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1 Bab 1 Pendahuluan 1.1 Latar Belakang Agama-Agama Yang Ada

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1 Bab 1 Pendahuluan 1.1 Latar Belakang Agama-Agama Yang Ada Bab 1 Pendahuluan 1.1 Latar Belakang Agama-agama yang ada di Jepang mempunyai sejarah yang panjang. Shinto sudah ada sejak awal sejarah Jepang dan terus berlanjut hingga sekarang. Agama Budha masuk ke Jepang pada tahun 552, berasal dari kerajaan Paekche yang merupakan kerajaan Korea. Pada saat memasuki Jepang, agama Budha diperkirakan setidaknya telah berusia seribu tahun. Agama Kristen disebarkan oleh Francis Xavier, seorang misionaris. Ia datang ke Kagoshima pada bulan Agustus 1549. Setelah tinggal di Jepang selama dua tahun, ia optimis bahwa ia dapat membuat orang-orang Jepang untuk berpindah agama menjadi Kristen (Varley, 2000:143). Pada tahun 1614, agama Kristen dilarang oleh pemerintah dan mengusir semua misionaris keluar dari Jepang. Akan tetapi pada tahun 1859, misionaris-misionaris asing kembali berdatangan ke Jepang setelah pemerintah mencabut larangan terhadap agama Kristen. Meskipun banyak agama yang masuk ke Jepang, Shinto masih diakui sebagai agama asli masyarakat Jepang. Masyarakat Jepang umumnya menganggap dirinya penganut salah satu agama Shinto, Budha atau Kristen. Bahkan ada juga yang menganut ketiga agama tersebut. Menurut Foreign Press Center Japan (2006), pada akhir tahun 2003 didapat data sebagai berikut: a. Penganut agama Shinto berjumlah 107,6 juta orang dan terdapat 81.000 kuil Shinto. b. Penganut agama Budha berjumlah 94 juta orang dan terdapat 76.000 kuil Budha. c. Penganut agama Kristen berjumlah 2,2 juta orang dan sebanyak 4000 gereja tersebar di seluruh Jepang. 1 Akan tetapi, mereka pergi ke kuil-kuil hanya untuk menghadiri perayaan tahunan atau ritual-ritual keagamaan. Mereka pergi ke kuil di awal tahun (hatsumode, 初詣) atau mengadakan festival yang berhubungan dengan agama (matsuri, 祭). Tidak sedikit juga masyarakat Jepang yang menikah di gereja, sesuai dengan ajaran agama Kristen. Orang Jepang tidak mempermasalahkan agama dalam pernikahan, mereka bebas menikah dengan siapapun meskipun berbeda agama. Di dalam rumah mereka biasanya bukan saja butsudan (altar Budha) yang akan ditemukan, tetapi di dalam rumah yang sama juga akan dapat ditemukan kamidana (altar Shinto). Masyarakat Jepang mengklasifikasikan Shinto dan Budha menurut ritual keagamaannya. Ritual Shinto digunakan dalam hal-hal seperti pernikahan, pembaptisan, pemberkatan untuk kesuksesan di dalam perusahaan. Sedangkan ritual Budha lebih dipakai untuk hal-hal yang menyangkut kematian. Meskipun demikian, Budha juga memiliki tata cara pemberkatan dan ritual keberuntungan tersendiri. Orang Jepang mengadakan upacara untuk menyambut kelahiran atau pernikahan secara Shinto dan mengadakan upacara kematian menurut ajaran Budha (Varley, 2000:22). Masyarakat Jepang tidak pernah mengadakan pelayanan keagamaan sehari-hari untuk agama mereka. Hal ini dapat dilihat dalam penjelasan Kerbo dan John (1998). With the exception of funerals and memorials after death, there has never been anything like mass, a sermon, or church service in Japan, in either of their religions. People relate to both religions mainly in a private way, by pausing at the altar of a temple or shrine and engaging in a very personal ritual of respect. Terjemahan: Dengan pengecualian akan pemakaman dan upacara peringatan setelah kematian, tidak pernah ada sesuatu seperti misa, khotbah atau pelayanan keagamaan di Jepang, dalam agama manapun. Pada umumnya orang-orang melakukan hal-hal religius secara pribadi, dengan cara berdiam di depan altar di sebuah kuil dan melakukan ritual penghormatan. 2 Di sisi lain, beratus-ratus matsuri (festival keagamaan) diadakan sepanjang tahun dan ribuan hingga jutaan orang menghadirinya. Sebagai contoh, Gion Matsuri yang diadakan di Kyoto atau Hakata Dontaki di Fukuoka. Matsuri-matsuri seperti ini juga telah menjadi pusat atraksi turis. Seorang turis yang datang ke Jepang mungkin berpikir bahwa Jepang adalah negara yang sangat religius. Praktek keagamaan terlihat dimana-mana, mulai dari tempat- tempat ibadah besar dan terawat di kota-kota besar hingga kuil-kuil kecil di daerah perumahan dan juga mengingat banyaknya matsuri yang diadakan dalam setahun. Meskipun demikian, kenyataannya agama tidak terlalu dianggap penting di Jepang. Tabel berikut ini menunjukkan hal tersebut. Tabel 1-1 Pentingnya Agama Pentingnya Agama Di % Percaya Kepada Negara Dalam Kehidupan Tuhan (dalam skala 1-10) Amerika Serikat 98 8.55 Irlandia 97 8.02 Spanyol 92 6.39 Itali 88 6.96 Inggris 81 5.72 Jerman Barat 80 5.67 Perancis 65 4.72 Jepang 62 4.49 Sumber: Modern Japan, Kerbo, Harold R., John A. McKinstry (1998), hal. 105. Masyarakat Jepang sangatlah teratur. Akan tetapi bukan agama yang mengaturnya, melainkan tanggung jawab terhadap sesama. Oleh karena itu, sangat mengejutkan bagi masyarakat di luar Jepang untuk mengetahui bahwa sangat kecil hubungan di antara 3 agama dan moralitas atau ukuran standar akan kelakuan baik, mengingat rendahnya tingkat kriminalitas di Jepang (Kerbo, 1998:104-105). Ada dua karakteristik yang sangat terlihat dalam agama di Jepang. Orang Jepang sangat setia kepada ritual-ritual tradisional agama mereka seperti halnya semua orang di dunia. Di sisi lain, sebagian besar dari orang-orang yang sama, yang tidak pernah berpikiran untuk tidak mengunjungi kuil dalam perayaan tahun baru, mengaku sebagai mushinsha (無信者) yang dapat diartikan sebagai “orang yang tidak percaya.” Kesetiaan dan ikatan emosi yang mendalam yang sering terlihat di dalam orang-orang yang beriman bisa dikatakan hampir tidak dapat ditemui di dalam kehidupan agama di Jepang. Tidak semua individu beragama, tetapi agama adalah fitur universal di dalam kehidupan manusia. Seperti yang sudah dibahas sebelumnya, agama di Jepang tidak terlalu dianggap penting. Akan tetapi pengaruhnya terhadap kehidupan sehari-hari masyarakat Jepang sangatlah besar. Hal ini dapat dilihat dalam pembangunan gedung- gedung baru di Jepang di mana diadakan upacara pemberkatan menurut ajaran agama Shinto. Oleh karena itu, penulis tertarik untuk meneliti pengaruh agama asli Jepang, Shinto, di dalam kebudayaan Jepang, khususnya dalam sumō. Sumō (相撲) merupakan olahraga tradisional Jepang yang tetap dipertahankan sejak ribuan tahun yang lalu. Di Jepang, sumō mempunyai keistimewaan tersendiri dibandingkan olahraga lainnya. Turnamen sumō merupakan turnamen olahraga satu- satunya yang dihadiri oleh Tenno (Kaisar Jepang). Dalam setahun sekali, Tenno menghadiri turnamen sumō (Wheeler, 1973:115). 4 1.1.1 Penjelasan Historis Mengenai Shinto Secara harafiah Shinto (神道) berarti jalan dewa. 神 (shin), bisa juga dibaca kami, berarti Tuhan atau dewa dan 道 (dō atau tō) berarti jalan. Shinto adalah kepercayaan animistis berdasarkan harmoni di antara dewa, roh, manusia dan alam (De Mente, 2003:17). Nama “Shinto” tidak digunakan sebelum masuknya Budha pada abad ke-6. Pada abad ke-13, nama “Shinto” digunakan untuk membedakannya dengan agama Budha dan Konfusianisme. Berbeda dengan agama lain, Shinto tidak memiliki penemu maupun kitab suci. Akan tetapi, terdapat beberapa catatan yang dipercaya sebagai dokumen sejarah agama Shinto. Kojiki (古事記) merupakan dokumen sejarah tertua Jepang yang ditulis pada tahun 712 dan mencatat sejarah sejak tahun 628. Nihon Shoki (日本書紀) muncul pada tahun 720, mencatat sejarah sejak tahun 697. Keduanya ditulis dalam bahasa Cina, tetapi Nihon Shoki lebih rinci menceritakan tentang mitos-mitos. Kedua dokumen ini sangat dihargai oleh para penganut Shinto karena dokumen-dokumen ini memiliki catatan mengenai keluarga kerajaan dan beberapa klan yang membentuk bangsa Jepang. Kojiki dan Nihon Shoki juga memiliki banyak informasi mengenai ritual Shinto kuno (Ono, 1998). Selain kedua dokumen tersebut, Kujiki (旧事紀), Kogoshui (古語拾遺) dan Engi Shiki (延喜式) juga termasuk sumber utama informasi. Kujiki ditulis sekitar tahun 620, seratus tahun sebelum Nihon Shoki. Dokumen yang ada merupakan sebuah jiplakan namun sangat kuno dan banyak isi dokumen yang juga ditemukan di dalam Kojiki dan Nihon Shoki. Akan tetapi, dokumen ini belum diterjemahkan. Kogoshui ditulis pada tahun 807 dan menambahkan beberapa informasi mengenai Shinto kuno. Engi Shiki diterbitkan pada tahun 927 dan merupakan sumber utama mengenai Shinto kuno, doa- 5 doa untuk upacara, ritual dan cara untuk mengatur hal-hal yang bersifat suci (Ono, 1998:11). 1.1.2 Penjelasan Historis Mengenai Sumō Sumō (相撲), olahraga tradisional Jepang, dapat terus mempertahankan popularitasnya. Berjuta-juta orang masih takjub dengan turnamen resmi selama lima belas hari (honbasho) yang diadakan enam kali dalam setahun. Sumō merupakan olahraga gulat yang sudah ada sejak 2000 tahun yang lalu. Sumō dianggap sebagai sebuah olahraga profesional pada permulaan zaman Edo (1600-1868). Pada abad ke-8 Masehi, sumō dikenal dengan sebutan sumai di dalam literatur klasik Jepang. Pada abad ke-16, penguasa Jepang yang bernama Oda Nobunaga sering melaksanakan turnamen sumō. Seperti halnya kebudayaan Jepang, asal mula sumō berkisar sekitar mitos dan legenda Jepang. Kojiki dan Nihon Shoki merupakan dokumen sejarah yang menjelaskan asal usul sumō. Disebutkan bahwa terdapat sebuah uji kekuatan di antara para dewa untuk memutuskan siapa penguasa atas sebuah daerah (Wheeler, 1973:24). Guttmann (2001:14) mengatakan bahwa pertandingan pertama sumō terjadi pada tahun 23 S.M., dimana Kaisar Suinin menyuruh Nomi no Sukune untuk bertarung dengan Taima no Keyaha, seseorang yang mengaku bahwa dia adalah orang terkuat. Nomi no Sukune bertarung dengan tangan kosong, mematahkan rusuk-rusuk Taima no Keyaha dan akhirnya mengalahkannya. Pertarungan seperti ini jelas sangat berbeda dengan sumō sekarang ini. 6 Carl Diem di dalam
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