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Academics to Ideologues

Techniques in Political Risk Analysis." In Simon, Jeffrey C. 1982. "Political Risk Theory and Practice in Political Risk Assessment: Past Trends and Future Pros- About the Author Analysis 2 (May). Proceedings of a pects." Columbia Journal of World Busi- conference sponsored by the Association ness 17(3) (Fall): 62-71. Michele Zebich-Knos of Political Risk Analysts, pp. 11-14. UMI Dissertation Abstracts Ondisc, 35/07- Michele Zebich- Kovanda, Karel. 1984. "Characteristics of 49/07-51/06 (January 1985-December Knos is assistant pro- the Ideal Political Risk Analyst." In 1990), Ann Arbor, MI. fessor of political sci- Theory and Practice in Political Risk of Pennsylvania. The Wharton ence at Kennesaw Analysis 2 (May). Proceedings of a con- School MBA Catalog, 1990-91. State College in the ference sponsored by the Association of Vogel, David. 1987. "The New Political Sci- University System of Political Risk Analysis, pp. 33-39. ence of Corporate Power." Public Inter- Georgia. Her teaching Lasswell, Harold D. 1963. The Future of est 87 (Spring): 63-79. and research interests Political . New York: Atherton are in the area of Press. third world studies, Majone, Giandomenico. 1989. Evidence, international rela- Argument and Persuasion in the Interviews tions, and public policy with special emphasis Process. New Haven: Yale University on Latin America. Press. McClelland, Charles A. 1978. "D-Files for Bruce, David, Director, International Busi- Monitoring and Forecasting Threats and ness Council, Georgia State University, Problems Abroad." Los Angeles: Inter- Atlanta, GA, June 17, 1991. national Relations Research Institute, Uni- Coplin, William D., Director, Public Affairs versity of Southern California, January. Program at the Maxwell School of Citi- Nehrt, Lee C. 1987. "The Internationaliza- zenship and Public Affairs, Syracuse Uni- tion of the Curriculum." Journal of Inter- versity, Syracuse, NY, June 7, 1991. national 18(1) (Spring): Hegburg, Alan, Director, International 83-90. Affairs, Phillips Petroleum Company, Ricks, David A. and Michael R. Czinkota. Bartlesville, OK, June 8, 1991. 1979. ": An Exam- Samuels, Barbara, Deputy Director for Coun- ination of the Corporate Viewpoint." try Risk Policy, Chase Manhattan Bank, Journal of International Business Studies New York, June 7, 1991. 10(2) (Fall): 97-100. West, Gerald, Senior Advisor, Multilateral Rummel, R. J. and David A. Heenan. 1978. Investment Guarantee Agency, The World "How Multinationals Analyze Political Bank, Washington, DC, May 8, 1991. Risk." Harvard Business Review (Janu- ary-February): 67-76.

Academics to Ideologues: A Brief of the Public Policy Research Industry

James G. McGann, Temple University

Public policy research institutes are elderly, orphaned and indigent" and 1976-90. Table 1 summarizes the a twentieth-century phenomenon and (Linden 1987). Linden does not state number of institutes that were estab- in many ways unique to the United what the connection is between these lished during these periods and that States. Rooted in the social institutions and the evolution of have remained in operation. and supported by private individuals think tanks, but one can surmise that Each one of the four periods was and foundations, think tanks began it has to do with the fact that they marked by a major domestic or to appear around 1900 as a part of a were independent institutions that international upheaval that sparked larger effort to bring the expertise of were engaged in developing the creation of a new generation of scholars and managers to bear on the and programs to alleviate human public policy research institutes. economic and social problems of this suffering. These major events were wars of one period (Smith 1991).' According to I prefer to trace the origins of kind or another: World War I, Patricia Linden, "The early versions these institutions to the Brookings [of think tanks], set up by private Institution, which was established in capital long before the proliferation 1916, because Brookings was the first TABLE 1 of tax-funded social agencies, were independent organization dedicated Public Policy Research Institutes organized to alleviate problems of exclusively to conducting public (by Period Founded) the poor. Two survivors of that era policy research. Using this as a start- are the National Conference on ing point, one can divide the history Period Number Founded Social , formed in 1873, and of the public policy research industry 1900-1929 10 the Russell Sage Foundation, estab- into four time periods that spawned 1930-1959 17 lished in 1907 to help provide hous- many of the think tanks that exist 1960-1975 30 ing and better conditions for the today: 1900-29, 1930-59, 1960-75, 1976-1990 55

December 1992 733 The Profession

World War II, the War on Poverty, the nature and character of these institution that bears his name. The and the War of Ideas. early think tanks is captured by importance and stature of these insti- For each of these periods, I have George Fauriol (1984, 11), when he tutions, however, was greatly en- selected an institution that reflects observes that the Carnegie Endow- hanced by the social, political, and the economic and political environ- ment for International Peace and the economic upheaval caused by the ment of that time. In the 1920s, it Hoover Institution "were clearly the Great Depression. In addition, the was the ; in the outgrowth of America's domestic New Deal created a host of new pro- 1940s, the Rand Corporation; in the economic and overseas diplomatic grams and agencies that 1960s, the Urban Institute; and in the expansion." According to Fauriol, led to a demand for expert advice 1970s, (see "The apparent strength of the Amer- that public policy research institu- Table 2). The organizations that ican economic system and the poten- tions such as Brookings and NBER came into being during these four tial application of its ideals on a were able to provide. periods were influenced by the inno- global basis generated a certain sense The Brookings Institution, for vations introduced by these four of mission reinforced by frustration example, was established in the late institutions. For instance, the major- with traditional international be- 1920s, at a time when, as Calvin ity of the firms that came into being havior [exemplified by the catastro- Coolidge explained, the business of from 1900 to 1948 had a strong aca- phe of World War I). But these same America was business, and the prin- demic orientation like the Brookings frustrations also underlined a ciples of science were beginning to be Institution. national feeling of hesitation regard- applied to government. Robert S. ing any deep involvement in world Brookings, a St. Louis industrialist affairs" (1984, 12). There appeared TABLE 2 motivated by a desire to bring to be a clear mandate internationally "economy and efficiency" to govern- Public Policy Research Institutes for greater U.S. involvement in at Time of Structural Innovation ment, established three institutions global affairs; but the American (Institute for Government Research, public was not prepared to accept it, Institution Date Founded Institute of , and the and a small but influential elite set Robert Brookings Graduate School The Brookings Institution 1927a out to change this by establishing a of Economics and Government) series of and which merged to create the Brook- The Rand Corporation 1948 foreign policy research organizations. The Urban Institute 1968 ings Institution in 1927 (Critchlow The Heritage Foundation 1973 On the domestic front, a number 1985). Brookings' interest in applying of public policy research organiza- scientific principles to the manage- aThe Institute for Government Research was tions came into being as a result of ment of government is reflected in founded in 1916 and is often given as the the charter of the institution which date Brookings was founded. the and scientific man- agement movements popular in the states that it will conduct "scientific later part of the nineteenth century. research" in "the broad fields of Brookings and the Rise of the The operating premise was that sci- economics, government administra- entific methods, if properly applied, tion and the political and social sci- Public Policy Research ences generally"; in an effort to Institute could solve social problems and improve the efficiency of govern- interpret relevant "economic and political and social facts . . . without At the conclusion of World War I, ment. It was these forces that helped shape the direction of institutions regard to and independent of the a series of domestic and foreign special interests of any group in the policy challenges led to the creation such as the Russell Sage Foundation (1907), Brookings Institution (1916), body politic, either political, social or of a number of public policy re- economic."2 According to Bruce search institutes in the mid- to late- and National Bureau of Economic Research (1920). James Smith, in his MacLaury, Brookings' current presi- 1920s. Institutes with a foreign policy dent, Robert Brookings set out to emphasis were formed—Carnegie En- article, "Think Tanks and the Poli- tics of Ideas," concludes that each establish a center that would bring dowment for International Peace social scientists and policy makers (1910), Foreign Policy Association one of these institutions "owed its origins to different business and pro- together so that a "scientific (1918), Hoover Institution on War, approach" might be applied to gov- Revolution and Peace (1919), and fessional groups" that were a part of the social reform movements of this ernment , budgeting, Council on Foreign Relations (1921). and spending (Brookings 1991). All of these institutions came into period (Smith 1989). Individuals like prominence as a result of the United Robert S. Brookings, a successful The Brookings model, which States' emergence as a global power businessman, and Wesley C. Mitch- attempts to bring the knowledge and just before and just after World War ell, an economist, believed that busi- expertise of academics to bear on I. Because of the American tendency ness and the social sciences would public policy, has influenced the toward isolationism, some groups improve governmental operations nature and design of public policy wanted to convince the political elites and enlighten public policy. Mitch- institutes for over 50 years. Brook- and the American public at large that ell's convictions led him to establish ings has become known for its reli- it was in America's interest to play a the National Bureau of Economic ance on recognized scholars who greater role in international . Research (NBER), while Brookings engage in empirical, scholarly, and was instrumental in establishing the The ambivalence that helped shape objective analysis of public policy

1 734 PS. & Politics Academics to Ideologues issues in the social sciences. Original- institute to appear on the scene at Rand as a "major social invention" ly focused on economic analysis, the this time is the American Enterprise (Levien 1971, 1). The Rand Corpora- Brookings Institution has since Institute for Public Policy Research, tion model was based on the research broadened its agenda to include a which grew out of the same con- and development center (R and D) range of domestic and international servative movements that shaped its model and was guided by a systems concerns. Because its roots are firmly foreign policy counterparts. Accord- approach to problem solving. Rand planted in the social sciences and ing to historian Kim McQuade, busi- adapted the techniques perfected by academia, Brookings is without a ness leaders "had cause for worry by the research and development indus- doubt the best example of the the end of the first full year of the try to the analysis of public policy academic-oriented public policy war (1942). The conflict was being problems. A clear illustration of this research institute. In fact, the Brook- won, but there were signs that the connection is the fact that Rand is an ings model still, in many ways, dom- liberals were seeking to follow acronym for "research and develop- inates the public policy landscape as through upon military victories ment.' This organization got its start the preferred model for how think abroad with political victories at as Project Rand, which was set up tanks should be organized. It remains home. . . . Once peace returned, lib- by the Air Force at Douglas Aircraft unchallenged, in a large measure, eral forces would await only favora- in Santa Monica, California. Because because of the powerful mystique of ble opportunities to try to expand the of the obvious conflict of interest, the "disinterested social scientist" scope of their power. The question, Rand soon became an independent who conducts "value free" public then, was . . . what type of economic entity, but to this day, it still gets policy research. close to two-thirds of its funding from defense . According to Patricia Linden, Rand has distin- Rand and the Rise of the The operating premise was guished itself through its "superb Military Complex that scientific methods, if technical competence, originality, depth, breadth, and knowledge built The next generation of think tanks properly applied, could up through 40 years of work for the owes its origins almost entirely to the Pentagon agencies." She goes on to increased international commitments solve social problems and say that "its thorough, objective that the United States entered into improve the efficiency of methods of analysis and multi-disci- after World War II. Many of these plinary approach have been copied institutions were also established to government. by problem solvers in every field, help sustain the momentum of the and are paradigms for the Urban and defense efforts generated during the Hudson Institutes" (Linden 1987, war years. It is during this period and political order would result from 105-06). Rand's most distinguishing that institutions such as The Rand the reconversion from a war time to characteristic, however, has been its Corporation (1948), Foreign Policy a peace time economy" (McQuade extensive use of systems and opera- Research Institute (1955), The Center 1982, 107). These forces provided the tions research to examine both mili- for Strategic and International impetus for the creation of con- tary and social problems. The Rand Studies (1962), and The Hudson servative think tanks in both the Model set the standard for many of Institute (1962) came into being. domestic and foreign policy arena. the think tanks established during George Fauriol attributes the surge in The Foreign Policy Research Insti- this period. the number of foreign policy think tute, Center for Strategic and Inter- tanks during this period "to the re- national Studies, and American surgence of conservatism and also a Enterprise Institute were similar in The Urban Institute greater concern for a coherent global structure to the first generation of vision of U.S. defense and foreign and the Rise of the academic-oriented think tanks. They, Domestic policy" (Fauriol 1984, 13). Harold however, owe their origins to a more Orlans contends that Rand grew out conservative political and philosoph- The nature and design of public of "a need to develop a new and ical segment of American society and policy think tanks took another turn more permanent arrangement where- were organized in direct response to as a result of increased federal by civilian engineers and scientists the perceived liberal threat created by involvement in what came to be could continue the critical technical institutions such as the Carnegie called the War on Poverty. During work begun during the war" (Orlans Endowment for International Peace this period, defense contracts dried 1972, 18-23). Each of these four and the Council on Foreign up as a result of a backlash from the institutes focused on a different Relations. Vietnam War, while domestic, specif- dimension of our national security ically urban, think tanks and how we as a nation should strive The Rand Corporation, however, flourished. Paul Dickson, comment- to maintain it. While the focus and proved to be a major departure from ing in 1972 on the tremendous structure of each is different, the the academic model pursued by most impact these changes had on the political forces that shaped them are of the institutions developed up to nature and orientation of these similar. this point. It is Rand's unique approach to public policy research organizations, observed that, "There The only other major public policy that led Roger E. Levien to describe was a trend of 'phenomenal' growth.

December 1992 735 The Profession

In the 1950s there were only two should be established, its incorpora- brought about some fundamental dozen university-based urban re- tors vowed that it should avoid changes in how these institutions search centers, by 1967 there were Rand's problem of being too identi- operate. The second major trend has about eighty of them—and by late fied with one agency of government, been the tilt toward Washington, 1969 the total had jumped to nearly "rather, their plan called for an D.C., as the center of influence. two hundred" (Dickson 1972, 219). independent nonprofit think tank Many of the West Coast and New Dickson points out that the reason supported on a basis by a York-based think tanks were forced for this dramatic explosion was that variety of civilian agencies and, to to relocate to Washington or open older institutions began redirecting whatever extent, by private founda- branch offices in order to remain their resources and staff to "new tions" (1972, 223). Ninety percent of competitive. The third major trend internal, civil, urban, and environ- the initial funding for the institute involved the emergence of specialized mental matters as quickly as new came from governmental sources, think tanks. In an effort to distin- institutions [were] being created for primarily Housing and Urban Devel- guish themselves from the vast array problem solving in these areas" opment (although they now account of think tanks already in existence, (1972, 220). The shift in research em- for less than half of the institute's the newer public policy organizations phasis was especially dramatic "at total budget). chose to focus on a narrow audience institutions with a strong military The Urban Institute provided a or to adopt a single-issue orientation. heritage" (1972, 219). Defense- model for a whole host of institu- This trend was also in direct response related think tanks like Rand saw tions that were focused primarily on to the increased influence of special their defense contracts dry up while social and urban issues. During this interest groups on Congress and the the federal research period, the number of think tanks branch and to the move by portfolio was growing by leaps and mushroomed and coincided with the foundations to target their grant bounds. In order to take advantage growth of government agencies. This funds for highly specialized pro- of this opportunity, Rand and other period also saw private foundations grams. The fourth major trend to research organizations developed and corporations significantly in- emerge during this period was the domestic policy programs. According crease their funding of public policy politicization of think tanks, which to Dickson, "Defense contractors, research. has its roots in the breakup of the liberal consensus that first appeared think tanks, and R and D firms Foreign policy and defense-related [began] creating new divisions apply- in the late 1950s and became mani- think tanks declined during this fest in the 1970s and 1980s. The fifth ing their skills [and problem-solving period. The one exception to this techniques] to domestic matters" trend to surface during this period trend, however, was the Overseas was the increase in the number of (1972, 219). The impact of this shift Development Council (1969), which in research efforts is still being felt professional staffers in the executive was established to conduct research and legislative branches of govern- today. All of the major think tanks on developing countries and U.S. aid organized prior to and after this ment and the creation of the Con- programs to those countries. Once gressional Research Service and other period now have a significant domes- again, this institution was created to tic or social policy component. governmental think tanks that rely fill a gap in the U.S. government and on independent think tanks for Two of the major institutions to was in direct response to the substan- research, data, and analysis. The emerge during this period are the tial foreign aid programs launched sixth and final trend to emerge was University of Wisconsin's Institute during the Truman, Kennedy, and the increasing influence of the media for Research on Poverty (1966) and Johnson administrations. on the public policy process. the Urban Institute (1968). Both were established to examine the social and Each of these major trends is economic problems that captured the The Heritage Foundation directly related to the fragmentation American consciousness during the and the Rise of the of our political process, the increas- 1960s and early part of the 1970s. Specialty Tank ing complexity of the policy-making These institutions, and others like apparatus, and the intense competi- them, became known as urban think In the last 25 years, six interrelated tion of the think tanks located in and tanks because all of their research trends have emerged that have influ- around Washington, D.C. And while efforts were devoted exclusively to enced the development of subgroups it would seem that increasing the urban/social issues. within this universe of institutions. professional staffs of Congress and The Urban Institute, for example, First and foremost, the number of the executive branch and establishing was formed in 1968 to examine a institutions conducting public policy think tanks within government would whole range of domestic issues, but research has dramatically prolif- reduce the demand for independent public policy research, just the oppo- most particularly, Johnson's Great erated. Not since the 1940s, when the 3 Society programs. Once again, this number of R&D centers and defense- site has occurred. institution was a sign of the times. related think tanks rapidly increased, An interest in influencing decision The Johnson administration, faced has there been such growth in the makers at the state level through with an array of urban problems, number of research institutes. The state-based public policy research encouraged the development of the increase of policy-related institutes institutes has led to the creation of Institute. According to Dickson, once has intensified the competition for 25 or so think tanks in just the last it was agreed that the Institute dollars, scholars, and influence, and decade. A number of multi-purpose

736 PS: Political Science & Politics Academics to Ideologues

(diversified) and single issue (special- issues and developing and communi- by Burton Yale Pines, senior vice ized) think tanks can now be found cating potential new approaches for president at Heritage, when he states: working on every domestic and inter- dealing with them" (Institute 1990). "The goal is a conservative nation. national concern. The intense rivalry The above quote, taken from IIE's Our role is to provide . . . public among these institutions has been mission statement, clearly indicates policy-makers with arguments to bol- characterized as a "war of ideas." the highly specialized nature of this ster our side" (Pines 1982). This is a According to Kent A. Weaver, the organization and the specific niche far cry from Robert Brookings' call competition has forced think tanks to that it has carved out for itself. for objective analysis of public policy become more image conscious, to The politicization of public policy problems. The Heritage Foundation's improve the quality and diversity of research created a new breed of insti- objectives and design remain at odds their product lines, and to consider tution that challenged the conven- with Brookings, Rand, and the alternative means of staffing and tional wisdom about how think tanks Urban Institute, whose studies re- financing (Weaver 1989, 571). The should be organized and operated. main more or less objective assess- two institutions that best exemplify Commenting on this phenomenon, ments of critical policy concerns. the fundamental changes that have Patricia Linden writes that: These institutions have been forced taken place in the field are the Heri- to become more market oriented and tage Foundation and the Institute for ideological in their approach to International Economics. . . . while it would seem in order to keep pace The trend by think tanks to spe- with the conservative onslaught. cialize in one field or another has that increasing the The newest trend in the industry is gone relatively unnoticed in the lit- the creation of state-based think erature and, to a large extent, has professional staffs of tanks, which are located in state been overshadowed by what some Congress and the capitals throughout the United States scholars see as the politicization of and are focused on state and local think tanks. It is my contention, executive branch and issues. The devolution of federal pro- however, that the politicization of grams and increased power to the think tanks is just another form of establishing think tanks states has sparked this latest move- specialization. Public policy think within government would ment in the industry. Since the early tanks not only specialize by policy 1980s, over 25 institutions have come issue or programs; they now special- reduce the demand for into being, most of them with the ize by and political orienta- backing of conservative foundations tion (conservative, liberal, libertarian, independent public policy and corporations. Democratic, Republican, etc.). Com- research, just the opposite menting on the general trend toward specialization, R. Kent Weaver con- has occurred. The Public Policy Industry cludes that "another set of organiza- and the Population Ecology tions—mostly newer, smaller, and Model Washington based—which focus on a As the new, well-funded political narrow range of issues, but with the movement embodied by the Reagan The nature and rate of growth in same stress on rigorous research and administration became entrenched in the public policy research industry is (in most cases) reliance on academic the mid-seventies, two things hap- pened. First, a new breed of think not unique. In fact, the industry has research," have grown up alongside followed a pattern of growth that the more diversified research institu- tank sprang up: politically purposeful bodies whose mission is to back the resembles the population ecology tions in Washington (1989, 565). The new conservative movement or fight it. model established by the organiza- establishment of the Institute for At the same time, the established tional theorists R. L. Daft and H. E. International Economics (HE) to tanks broadened the scope of their Aldrich.4 Daft's work in this area is conduct research on and joined the swelling debate particularly illuminating, for he economic concerns and the Center over government's national and for- divides the evolution of a population for Budget Priorities to examine the eign policies. Increasingly, amid the of institutions into three phases: U.S. federal budget, along with roar of contention and cries of dissent, variation, selection, and retention Resources for the Future and the public policy research centers became (Daft 1963, 76). In the first phase, a Worldwatch Institute to examine centers for the politics of public policy research (Linden 1987, 100). large number of variations appear, environmental issues, are clear and the population of organizations examples of this trend toward begins to compete for scarce specialization. The organization that best exem- plifies this new brand of think tank resources. A natural selection process The Institute for International is the Heritage Foundation. Estab- takes place in the second phase, Economics, for instance, is focused lished in 1973, this institute, as where the weak organizations wither almost entirely on international eco- Linden describes it, is "less a think away and the strong organizations nomic issues and staffed by econo- tank than an a priori ideology fac- that have found a niche in the mists. It was created by the German tory, avowedly a marketing agency market survive. In the retention Marshall Fund and "devoted solely for the neoconservative movement" phase, a few of the surviving organi- to analyzing important international (1987, 103). This point is confirmed zations grow large and become insti-

December 1992 137 The Profession tutionalized in the environment. firms in the industry have altered the American Enterprise Institutes During the last 75 years, the their strategies in order to meet the for Public Policy Research. This growth and development of the challenges posed by the new entrants recent trend toward specialization public policy industry has closely and in response to changes in the and vigorous competition not only paralleled the model presented by the environment. These factors have challenges existing institutions to population ecologists. In each of the influenced both the rate of growth alter the ways they do business but four periods, the industry has seen a and survival of businesses in the also presents a major opportunity for surge in the number of new organiza- industry. new or emerging institutions to tions that then pass through the three In the early part of this century, develop innovative technologies and stages outlined above. From these the challenges of managing an seize a major share of the market. periods of increased growth have advanced industrial economy and Clearly, both opportunities and bar- emerged a select group of institutions increased commitments abroad riers to entry will grow as the market that have been able to grow and created a demand for policy experts becomes more crowded and frag- prosper while other institutions have that far exceeded the existing capac- mented and institutions are forced to gone out of business. In the last eight ity of the U.S. government. In order find a niche to survive. decades, the number, composition, to meet this demand, institutions like To understand how these factors and relationship among the firms in Brookings and the National Bureau have affected the nature and com- the industry have undergone dra- of Economic Research were estab- position of the industry over the last matic change. lished to bring science and reason to 75 years, one only has to look at the While estimates of the total num- government. In the period following difference in the technologies em- ber of institutes that exist today vary World War II, when there was a ployed and products produced by according to how they are defined need for defense experts and techno- organizations like Brookings, Rand, and who does the counting, current crats to help manage the defense and Heritage. The Brookings Institu- estimates put the number somewhere establishment and its new security tion employs an academic/scientific between 1,200 and 1,400. If we limit arrangements around the world, the approach to its research that results the universe of institutions to those federal government once again in the production of book-length that are independent of government, turned to the public policy research studies that are marketed to policy colleges, and , the total community for help. The Rand Cor- makers and academics. In contrast to number of institutions in business poration, along with a host of other this approach, Rand is more oriented today is approximately 115. The research organizations, provided a toward policy analysis than scholarly chronological list of public policy re- ready supply of what have become research and produces technical search institutes presented at the end known as "defense " to reports for government agencies of this paper, dramatically illustrates help develop the defense hardware rather than book-length studies. The how this industry has changed over and systems that were put in place Heritage Foundation produces non- the last 75 years. During the first 30 after World War II. technical policy analysis and focuses years of this century, for instance, The social turmoil of the 1960s on the production of policy digests only 10 institutions came into being and its attendant political pressures and prescriptions for policy makers. which remain with us today. Since provided the impetus for the creation The dramatic increase in the degree that time, the industry has grown by of the Urban Institute and a host of of differentiation in the industry is ten-fold, doubling in each of the four other organizations that were the underscored by the fact that of the periods discussed. If we look closely architects of the social programs 58 institutes established between 1975 at the chronological list of institu- instituted during this period. More and 1989 over two-thirds of them are tions, we see that the most dramatic recently, the rise of the conservative specialty research organizations. shifts in the industry have occurred movement, the fractious nature of The information provided above in the last 30 years. Over two-thirds the Democratic and Republican par- serves to illustrate how diverse the of the institutions in business today ties and the hyperpluristic nature of industry has become and how new came into being between 1961 and American society have contributed to firms have developed innovative tech- 1986, and over one-half were estab- the rapid expansion of a host of nologies and products in order to lished between 1970 and 1988. This specialized think tanks. Specialty seize a share of the market. The information clearly suggests a pattern tanks such as the Heritage Founda- move away from the large multi-issue of sustained growth over time in the tion, Cato Institute, and the Institute academic-oriented think tanks to the number and types of research insti- for International Economics are now more policy-oriented specialty tutes that are competing for many of highly differentiated operations, serv- research organizations has served to the same dollars, scholars, and ing a special constituency or philoso- fragment the industry. The increase influence. phy or focusing on a single issue or in the size and diversification within During the last 75 years, new en- area of specialization. the industry has in turn served to trants to the industry have attempted Public policy research, or "paper intensify competition. These competi- to vary the strategy (goals, technolo- alchemy" as it is sometimes called, is tive forces have challenged existing gies, and product lines) and structure truly a growth industry, and the new firms in the business and compelled (organizational design) in response entrants to the field have shaken the them to alter their technologies and to the increased competition and monopoly once held by organizations product lines. An excellent example changes in the environment. Existing such as the Brookings Institution and of this phenomenon is the Rand Cor-

738 PS: Political Science & Politics Academics to Ideologues poration, which diversified in the Chronological Listing of Existing Policy Research Institutions area of domestic policy research in the 1960s when there was a downturn 1907 The Russell Sage Foundation in defense-related research as a result 1910 Carnegie Endowment for International Peace 1916 Institute for Government Research of the backlash connected with the 1916 Conference Board Vietnam War. 1919 Hoover Institution on War, Revolution and Peace Over the years, the industry has 1919 The Twentieth Century Fund experienced considerable diversifica- 1920 National Bureau of Economic Research tion in response to the variable 1921 Council on Foreign Relations market for its products. In addition, 1925 Battelle Memorial Institute firms have created a demand for new 1927 Brookings Institution enterprises by creating new areas of 1936 Urban Land Institute policy analysis or defining a problem 1937 Tax Foundation in a new way.5 Paul Dickson's obser- 1941 Institute of Gas Technology 1942 Center for Naval Analyses vations in 1973 about the growth of 1942 Committee for the research industry have even 1943 American Enterprise Institute for Public Policy Research greater relevance in the 1990s. 1946 Middle East Institute "Today, think tanks represent a wide 1946 SRI International variety of institutionalized thought. 1948 RAND Corporation-Washington The phenomenon has grown quickly 1950 Bureau of Social Science Research and in all directions. It seems that 1951 Human Resources Research Organization almost every conceivable interest 1952 Resources for the Future group in the nation has or has had at 1954 Conference on Economic Progress 1955 Foreign Policy Research Institute least one think tank working for it" 1955 International Institute (Dickson 1972, 31). In the short span 1956 Institute for Defense Analysis of 75 years, the industry has under- 1958 ANSER (Analytic Services, Inc.) gone a dramatic transformation that 1961 Atlantic Council of the U.S. has seen growth in both size and 1961 Hudson Institute-Washington influence. In fact, I would contend 1961 Logistic Management Institute 1961 Potomac Institute that if the press is the fourth arm of 1962 Center for Strategic and International Studies government, think tanks are certainly 1962 National Institute of Public Affairs the fifth. 1963 Institute for 1963 Ripon Society 1965 Center for Applied Research in the Apostolate 1965 Washington Journalism Center 1968 Urban Institute 1970 Joint Center for Political and Economic Studies Notes 1970 Tax Analysts 1971 Center for Science in the 1. Smith contends that the history of the 1971 Center for the Study of Welfare Policy policy expert is comprised of three inter- 1971 Public Technology twined threads. The strongest of these is the 1972 Center for Defense Information attempt in the mid-nineteenth century to 1972 Center for Women Policy Studies create a "social" science that would be both 1972 Investor Responsibility Research Center a method of scholarly investigation and tool 1973 American Council for Capital Formation for social improvement. The second strand is 1973 American Legislative Exchange Council the ongoing attempt in the United States and 1973 Children's Defense Fund elsewhere to incorporate the experts' knowl- 1973 Mankind Research Foundation edge and analytic techniques into public ser- 1974 Heritage Foundation vice through a series of formal and informal 1974 Institute for Contemporary Studies mechanisms. The final strand is comprised of 1974 Institute for Energy Analysis think tanks. 1974 Worldwatch Institute 2. Data developed from information pro- 1975 Center for International Policy vided by the Brookings Institution's Charter, 1975 Council for Social and Economic Studies Mission and Statement of Purpose and other 1975 National Center for Policy Alternatives historical data. 1976 Committee for the Study of the American Electorate 3. In a conversation with James Thurber, 1976 and Public Policy Center professor of government at American Univer- 1976 International Center for Research on Women sity, he described the increase in Congress 1976 Institute for Foreign Policy Analysis and the White House as "stafflation." Many 1976 Media Institute observers of the U.S. government are 1976 National Center for Appropriate Technology alarmed at how fast congressional staffs have 1976 Northeast-Midwest Institute expanded and are concerned about the impact 1976 The Rockford Institute it is having on the policy making process. 1977 Alan Guttmacher Institute-Washington The Heritage Foundation and the Claremont 1977 CATO Institute Institute produced a scathing attack on Con- 1977 Ethics Resource Center gress in The Imperial Congress: Crisis in the 1977 Free Congress Research and Education Foundation (Jones and Marini 1977 Manhattan Institute for Policy 1988). 1977 Women's Research and Education Institute

December 1992 739 The Profession

1978 Employee Benefit Research Institute U.S. Foreign Policy." A paper presented 1978 Reason Foundation at the fourth Tamkang American Studies 1979 Pacific Research Institute for Public Policy Conference, Tamkang University, Taipei, 1979 Lincoln Institute Taiwan, November 25-28, 1984. Washing- 1979 Center for the Study of Social Policy ton, DC: Georgetown University, Center 1979 Indochina Project for Strategic and International Studies. 1979 Pacific Research Institute for Public Policy Institute for International Economics. 1990. 1980 Foreign Policy Institute (Johns Hopkins University) "Mission Statement." Washington, DC. 1980 Renewable Energy Institute Jones, Gordon S., and John A. Marini, eds. 1981 Center on Budget and Policy Priorities 1988. The Imperial Congress: Crisis in the 1981 Center for International Business and Trade (Georgetown University) Separation of Powers. New York: Pharos 1981 Center for National Policy (Republican Party) Books. 1981 Committee for a Responsible Federal Budget Levien, Roger. 1971. "Independent Public 1981 Project Policy, Analysis Organization: A Major 1981 Institute for Educational Leadership Social Invention." In The Rand Papers 1981 Institute for International Economics Series. Santa Monica, CA: Rand 1981 Research Center Corporation. 1981 Roosevelt Center for American Policy Studies (closed 6/89) Linden, Patricia. 1987. "Powerhouses of 1981 Washington Center for Public Policy Research (Duke University—closed 7/30/89) Policy." Town and Country, January. 1982 Hispanic Policy Development Project McQuade, Kim. 1982. Big Business and 1982 Washington Institute Presidential Power: From FDR to 1982 World Resources Institute Reagan. New York: Morrow. 1983 Democratic Institute for International Affairs (Democratic Party) Orlans, Harold. 1972. The Nonprofit 1983 Institute for Policy Analysis Research Institute: Its Origins, Operation, 1983 Institute for Security and Cooperation in Outer Space Problems and Prospects. New York: 1983 Jefferson Foundation McGraw-Hill. 1983 National Center for Policy Analysis Pines, Burton Yale. 1982. Back to Basics. 1983 National Institute for Public Policy The Traditionalist Movement That Is 1984 Capital Research Center Sweeping Grass-Roots America. New 1984 Citizens for a Sound Economy York: William Morrow. 1984 Committee for Economic Development Smith, James A. 1991. The Idea Brokers: 1984 Institute Think Tanks and the Rise of the New 1985 Center for Democracy Policy Elite. New York: The Free Press. 1985 The Citizens Network for Foreign Affairs Smith, James A. 1989. "Think Tanks and the 1986 Economic Policy Institute Politics of Ideas." In The Spread of Eco- 1986 Independence Policy Institute nomic Ideas, ed. David Colander and A. 1986 Sunbelt Institute W. Coats. Cambridge, MA: Cambridge 1986 The Independent Institute University Press. 1986 United Slates Institute of Peace Weaver, R. Kent. 1989. "The Changing 1989 Progressive Policy Institute World of Think Tanks." PS: Political 1989 Washington Institute of Foreign Affairs Science & Politics 22: 563-78.

4. Daft and Aldrich provide good insights into the population ecology model. This References school of thought focuses on the characteris- tics of organizational populations rather than Aldrich, H. E. 1979. Organizations and About the Author on characteristics of management strategies Environment. New York: Prentice-Hall. and individual organizations. This model Brookings Institution. 1991. Seventy-fifth James G. McGann teaches political science assumes that the environment is always in a Anniversary Pamphlet, 1916-1991. Wash- at Temple University and consults for domes- state of flux and new organizational forms ington, DC. tic and international policy organizations. He are continuously being established and dying. Critchlow, Donald T. 1985. The Brookings serves as a senior consultant to McGann/ 5. Wealth and Poverty by George Gilder Institution, 1916-1952. McCarthy Management Company, an inter- and On Understanding Poverty by Daniel Daft, R. L. 1963. Organization Theory and national trade and investment firm. He has Patrick Moynihan are books that helped set Design. New York: West Publishing. been senior vice-president of the Executive the stage for the Reagan tax cuts, created a Dickson, Paul. 1972. Think Tanks. New Council on Foreign and directed demand for new organizations to advance York: Atheneum. the public policy program for The Pew these causes. Fauriol, George A. 1984. "Think Tanks and Charitable Trusts from 1983-1989.

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