnnaler Geografiska 23 ilo,some million, Comparative StudiesofSouthAsia,AfricaandtheMiddleEast 43 1(1991): 21 11 ecn fthe of percent 1985 B73 13 .The . 10 h other The Published by Duke University Press (before million i’ uflbrforce. labor In- Gulf of dia’s percent 50 particu- almost furnished were it Kerala since heavy, of larly state the for Consequences see Pakistan, For 16. respectively. 1989), Press, versity aaa,18) 5,adteWrdBank, World the and 159, 1989), lamabad, o ni,seMowli, see India, For rmn fPakistan, of ernment Gov- the quoting 191–92, Workers,” “Asian Gardezi, 15. 83. 81, 1992), ling, Mowli, Chandra V. 14. respectively. War, emirates Gulf the the in role and U.S. the Britain and between ties historical to eeomn eot 1989 Report, Development apwrMgain oWs Asia West to Migrations Manpower 12 h nuloto fmanpower. of in outflow decrease annual a the seen also has India and professionals. workers skilled to unskilled from shift a and since oe yOa n h A,adte Kuwait then Bahrain. and and UAE, the and Oman fol- by closely lowed Arabia, destinations Saudi been favored have The Indians Gulf. for the to labor of Chinese. and above ranked who Pakistanis, above ranked report- edly one- Indians laborers, receive Among much. Asians as third Southeast and much, South as half and salaries, receive Sudanese and and wages highest the command gin r nKwi r ahlr,wt e ratio sex a with bachelors, are of Kuwait in work- ers foreign most about and is noncitizens, Kuwait two-thirds of population The place. each ap- in Pakistanis are of number Indians the UAE. double proximately the and Kuwait in group ufhddopdb oethan more by dropped had the to Gulf exports manpower its that reported istan inadPksaiwresi h ufi the 1990– in Gulf the in late workers Pakistani and dian h igelretsuc fepr annsfor earnings export Pakistan. of constitute source East, largest Middle single the the from them of cent infiat eitne rmabroad, very from not remittances is significant, remittances from India’s of earnings percentage export in the Indians While legally), than Arabia. Pakistanis as Saudi more illegally are Gulf there many the but as to that estimated go is Pakistanis (it obtain to harder etfemale. cent 225 aitnLink Pakistan n seilyatrteGl a of War Gulf the after especially and 1980s cnmcSre,1987–88 Survey, Economic rdigte“Gulf,” the Bridging ni n aitnaemjrsuppliers major are Pakistan and India ot sasaetelretexpatriate largest the are Asians South 1985 rdigte“uf:India’s “Gulf”: the Bridging 91 to 15 NwYr:Ofr Uni- Oxford York: (New aebe irpie In disruptive. been have 100 hstedciignmeso In- of numbers declining the Thus eas ficesdcompetition increased of because 17 14 7Fbur 1995. 17 , NwDli Ster- Delhi: (New nteUAE, the In mlst eae) or females), to (males o aitns h grsare figures the Pakistanis, For 4 1 61. 81, 54, World (Is- 75 etec,adPksai t8preto h oa of total the of percent 889,347. per- 8 at 10 at Pakistanis at and Indians Lankans each, cent Sri percent, and 23 Bangladeshis at percent, Jan- 18 Egyptians 1 put to 1991 1994 permits February uary residency in in liberation from population from compiled recorded expatriate 1994 the in of Kuwait breakdown A 17. ei ulsigadDsrbto,19) 1 (here- 116 after 1995), Distribution, and Publishing media from xarae ubr10988 r6 ecn fthe of population; percent total 62 or 1,099,868, the where number expatriates text, the in tabulation citizen-noncitizen ecn fthe of percent 16 P ’95 KPG P ’95 KPG uatPce ud,1995 Guide, Pocket Kuwait 50 1995,Pak- ,21. .Tettlblwi htgvnfrthe for given that is below total The ). percent 75 31 P ’95 KPG per- per- ,20.Thesexratiofigureis Kwi:Multi- (Kuwait:

Karen Leonard 679

South Asians in Kuwait and the UAE Comparative Studies of South Asia, Africa and the Middle East

680 population is said to be expatriate, and in Dubai money monthly can sponsor his wife and chil- that proportion is higher, perhaps 80 percent. dren to live with him; the amount is high (very The sex ratio among expatriates in the UAE is slightly less in the UAE than in Kuwait), to dis- 70 percent male and 30 percent female, almost courage workers from bringing their families. identical to that in Kuwait.18 If both spouses are working, their salaries can The Gulf state boundaries act as “sifters be added together. Wives cannot sponsor hus- of labour rather than as barriers to its move- bands in Kuwait, but women doctors and teach- ment,”19 but there are stiff requirements. ers can sponsor husbands in the UAE. In both Those who meet them—visa, sponsor, work per- sites, adult (over age eighteen) and unmarried Comparative mit, residence permit, and medical checkup daughters can be sponsored but not adult sons, requirements—gain access to economic oppor- and no dependents can work without their own Studies of tunities. Recruitment starts in the home coun- sponsors and work visas. Parents can visit for tries and involves brokers and manpower re- one to three months (since 1995 in Kuwait, they South Asia, cruiting agencies at both ends; costs are high can stay longer for a high annual fee).22 For- 20 Africa and the and some are unofficial. The rules are detailed eigners (save GCC citizens) cannot own land and quite similar in Kuwait and Dubai. Citizen or real estate and must rent accommodations, Middle East sponsors are needed even for a visitor’s visas customarily unfurnished ones (this changed for (save for GCC citizens), and residence visas are the UAE in 2003, when South Asian expatriates of three types: work, dependent, and servant. were allowed to purchase property—no data are Expatriates, whether businessmen, profession- available yet on this). als, or workers, over the age of sixty are not per- Expatriates can and do employ other ex- mitted. A noncitizen can do private business in patriates. They may sponsor one full-time Kuwait in several closely regulated ways, most of household servant (again there is a minimum them involving a local agent, sponsor, or part- salary requirement).23 If a man sponsors a fe- ner (in Kuwait this must be a man, but it can be male servant, he must be married and have his a woman in the UAE). These working relation- wife living with him. Maids must be between ships are typically quite nominal, with sponsors twenty and fifty years old, and family members taking commissions from many foreigners an- cannot be brought as servants. Maids and other nually but not participating in the businesses. domestic workers live in their employers’ house- The laws governing expatriates in the UAE are holds, while male laborers and service workers slightly more flexible: visitors’ visas for tourists usually group together in rooms or dormitories are easier to obtain, and, while the age limit and contract for two or three meals a day at din- of sixty pertains in theory, many older business- ing halls.24 men and major investors are allowed in.21 South Asian expatriates benefit substan- Family life for expatriates depends on tially from working in the Gulf. For unskilled their class. Once he has secured a residence and skilled workers, professionals, and business- visa, a man who makes a certain amount of men, salaries are many times those at home,25

18. Economist, 20 September 1997, 52, gives a popula- Gulf countries. I found women agents recruiting men 24. Men who are bus drivers or air conditioner re- tionfigurefortheUAEof2,210,000andassertsthat in India and Pakistan in the 1990s. pairmen in Kuwait earn from 90 to 120 KD ($297– over 80 percent are expatriates. $396) per month, and they typically spend about 45 21. India-West, 16 January 1996. KD ($148.50) for accommodation and food. Meals at 19. Terence Ranger, “Studying Repatriation as Part 22. The fee for parents is 200 Kuwaiti ($690) a a contract dining hall range from 18 KD ($59.40) per of African Social History,” in When Refugees Go year; the has been a very stable currency, 1 KD month for three meals a day to 20 KD ($66) a month Home, ed. Tim Allen and Hubert Morsink (Trenton, equaling $3.30. KPG ’95,38. for two (better-quality) meals a day. Laborers can NJ: Africa World Press, 1994), 279–95, 287, quoted by earn as little as 20 KD ($66) a month, the wage al- David Hughes, “Reinventing Vulnerability in a Bor- 23. In Dubai, one must draw 7,000 dirhams, about legedly paid to workers from . Mirza Shamsher dered World” (paper presented at the New World Or- $1,900, per month to sponsor a , higher than for Ali Beg, interview with author, 2 August 1995, Kuwait. der Conference, University of California–Irvine, 18 Jan- a dependent, and the government collects an annual In the UAE, laborers’ wages range between $250 to uary 1998). Ranger was referring to colonial powers tax equal to her salary, which should be not less than $500 per month, $115 being at the low end, with food drawing the borders within Africa. 400 dirhams ($108) per month. Thus one pays about costs about $100–$110 per month. Pakistan Link,27 800 dirhams a month, or 9,600 dirhams ($2,400) a 20. India Today, 15 February 1997, gave a smuggling September 1996. year for a maid. Pakistan Link, 16 September 1994. fee of 1.5–2.0 lakhs of (US$4,280–$5,700), paid The dirham has been stable at 3.67 to the dollar since 25. Interviews with Indians and Pakistanis brought es- to brokers and agencies in India for sea passage to the 1980. timates of five to ten times as much.

Published by Duke University Press Amn lFjya,AhSaia,Dbi asal Ra’s Dubai, Shariqah, Ash Fujayrah, was Al UAE Dhabi, Abu ‘, of The emirates seven family. the from Al-Sabah 1971 in formed the from Kuwait of been the has century eighteenth the Since 26. onre.Frhroe idecasexpatri- middle-class home the Furthermore, in countries. back children and their celebrations, for schooling family repair, house and durables, building consumer in invest Gulf the in working Asians South states. those to, eventual returnees and of, citizens overseas posi- as seeing themselves Pakistan, strongly or India retain with relationships They tive psychologically this. are for they prepared and leave, must point, they some At permanently. Gulf the in stay not to easier costs). is increasing (thus it families and bring enjoy- plentiful are because diversions less able is save people Dubai although incentives. fun, additional have work Dubai who in Those can religion. one’s one practice Arabia) freely Saudi in (not and Dubai maintained, and values. strictly Kuwait religious are order and and to or safety per- sonal to threatening as culture Western view those who for consideration important non- culturally an Western, are they yet and world, the Western in cities to The favorably Asia. very compare South cities in Gulf Asia, West called also context—the is Asian Gulf Gulf an in the still in were they working that was for gave people business stretches. five-year Al- for arranged can elsewhere. be leases rented, relatives be to on have visit residences in though long a drop have or Europe, home, in plenty holiday year, to every time that of and least leave at month’s workers private one receive workers govern- summer, ment extremely the subsidized. of hospitals. government Because is state places the both at in cannot room Food delivery husbands the and in hospitals, be all be at must shown certificates marriage proce- although free entirely nonemergency there, almost still for is care them Maternity for dures. set be to until care free health received dependents their Kuwait, and In expatriates amenities. other and conditioning, air electricity, water, dependable and cheap with good, also and are conditions facilities living and modern condi- technology, with Working excellent, free. are tax tions is income one’s and h n etit sta xarae can- expatriates that is certainty one The and professional reason important An 1994 hn(o)fe began fees (low) when , Comparative StudiesofSouthAsia,AfricaandtheMiddleEast Published by Duke University Press e,adtevc rsdn stesek fDubai, of the is Maktum. president Sheikh vice the Za- Sheikh and Dhabi, yed, Abu of of sheikh president the The is federation Qaywayn. the al Umm and Khaymah, nKwi n h UAE the and Kuwait in Policing and Gender, Language, htmk ptefdrto fteUAE the of federation the up make countries— emirates that seven host the and the Kuwait of of rulers Arab politics the the play in they course role of no but population, the of cent raegopi ohpae,about places, both in group expa- largest triate the are Asians South identical, male. almost heavily is expatriates among ratio the sex and states; both in populations working-age e ht h A utoe) xarae consti- some expatriates tute over); just UAE the that, der uf hr aycaatrsis ahhsa has Each about of characteristics. population many Persian share the of Gulf, north- ends the southwestern at and UAE, western the and Kuwait states. the Gulf are among similarities world, strong Ocean despite Indian different the in flows of cultural directions the currents,” contemporary “cultural of the policy, domains important these In r uta rprdt eunhm rg else- go or work. home to return where but to prepared options as fewer just are have typically it. allow laborers countries The those since Canada, or dom - United the with actu- citizenships dual can hold ally Pakistanis and/or and U.S. card, a green secure Canadian might citi- person Indian a with zenship, Along citizenships rights. multiple immigration hold or to begun have ates oiigpatcsi h w environments. two the in practices policing re- and gender, then language, different and the to religion these late and class to respect populations with Asian South two con- the between demographic trasts general I some contrasts here in phasize the work ethnographic explain my in to life found examined private and be public can of aspects many different. While significantly were similar the environments have in two experiences would their sites Instead, two experiences. ex- the Asian in South that patriates think might one stances, countries. two similar the in strikingly ways in pro- positioned and were workers citi- fessionals expatriate own Asian their South to even zens. rights political few gate ie h eryietclst fcircum- of sets identical nearly the Given 70– 75 ecn fbt h oa and total the both of percent 2 ilo Kwi sjs un- just is (Kuwait million 1995 40– 43 26 ,Iem- dele- per-

Karen Leonard 681

South Asians in Kuwait and the UAE Comparative Studies of South Asia, Africa and the Middle East

682 With respect to class and religious com- was very fond.28 All the shopkeepers in the UAE position of the South Asian expatriate popu- from the 1950sand1960s were from Kerala or lations in the two sites, Kuwait is more polar- Barkas, the latter an Arab locality in Hyderabad ized in class terms, with a small elite class and city. There have been many marriages between a large, primarily bachelor, working class, while local Arabs and young women from Barkas or the UAE has South Asians distributed across other parts of Hyderabad State, so South Asian the class spectrum. The two-tier class structure culture was part of the home life as well as the so strong among expatriates in Kuwait is more work life of many UAE Arabs. muted in the UAE, with more families present But historical differences in the two envi- Comparative and greater mixing across class lines.27 South ronments shape the social of these expa- Asians of lower class origins who are upwardly triates even more significantly than differences Studies of mobile in the Gulf, “people with no manners,” of their own internal composition, I think, and may be part of the everyday social worlds of I would single out language usage as the most South Asia, those from “noble clans,” crossing a gulf in the significant indicator of these differences. Ara- Africa and the UAE that is harder to cross in Kuwait and with bic is not only the language of government in more mixing across national boundaries as well. Kuwait but that of the street, of public spaces. Middle East Big businessmen are important in Dubai as in The relatively small state, some 6,880 square Kuwait, but there seem to be more middle-level miles at the southern end of , is strongly ori- businessmen moving in and out of the UAE, ented toward the , toward the Mid- rather than a few big men settling in for years, dle East. , before the , were and lower-middle-class professionals do most of dominant in official positions, and expatriates their business with other expatriates. employed them and other non-Gulf Arabs as Kuwait has more Muslims and the UAE intermediaries with the state partly because of more among the South Asian expatri- their competence in Arabic. Kuwait’s treaty with ates. In the UAE, Sindis (from Sind) domi- the British came almost fifty years later than nate the business classes, especially in the gold the treaties of the UAE states with the British, and jewelry bazaars, and Keralites (from Ker- and historical relationships with South Asia and ala) dominate the service classes. In fact, Ker- Britain’s empire there were not very strong. alites were said to be the main group from In- While the seven emirates that formed the dia, and local sayings about them abounded, for United Arab Emirates in 1971 differ from each example, “Even a Sheikh cannot survive without other,29 they have much in common, and the a Kerala man.” People argued about whether UAE social landscape differs sharply from that Sindis or Hyderabadis were the second largest of Kuwait although Arabic is also the language group from India, but everyone knew that the of government in the UAE. In these Gulf states, late Sheikh Rashid (1958–86), the ruler of on the periphery of the Arab world and of Dubai credited with its innovative development, Britain’s South Asian empire, Urdu or Hindus- had had a Hyderabadi Indian driver of whom he tani is readily spoken and understood by many

27. The relatively liberal attitudes of Dubai encour- about Keralites in the UAE: What do you call a suc- the two greenest, or garden, cities in the UAE, El Ain, age South Asian expatriate families more than else- cessful Keralite? Pheno Menon. What do you call a a small city, and itself; Dubai comes third. where. In Dubai, vital statistics show noncitizens (80 dangerous Keralite? Dober Menon. The main group Dubai, once a dependency of Abu Dhabi and only fif- percent of the population) with double the number of from Pakistan were Pathans, driving taxis and doing teen hundred square miles, is the commercial and births of citizens; they also have double the number manual labor, and there were sayings and jokes about tourist capital of the UAE. Abu Dhabi and Dubai pur- of deaths but only about half the numbers of mar- them, too. sue complementary strategies for development, with riages and 55 percent of the divorces per year (Dubai Abu Dhabi improving the efficiency of its oil opera- 29. The federation is almost five times larger than Facts and Figures 1994 [Dubai: Dubai Chamber of tions and balancing finances on education, training, Kuwait and consists of seven historically distinct emi- Commerce and Industry, 1994], 2). and health. Dubai’s laissez-faire style of government rates (three of them larger than Kuwait). Abu Dhabi, and economy depends on the private sector, espe- 28. For the saying, Ramachandran, interview with au- Dubai, and Ash Shariqah are the leading ones. Abu cially the facilitation of trade. Ash Shariqah, very pow- thor, 20 August 1995, Ash Shariqah; for the driver, Mir Dhabi is the dominant partner in the UAE, and that erful before 1920, included the smaller emirates of Miraj Ali, with Anees and Maqsood Ali, interview, 18 city is the political capital of the federation; it has Ra’s al Khaymah and Al Fujayrah, but the British rec- August 1995, Dubai. Ali said the sheikh supported the the largest , some twenty-six thousand square ognized these two as independent in 1921 and 1952, driver in his old age, and “people knew him; he used miles, and the largest oil reserves. Abu Dhabi also has respectively. to go for a beer.” Here are two more of the many jokes

Published by Duke University Press nKwi,MraSase l e,ad nDubai, in and, Ali. Beg, Maqsood and Ali Anees Shamsher Mirza helpers, greatest Kuwait, my in especially August thank to and want July I interviews, 1995. from conclusion My 31. investors. attract foreign and of economy the because diversify to looking efforts outward vigorous more and competitive Kuwait’s, as as is environment business UAE The 30. ahrta ilkd soemnsaid, man liked one generally As disliked. are than “locals” rather the as and “nationals” Kuwait, than in rather “locals” Arabs nous nKwi,adteBiihi h A,rein- UAE, orientations. the language in these British the force and Arabs,” Kuwait, “other in the groups, expatriate im- most portant The Dhabi. Abu in prevail Shariqah; does Ash Arabic and Dubai of streets the on one hears In- languages the En- are of and Arabic, than numbers Urdu rather glish, large expatriates. the Pakistani by and dian as well as Arabs nsls esoevvdyo i struggles: his of vividly spoke He sales. on his on dependent is salary, he no With en- an illustrates. from salesman below cyclopedia quote the as UAE, expatri- the other in ates with more mix also Asians South lrytoeo Dubai, of partic- those achievements, ularly per- UAE’s took the in Asians pride South sonal Many UAE. the cul- in have popular ture constitute India to helped and and in Pakistan shared from India’s, expatriates is so Hindi language, national Pakistan’s h rb hni Kuwait, in than Arabs the me. identi- to fication of feelings such expressed rarely Kuwait nteUE h ot sasfe lsrto closer feel Asians South the UAE, the In hr hm h opn ae oro ssales- us of to four try takes we Company expense, the big them; a share are Taxis earn, . to . here . come spend. not have who people to sets dia encyclopae- costly sell cannot we hundred and over, a times us, and who to receptionists, “No” people say become Receptionists higher. boys manners; tea no as started peo- with illiterate with people deal to ple, has one Gulf, the In up. it built for who miserable those life make don’t say, we com- and is every- up, locals] ing [of and generation has banks a now Who the And thing? running . . UAE, . Asians. the South built to are exposed they often, much Bombay or been Karachi have in locals educated these is and This Kuwait, of there. than only always better on is men reservation meet the that with we course, occasions; locals, other the and with Id socialize do We 31 10 33 hl ot sasin Asians South while Comparative StudiesofSouthAsia,AfricaandtheMiddleEast 32 ecn commission percent aln h indige- the calling 30 Published by Duke University Press ruis Urdu o o dcto,nwte r on oteUnited King- the United to States. going the are to they now go education, for to dom used Asia South now from education, peo- ple while for and Kingdom, Pakistan United the to or going are India they to go to locals used the of while because orientations: partly educational declining, diverging is closeness this But 32. hb,tecptlo h eeain smore is and institutions federation, government where the Kuwait, like of Abu capital lives. the workers’ Dhabi, on authorities state of pact them- deportation and arrest desert selves. of to fear had for workers him fellow his example, fighting, for or ar- drunkenness was of worker accused and a rested If closely. crowds and off, the day watched their enjoy to city the in various sites in gathered even the workers Fridays, confronting are On when and police. disadvantage bureaucracy a the at of more face the helplessness express in who there, South workers poorer Asian au- the These intimidate them. strongly represent thorities and forms in fill to Arabic-speaking mandoubas Sudanese. and Egyptian, ian, Syr- Lebanese, are they now pri- Palestinians; were marily these War, Gulf Arab the non-Gulf category—before the from drawn chiefly again, are the state of and, agents places Kuwaiti differently. languages different use of from po- came agents the lice, particularly The and officials places. Asian the authority, public South in influenced movement have that policing, practices particularly governmental, Dubai, concerns particularly UAE, the and Kuwait tween Egyptians, Urdu. Thais, in above) Filipinos, Iranis, and the Palestinians, with least expatriates other (at with dealing was he that Note nteUE h mrtsvr nteim- the in vary emirates the UAE, the In be- difference important second The eaee hynvrby hyjs at your waste just time. they buy, never they and Lebanese, Jordanians, rewards. Palestinians, as Egyptians, encyclopaedias Those give schools and some education, kids’ the and kids their for them, almost best, buy Filipinos Egyp- The Thais, Iranis. and Filipinos, Palestinians, the tians, Urdu, they in and funny are here, There talk . . different Elec- . sale. many taking a so hours, make for to and trying sun driver, and the trolyte and in car walk a I with then Dhabi Abu to men 34 utb mlydb otworkers most by employed be must 100 ecn fm uiesi with is business my of percent 95 Dubai. August 1995, 19 author, with interview Shekhar, Vinaya 34. August 20 author, with Dubai. 1995, interview Bozai, Hasan 33.

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684 officials play the major roles in public life. In But there are others, more educated, more sup- the other emirates, business and businessmen portive of working wives. The class structure de- are the leading players. Even more important termines the options and the restrictions here.” is the constitution of the police forces. As in Views about women were closely connected to Kuwait, there are mainly non-Gulf Arabs on the religion as well, with the “decadent, dangerous force. In Dubai, the chief is West” standing in implicit contrast to the safe, Yemeni, while the force consists of locals, Su- Islamic environment of Kuwait. Women gener- danese, Barkas men (Arabs from Hyderabad), ally took up wearing the in Kuwait, even Iranis, and Baluchis. As one man explained, “In women who did not wear it elsewhere. They Comparative Abu Dhabi, the police speak Arabic only (al- adopted it for reasons of fitting in and pro- though of course they know Urdu) and are out tection in an environment where few women Studies of to get you. Here in Dubai, they speak Urdu, they moved about alone or uncovered.38 In Kuwait, have ‘cordiality lessons,’ they will listen to your women’s associations39 did not exist and were South Asia, explanation and often let you go. One stopped not thought possible or desirable,40 so women’s Africa and the me and told me, meherbani-see [please], to put lives were quite restricted. on my seat belt.”35 One man vividly portrayed the situation Middle East There are also strong differences in gen- for Indian and Pakistani : dered experience, again despite apparent simi- My wife wore a burqah years ago at home (be- larities in the two sites: in both, what little polit- fore it went out of fashion), but here she put on ical participation has been extended to citizens the abayah, like other highly educated women, has gone only to males, and while expatriate and my daughter donned the hijab at age ten male laborers are covered by state labor codes, or eleven. Purdah, in fact, is observed more in domestic workers (predominantly female) are Kuwait than in India, because the country is not.36 Expatriate women come as maids, but a more religious one. Everything is more reli- also as doctors, teachers, nurses, and wives.37 gious, from prayers at work to family activities. As I mentioned, the South Asian populations Here, my wife and children are more depen- dent on me, I must do everything for them, drop in Kuwait and the UAE have somewhat differ- them and pick them up in groups of women ent profiles with respect to class and religion, and children. If it is just my own wife and chil- and these dimensions strongly affect gender dren who want to go somewhere, I must accom- practices, discouraging or encouraging working pany them, it does not look good for them to women and women’s movement more generally go on their own. There is no danger to them in public spaces. in Kuwait, this is just for appearances. Kuwaiti One person said, about the intersections women are different from the Indian women, of class, religion, and gender in Kuwait (with its the Kuwaiti women work, they leave their houses more Muslim and working-class profile): “Many and children, they depend totally on servants. people here are clawing their way up, they are But Indian women do not work, they stay in the home, taking care of the children. They from the old city [of Hyderabad], from humble may have maids but they also like housework. backgrounds, and they are going right back, try- Just a few Indian women work, like [X’s] wife ing to make a place for themselves back there.

35. Junaid Adil, Ali Ishrati, and Mirza Arsalan, inter- 37. In Kuwait most maids are from the Philippines; in 39. Social life for South Asian men and women in views with author, 21 August 1995, Dubai. the UAE most are from . Other maids come Kuwait and also in the UAE was overwhelmingly from Bangladesh, India, and . Pakistan Link, with fellow country people (the governments al- 36. Most literature on the Gulf reads as though ex- 16 September 1994. low only “nationalities,” country-based categories, patriates were not there, and when they are in- to form associations, although the UAE is far more cluded they are talked about as men. Gardezi, “Asian 38. In some circles, however, there was distinct pres- flexible). Activities that drew South Asians together Workers,” 179–94, in an otherwise informative article, sure to wear the hijab. One woman told me, “There centered on “national” events, sports (cricket), po- remarks only that female domestics from the Philip- is pressure to wear it, in that [businessman Hoshdar etry (mushairas), and religion (prayer or educational pines and prostitutes from Pakistan are often smug- Khan’s] group, even his own wife didn’t wear it be- groups). gled in illegally, 192. See Karen Leonard, “South Asian fore. I do generally wear it when moving about, but Women in the Gulf: Families and Futures Reconfig- at the cricket match . . . I went without it, I didn’t want 40. Mohammed Hoshdar Khan and Mir Ibrahim Ali ured,” in Trans-Status Subjects: Gender in the Global- to be grouped with those others.” Khan, interviews with author, 7 August 1995, Kuwait. ization of South and Southeast Asia, ed. Esha De and Sonita Sarker (Durham, NC: Duke University Press, 2003), 213–31.

Published by Duke University Press h ufwsEgn,scn o fFe n Mavis and Fred of son to second go Eugene, to was Ellis first Gulf The the suit. and followed Hyderabad, sons his in of back three banking in was Ellis Fred 43. August 14 customer), Dubai. twelve-year-old 1995, with (a Observation, other Ali visits. each Anees previous knew salon many the from in well women and the bride), of a for most services (wedding special package a beauty for vigorously Sudanese bargained A customer Filipina. woman a and was Bombay, manicurist the , and col- from Delhi; cutters, came hair threaders The the and Zenana. woman; orists, salon, Kenyan beauty a a was to owner visit a from comes interactions such of example life, One everyday Dubai. in in especially and from job the women on met countries and other many freely about moved They 42. 1997, Kuwait. author, with interview Khan, Akbar 41. hu ttePtas elygtrset I . . . respect. get can really “I I said. Pathans, she the now,” at shout me see could my wish teachers “I Pakistan. from Pathans them of most a workers, held construction supervised she she job: Dubai, man’s at In coach Club. swimming Secunderabad a the and “not school,” at Hyderabad, good in too back person sports a been a ulttvl ut ifrn hnta in that than different Kuwait. quite qualitatively was daughter). his to extend to seem not did roles gender traditional about home views the his (but outside work not women that Kuwait in preference shared widely the emphasized He a aeri h A htwudnthave not would Kuwait. that in UAE possible one the been and in Gulf, career the a had to women brothers Anglo-Indian their followed young un- Two UAE there. the roles in gender changing work in participation of their derlines kinds all for women traditions. community and family re- of al- teration that drastic nor house preservation rigid halfway neither quired comfortable observances, of cultural kind for a ground middle a as and had need cooks especially Some home, in from care. retainers working, child family brought and be help to household seemed of Gulf the in o ot sa oe,lf nteUAE the in life women, Asian South For h viaiiyo xaraeSuhAsian South expatriate of availability The nteUS;sege oteAeia School. American the to goes she U.S.; Course the Training in Pilot a for an go for to wants go she to MBA, be alone wants wife daughter I my my When should But burdened? why so). family, said my I support can him tell don’t (but 42 h aoiyo ot sa wives Asian South of majority The ayahs hysee oseteUAE the see to seemed They . 43 Comparative StudiesofSouthAsia,AfricaandtheMiddleEast lzbt li had Ellis Elizabeth Published by Duke University Press lzbt,Mvs n rdEls neveswt au- Dubai. with 1995, August interviews 26 thor, Ellis, Fred there. and part-time Mavis, working Elizabeth, father, still her is stressful; sixty, is over job although the her, al- and with Elizabeth late as live comes her, ways to for house Gulf keeps the mother her to and came parents Her 44. family the Texas. Irving, found of Khan I Feroze and Dubai. Laura through 1995, August with 26 interviews Ellis, author, Fred and Mavis, her- Elizabeth, shift self. finally and there parents her settle will beth Eliza- company. Australian an for works applied, Ambrose has and Joan there, destination; settled are eventual Eugene and family’s Philip the is Syd- Hyderabad. Australia, in left ney, is worked cousin also one Only Joan, Gulf. The the children, in Elizabeth. Ellis her six joined the 1982; father of in youngest her Elizabeth, then child, and fourth mother followed, the soon then Ambrose, and son, Another 1975. in Ellis, 41 yeaaibie u htyugwmnhad woman young that twenty-year-old but a bride, with Hyderabadi Khaymah al Ra’s in man eighty-five-year-old an knew He me. told driver a ,weesaDbibiecost bride 200, Dubai a whereas ($500–$700), gold inewt h oein Pope au- the personal with a dience had Dad world. the seen of I’ve parts and other here, became all I it afford nothing can from I something, lot, a country this owe es h athl etr stewvso Arabs. of wives at the as over century UAE half past the the least to brought been have women usages). language Hindi the attendants note new or (again, the Arabic for desirable up be to pick said were to English willingness reflect Basic a to loyalty. and was create and goal customers its its and in women, drivers are many Dubai that explained this, initiating company the Emarat, petrol.” pumping women Indian and Nepalese, Filipina, “smiling pumps, an to led in drivers innovation and owners num- car growing women the of Dubai bers in and cars, drive and ufAa o uhls hnaGl rd would bride Gulf cost. a than less much a for to Arab marriage Gulf in them their give and to willing Arabic, are some parents speak They de- there. set- Hy- tled long are Arabs specific Saudi and and Yemeni a Barkas, from scended locality, from city are old wives derabad these of Most eaaibiecudb a o some for had be Hy- could A bride husbands. older derabadi much of wives fourth or ues($ rupees 000– 47 ial,lrenmeso ninMuslim Indian of numbers large Finally, own can women UAE, the and Kuwait In yial,tewmnaescn,third, second, are women the Typically, 300, lstet otit rm of grams thirty to twenty plus 286) 000 eaeatnat tpetrol at attendants female 1996: ihm ($ 54, dirhams 1988.” 45. SuhAinWmni h uf”frmr details. more for Gulf,” the in Women Leonard, Asian See “South various expensive. less of much maids are nationalities) Muslims, (Indian brides nonlocal and household, equipped fully a and the jewelry wedding provided and bride-prices high have paid Gulf traditionally the in in Bridegrooms crises systems. apparent marriage are the there Kuwait, and Dubai In 47. Abu 1995, August Dhabi. 24 Ahmed author, Qaywayn; with al interview Umm Hassan, 1995, August 21 in- terview, Khan, Ash Ashfaq and (in Razia Fakkan Dhabi. Abu Khor and Shariqah), Qaywayn, al Umm ‘Ajman, UAE the are cer- in wives in these for percent, Centers locations. UAE UAE 50–70 tain the higher, and much Kuwait in and men generally, Arab older for of percent wives 20 the and 10 between ranged Estimates 46. outside. from view the obscure that windows tinted one-way have to cars women’s quires 44 India-West 500–$81, 45 6Jl 96 h a nDbire- Dubai in law The 1996. July 26 , 10, 745), 000 46

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686 no education and five sisters at home; she might not be happy but she was well settled. Despite the age differences, such marriages do provide economic security not only for the wife but for her family back in India, a doctor who treated many such women assured me. These women and their children blend into the “ordinary” in- digenous population, and when they become widows, they can inherit real estate and busi- Comparative nesses and stand as sponsors to nonlocals.48 This presence of Indian Muslim wives in the gen- Studies of eral population of the UAE encourages, again, South Asians to feel a stronger sense of partic- South Asia, ipation in the local culture, a weaker sense of Africa and the alienation from it. Despite their strikingly similar position- Middle East ing in Kuwait and the UAE, then, language, policing, and gender practices have helped pro- duce significantly different South Asian expa- triate experiences in the two Gulf settings. The cultural currents flowed and continue to flow in different directions, pointing one society to- ward the Middle East and the other toward South Asia.

48. The driver was Aijaz, interview, 15 August 1995, Dubai; the doctor was Ashfaq Khan, interview with author, 21 August 1995, Umm al Qaywayn. The mar- riages do produce some tragedies. A twenty-three- year-old Indian woman was executed for murdering her seventy-year-old UAE husband because he re- fused to return her passport so she could travel to see her family in India. India Journal,28March1997.

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