Insurgencies in India's Northeast: Conflict, Co-Option & Change

No. 10, July 2007 InsurgenciesȱinȱIndia’sȱ Northeast:ȱConflict,ȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱ PAPERS

ȱ CoȬoptionȱ&ȱChange SubirȱBhaumik

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EastȬWestȱCenterȱWashingtonȱWorkingȱPapers

No. 10, July 2007 InsurgenciesȱinȱIndia’sȱ Northeast:ȱConflict,ȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱ CoȬoptionȱ&ȱChange SubirȱBhaumik

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ȱ ȱ ȱ ȱ ȱ ȱ ȱ ȱ ȱ ȱ ȱ ȱ InsurgenciesȱinȱIndia’sȱ Northeast:ȱConflict,ȱȱ CoȬoptionȱ&ȱChangeȱ ȱ ȱ ȱ ȱ ExecutiveȱSummaryȱȱ andȱstateȱarmedȱpoliceȱforȱcounterȬinsurgencyȱ EverȱsinceȱtheȱBritishȱwithdrawalȱfromȱSouthȱ operations.ȱOften,ȱIndianȱintelligenceȱagenciesȱ Asiaȱ inȱ 1947,ȱ India’sȱ Northeastȱ hasȱ beenȱ haveȱ playedȱ rivalȱ insurgentȱ factionsȱ againstȱ scarredȱ byȱ sustainedȱ separatistȱ insurgencies,ȱ eachȱ otherȱ toȱ weakenȱ andȱ controlȱ theȱ massȱ agitations,ȱ ethnicȱ riotsȱ andȱ heavyȬ relativelyȱ strongerȱ rebelȱ groups.ȱ Unlikeȱ theȱ handedȱstateȱresponseȱresultingȱinȱcontinuousȱ Britishȱ whoȱ wereȱ quiteȱ contentȱ toȱ leaveȱ theȱ bloodletting.ȱTheȱlandȬlockedȱregion,ȱwhichȱisȱ Northeastȱ onȱ itsȱ own,ȱ independentȱ Indiaȱ hasȱ linkedȱ toȱ theȱ Indianȱ mainlandȱ byȱ theȱ 22ȱ kmȱ triedȱtoȱintegrateȱtheȱlargelyȱMongoloidȱregionȱ wideȱ Siliguriȱ corridorȱ inȱ northernȱ Bengal,ȱ intoȱ itsȱ postȬcolonialȱ nationȬbuildingȱ project.ȱ bordersȱonȱBhutan,ȱBangladeshȱMyanmarȱandȱ Butȱ whenȱ suchȱ assimilationistȱ effortsȱ China’sȱTibetȱAutonomousȱRegionȱandȱNepalȱ provokedȱ discontentȱ andȱ armedȱ revolt,ȱ Delhiȱ isȱ notȱ tooȱ farȱ away.ȱ Locatedȱ inȱ aȱ volatileȱ respondedȱ withȱ aȱ combinationȱ ofȱ force,ȱ neighborhoodȱasȱitȱwere,ȱIndia’sȱNortheastȱhasȱ monetaryȱ inducements,ȱ splitȱ andȱ politicalȱ witnessed,ȱ sinceȱ theȱ 1950s,ȱ largeȬscaleȱ reconciliation—allȱkeyȱelementsȱofȱtheȱancientȱ insurgentȱ violenceȱ directedȱ againstȱ Indianȱ Hinduȱ statecraftȱ associatedȱ withȱ theȱ greatȱ securityȱ forcesȱ andȱ communitiesȱ fromȱ realpolitikȱexponent,ȱKautilyaȱorȱChanakya.ȱInȱ “mainland”ȱ Indianȱ states,ȱ butȱ itȱ hasȱ alsoȱ recentȱ years,ȱ Indiaȱ hasȱ triedȱ toȱ ropeȱ inȱ witnessedȱfrequentȱfightingȱbetweenȱdifferentȱ neighboringȱ countriesȱ inȱ itsȱ counterȬ ethnicȱmilitias.ȱAsȱaȱresult,ȱtheȱIndianȱfederalȱ insurgencyȱ effortsȱ againstȱ theȱ insurgentȱ governmentȱandȱthoseȱgoverningȱtheȱstatesȱinȱ groupsȱwhoȱoperateȱacrossȱtheȱborder.ȱ theȱNortheastȱhaveȱdeployedȱlargeȱformationsȱ Theȱinevitableȱmilitarizationȱofȱtheȱregionȱ ofȱ regularȱ army,ȱ federalȱ paraȬmilitaryȱ forcesȱ andȱ theȱ murkyȱ “covertȱ operations”ȱ hasȱ beenȱ Subir Bhaumik accompaniedȱ byȱ rampantȱ humanȱ rightsȱ splitsȱ andȱ surrenders,ȱ theȱ bulkȱ ofȱ theȱ NNCȱ violationsȱdueȱtoȱtheȱunrestrainedȱuseȱofȱterrorȱ leadershipȱ gaveȱ upȱ theȱ pathȱ ofȱ armedȱ byȱbothȱstateȱforcesȱandȱrebelȱfactions.ȱExtraȬ insurgencyȱandȱsignedȱanȱagreementȱwithȱtheȱ judicialȱ killing,ȱ ethnicȱ cleansingȱ andȱ largeȬ Indianȱ governmentȱ inȱ theȱ cityȱ ofȱ Shillongȱ inȱ scaleȱ massacresȱ followedȱ byȱ substantialȱ 1975.ȱ Butȱ theȱ ChinaȬtrainedȱ Nagaȱ rebelȱ internalȱ displacement—India’sȱ northeastȱ hasȱ leaders,ȱ Issacȱ Chisiȱ Swuȱ andȱ Thuingalengȱ witnessedȱitȱall.ȱTheȱgrowthȱofȱtheȱcivilȱsocietyȱ Muivah,ȱ decriedȱ theȱ Shillongȱ Accordȱ asȱ aȱ inȱtheȱstrifeȬtornȱregionȱhasȱbeenȱimpededȱbyȱ “sellout,”ȱ formedȱ theȱ Nationalȱ Socialistȱ theȱ lackȱ ofȱ democraticȱ space,ȱ becauseȱ specialȱ Councilȱ ofȱ Nagalandȱ (NSCN)ȱ toȱ carryȱ onȱ theȱ laws,ȱ allȱ veryȱ draconianȱ andȱ veryȱ unpopularȱ armedȱ insurrectionȱ untilȱ itȱ signedȱ aȱ ceasefireȱ withȱ localȱ communities,ȱ haveȱ remainedȱ inȱ agreementȱ withȱ theȱ Indianȱ governmentȱ inȱ effectȱ inȱ theȱ Northeastȱ toȱ fightȱ theȱ June,ȱ1997.ȱTheȱceasefireȱhasȱbeenȱfollowedȱbyȱ insurgencies.ȱ Theȱ highȱ levelȱ ofȱ legislativeȱ negotiationsȱ insideȱ andȱ outsideȱ India—butȱ itȱ instabilityȱ inȱ someȱ ofȱ theȱ northeasternȱ statesȱ isȱyetȱtoȱleadȱtoȱaȱsettlementȱofȱwhatȱisȱeasilyȱ haveȱ beenȱ compoundedȱ byȱ theȱ growingȱ Southȱ Asia’sȱ firstȱ majorȱ andȱ longestȱ runningȱ linkagesȱ betweenȱ legitimateȱ politicalȱ partiesȱ ethnicȱinsurrection.ȱȱȱȱ andȱ theȱ undergroundȱ rebelȱ factionsȱ orȱ thoseȱ Aȱ famineȱ causedȱ byȱ bambooȱ floweringȱ whoȱ haveȱ gainedȱ stateȱ patronageȱ afterȱ andȱ theȱ accompaniedȱ explosionȱ ofȱ ratȱ surrender.ȱ populationȱinȱAssam’sȱMizoȱHillsȱinȱtheȱearlyȱ Theȱ Northeastȱ isȱ surelyȱ theȱ oneȱ areaȱ ofȱ 1960sȱ setȱ theȱ stageȱ forȱ anȱ armedȱ insurrectionȱ postȬcolonialȱ Indiaȱ whereȱ theȱ outbreakȱ ofȱ inȱ whatȱ isȱ nowȱ theȱ Indianȱ stateȱ ofȱ Mizoram.ȱ insurgencyȱ hasȱ beenȱ moreȱ frequentȱ thanȱ AngryȱMizosȱjoinedȱtheȱMizoȱNationalȱFamineȱ anywhereȱ elseȱ inȱ Southȱ Asiaȱ andȱ whereȱ Frontȱ (MNFF)ȱ toȱ helpȱ outȱ theȱ victimsȱ ofȱ recourseȱtoȱarmedȱrebellionȱhasȱoftenȱbeenȱtheȱ “Mautam”ȱ (Ratȱ Famine)ȱ afterȱ ratsȱ destroyedȱ first,ȱ ratherȱ thanȱ theȱ last,ȱ optionȱ ofȱ aȱ cropsȱ andȱ causedȱ largeȱ scaleȱ starvation.ȱ Theȱ recalcitrantȱtribeȱorȱaȱlargerȱethnicȱgroup.ȱTheȱ Assamȱ administration,ȱ whichȱ hadȱ failedȱ toȱ NagaȱNationalȱCouncilȱ(NNC),ȱbyȱunilaterallyȱ heedȱtheȱwarningsȱbyȱtribalȱelders,ȱrespondedȱ declaringȱ independenceȱ aȱ dayȱ beforeȱ Indianȱ ineffectively.ȱLaldenga,ȱaȱformerȱIndianȱarmyȱ gainedȱ independenceȱ fromȱ theȱ British,ȱ soldierȱfromȱtheȱMizoȱtribe,ȱtookȱcontrolȱofȱtheȱ challengedȱ theȱ claimsȱ ofȱ theȱ postȬcolonialȱ MNFFȱandȱwasȱinstrumentalȱinȱturningȱitȱintoȱ Indianȱ stateȱ toȱ ruleȱ overȱ theȱ Nagaȱ Hills,ȱ thatȱ aȱ platformȱ organizationȱ toȱ leadȱ theȱ rebellionȱ becameȱ partȱ ofȱ theȱ largeȱ provinceȱ ofȱ Assam.ȱ againstȱ India.ȱ Theȱ wordȱ “Famine”ȱ wasȱ Theȱ NNCȱ enteredȱ intoȱ negotiationsȱ withȱ theȱ droppedȱandȱtheȱMizoȱNationalȱFrontȱ(MNF)ȱ Indianȱgovernmentȱonȱtheȱfutureȱstatusȱofȱtheȱ seizedȱ nineȱ townsȱ inȱ theȱ Mizoȱ Hillsȱ onȱ Nagaȱ Hillsȱ andȱ whenȱ itȱ appearedȱ thatȱ Delhiȱ Februaryȱ 28,ȱ 1966ȱ inȱ aȱ boldȱ operationȱ willȱnotȱentertainȱtheȱNagaȱaspirationȱforȱselfȬ christenedȱ “Operationȱ Jericho.”ȱȱItȱ tookȱ theȱ rule,ȱitȱformedȱtheȱ“NagaȱArmy”ȱandȱstartedȱ Indianȱ armyȱ severalȱ monthsȱ toȱ takeȱ fullȱ wagingȱ sustainedȱ guerrillaȱ warfareȱ againstȱ controlȱofȱtheȱMizoȱHills.ȱLaterȱtheȱMizoȱhillsȱ Indianȱ forces.ȱ Severalȱ attemptsȱ atȱ peaceȬ wereȱcarvedȱoutȱofȱAssamȱtoȱformȱaȱfederallyȬ makingȱ withȱ theȱ NNCȱ failedȱ evenȱ asȱ Indiaȱ administeredȱ provinceȱ ofȱ Mizoram,ȱ whichȱ carvedȱoutȱtheȱseparateȱstateȱofȱNagalandȱandȱ laterȱbecameȱaȱfullȱstateȱinȱ1987—aȱyearȱafterȱ gaveȱitȱspecialȱstatusȱjustȱafterȱsigningȱtheȱ16Ȭ theȱ MNFȱ finallyȱ bidȱ farewellȱ toȱ armsȱ andȱ pointȱ agreementȱ withȱ theȱ “Nagaȱ moderateȱ signedȱ anȱ agreementȱ withȱ Indiaȱ inȱ 1986.ȱ groups”ȱinȱ1960.ȱȱ Exceptȱ forȱ someȱ ethnicȱ tensionsȱ betweenȱ TheȱNNCȱwasȱfirstȱsplitȱinȱtheȱlateȱ1960sȱ Mizosȱ andȱ theȱ smallerȱ tribeȱ ofȱ Brusȱ (calledȱ whenȱ theȱ Semaȱ Nagaȱ tribalȱ factionȱ wasȱ coȬ Reangsȱ inȱ Tripura),ȱ Mizoramȱ hasȱ remainedȱ optedȱ byȱ theȱ Indianȱ administrationȱ andȱ usedȱ largelyȱpeacefulȱeverȱsince.ȱȱȱȱȱȱ againstȱtheȱ“NagaȱArmy.”ȱMuchȱweakenedȱbyȱ

2 Insurgencies in India’s Northeast: Conflict, Co-option & Change

Insurgencyȱ eruptedȱ inȱ theȱ erstwhileȱ (RPF)ȱ andȱ itsȱ armedȱ wing,ȱ theȱ People’sȱ princelyȱstatesȱofȱTripuraȱandȱManipurȱinȱtheȱ Liberationȱ Armyȱ (PLA)ȱ haveȱ alsoȱ beenȱ lateȱ1960s,ȱalmostȱaroundȱtheȱsameȱtimeȱasȱtheȱ fightingȱ sinceȱ itsȱ inceptionȱ inȱ 1976.ȱȱAnotherȱ uprisingȱ inȱ theȱ Mizoȱ hills.ȱ Theȱ indigenousȱ Meiteiȱrebelȱgroup,ȱtheȱKangleiȱKanaȱYanȱLupȱ tribespeopleȱ ofȱ Tripuraȱ resentedȱ theȱ (KYKL)ȱplaysȱtheȱmoralȱcopȱtoȱ“cleanseȱtheȱillsȱ continuousȱ influxȱ ofȱ Bengalisȱ fromȱ Eastȱ ofȱManipuriȱsociety”ȱbyȱperiodicallyȱshootingȱ Pakistanȱ (nowȱ Bangladesh)ȱ whichȱ wasȱ corruptȱ officials,ȱ schoolteachersȱ whoȱ helpȱ reducingȱ themȱ toȱ aȱ minorityȱ inȱ theirȱ ownȱ studentsȱcheatȱorȱdrugȱtraffickersȱwhoȱpeddleȱ homelandȱafterȱtheȱstateȱwasȱmergedȱintoȱtheȱ heroinȱ intoȱ theȱ stateȱ fromȱ Myanmar’sȱ Indianȱ Unionȱ inȱ 1949.ȱ Inȱ 1967,ȱ someȱ Reangȱ infamousȱ“GoldenȱTriangle.”ȱTwoȱotherȱonceȬ tribespeople,ȱ upsetȱ byȱ theȱ largeȱ scaleȱ landȱ powerfulȱ Meiteiȱ rebelȱ groups,ȱ theȱ Peoplesȱ grabbingȱ byȱ Bengaliȱ settlersȱ inȱ northernȱ RevolutionaryȱPartyȱofȱKangleipakȱ(PREPAK)ȱ Tripura,ȱ gotȱ togetherȱ toȱ formȱ theȱ “Sengkrak”ȱ andȱ Kangleipak*ȱ Communistȱ Partyȱ (KCP)ȱ (Clenchedȱ Fist).ȱ Theȱ Sengkrakȱ developedȱ haveȱ beenȱ considerablyȱ weakenedȱ byȱ lossȱ ofȱ fraternalȱ tiesȱ withȱ theȱ Mizoȱ Nationalȱ Frontȱ fightersȱ andȱ leadersȱ inȱ encountersȱ withȱ andȱstartedȱaȱshortȬlivedȱinsurgencyȱthatȱdiedȱ securityȱforces.ȱȱ withȱtheȱcreationȱofȱBangladeshȱinȱ1971.ȱButȱasȱ ButȱManipurȱhasȱaȱnumberȱofȱotherȱrebelȱ theȱ Bengaliȱ populationȱ continuedȱ toȱ increaseȱ groupsȱ representingȱ smallerȱ tribesȱ likeȱ theȱ andȱ theȱ tribalȱ resentmentȱ continuedȱ toȱ growȱ Kukis,ȱ theȱ Paitesȱ andȱ Zomis—andȱ moreȱ thanȱ overȱ lossȱ ofȱ land,ȱ politicalȱ powerȱ andȱ halfȱ aȱ dozenȱ ofȱ theseȱ Kukiȱ andȱ Zomiȱ groupsȱ economicȱ opportunities,ȱ aȱ newȱ separatistȱ areȱ nowȱ activelyȱ collaboratingȱ withȱ Indianȱ group,ȱTribalȱNationalȱVolunteersȱ(TNV)ȱwasȱ troopsȱagainstȱtheȱMeiteiȱrebelȱgroupsȱlikeȱtheȱ formedȱinȱ1978.ȱItȱunleashedȱaȱwaveȱofȱattacksȱ UNLFȱ andȱ theȱ RPFȱ afterȱ theyȱ signedȱ againstȱ Bengaliȱ settlersȱ andȱ securityȱ forcesȱ Suspensionȱ ofȱ Operationsȱ (SOO)ȱ agreementsȱ beforeȱ itȱ surrenderedȱ andȱ signedȱ anȱ withȱ theȱ Indianȱ armyȱ andȱ notȱ withȱ theȱ agreementȱ withȱ theȱ federalȱ andȱ theȱ stateȱ country’sȱ Homeȱ Ministryȱ whichȱ normallyȱ governmentȱinȱ1988.ȱȱ negotiatesȱ withȱ suchȱ groups.ȱ Whileȱ theȱ Butȱ twoȱ newȱ separatistȱ groups,ȱ theȱ Allȱ youngerȱ generationȱ ofȱ Meiteisȱ resentȱ theȱ Tripuraȱ Tigerȱ Forceȱ (ATTF)ȱ andȱ theȱ Nationalȱ state’sȱ progressiveȱ economicȱ declineȱ andȱ Liberationȱ Frontȱ ofȱ Tripuraȱ (NLFT)ȱ wereȱ endemicȱ corruptionȱ thatȱ leavesȱ themȱ withȱ formedȱ inȱ theȱ earlyȱ 1990s,ȱ toȱ continueȱ theȱ littleȱopportunity,ȱtheȱsmallerȱtribesȱwantȱtheirȱ armedȱ activityȱ againstȱ theȱ Bengaliȱ settlers.ȱ separateȱautonomousȱhomelandsȱthatȱpromiseȱ Bothȱ ofȱ theseȱ groupsȱ haveȱ beenȱ split,ȱ oftenȱ themȱmoreȱfundsȱandȱpoliticalȱclout.ȱ engineeredȱ byȱ theȱ stateȱ intelligenceȱ agencies,ȱ WhileȱMeghalayaȱandȱArunachalȱPradeshȱ andȱtheyȱareȱweakerȱthanȱbefore.ȱButȱsoȱlongȱ haveȱ witnessedȱ someȱ insurgentȱ activityȱ inȱ asȱ theȱ angstȱ ofȱ theȱ indigenousȱ tribespeopleȱ recentȱ years,ȱ asȱ muchȱbyȱhomegrownȱgroupsȱ remainȱoverȱperceivedȱmarginalizationȱinȱtheirȱ asȱthoseȱoperatingȱinȱneighbouringȱstatesȱ,ȱtheȱ ownȱhomeland,ȱtheȱcycleȱofȱarmedȱrebellionȱinȱ truncatedȱstateȱofȱȱAssamȱhasȱbeenȱinȱaȱthroesȱ Tripuraȱmayȱbeȱfarȱfromȱover.ȱȱ ofȱ violentȱ insurgenciesȱ unleashedȱ byȱ theȱ Inȱ Manipur,ȱ someȱ Meiteiȱ youthsȱ formedȱ AsomiyaȬdominatedȱȱUnitedȱLiberationȱFrontȱ theȱ Unitedȱ Nationalȱ Liberationȱ Frontȱ(UNLF)ȱ ofȱ Asom**ȱ (ULFA)ȱ andȱ byȱ factionsȱ inȱ 1964.ȱ Itȱ remainsȱ Manipur’sȱ strongestȱ representingȱtheȱsmallerȱtribesȱlikeȱtheȱBodos.ȱ separatistȱgroupȱandȱitsȱfightersȱfoughtȱbackȱaȱ Assamȱ firstȱ witnessedȱ aȱ massȱ agitationȱ determinedȱIndianȱmilitaryȱoffensiveȱinȱ2005– directedȱ againstȱ “illegalȱ migrants”ȱ fromȱ 06ȱtoȱoverrunȱtheirȱ“baseȱareas”ȱinȱpartsȱofȱtheȱ Bangladeshȱ andȱ Nepalȱ thatȱ degeneratedȱ intoȱ stateȱborderingȱMyanmarȱandȱtheȱneighboringȱ ethnicȱ riotsȱ directedȱ againstȱ Muslimsȱ ofȱ stateȱofȱMizoram.ȱAnotherȱseparatistȱgroupȱofȱ Bengaliȱorigin.ȱTheȱworstȱriotsȱwereȱreportedȱ theȱ Meiteis,ȱ theȱ Revolutionaryȱ People’sȱ Frontȱ fromȱNellieȱwhereȱatȱleastȱ1800ȱMuslimsȱwereȱ

3 Subir Bhaumik killedȱinȱFebruaryȱ1983.ȱTheȱagitationȱwasȱledȱ reactionsȱ inȱ Manipurȱ andȱ Assamȱ andȱ fuelȱ byȱtheȱAllȱAssamȱStudentsȱUnionȱ(AASU)ȱandȱ moreȱ unrestȱ there.ȱ Indiaȱ hasȱ managedȱ toȱ otherȱ Assameseȱ radicalȱ groups.ȱ Inȱ 1985,ȱ afterȱ containȱtheȱmajorȱinsurgentȱmovementsȱinȱtheȱ sixȱ yearsȱ ofȱ unprecedentedȱ turmoilȱ andȱ Northeastȱ andȱ noneȱ ofȱ themȱ canȱ achieveȱ theȱ bloodletting,ȱ theȱ AASUȱ signedȱ anȱ agreementȱ statedȱ objectiveȱ ofȱ separation—butȱ Indiaȱ hasȱ withȱ theȱ Indianȱ governmentȱ inȱ 1985ȱ toȱ bringȱ alsoȱfailedȱtoȱresolveȱtheȱissuesȱthatȱfuelȱsuchȱ theȱagitationȱtoȱanȱend.ȱButȱtheȱULFA,ȱwhichȱ movementsȱwithȱtheȱresultȱthatȱtheȱnumberȱofȱ grewȱ outȱ ofȱ theȱ Assamȱ agitationȱ againstȱ suchȱ movementsȱ hasȱ multipliedȱ overȱ theȱ migrants,ȱgrewȱstrongerȱafterȱ1985ȱandȱbeganȱ decades.ȱ toȱrunȱparallelȱadministrationȱinȱmanyȱpartsȱofȱ ȱ Assam.ȱ *Kangleipak is the ancient name of Manipur. Groups who believe in Meitei revivalism tend to use this. FederalȱruleȱwasȱimposedȱonȱAssamȱandȱ **Asom is how the locals describe their own state in aȱ regionalȱ partyȱ governmentȱ believedȱ toȱ beȱ Assam. The British and successive Indian governments sympatheticȱ toȱ theȱ ULFAȱ wasȱ dismissedȱ inȱ used Assam but the state government has recently 1990.ȱTheȱIndianȱarmyȱwasȱcalledȱoutȱforȱtheȱ renamed Assam as Asom, much like Calcutta has been renamed Kolkata and elȱ firstȱ timeȱ inȱ theȱ valleysȱ ofȱ Assamȱ andȱ theyȱ ȱ launchedȱtwoȱsuccessiveȱoperationsȱ“Bajrang”ȱ andȱ “Rhino”ȱ inȱ theȱ 1990s.ȱ Anȱ unifiedȱ NortheastȱIndianȱInsurgencies—ȱ commandȱ wasȱ formedȱ toȱ coordinateȱ theȱ AnȱIntroductionȱ counterȬinsurgencyȱ operationsȱ betweenȱ theȱ Theȱ Britishȱ administeredȱ Indiaȇsȱ northeastȱ asȱ army,ȱtheȱfederalȱparaȬmilitaryȱforcesȱandȱtheȱ anȱimperialȱfrontierȱandȱtreatedȱitȱasȱaȱbufferȱ stateȱpolice.ȱTheȱULFAȱisȱnowȱaȱmuchȱweakerȱ zoneȱ betweenȱ theȱ Bengalȱ plainsȱ andȱ theȱ forceȱ andȱ itȱ startedȱ “indirect”ȱ negotiationsȱ highlandsȱofȱChinaȱandȱBurma.ȱTheyȱavoidedȱ withȱ theȱ Indianȱ governmentȱ throughȱ aȱ imposingȱ directȱ administrationȱ overȱ muchȱ ofȱ mediatingȱ bodyȱ calledȱ theȱ People’sȱ theȱ multiȬethnic,ȱ polyglotȱ areaȱ andȱ onlyȱ Consultativeȱ Groupȱ (PCG)ȱ inȱ 2006.ȱ Butȱ theȱ Assamȱ withȱ muchȱBritishȱ investmentsȱ inȱ tea,ȱ negotiationsȱcollapsedȱbecauseȱtheȱULFAȱwasȱ oilȱ andȱ timberȱ wasȱ administeredȱ asȱ anȱ unwillingȱ toȱ signȱ aȱ ceasefireȱ (likeȱ theȱ NSCNȱ imperialȱprovince.ȱAfterȱtheȱBritishȱleft,ȱpostȬ andȱotherȱrebelȱgroupsȱnegotiatingȱwithȱDelhiȱ colonialȱ Indiaȱ soughtȱ toȱ integrateȱ theȱ wholeȱ hadȱ done)ȱ andȱ theȱ Indianȱ governmentȱ wasȱ regionȱ intoȱ theȱ“nationalȱ mainstream,”ȱ unwillingȱ toȱ allowȱ theȱ issueȱ ofȱ Asom’sȱ provokingȱ violentȱ oppositionȱtoȱ federalȱ sovereigntyȱ toȱ beȱ raised.ȱ Butȱ oneȱ ofȱ theȱ twoȱ controlȱ andȱ culturalȱ assimilation.ȱ Guerrillaȱ Bodoȱ rebelȱ groups,ȱ theȱ Bodolandȱ Liberationȱ warfareȱ emergedȱ asȱ theȱ favoriteȱ formȱ ofȱ Tigersȱ Forceȱ (BLTF),ȱ signedȱ anȱ agreementȱ resistanceȱ andȱ sixtyȱ yearsȱ afterȱ Indiaȱ becameȱ withȱ Delhiȱ thatȱ ledȱ toȱ theȱ formationȱ ofȱ anȱ independent,ȱ moreȱ thanȱ seventyȱ insurgentȱ autonomousȱ territorialȱ councilȱ forȱ theȱ BodoȬ groupsȱ stillȱ remainȱ activeȱ inȱ theȱ country’sȱ dominatedȱareasȱofȱwesternȱAssam.ȱTheȱotherȱ troubledȱ northeast.1ȱ Theyȱ continueȱ toȱ battleȱ Bodoȱ separatistȱ group,ȱ Nationalȱ Democraticȱ Indianȱ securityȱ forcesȱ forȱ independenceȱ butȱ Frontȱ ofȱ Bodolandȱ (NDFB),ȱ hasȱ signedȱ aȱ someȱ ofȱ themȱ haveȱ settledȱ forȱ extensiveȱ ceasefireȱagreementȱwithȱIndiaȱandȱisȱinvolvedȱ autonomy.ȱ Andȱ theȱ ethnicȱ rebelȱ armiesȱ oftenȱ inȱnegotiations.ȱȱTheȱsituationȱinȱAssam—andȱ fightȱ eachȱ other—mainlyȱ overȱ conflictingȱ elsewhereȱ inȱ India’sȱ Northeast—isȱ stillȱ veryȱ homelandȱ demandsȱ andȱ scarceȱ resources— fluid.ȱ Aȱ settlementȱ inȱ theseȱ twoȱ states,ȱ that’sȱ andȱthusȱendȱupȱprovidingȱIndianȱintelligenceȱ theȱ keyȱ toȱ peaceȱ inȱ theȱ restȱ ofȱ theȱ troubledȱ agenciesȱenoughȱopportunitiesȱtoȱplayȱdivideȬ region,ȱdoesȱnotȱseemȱtoȱbeȱachievableȱinȱnearȱ andȬruleȱinȱtheȱregion.ȱȱ future.ȱ Alsoȱ aȱ settlementȱ inȱ Nagaland,ȱ ifȱ Theȱ 225,000ȱ km2ȱ hillȬforestȱ region,ȱ achievedȱbyȱmeetingȱtheȱNSCN’sȱdemandȱforȱ sandwichedȱ betweenȱ fourȱ neighboringȱ aȱ “greaterȱ Nagaȱ state”ȱ mayȱ provokeȱ hugeȱ countries,ȱ provideȱ idealȱ terrainȱ forȱ guerillaȱ

4 Insurgencies in India’s Northeast: Conflict, Co-option & Change warfare.ȱItsȱdemographyȱhasȱchangedȱsharply,ȱ ofȱ theȱ sevenȱ statesȱ inȱ theȱ regionȱ areȱ largelyȱ pittingȱ theȱ growingȱ rushȱ ofȱ settlersȱ fromȱ theȱ peaceful.ȱButȱIndiaȱhasȱnotȱbeenȱableȱtoȱcrushȱ Indianȱ mainlandȱ andȱ neighboringȱ countriesȱ manyȱ ofȱ theȱ insurgentȱ movementsȱ orȱ evenȱ likeȱ Bangladeshȱ againstȱ theȱ regionȇsȱ managedȱ toȱ offerȱ politicalȱ solutionsȱ toȱ endȱ indigenousȱ Mongoloidȱ ethnicitiesȱ inȱ aȱ them.ȱ Inȱ fact,ȱ theȱ numberȱ ofȱ activeȱ insurgentȱ competitionȱ forȱ scarceȱ resourcesȱ likeȱ arableȱ groupsȱ hasȱ multipliedȱ inȱ theȱ northeastȱ overȱ land.ȱDistanceȱfromȱmainlandȱIndiaȱhasȱledȱtoȱ theȱ years,ȱ posingȱ aȱ continuousȱ challengeȱ toȱ aȱ senseȱ ofȱ isolationȱ andȱ theȱ meagreȱ regionalȱ federalȱcontrolȱbutȱtheirȱdivisivenessȱhasȱalsoȱ representationȱinȱtheȱnationalȱparliamentȱ(onlyȱ offeredȱ opportunitiesȱ forȱ containmentȱ byȱ 24ȱ seatsȱ inȱ aȱ 542ȱ memberȱ lowerȱ house)ȱ hasȱ Delhi.ȱȱ oftenȱ promptedȱ rebelliousȱ ethnicitiesȱ toȱ Theȱ postȬcolonialȱ Indianȱ strategyȱ inȱ chooseȱ armedȱ guerrillaȱ warfareȱ overȱ otherȱ fightingȱ theseȱ asymmetricȱ conflicts—inȱ formsȱ ofȱ politicalȱ protest,ȱ becauseȱ violenceȱ Kashmir,ȱ Punjabȱ orȱ inȱ theȱ Northeastȱ has— attractsȱ immediateȱ attentionȱ andȱ providesȱ reliedȱ asȱ muchȱ onȱ coȬoptionȱ asȱ onȱ militaryȱ bargainingȱ cloutȱ inȱ absenceȱ ofȱ adequateȱ operations.ȱ Militaryȱ operationȱ hasȱ beenȱ theȱ numbers.ȱIndia’sȱrecalcitrantȱneighbors—withȱ immediateȱ responseȱ butȱ onceȱ theȱ insurgencyȱ whomȱ theȱ country’sȱ northeastȱ sharesȱ 98ȱ lostȱ itsȱ sting,ȱ politicalȱ dialoguesȱ wereȱ percentȱ ofȱ itsȱ borders—haveȱ oftenȱ supportedȱ promptlyȱinitiated.ȱThisȱisȱinȱstarkȱcontrastȱtoȱ theseȱrebelȱarmiesȱwithȱweapons,ȱtrainingȱandȱ neighboringȱ Burmaȱ (Myanmar),ȱ whereȱ theȱ sanctuaries,ȱ helpingȱ themȱ surviveȱ theȱ militaryȱ juntaȱ signedȱ ceasefireȱ agreementsȱ onslaughtsȱ ofȱ India’sȱ formidableȱ militaryȱ withȱaȱlargeȱnumberȱofȱethnicȱrebelȱarmiesȱinȱ machine.ȱȱ theȱ 1990sȱ withoutȱ initiatingȱ politicalȱ Contemporaryȱ studiesȱ inȱ asymmetricȱ negotiationsȱ withȱ anyȱ ofȱ them.ȱ Delhiȱ hasȱ conflictsȱ haveȱ “militaryȱ andȱ technologicalȱ offeredȱ settlementȱ packagesȱ thatȱ involveȱ superiorityȱ mayȱ beȱ aȱ highlyȱ unreliableȱ guideȱ devolutionȱ ofȱ greaterȱ politicalȱ andȱ toȱtheȱoutcomeȱofȱwars.”2ȱTheȱnumerousȱwarsȱ administrativeȱautonomy,ȱaȱmuchȱgreaterȱflowȱ ofȱnationalȱliberationȱ(likeȱthoseȱinȱAlgeriaȱandȱ ofȱ federalȱ fundsȱ forȱ economicȱ developmentȱ Indonesia)ȱ orȱ thoseȱ ofȱ nationalȱ resistanceȱ (partȱofȱitȱalsoȱsiphonedȱoffȱtoȱrebelȱcoffersȱtoȱ (Vietnamȱ andȱ Afghanistan)ȱ andȱ revolutionȱ keepȱ themȱ happy)ȱ andȱ anȱ expressedȱ (Cuba)ȱinȱ theȱ lateȬcolonialȱ andȱ postȬcolonialȱ commitmentȱ toȱ promoteȱ localȱ cultureȱ andȱ eraȱ haveȱ demonstratedȱ thatȱ overwhelmingȱ interests.ȱ Butȱ ifȱ theȱ insurgentȱ groupȱ insistedȱ conventionalȱ militaryȱ superiorityȱ enjoyedȱ byȱ onȱ sovereigntyȱ (likeȱ theȱ ULFAȱ hasȱ doneȱ inȱ industrial/imperialȱ powersȱ isȱ noȱ guaranteeȱ Assam)ȱ orȱ adoptedȱ otherȱ positionsȱ againstȱ defeat.ȱ Evenȱ postȬcolonialȱ nationalȱ unacceptableȱ toȱ Delhi,ȱ militaryȱ operationsȱ armiesȱhaveȱoftenȱfailedȱtoȱsuppressȱseparatistȱ wereȱ resumedȱ withȱ renewedȱ vigorȱ andȱ campaignsȱbyȱuseȱ ofȱ superiorȱ force.ȱ Theȱ intelligenceȱagenciesȱworkedȱovertimeȱtoȱsplitȱ Pakistanȱ armyȱ lostȱ theȱ country’sȱ rebelliousȱ theȱ recalcitrantȱ insurgentȱ group.ȱ Naga,ȱ Mizo,ȱ BengaliȬdominantȱ easternȱ wingȱ inȱ 1971ȱ andȱ Assameseȱ andȱ otherȱ tribalȱ insurgentȱ groupsȱ Indonesiaȱ couldȱ notȱ holdȱ onȱ toȱ Eastȱ Timorȱ haveȱallȱendedȱupȱsplit,ȱmostlyȱduringȱorȱafterȱ afterȱ integratingȱ itȱ asȱ theȱ country’sȱ 27thȱ havingȱdialoguesȱwithȱtheȱfederalȱorȱtheȱstateȱ provinceȱ followingȱ theȱ Portugueseȱ governments.ȱȱ withdrawalȱinȱ1976.ȱȱ Theȱ frequentȱ dolingȱ outȱ ofȱ federalȱ Theȱ Indianȱ counterȬinsurgencyȱ largesseȱ asȱ “specialȱ developmentȱ packages,”ȱ experienceȱinȱNortheastȱhasȱbeenȱaȱmixedȱbag.ȱ theȱ emphasisȱ onȱ talksȱ andȱ negotiationsȱ withȱ Theȱ Indianȱ securityȱ forcesȱ haveȱ notȱ sufferedȱ theȱ rebelȱ groups,ȱ theȱ heavyȱ handedȱ militaryȱ defeat,ȱthatȱcouldȱforceȱaȱwithdrawal.ȱFarȱfromȱ operationsȱlikeȱ“Bajrang”ȱandȱ“Rhino”ȱandȱtheȱ it,ȱtheȱNortheastȱhasȱevolvedȱintoȱaȱconstituentȱ frequentȱ splitsȱ engineeredȱ inȱ theȱ rebelȱ ranksȱ regionȱofȱpostȬcolonialȱIndiaȱandȱatȱleastȱthreeȱ byȱ intelligenceȱ agenciesȱ allȱ pointȱ toȱ theȱ

5 Subir Bhaumik combinedȱuseȱofȱtheȱfourȱprinciplesȱofȱIndia’sȱ groupsȱhaveȱviciouslyȱfoughtȱeachȱotherȱoverȱ ancientȱ Kautilyanȱ statecraft.ȱ Inȱ fact,ȱ postȬ conflictingȱ homelandȱ demandsȱ orȱ forȱ controlȱ colonialȱIndia’sȱstrategyȱforȱtheȱpacificationȱofȱ ofȱkeyȱresources.ȱ itsȱ Northeastȱ hasȱ beenȱ largelyȱ influencedȱ byȱ Inȱfact,ȱfederalȱintelligenceȱagenciesȱhaveȱ theȱ realpolitikȱ propoundedȱ byȱ theȱ greatȱ oftenȱ usedȱ theseȱ movementsȱ forȱ fulfillingȱtheȱ Kautilyaȱ (alsoȱ calledȱ Chanakya),ȱ whoȱ helpedȱ vestedȱinterestsȱofȱthoseȱcontrollingȱtheȱpowerȱ KingȱChandraguptaȱMauryaȱbuildȱIndia’sȱfirstȱ structureȱ inȱ Delhi.ȱ Theȱ supportȱ givenȱ byȱ theȱ transȬregionalȱ empireȱ justȱ afterȱ Alexander’sȱ CongressȬledȱ federalȱ governmentȱ toȱ theȱ invasionȱ ofȱ northernȱ India.ȱ Kautilyaȱ violentȱ Bodoȱ movementȱ inȱ theȱ 1980sȱ toȱ advocatedȱShamȱ(Conciliation),ȱDamȱ(Bribes),ȱ unsettleȱ theȱ Asomȱ Ganaȱ Parishadȱ ledȱ Assamȱ Dandaȱ (Force)ȱ andȱ Bhedȱ (Split)ȱ asȱ theȱ fourȱ governmentȱ orȱ toȱ theȱ tribalȱ insurgentsȱ inȱ optionsȱ ofȱ statecraftȱ toȱ beȱ usedȱ inȱ effectiveȱ TripuraȱtoȱbringȱdownȱtheȱBengaliȬdominatedȱ combinationsȱ ratherȱ thanȱ asȱ single,ȱ standȬ Leftȱgovernmentȱisȱwellȱknown.ȱCurrently,ȱtheȱ aloneȱ options.3ȱ Forȱ neighboringȱ princesȱ andȱ Indianȱ armyȱ isȱ usingȱ theȱ Kukiȱ armedȱ groupsȱ forestȱ chiefsȱ unwillingȱ toȱ acceptȱ theȱ king’sȱ toȱ curbȱ andȱ controlȱ theȱ Manipuriȱ insurgentȱ authority,ȱKautilyaȱadvocatedȱtheȱuseȱofȱforceȱ groupsȱ likeȱ theȱ UNLF.ȱȱ Theȱ insurgentȱ inȱ andȱ sowingȱ ofȱ dissensionȱ butȱ alsoȱ suggestedȱ Northeastȱ Indiaȱ haveȱ alwaysȱ hadȱ anȱ conciliationȱandȱlavishȱgifts.ȱThatȱhasȱstrikingȱ immediateȱ enemy—andȱ aȱ distantȱ one.ȱ Whileȱ resemblanceȱ toȱ India’sȱ currentȱ counterȬ theȱ distantȱ oneȱ hasȱ beenȱ aȱ constant—theȱ insurgencyȱstrategyȱinȱtheȱNortheast.ȱ Indianȱstate—theȱimmediateȱenemyȱhasȱvariedȱ Insurgenciesȱ inȱ India’sȱ northeastȱ doȱ notȱ fromȱ stateȱ toȱ stateȱ andȱ fromȱ situationsȱ toȱ representȱ aȱ stereotypeȱ andȱ theirȱ similaritiesȱ situations.ȱ India’sȱ northeasternȱ peripheryȱ hasȱ oftenȱ endȱ withȱ theirȱ oppositionȱ toȱ federalȱ neverȱ reallyȱ struckȱ backȱ asȱ oneȱ againstȱ theȱ controlȱ andȱ useȱ ofȱ violenceȱ toȱ challengeȱ it.ȱ Itȱ federalȱoverlordȱinȱDelhiȱandȱinsurgentȱeffortsȱ willȱ alsoȱ beȱ simplisticȱ toȱ seeȱ theȱ insurgentȱ toȱ developȱ tacticalȱ unityȱ (likeȱ throughȱ theȱ movementsȱ asȱ manifestationsȱ ofȱ coreȬ IndoȬBurmaȱRevolutionaryȱFrontȱinȱtheȱ1990s)ȱ peripheryȱconflictȱasȱsomeȱwritersȱhaveȱdone.4ȱ haveȱlargelyȱfailed.ȱȱ Mostȱ insurgenciesȱ inȱ India’sȱ northeast,ȱ evenȱ InȱAssam,ȱtheȱrebelsȱofȱtheȱKarbiȱandȱtheȱ thoseȱ withȱ pronouncedȱ separatistȱ overtones,ȱ Dimasaȱ tribeȱ haveȱ foughtȱ againstȱ perceivedȱ haveȱ beenȱ directedȱ asȱ muchȱ againstȱ federalȱ Assameseȱ controlȱ forȱ decades.ȱ Thoughȱ theyȱ controlȱ fromȱ farȬoffȱ Delhiȱ asȱ againstȱ theȱ attackedȱ Indianȱ federalȱ forcesȱ deployedȱ inȱ perceivedȱ regionalȱ overlord,ȱ aȱ dominantȱ theirȱareas,ȱsomeȱofȱtheirȱfactionsȱhaveȱactivelyȱ ethnicȱ groupȱ seenȱ inȱ controlȱ ofȱ aȱ politicalȬ collaboratedȱwithȱtheȱIndianȱintelligenceȱafterȱ administrativeȱ unit,ȱ fromȱ whichȱ theȱ rebelsȱ startingȱdialogues.ȱAndȱnow,ȱmoreȱoftenȱthanȱ wereȱkeenȱtoȱbreakȱaway.ȱȱ not,ȱ theȱ Karbiȱ andȱ theȱ Dimasaȱ rebelsȱ fightȱ ThoughȱtheȱinsurgenciesȱbyȱtheȱNagaȱandȱ eachȱotherȱforȱcontrolȱofȱkeyȱareasȱinȱAssam’sȱ theȱ Mizoȱ guerillaȱorganizationsȱemergedȱintoȱ Karbiȱ Anglongȱ district.ȱ Ifȱ theȱ Assameseȱrebelȱ strongȱ secessionistȱ movements,ȱ theirȱ initialȱ groupsȱlikeȱtheȱULFAȱresentȱ“exploitationȱbyȱ angstȱwasȱasȱmuchȱdirectedȱagainstȱperceivedȱ India,”ȱ theȱ Bodo,ȱ theȱ Karbiȱ andȱ theȱ Dimasaȱ Assameseȱ dominationȱ asȱ againstȱ theȱ Indianȱ groupsȱ allegeȱ diversionȱ ofȱ federalȱ resourcesȱ state.ȱ Theȱ Tripuriȱ insurgencyȱ wasȱ whollyȱ meantȱforȱthemȱtoȱbenefitȱAssameseȬdominantȱ directedȱagainstȱtheȱBengaliȱsettlerȱcommunityȱ areas.ȱ Andȱ onȱ aȱ fewȱ occasions,ȱ aȱ federalȱ whoȱhadȱbecomeȱaȱmajorityȱinȱTripuraȱinȱtheȱ decisionȱ haveȱ oftenȱ splitȱ theȱ rebelsȱ downȱ theȱ threeȱ decadesȱ afterȱ Partition.ȱ Theȱ insurgencyȱ middle.ȱ Delhi’sȱ decisionȱ toȱ extendȱ theȱ Nagaȱ byȱ smallerȱ tribesȱ likeȱ theȱ Bodos,ȱ theȱ Karbis,ȱ ceasefireȱtoȱotherȱpartsȱofȱNortheastȱIndiaȱwasȱ andȱ theȱ Dimasasȱ haveȱ beenȱ directedȱ againstȱ seenȱ asȱ aȱ preludeȱ toȱ concedingȱ theȱ “Greaterȱ perceivedȱinjusticeȱmetedȱoutȱbyȱtheȱdominantȱ Nagaland”ȱȱdemandȱofȱtheȱNSCNȱinȱtheȱearlyȱ Assamese.ȱ Inȱ manyȱ cases,ȱ evenȱ theseȱ smallerȱ partȱ ofȱ thisȱ decade—andȱ thatȱ pittedȱ theȱ

6 Insurgencies in India’s Northeast: Conflict, Co-option & Change

Assameseȱ andȱ theȱ Manipuriȱ rebelȱ groupsȱ theȱ northeastȱ andȱ nowȱ hasȱ toȱ reckonȱ withȱ aȱ againstȱtheȱNSCNȱȱinȱaȱhostileȱconfrontation.ȱ rapidlyȬexpandingȱMaoistȱguerrillaȱmovementȱ Broadly,ȱ theȱ insurgentȱ movementsȱ ofȱ inȱ severalȱ statesȱ inȱ theȱ country’sȱ mainland.ȱ NortheastȱIndiaȱwouldȱfallȱintoȱfiveȱcategories:ȱȱ Unfulfilledȱ aspirationsȱ causedȱ byȱ (a)ȱ Insurgenciesȱ basedȱ onȱ aȱ deepȬrootedȱ asymmetricalȱeconomicȱgrowthȱandȱfailureȱtoȱ historicalȱ ethosȱ ofȱ independenceȱ thatȱ ensureȱdistributiveȱjusticeȱhaveȱledȱtoȱregionalȱ developedȱ intoȱ aȱ struggleȱ forȱ disparitiesȱ andȱ socialȱ unrestȱ thatȱ fuelȱ armedȱ secessionȱ fromȱ India—theȱ Nagaȱ protestȱmovementsȱinȱIndia.ȱInȱtheȱNortheast,ȱ insurgencyȱisȱtheȱbestȱandȱperhapsȱtheȱ theȱ insurgenciesȱ haveȱ multipliedȱ becauseȱ (a)ȱ onlyȱ exampleȱ inȱ thisȱ category.ȱ Inȱ mostȱethnicȱgroupsȱinȱtheȱregionȱresentȱfederalȱ recentȱ yearsȱ though,ȱ theȱ NSCNȱ hasȱ controlȱ orȱ dominationȱ byȱ biggerȱ ethnicȱ climbedȱ downȱ fromȱ itsȱ demandȱ ofȱ groups;ȱ (b)ȱ theȱ preservationȱ andȱ assertionȱ ofȱ secessionȱ toȱ oneȱ ofȱ aȱ “specialȱ federalȱ ethnicȱ identityȱ throughȱ aggressiveȱ meansȱ isȱ relationship”ȱwithinȱIndia.5ȱȱ seenȱasȱtheȱkeyȱtoȱwinningȱshareȱofȱpowerȱandȱ (b)ȱInsurgencies,ȱseparatistȱinȱrhetoricȱbutȱ resourcesȱ(c)ȱmostȱethnicȱgroupsȱinȱtheȱregionȱ autonomistȱinȱaspiration,ȱthusȱeasyȱtoȱ doȱ notȱ haveȱ sufficientȱ numbersȱ toȱ makeȱ anȱ coȬoptȱ intoȱ theȱ soȬcalledȱ Indianȱ impactȱ throughȱ theȱ legitimateȱ politicalȱ “mainstream”—mostȱ insurgenciesȱ inȱ system—henceȱ theȱ tendencyȱ toȱ useȱ armedȱ theȱ Northeast,ȱ likeȱ theȱ tribalȱ guerrillaȱ warfareȱ asȱaȱforceȱmultiplierȱ(d)ȱtheȱ insurgencyȱ inȱ Tripuraȱ orȱ theȱ Bodoȱ northeastȱ sharesȱ longȱ bordersȱ withȱ countriesȱ insurgencyȱ orȱ theȱ Dimasaȱ andȱ theȱ forȱ longȱ hostileȱ toȱ Indiaȱ andȱ eagerȱ toȱ lendȱ Karbiȱ insurgenciesȱ inȱ Assamȱ wouldȱ supportȱ toȱ insurgencies.ȱ India’sȱ responseȱ fallȱintoȱthisȱcategory.ȱȱȱ patternȱ toȱ theȱ insurgenciesȱ hasȱ alsoȱ (c)ȱ Insurgenciesȱ withȱ sharpȱ initialȱ encouragedȱtheirȱproliferation.ȱSinceȱDelhiȱhasȱ separatistȱ overtonesȱ butȱ onesȱ thatȱ oftenȱcomeȱforwardȱtoȱmeetȱethnicȱaspirationsȱ wereȱ ultimatelyȱ coȬoptedȱ byȱ theȱ onlyȱ afterȱ aȱ boutȱ ofȱ armedȱ guerrillaȱ warfare,ȱ Indianȱ systemȱ throughȱ sustainedȱ theȱlessonsȱhaveȱnotȱbeenȱlostȱonȱallȱaspirantȱ negotiationsȱ andȱ concessions—theȱ ethnicities.ȱȱ Mizoȱ insurgencyȱ isȱ theȱ bestȱ exampleȱ Butȱ byȱ adoptingȱ theȱ principlesȱ ofȱ ofȱthisȱcategory.ȱȱ Kautilyanȱ statecraftȱ inȱ stateȱ policy,ȱ Indiaȱ hasȱ (d)ȱ Insurgenciesȱ seekingȱ toȱ “changeȱ theȱ successfullyȱ containedȱ aȱ hostȱ ofȱ insurgentȱ Indianȱ system”ȱ andȱ havingȱ linkagesȱ movementsȱinȱtheȱNortheastȱandȱelsewhereȱinȱ withȱ fraternalȱ alliesȱ inȱ mainlandȱ theȱ country.ȱ Theȱ Kautilyanȱ preceptsȱ provideȱ India—theȱ Manipurȱ PLAȱ beforeȱ 1990ȱ forȱ anȱ effectiveȱ combinationȱ ofȱ politicalȱ coȬ orȱcommunistȱinsurgentsȱofȱTripuraȱinȱ optionȱ andȱ compromiseȱ withȱ useȱ ofȱ militaryȱ 1948–50ȱwouldȱfallȱintoȱthisȱcategory.ȱȱ force,ȱmaterialȱinducementȱandȱabilityȱtoȱsplitȱ (e)ȱ Insurgenciesȱ proppedȱ upȱ byȱ moreȱ theȱopposition.ȱTheȱoverȬemphasisȱonȱmilitaryȱ powerfulȱ groups,ȱ thatȱ continueȱ toȱ forceȱwasȱresponsibleȱforȱPakistan’sȱfailureȱtoȱ functionȱ essentiallyȱ asȱ satellites.ȱ Theȱ holdȱ onȱ toȱ itsȱ easternȱ wingȱ inȱ 1971.ȱ Militaryȱ Dragonȱ Forceȱ orȱ theȱ Unitedȱ Peoplesȱ operationsȱ haveȱ usuallyȱ beenȱ theȱ firstȱ Volunteersȱ ofȱ Arunachalȱ (UPVA)ȱ responseȱ toȱ anȱ insurgencyȱ inȱ postȬcolonialȱ wouldȱ fallȱ intoȱ thisȱ categoryȱ sinceȱ India—butȱitȱhasȱbeenȱquicklyȱfollowedȱupȱbyȱ theyȱareȱsmallȱorganizationsȱsustainedȱ packagesȱ forȱ economicȱ developmentȱ andȱ andȱ usedȱ asȱ springboardsȱ byȱ largerȱ politicalȱreconciliation.ȱȱȱȱ Assameseȱ orȱ Nagaȱ rebelȱ groupsȱ toȱ Sinceȱ theȱ midȬ1990s,ȱ Indiaȱ hasȱ addedȱ functionȱoutsideȱtheirȱownȱstate.ȱȱ aggressiveȱ regionalȱ diplomacyȱ toȱ itsȱ counterȬ PostȬcolonialȱ Indiaȱ hasȱ notȱ beenȱ ableȱ toȱ insurgencyȱ repertoire.ȱ Theȱ initialȱ tendencyȱ rootȱoutȱinsurgentȱmovementsȱinȱKashmirȱandȱ wasȱ toȱ backȱ anȱ insurgencyȱ againstȱ aȱ

7 Subir Bhaumik neighboringȱ countryȱ ifȱ theyȱ backedȱ oneȱ onȱ finalȱ settlement.ȱ Theȱ progressȱ ofȱ theȱ Indianȱ soil.ȱ Pakistan’sȱ supportȱ forȱ insurgentsȱ negotiationsȱ hasȱ beenȱ slow,ȱ bothȱ theȱ Indianȱ inȱKashmirȱandȱPunjabȱhaveȱbeenȱreciprocatedȱ governmentȱ andȱ theȱ NSCNȱ hasȱ periodicallyȱ byȱ Indianȱ supportȱ forȱ theȱ rebellionȱ inȱ Eastȱ accusedȱeachȱotherȱofȱ“lackȱofȱsincerity.”ȱTheȱ Pakistan,ȱ Sindhȱ andȱ Balochistan.ȱ Indianȱ ceasefireȱ has,ȱ however,ȱ heldȱ andȱ theȱ supportȱ forȱ Tibetanȱ rebelsȱ ledȱ toȱ Chineseȱ negotiationsȱ continue—sometimesȱ inȱ India,ȱ supportȱ forȱ theȱ rebelsȱ fromȱ India’sȱ northeast.ȱ sometimesȱinȱBangkokȱandȱAmsterdam.ȱȱ Bangladesh’sȱ supportȱ forȱ northeastȱ Indianȱ Afterȱhalfȱaȱcenturyȱofȱbloodyȱconflict,ȱtheȱ rebelsȱ andȱ Indianȱ supportȱ forȱ theȱ rebelsȱ ofȱ yearningȱofȱpeaceȱhasȱgrownȱinȱNagalandȱandȱ ChittagongȱHillȱTractsȱwentȱhandȱinȱhandȱforȱ itȱwillȱnotȱbeȱeasyȱforȱtheȱNSCNȱtoȱgoȱbackȱtoȱ twoȱdecades.6 theȱ jungles,ȱ thoughȱ theyȱ haveȱ madeȱ itȱ clearȱ Butȱ sinceȱ 1995,ȱ Indiaȱ hasȱ focusedȱ onȱ theyȱ willȱ settleȱ forȱ “aȱ peaceȱ withȱ honor,ȱȱnotȱ influencingȱ neighborsȱ toȱ attackȱ antiȬIndianȱ forȱ peaceȱ atȱ anyȱ cost.”7ȱ Theȱ mainȱ hurdleȱ rebelsȱ basedȱ inȱ theirȱ territory.ȱ Theȱ firstȱ towardsȱ aȱ settlementȱ ofȱ theȱ Nagaȱ problemȱ isȱ coordinatedȱ operationȱ againstȱ Northeasternȱ theȱ NSCN’sȱ demandȱ forȱ aȱ largerȱ Nagaȱ stateȱ rebelsȱ tookȱ placeȱ inȱ MarchȬAprilȱ 1995ȱ whenȱ integratingȱofȱallȱNagaȬinhabitedȱterritoriesȱinȱ theȱ Burmeseȱ armyȱ helpedȱ theȱ Indianȱ armyȱ northeastȱ Indiaȱ withȱ theȱ presentȱ stateȱ ofȱ duringȱ “Operationȱ Goldenȱ Bird.”ȱ Later,ȱ theȱ Nagaland.ȱ Theȱ NSCNȱ generalȱ secretaryȱ Indianȱ strategyȱ workedȱ inȱ Bhutanȱ whenȱ theȱ Thuingalengȱ Muivahȱ hasȱ ruledȱ outȱ anyȱ Royalȱ Armyȱ demolishedȱ nearlyȱ thirtyȱ campsȱ compromiseȱonȱthisȱissue8—butȱDelhiȱsaysȱanȱ ofȱ threeȱ separatistȱ groupsȱ fromȱ Assamȱ andȱ attemptedȱ integrationȱ ofȱ theȱ Nagaȱ territoriesȱ northernȱ Bengalȱ inȱ Decemberȱ 2003.ȱ Burmaȱ mayȱsparkȱoffȱmassiveȱunrestȱinȱManipurȱandȱ (Myanmar)ȱ hasȱ reportedlyȱ attackedȱ someȱ someȱ troubleȱ inȱ Assamȱ andȱ Arunachalȱ Nagaȱ rebelȱ basesȱ inȱ itsȱ westernȱ provinceȱ ofȱ Pradesh.ȱ Manipurȱ eruptedȱ inȱ violenceȱ afterȱ Sagaingȱ andȱ evenȱ theȱ Bangladeshȱ securityȱ theȱNSCNȬDelhiȱceasefireȱwasȱextendedȱtoȱtheȱ forcesȱ haveȱ initiatedȱ someȱ actionȱ againstȱ restȱ ofȱ Northeastȱ Indiaȱ inȱ Julyȱ 2001—andȱ Tripuriȱ rebelȱ groupsȱ basedȱ inȱ itsȱ territory.ȱ Delhiȱ wantsȱ noȱ repeatȱ ofȱ it.ȱȱȱButȱ theȱ NSCNȱ Indiaȱhasȱofferedȱmilitaryȱhardwareȱandȱotherȱ hasȱ indicatedȱ itȱ isȱ preparedȱ toȱ settleȱ forȱ aȱ concessionsȱ toȱ influenceȱ neighboursȱ likeȱ “specialȱ federalȱ relationship”ȱ withȱ India—inȱ Burmaȱtoȱturnȱagainstȱtheȱrebels.ȱAȱKautilyanȱ whichȱ Nagalandȱ willȱ haveȱ itsȱ ownȱ flagȱ andȱ strategyȱ inȱ theȱ northeastȱ mayȱ beȱ effectivelyȱ constitution,ȱbutȱkeyȱsubjectsȱlikeȱdefenseȱandȱ combinedȱ withȱ India’sȱ aggressiveȱ diplomacyȱ foreignȱaffairsȱwillȱbeȱleftȱtoȱIndia.ȱ inȱ theȱ neighborhoodȱ toȱ inconvenienceȱ theȱ Theȱ Nagasȱ wereȱ neverȱ aȱ homogenousȱ insurgentsȱ andȱ denyȱ themȱ sanctuaryȱ andȱ ethnicȱentity.ȱTheȱBritishȱstoppedȱclanȱwarfareȱ supportȱacrossȱtheȱborders.ȱThisȱmightȱnotȱendȱ andȱ headȬhuntingȱ amongstȱ theȱ Nagaȱ tribes,ȱ insurgenciesȱ andȱ resolveȱ thoseȱ stillȱ existing,ȱ considerablyȱ monetizedȱ theirȱ economy,ȱ butȱ mayȱ offerȱ betterȱ prospectsȱ forȱ introducedȱ Christianityȱ andȱ westernȬstyleȱ containment.ȱȱ education,ȱpavingȱtheȱwayȱforȱtheȱemergenceȱ ȱ ofȱanȱincipientȱmiddleȱclass,ȱwhichȱbeganȱplayȱ TheȱNagaȱPathȱ aȱpivotalȱroleȱinȱNagaȱpoliticsȱsinceȱtheȱ1920s.ȱ Theȱ Nagaȱ insurrectionȱ posedȱ theȱ firstȱ majorȱ Christianityȱ andȱ Westernȱ educationȱ challengeȱ toȱ India’sȱ postȬcolonialȱ nationȬ underminedȱtheȱtraditionalȱpowerȱstructureȱofȱ buildingȱproject.ȱItȱhasȱalsoȱbeenȱSouthȱAsia’sȱ theȱ villagesȱ andȱ weakenedȱ exclusiveȱ clanȱ longestȬrunningȱ guerillaȱ campaign.ȱ Forȱ fortyȱ allegiances—andȱ thatȱ pavedȱ theȱ wayȱ forȱ theȱ yearsȱ(1956Ȭ96),ȱarmedȱNagaȱinsurgentȱgroupsȱ growthȱ ofȱ aȱ panȬNagaȱ consciousness,ȱ nonȬ foughtȱIndia’sȱpowerfulȱmilitaryȱmachineȱtoȱaȱ existentȱbeforeȱtheȱadventȱofȱtheȱBritish.ȱȱ stalemate,ȱ untilȱ bothȱ sidesȱ announcedȱ aȱ TheȱfirstȱexpressionȱofȱtheȱNagaȱdesireȱforȱ ceasefireȱinȱ1997ȱandȱstartedȱnegotiationsȱforȱaȱ selfȬdeterminationȱwasȱduringȱtheȱvisitȱofȱtheȱ

8 Insurgencies in India’s Northeast: Conflict, Co-option & Change

Simonȱ Commissionȱ inȱ 1929.ȱ Inȱ aȱ Aboriginalȱ Tribesȱ visitedȱ Kohima,ȱ theȱ NNCȱ memorandumȱ toȱ theȱ Commission,ȱ theȱ Nagaȱ putȱforwardȱaȱproposalȱthatȱprovidedȱforȱ(a)ȱaȱ Club,ȱ theȱ firstȱ politicalȱ groupȱ amongȱ theȱ tenȬyearȱ interimȱ governmentȱ forȱ theȱ Nagaȱ Nagas,ȱ pleadedȱ withȱ theȱ Britishȱ toȱ “leaveȱ usȱ people,ȱ havingȱ fullȱ powersȱ inȱ respectȱ toȱ aloneȱonceȱyouȱleave.”9ȱThatȱevokedȱsuspicionȱ legislation,ȱ executiveȱ andȱ judiciary;ȱ (b)ȱ fullȱ amongȱ theȱ Indianȱ nationalistȱ leadershipȱ andȱ powerȱ forȱ collectionȱ ofȱ revenueȱ andȱ theȱ freedomȬlovingȱ Nagasȱ cameȱ toȱ seenȱ asȱ aȱ expenditure;ȱ (c)ȱ anȱ annualȱ subventionȱ byȱ theȱ problem,ȱaȱchallenge,ȱandȱneverȱasȱaȱpossibleȱ guardianȱpowerȱtoȱcoverȱtheȱrevenueȱgap;ȱ(d)ȱ partner.ȱ Onlyȱ visionariesȱ likeȱ Mahatmaȱ aȱforceȱmaintainedȱbyȱtheȱguardianȱpowerȱforȱ Gandhiȱ orȱ Subhasȱ Chandraȱ Boseȱ couldȱ haveȱ defenseȱandȱtoȱaidȱtheȱcivilȱpower. 10 reconciledȱ theȱ Indian’sȱ desireȱ forȱ Byȱ recognizingȱ itȱ asȱ theȱ soleȱ independenceȱ withȱ similarȱ aspirationsȱ representativeȱ ofȱ theȱ Nagas,ȱ theȱ Assamȱ amongstȱtheȱNagas.ȱButȱGandhiȱdiedȱwithinȱaȱ governorȱ Akbarȱ Hydariȱ managedȱ toȱ signȱ anȱ yearȱofȱIndia’sȱindependenceȱandȱSubhasȱBoseȱ agreementȱ withȱ theȱ NNC.ȱ Butȱ soonȱ afterȱ theȱ mysteriouslyȱdisappearedȱduringȱtheȱlastȱdaysȱ Hydariȱ agreement,ȱ hardlinersȱledȱbyȱAngamiȱ ofȱtheȱWarȱneverȱtoȱsurfaceȱagain.ȱ Zapuȱ Phizoȱ tookȱ overȱ theȱ NNC,ȱ declaredȱ Inȱ Februaryȱ 1946,ȱ theȱ Nagaȱ Nationalȱ independenceȱaȱdayȱbeforeȱIndiaȱbecameȱfreeȱ Councilȱ(NNC)ȱwasȱformedȱwithȱ29ȱmembersȱ andȱsetȱtheȱNagasȱonȱtheȱroadȱofȱconflictȱwithȱ andȱtwoȱcentralȱcouncils,ȱoneȱbasedȱinȱKohimaȱ India.ȱ Nehru,ȱ duringȱ hisȱ meetingȱ withȱ NNCȱ andȱ theȱ otherȱ inȱ Mokukchung.ȱ Althoughȱ theȱ generalȱ secretaryȱ Alibaȱ Imti,ȱ madeȱ oneȱ lastȱ dominationȱofȱtwoȱleadingȱtribes,ȱtheȱAngamisȱ attemptȱ toȱ saveȱ theȱ situationȱ byȱ promisingȱ (withȱsevenȱmembers)ȱandȱtheȱAosȱ(withȱfiveȱ autonomyȱforȱtheȱNagaȱHillsȱunderȱtheȱSixthȱ members)ȱwasȱunmistakeable,ȱallȱmajorȱNagaȱ Schedule,ȱ butȱ itȱ wasȱ tooȱ little,ȱ tooȱ late.ȱ Theȱ tribesȱwithȱtheȱexceptionȱofȱtheȱKonyaksȱwereȱ 1952ȱ parliamentaryȱ electionsȱ producedȱ aȱ representedȱ inȱ theȱ NNC.ȱ Theȱ existenceȱ ofȱ aȱ negligibleȱ turnoutȱ inȱ theȱ Nagaȱ Hillsȱ andȱ theȱ commonȱ adversary,ȱ India,ȱ strengthenedȱ theȱ NNCȱ claimedȱ aȱ totalȱ supportȱ forȱ “nationalȱ consciousness”ȱ amongstȱ theȱ Nagasȱ independenceȱ inȱ aȱ plebisciteȱ itȱ organizedȱ andȱ forȱ theȱ firstȱ timeȱ inȱ history,ȱ theyȱ cameȱ underȱcontroversialȱcircumstances.ȱ togetherȱonȱaȱcommonȱplatform.ȱButȱtheȱNNCȱ Thereafter,ȱ Nehruȱ authorizedȱ securityȱ organizationȱ wasȱ modeledȱ onȱ traditionalȱ operationsȱ toȱ crushȱ theȱ NNCȱ movement.ȱ powerȱstructure,ȱthatȱpromotedȱtribalismȱandȱ Wholeȱ villagesȱ wereȱ burntȱ downȱ andȱ itsȱ clanȱ loyaltiesȱ whichȱ Delhiȱ wasȱ tooȱ keenȱ toȱ populationȱ relocated,ȱ heavyȱ finesȱ imposedȱ exploitȱduringȱconflict.ȱ andȱ largeȬscaleȱ arrestsȱ andȱ killingsȱ wereȱ Inȱ Juneȱ 1946,ȱ whenȱ theȱ Cabinetȱ Missionȱ reportedȱfromȱtheȱNagaȱHills.ȱNehruȱhoweverȱ planȱ wasȱ announced,ȱ theȱ Nagaȱ Nationalȱ didȱnotȱauthorizeȱuseȱofȱairȱpower,ȱexceptȱforȱ Councilȱ adoptedȱ aȱ resolutionȱ supportingȱ theȱ carryingȱ troopsȱ andȱ droppingȱ suppliesȱ inȱ demandȱ forȱ autonomyȱ withinȱ Assam.ȱ Itȱ remoteȱ locations.ȱ Inȱ 1956,ȱ Phizoȱ escapedȱ toȱ opposedȱ theȱ proposalȱ forȱ aȱ Crownȱ Colonyȱ EastȱPakistan,ȱsecuredȱaȱpromiseȱofȱhelpȱfromȱ underȱ theȱ Britishȱ asȱ wellȱ asȱ theȱ Groupingȱ Pakistanȱ andȱ thenȱ leftȱ forȱ Londonȱ toȱ Scheme.ȱ Inȱ hindsight,ȱ thatȱ wasȱ India’sȱ bestȱ internationalizeȱ theȱ Nagaȱ issue.ȱ Theȱ NNCȱ chanceȱ toȱ settleȱ withȱ theȱ Nagas—butȱ itȱ createdȱanȱarmedȱwing,ȱtheȱNagaȱArmy,ȱandȱaȱ remainedȱ aȱ missedȱ chance.ȱ Theȱ NNCȱ wasȱ parallelȱgovernment,ȱtheȱFederalȱGovernmentȱ dividedȱ onȱ manyȱ issuesȱ relatedȱ toȱ theȱ futureȱ ofȱ Nagalandȱ (FGN).ȱ Asȱ Pakistanȱ agreedȱ toȱ ofȱtheȱNagaȱHills,ȱbutȱonȱoneȱpointȱthereȱwasȱ help,ȱ severalȱ batchesȱ ofȱ Nagaȱ guerrillas,ȱ noȱ divisionȱ ofȱ opinion—thatȱ theȱ Nagasȱ wereȱ numberingȱ200–300ȱeach,ȱstartedȱreachingȱEastȱ neverȱ partȱ ofȱ Indiaȱ andȱ soȱ beȱ allowedȱ toȱ Pakistanȱ forȱ trainingȱ andȱ weapons.ȱ Inȱ theȱ decideȱ onȱ theirȱ ownȱ future.ȱ Inȱ Mayȱ 1947,ȱ Nagaȱ Hills,ȱ theȱ guerrillaȱ campaignȱ andȱ theȱ whenȱ theȱ Indianȱ Advisoryȱ Committeeȱ onȱ theȱ counterȬinsurgencyȱ operationsȱ intensified,ȱ

9 Subir Bhaumik causingȱ muchȱ miseryȱ toȱ theȱ Nagas.ȱ Byȱ 1962,ȱ Chineseȱ startedȱ helpingȱ theȱ Nagaȱ rebels.ȱ Butȱ theȱ Nagaȱ Armyȱ hadȱ grownȱ intoȱ aȱ forceȱ ofȱ thoughȱ boostedȱ byȱ supportȱ fromȱ Chinaȱ andȱ 5,000ȱ trainedȱ guerrillas,ȱ backedȱ byȱ aȱ lessȱ Pakistan,ȱ theȱ Nagaȱ insurgentȱ movementȱ wasȱ equippedȱ supportȱ forceȱ ofȱ aboutȱ 15,000ȱ beginningȱ toȱ weakenȱ considerablyȱ fromȱ militiamen.ȱ withinȱ dueȱ toȱ tribalȱ factionalism.ȱAndȱIndianȱ Theȱ Nagaȱ insurgencyȱ hasȱ beenȱ throughȱ intelligenceȱ agenciesȱ wereȱ quickȱ toȱ capitaliseȱ fourȱ distinctȱ phases:ȱ (1)ȱ theȱ 1957–64ȱ phase,ȱ onȱ that.ȱȱInȱ 1968,ȱ theȱ Semaȱ leadersȱ defectedȱ whenȱ theȱ PakistanȬtrainedȱ rebelsȱ intensifiedȱ fromȱ theȱ NNCȱ toȱ formȱ theȱ Revolutionaryȱ theȱ guerrillaȱ warȱ inȱ theȱ Nagaȱ Hillsȱ (2)ȱ theȱ Governmentȱ ofȱ Nagalandȱ (RGN)ȱ whichȱ 1964–75ȱ phase,ȱ whenȱ theȱ movementȱ peakedȱ startedȱ cooperatingȱ withȱ Indianȱ securityȱ andȱ thenȱ weakenedȱ afterȱ twoȱ splitsȱȱalongȱ forces.12ȱ Theȱ RGNȱ helpedȱ theȱ Indianȱ armyȱ tribalȱ lines,ȱ endingȱ withȱ theȱ signingȱ ofȱ theȱ interceptȱ andȱ nabȱ aȱ wholeȱ columnȱ ofȱ ChinaȬ ShillongȱAccordȱinȱ1975ȱ(3)ȱtheȱ1975–87ȱphase,ȱ trainedȱ guerrillasȱ ledȱ byȱ Mowuȱ Angamiȱ inȱ duringȱ whichȱ theȱ NNCȱ splitȱ andȱ theȱ 1969.ȱ breakawayȱ NSCNȱ emergedȱ toȱ giveȱ theȱ Nagaȱ India’sȱ counterȬinsurgencyȱ strategyȱ inȱ rebelȱ movementȱ aȱ freshȱ leaseȱ onȱ life;ȱ andȱ (4)ȱ Nagalandȱ atȱ thisȱ stageȱ revolvedȱ roundȱ (a)ȱ theȱpostȬ1987ȱphase,ȱwhenȱtheȱNSCNȱalsoȱsplitȱ blockingȱtheȱexitȬentryȱroutesȱforȱtheȱPakistanȱ alongȱ tribalȱ linesȱ andȱ afterȱ someȱ yearsȱ ofȱ andȱChinaȬboundȱguerrillaȱcolumns;ȱ(b)ȱdenialȱ fighting,ȱ bothȱ NSCNȱ factionsȱ startedȱ ofȱbaseȱareasȱforȱthoseȱguerrillaȱsquadsȱactiveȱ negotiationsȱ withȱ India.ȱ Throughoutȱ theȱ withinȱ theȱ Nagaȱ Hills;ȱ (c)ȱ negotiationȱ withȱ 1960s,ȱasȱtheȱseparatistȱmovementȱintensified,ȱ tribalȱ leadersȱ andȱ chiefsȱ toȱ secureȱ theȱ Delhiȱ backedȱ upȱ itsȱ militaryȱ effortȱ withȱ aȱ surrenderȱ ofȱ theȱ guerillasȱ byȱ exploitingȱ trbalȱ politicalȱ moveȱ thatȱ ledȱ toȱ theȱ SixteenȬPointȱ divisions;ȱ (d)ȱ strengtheningȱ ofȱ theȱ electoralȱ Agreementȱ withȱ theȱ moderateȱ Nagaȱ systemȱ andȱ pumpingȱ inȱ hugeȱ quantamȱ ofȱ leadershipȱinȱ1960.ȱȱ fundsȱ intoȱ Nagalandȱ aimedȱ atȱ securingȱ theȱ Theȱ1960ȱagreementȱledȱtoȱtheȱcreationȱofȱ loyaltyȱ ofȱ theȱ emergingȱ Nagaȱ politicalȱ class;ȱ Nagalandȱ asȱ aȱ separateȱ stateȱ inȱ Indiaȱ withȱ aȱ (e)ȱ splitȱ theȱ NNCȱ byȱ utilizingȱ theȱ contactsȱ muchȱ higherȱ degreeȱ ofȱ autonomyȱ thanȱ establishedȱ duringȱ theȱ negotiationsȱ inȱ theȱ enjoyedȱ byȱ otherȱ states.ȱ Thisȱ politicalȱ moveȱ midȬ1960s.ȱ Theȱ defeatȱ ofȱ theȱ Pakistaniȱ forcesȱ dividedȱtheȱNagaȱpoliticalȱclassȱandȱledȱtoȱtheȱ andȱtheȱcreationȱofȱBangladeshȱinȱ1971ȱdealtȱaȱ creationȱ ofȱ anȱ alternativeȱ politicalȱ platform,ȱ severeȱblowȱtoȱtheȱNagaȱrebelȱmovement.ȱAnȱ fromȱ whichȱ theȱ secessionistȱ campaignȱ couldȱ immediateȱ baseȱ areaȱ forȱ training,ȱ regroupingȱ beȱ politicallyȱ challengedȱ byȱ Nagasȱ loyalȱ toȱ andȱ armingȱ wasȱ goneȱ inȱ oneȱ stroke.ȱ Thoughȱ India.ȱ Andȱ hugeȱ quantamȱ ofȱ federalȱ groupsȱ ofȱ Nagaȱ rebelsȱ keptȱ goingȱ toȱ Chinaȱ developmentȱ fundsȱ wasȱ pumpedȱ intoȱ untilȱ 1976,ȱ theȱ sheerȱ lengthȱ andȱ durationȱ ofȱ Nagaland,ȱnotȱmerelyȱtoȱpromoteȱgrowthȱbutȱ theȱtrek,ȱtheȱincreasedȱvigilȱonȱtheȱrouteȱbyȱtheȱ toȱsecureȱtheȱloyaltyȱofȱtheȱproȬIndianȱNagas.ȱ Indianȱ andȱ Burmeseȱ armiesȱ andȱ theȱ RGN’sȱ Duringȱtheȱfourȱdecadesȱofȱguerrillaȱcampaignȱ supportȱ forȱ theȱ Indianȱ forcesȱ madeȱ itȱ moreȱ inȱ 1956–96,ȱ Nagalandȱ receivedȱ nearlyȱ Rsȱ 300ȱ andȱ moreȱ difficultȱ forȱ theȱ Nagaȱ Armyȱ toȱ useȱ billionȱ(aboutȱ$9.1ȱbillion)ȱinȱfederalȱfundsȱforȱ foreignȱbasesȱtoȱtrainȱandȱsecureȱequipment.ȱȱ aȱ populationȱ ofȱ lessȱ thanȱ oneȱ million.11ȱ Veryȱ However,ȱ theȱ ChinaȬreturnedȱ Nagaȱ fewȱ Indianȱ statesȱ haveȱ receivedȱ suchȱ aȱ highȱ guerrillasȱgaveȱtheȱIndianȱarmyȱaȱtoughȱtime.ȱ quantamȱofȱfederalȱfundsȱsoȱfar.ȱȱ Fierceȱ encountersȱ wereȱ foughtȱ allȱ acrossȱ Afterȱ theȱ humiliatingȱ defeatȱ sufferedȱ atȱ Nagaland,ȱtheȱoneȱatȱtheȱJotsomaȱknollȱwhereȱ theȱ handsȱ ofȱ theȱChineseȱbyȱtheȱIndianȱarmyȱ theȱIndianȱarmyȱlostȱaroundȱ30ȱsoldiers,ȱbeingȱ inȱ 1962,ȱ Delhiȱ startedȱ negotiationsȱ withȱ theȱ theȱmostȱbloody.ȱTheȱrebelsȱnearlyȱkilledȱchiefȱ NNCȱ throughȱ theȱ Nagaȱ Peaceȱ Mission.ȱ Theȱ ministerȱ Hokisheȱ Semaȱ inȱ aȱ fierceȱ ambush.13ȱ talksȱ brokeȱ upȱ withinȱ twoȱ yearsȱ afterȱ theȱ Asȱ theȱ Indianȱ militaryȱ operationsȱ intensified,ȱ

10 Insurgencies in India’s Northeast: Conflict, Co-option & Change theȱNagaȱrebelsȱstartedȱtargettingȱsoftȱtargetsȱ trainedȱ Thuingalengȱ Muivahȱ andȱ Issacȱ Chisiȱ likeȱ theȱ railwaysȱ alongȱ theȱ AssamȬNagalandȱ Swu.ȱTheȱKonyaksȱofȱtheȱMonȬTuensangȱarea,ȱ borderȱ forȱ theȱ firstȱ time.ȱ Andȱ asȱ theȱ ChinaȬ theȱ Tangkhulsȱ ofȱ Manipurȱ andȱ theȱ Hemiȱ returnedȱ guerrillasȱ intensifiedȱ theirȱ activity,ȱ Nagasȱ ofȱ Burmaȱ madeȱ upȱ theȱ bulkȱ ofȱ theȱ theȱIndianȱarmyȱstartedȱusingȱtheȱRGNȱ(madeȱ NSCN’sȱ initialȱ fightingȱ force.ȱ Muivah’sȱ upȱ offȱ theȱ formerȱ Semaȱ guerillasȱ ofȱ Nagaȱ successȱinȱproppingȱupȱtheȱNSCNȱowesȱmuchȱ Army)ȱ againstȱ them.ȱ Theȱcivilȱadministrationȱ toȱ hisȱ strategyȱ ofȱ creatingȱ “satellites”—ȱ startedȱusingȱtheȱtribalȱchiefsȱtoȱnegotiateȱtheȱ training,ȱ armingȱ andȱ guidingȱ smallerȱ surrenderȱ ofȱ guerrillasȱ byȱ exploitingȱ clanȱ insurgentȱ groupsȱ inȱ neighbouringȱ statesȱ inȱ loyalties.ȱ Inȱ hisȱ memoirs,ȱ oneȱ ofȱ India’sȱ topȱ returnȱ forȱ safeȱ bases,ȱ routesȱ toȱ reachȱ keyȱ administratorȱ inȱ Nagaland,ȱ S.C.ȱ Dev,ȱ hasȱ foreignȱ locationsȱ andȱ supportȱ inȱ operations.ȱ providedȱaȱdetailedȱaccountȱofȱthisȱstrategyȱofȱ Byȱ developingȱ suchȱ “satellites”ȱ inȱ otherȱ pacification.14 northeasternȱ states,ȱ theȱ NSCNȱ hasȱ extendedȱ IfȱIndiaȱmadeȱaȱmistakeȱbyȱnotȱofferingȱaȱ itsȱ operationsȱ muchȱ beyondȱ NagaȬpopulatedȱ honourableȱsettlementȱtoȱtheȱNagasȱwhenȱtheyȱ areas.ȱȱ justȱ wantedȱ autonomy,ȱ theȱ NNCȱ leadershipȱ Forȱmostȱrebelȱgroups,ȱtheȱNSCNȱisȱnowȱ madeȱanȱequallyȱseriousȱmistakeȱbyȱfailingȱtoȱ aȱ roleȱ model.ȱForȱDelhi,ȱitȱisȱ“theȱmother”ȱofȱ reachȱ anȱ agreementȱ withȱ Indiaȱ inȱ theȱ 1960sȱ allȱ insurgenciesȱ inȱ northeastȱ India.ȱ Butȱ theȱ whenȱ itȱ enjoyedȱ hugeȱ bargainingȱ clout.ȱ Aȱ 1988ȱ splitȱ inȱ theȱ NSCNȱ pittedȱ Muivahȱ andȱ climbdownȱ fromȱ theȱ demandȱ ofȱ sovereigntyȱ Swuȱ againstȱ theirȱ oneȬtimeȱ comrade,ȱ theȱ (whichȱtheȱNSCNȱhasȱfinallyȱdoneȱnow)ȱandȱaȱ Burmeseȱ Nagaȱ leaderȱ S.S.ȱ Khaplang.ȱ Moreȱ commitmentȱ toȱ remainȱ withinȱ theȱ Indianȱ thanȱtwoȱhundredȱNSCNȱfightersȱwereȱkilledȱ Unionȱ mightȱ haveȱ gotȱ Nagalandȱ aȱ BhutanȬ inȱ theȱ firstȱ boutȱ ofȱ fratricidalȱ strifeȱ inȱ 1988.ȱ styleȱ protectorateȱ status.15ȱ Butȱ whenȱ Indiraȱ Fourȱtimesȱasȱmanyȱhaveȱdiedȱeverȱsince.ȱTheȱ Gandhiȱsensedȱtheȱgrowingȱschismȱwithinȱtheȱ NSCNȱ (IssacȬMuivah)ȱ wasȱ deniedȱ theȱ baseȱ Nagaȱ movement,ȱ sheȱ calledȱ offȱ theȱ talksȱ andȱ areaȱ inȱ Burma’sȱ Sagaingȱ Divisionȱ byȱ pursuedȱ aȱ viciousȱ divideȬandȬruleȱ campaignȱ Khaplang.ȱ Directȱ Chineseȱ andȱ Pakistaniȱ followedȱ upȱ withȱ aȱ hugeȱ counterȬinsurgencyȱ supportȱ wasȱ notȱ forthcomingȱ anymoreȱ andȱ operationȱ sustainedȱ untilȱ theȱ 1971ȱ warȱ withȱ Muivah’sȱ optionsȱ hadȱ becomeȱ limited.ȱ Afterȱ Pakistan.ȱ Allȱ theȱ elementsȱ ofȱ Kautilyanȱ sufferingȱ aȱ seriesȱ ofȱ setbacksȱ inȱ 1994–95,ȱ theȱ statecraft—sustainedȱmilitaryȱoperationsȱwithȱ NSCNȱ decidedȱ toȱ openȱ negotiationsȱ withȱ oneȱ andȱ evenȱ upȱ toȱ twoȱ fullȱ armyȱ divisions,ȱ Indiaȱinȱ1997.ȱȱ constantȱ intelligenceȱ activityȱ toȱ divideȱ theȱ Now,ȱ bothȱ theȱ NSCNȱ factionsȱ observeȱ aȱ rebels,ȱ periodicȱ politicalȱ negotiationsȱ toȱ winȱ ceasefireȱ withȱ Indianȱ forcesȱ butȱ fightȱ freelyȱ overȱ moderatesȱ andȱ isolateȱ hardlinersȱ andȱ amongstȱ themselves.ȱ Theȱ latestȱ roundȱ ofȱ hugeȱ pumpingȱ ofȱ federalȱ fundsȱ toȱ winȱ overȱ fightingȱ hasȱ eruptedȱ inȱ March—Aprilȱ 2007ȱ theȱ Nagaȱ influentials—wereȱ simultaneouslyȱ andȱ moreȱ thanȱ aȱ dozenȱ guerrillasȱ ofȱ bothȱ triedȱoutȱbyȱtheȱIndianȱgovernment.ȱȱ factionsȱhaveȱdied.ȱTheȱIndianȱsecurityȱforcesȱ Theȱ lossȱ ofȱ Eastȱ Pakistanȱ furtherȱ haveȱ madeȱ noȱ attemptȱ toȱ stopȱ theȱ fightingȱ weakenedȱ theȱ Nagaȱ rebelȱ movementȱ andȱ setȱ evenȱ whenȱ theȱ rebelsȱ usedȱ heavyȱ weaponsȱ theȱ stageȱ forȱ theȱ Shillongȱ Accordȱ ofȱ 1975.ȱ Itȱ likeȱmortars.ȱInȱmanyȱpartsȱofȱNagaland,ȱlikeȱ wasȱ anȱ apologyȱ ofȱ aȱ settlementȱ becauseȱ itȱ Phek,ȱcitizensȱupsetȱwithȱtheȱviciousȱfactionalȱ merelyȱ reiteratedȱ theȱ willȱ ofȱ theȱ twoȱ sidesȱ toȱ feudsȱhaveȱtakenȱtheȱinitiativeȱtoȱchaseȱawayȱ achieveȱaȱfinalȱsolutionȱofȱtheȱNagaȱproblem.ȱ bothȱ rebelȱ factionsȱ fromȱ theirȱ areas.ȱ Bothȱ TheȱNNC,ȱbyȱnowȱdiscredited,ȱsplitȱagainȱandȱ NSCNȱ factionsȱ haveȱ accusedȱ eachȱ otherȱ ofȱ wasȱ eventuallyȱ overshadowedȱ byȱ theȱ beingȱ “Indianȱ agents”ȱ butȱ bothȱ haveȱ breakawayȱ Nationalȱ Socialistȱ Councilȱ ofȱ maintainedȱ contactsȱ withȱ Indianȱ securityȱ Nagalandȱ (NSCN)ȱ formedȱ byȱ theȱ ChinaȬ forcesȱandȱintelligenceȱagencies.ȱ

11 Subir Bhaumik

Theȱgenerationȱthatȱfoughtȱsoȱfiercelyȱforȱ Whichȱbringsȱusȱtoȱanȱimportantȱelementȱ Nagaȱindependenceȱisȱfadingȱaway.ȱTheȱnextȱ ofȱ theȱ Indianȱ counterȬinsurgencyȱ strategy— generationȱ isȱ moreȱ inclinedȱ toȱ acceptȱ theȱ theȱ useȱ ofȱ drift,ȱ theȱ artȱ ofȱ tiringȱ downȱ theȱ realityȱofȱIndiaȱandȱprofitȱfromȱit.ȱTheȱNagasȱ insurgentȱ leadershipȱ throughȱ unendingȱ valueȱtheirȱfreedomȱbutȱtheyȱareȱalsoȱkeenȱonȱ negotiationsȱrunningȱintoȱmoreȱthanȱaȱdecadeȱ peace.ȱ Sinceȱ negotiationsȱ withȱ theȱ NSCNȱ now.ȱ Indiaȱ hasȱ usedȱ itsȱ armyȱ andȱ paraȬ startedȱinȱ1997,ȱtheȱcivilȱsocietyȱmovementȱhasȱ militaryȱ forcesȱ toȱ softenȱ upȱ theȱ rebelsȱ andȱ grownȱ andȱ humanȱ rights,ȱ genderȱ andȱ youthȱ forcedȱthemȱtoȱtheȱtable.ȱItȱhasȱusedȱclanȬandȬ groupsȱ areȱ playingȱ aȱ muchȱ biggerȱ roleȱ inȱ tribeȱ rivalriesȱ toȱ splitȱ theȱ Nagaȱ separatistȱ shapingȱtheȱNaga’sȱfuture.ȱTheȱNSCNȱhasȱalsoȱ movement.ȱ Itȱ hasȱ usedȱ hugeȱ fundȱ inflowȱ toȱ startedȱ interveningȱ inȱ theȱ Indianȱ politicalȱ neutralizeȱ theȱ hostilityȱ ofȱ theȱ Nagaȱ politicalȱ processȱ toȱ ensureȱ victoriesȱ forȱ overȱ groundȱ classȱ towardsȱ Delhi.ȱ Itȱ hasȱ alsoȱ boughtȱ outȱ partiesȱseenȱasȱfriendlyȱtoȱtheirȱcauseȱ.ȱInȱtheȱ Nagaȱ rebelȱ leadersȱ withȱ favorsȱ andȱ 2003ȱ Nagalandȱ assemblyȱ polls,ȱ theyȱ ensuredȱ concessions,ȱ positionsȱ ofȱ powerȱ andȱ financialȱ theȱ victoryȱ ofȱ theȱ Democraticȱ Allianceȱ ofȱ benefits,ȱ andȱ itȱ hasȱ usedȱ aȱ longȱ politicalȱ Nagalandȱ (DAN)—aȱ coalitionȱ ofȱ Nagaȱ dialogueȱ toȱ softenȱ upȱ theȱ Nagaȱ rebelsȱ byȱ regionalȱ partiesȱ withȱ theȱ Hinduȱ Bharatiyaȱ exposingȱ themȱ toȱ normalȱ life.ȱ Justȱ afterȱ theȱ Janataȱ Partyȱ (BJP)—asȱ theirȱ guerillasȱ sweptȱ NSCNȱ signedȱ theȱ ceasefireȱ inȱ 1997,ȱ aȱ seniorȱ throughȱ villages,ȱ askingȱ Nagasȱ toȱ voteȱ forȱ Indianȱ Homeȱ Ministryȱ officialȱ hadȱ saidȱ theȱ DANȱ candidatesȱ orȱ faceȱ theȱ consequences.ȱ NSCNȱwillȱ“neverȱagainȱbeȱableȱtoȱgoȱbackȱtoȱ Theȱ NSCNȱ laterȱ facedȱ accusationsȱ ofȱ theȱ jungles.”16ȱ Itȱ hasȱ not—soȱ far.ȱ Butȱ Delhi’sȱ engineeringȱtheȱdefectionsȱthatȱbroughtȱdownȱ failureȱtoȱarriveȱatȱaȱsettlementȱwithȱtheȱNSCNȱ theȱ Congressȱ governmentȱ inȱ Arunachalȱ hasȱstoodȱinȱtheȱwayȱofȱpeaceȱinȱotherȱpartsȱofȱ Pradesh,ȱtoȱtheȱdelightȱofȱtheȱBJP.ȱ Northeast.ȱ Unlessȱ Indiaȱ achievesȱ aȱ Butȱ inȱ theȱ lastȱ twoȱ years,ȱ theȱ NSCNȱ breakthroughȱ onȱ theȱ Nagaȱ issue,ȱ otherȱ seemsȱ toȱ haveȱ mendedȱ fencesȱ withȱ theȱ insurgentȱmovementsȱinȱNortheastȱIndiaȱmayȱ CongressȬledȱ coalitionȱ inȱ Delhi.ȱ Theȱ longȱ continueȱtoȱshyȱawayȱfromȱstartingȱdialoguesȱ negotiationsȱ betweenȱ theȱ NSCNȱ andȱ theȱ withȱIndiaȱforȱpoliticalȱreconciliation.ȱ Indianȱ governmentȱ hasȱ notȱ beenȱ aȱ wasteȱ ofȱ ȱ time.ȱ Theȱ twoȱ sidesȱ haveȱ reachedȱ someȱ TheȱPrairieȱFiresȱSpreadȱȱ understandingȱonȱtheȱcontoursȱofȱtheȱ“specialȱ Afterȱ theȱ Nagaȱ insurrection,ȱ theȱ Northeastȱ federalȱ relationship”ȱ betweenȱ Indiaȱ andȱ witnessedȱthreeȱdistinctȱphasesȱofȱinsurgencyȱ Nagaland.ȱ Theȱ NSCNȱ hasȱ givenȱ upȱ (a)ȱtheȱlateȱ1960s,ȱwhenȱinsurgencyȱeruptedȱinȱ sovereigntyȱ asȱ aȱ goalȱ andȱ theȱ Indianȱ theȱ Mizoȱ Hills,ȱ Manipurȱ andȱ Tripura;ȱ (b)ȱ theȱ governmentȱ hasȱ promisedȱ toȱ incorporateȱ aȱ lateȱ 1970s,ȱ whenȱ itȱ intensifiedȱ inȱ Nagaland,ȱ specialȱ chapterȱ inȱ theȱ Indianȱ constitutionȱ Mizoram,ȱ Manipurȱ andȱ Tripura;ȱ (c)ȱ theȱ lateȱ detailingȱ Nagaland’sȱ specialȱ statusȱinsteadȱofȱ 1980s,ȱ whenȱ Assamȱ wasȱ grippedȱ byȱ aȱ concedingȱtheȱNSCN’sȱdemandȱforȱaȱseparateȱ powerfulȱ separatistȱ movementȱ ledȱ byȱ theȱ constitutionȱ forȱ Nagaland.ȱ Theȱ NSCNȱ hasȱ ULFAȱ andȱ aȱ numberȱ ofȱ insurgentȱ groupsȱ agreedȱ toȱ theȱ presenceȱ ofȱ Indianȱ troopsȱ inȱ surfacedȱamongȱtheȱsmallerȱethnicȱgroupsȱlikeȱ Nagalandȱ andȱ toȱ Indianȱ controlȱ overȱ theȱ Bodos,ȱ theȱ Hmars,ȱ theȱ Dimasas,ȱ theȱ Nagaland’sȱ foreignȱ relations—itȱ onlyȱ expectsȱ Karbis,ȱtheȱKhasisȱandȱtheȱGarosȱtoȱaddȱtoȱtheȱ Indiaȱ toȱ consultȱ Nagalandȱ onȱ issuesȱ thatȱ turmoil.ȱTheȱsplitȱinȱtheȱNNCȱandȱtheȱsigningȱ involvesȱ itsȱ interests.ȱ Butȱ theȱ roadblockȱ forȱ aȱ ofȱ theȱ Shillongȱ Accordȱ inȱ 1975ȱ ledȱ toȱ partialȱ settlementȱremainsȱMuivah’sȱinsistenceȱonȱtheȱ pacificationȱofȱtheȱNagaȱseparatistȱmovementȱ integrationȱofȱallȱNagaȬinhabitedȱterritoriesȱinȱ andȱaȱdecadeȱlater,ȱpeaceȱreturnedȱtoȱMizoramȱ NortheastȱIndia.ȱ whenȱtheȱMizoȱNationalȱFrontȱbidȱfarewellȱtoȱ armsȱ andȱ wasȱ coȬoptedȱ intoȱ theȱ nationalȱ

12 Insurgencies in India’s Northeast: Conflict, Co-option & Change politicalȱsystem.ȱAtȱtheȱmoment,ȱeveryȱstateȱinȱ countryside,ȱ keepingȱ upȱ aȱ barrageȱ ofȱ attacksȱ theȱ regionȱ isȱ affectedȱ byȱ someȱ levelȱ ofȱ againstȱtheȱarmyȱcolumns.ȱȱ insurgentȱ activity.ȱ Sinceȱ theȱ NSCNȱ isȱ Toȱ denyȱ theȱ guerrillasȱ popularȱ supportȱ negotiating,ȱ peaceȱ inȱ Nagalandȱ isȱ onlyȱ andȱaȱsecureȱlineȱofȱsupply,ȱtheȱarmyȱinitiatedȱ puncturedȱbyȱtheȱoccasionalȱfightingȱbetweenȱ aȱvillageȱregroupingȱprogram—asȱtriedȱoutȱinȱ theȱ NSCNȱ factions.ȱ Butȱ negotiationsȱ betweenȱ Nagalandȱ before—thatȱ hitȱ atȱ theȱ heartȱ ofȱ theȱ theȱ ULFAȱ andȱ Indianȱ governmentȱ brokeȱ Mizoȱ ruralȱ economy.ȱ Theȱ MNFȱ pulledȱ backȱ downȱ inȱ Septemberȱ 2006,ȱ leadingȱ toȱ aȱ freshȱ mostȱofȱitsȱguerrillaȱunitsȱintoȱtheȱhillsȱandȱitsȱ spurtȱofȱviolenceȱinȱAssam.ȱTheȱinsurgencyȱinȱ leadersȱ escapedȱ intoȱ campsȱ inȱ Eastȱ Pakistan.ȱ Manipurȱisȱstrongerȱthanȱeverȱbefore,ȱthoughȱ Onlyȱ smallȱ strikeȱ squadsȱ wereȱ leftȱ behindȱ inȱ theȱoneȱinȱTripuraȱhasȱbeenȱlargelyȱcontrolled.ȱ theȱ townsȱ toȱ eliminateȱ selectȱ targets,ȱ suchȱ asȱ Butȱthoughȱhomegrownȱinsurgencyȱisȱweakȱinȱ moderateȱ Mizoȱ politicians,ȱ seniorȱ police,ȱ Meghalaya,ȱ theȱ stateȱ isȱ beingȱ increasinglyȱ militaryȱ officialsȱ orȱ thoseȱ servingȱ theȱ federalȱ usedȱ asȱ aȱ corridorȱ andȱ aȱ regroupingȱ zoneȱ byȱ government.ȱ Inȱ oneȱ suchȱ strikeȱ inȱ 1975,ȱ theȱ rebelsȱ fromȱ allȱ overȱ Northeast.ȱ Theȱ existenceȱ MNFȱkilledȱthreeȱseniorȱpoliceȱofficialsȱinsideȱ ofȱ aȱ largeȱ numberȱ ofȱ insurgentȱ groups,ȱ theȱ policeȱ headquartersȱ inȱ Aizawl:ȱ anȱ however,ȱmeansȱgreaterȱcomplexityȱbecauseȱaȱ inspectorȱ generalȱ aȱ deputyȱ inspectorȱ general,ȱ settlementȱwithȱoneȱgroupȱcouldȱwellȱprovokeȱ andȱ aȱ superintendentȱ ofȱ theȱ specialȱ branch. 17ȱ anotherȱtoȱmoreȱviolence.ȱ Betweenȱ1967ȱandȱ1969,ȱtheȱarmyȱundertookȱaȱ ȱ hugeȱ regroupingȱ ofȱ theȱ villagesȱ inȱ theȱ Mizoȱ TheȱMizoȱuprisingȱandȱafterȱ hills.ȱTheȱrelocationȱofȱtheȱpopulationȱoutsideȱ Unlikeȱ theȱ Nagaȱ insurgentȱ movement,ȱ whichȱ theirȱ traditionalȱ villagesȱ inȱ newȱ sitesȱ slowlyȱ grewȱ inȱ intensityȱ afterȱ theȱ fewȱ initialȱ (euphemisticallyȱ calledȱ “Progressiveȱ andȱ armedȱ actionsȱ inȱ theȱ earlyȱ 1956,ȱ theȱ uprisingȱ Protectedȱ Villages”)ȱ alongȱ theȱ nationalȱ inȱ theȱ Mizoȱ Hillsȱ beganȱ withȱ aȱ bang.ȱ Aȱ highwayȱ thatȱ theȱ armyȱ couldȱ control,ȱ wasȱ devastatingȱ famineȱ (Mautam)ȱ causedȱ byȱ anȱ seenȱasȱessentialȱtoȱisolateȱtheȱMNFȱfromȱtheȱ explosionȱinȱratȱpopulationȱignitedȱpassionsȱinȱ Mizoȱpeople.ȱȱ theȱMizoȱHillsȱinȱtheȱearlyȱ1960s.ȱTheȱpeople’sȱ Aȱ leadingȱbureaucratȬscholarȱclaimsȱthatȱ angerȱ wasȱ directedȱ atȱ bothȱ theȱ Assamȱ atȱ leastȱ 80ȱ perȱ centȱ ofȱ theȱ populationȱ ofȱ theȱ governmentȱ andȱ Delhiȱ forȱ failureȱ toȱ provideȱ Mizoȱ Hillsȱ wasȱ affectedȱ byȱ theȱ regroupingȱ relief.ȱ Theȱ Mizoȱ Nationalȱ Famineȱ Frontȱ programme:ȱ“Theȱgeneralȱhumiliation,ȱlossȱofȱ (MNFF),ȱ formedȱ byȱ someȱ formerȱ Mizoȱ freedomȱ andȱ propertyȱ and,ȱ veryȱ often,ȱ theȱ soldiers,ȱbeganȱmobilizingȱMizos,ȱbutȱonceȱtheȱ injuryȱ andȱ deathȱ involvedȱ inȱ theȱ soȬcalledȱ needȱ forȱ reliefȱ wasȱ addressed,ȱ theȱ MNFFȱ groupingȱ ofȱ villages…wasȱ tantamountȱ toȱ becameȱ theȱ Mizoȱ Nationalȱ Frontȱ (MNF).ȱ Theȱ annihilationȱ ofȱ reasonȱ andȱ sensibilityȱ andȱ MNFȱ candidatesȱ contestedȱ electionsȱ forȱ theȱ certainlyȱnotȱtheȱbestȱpolicyȱtoȱfollowȱagainstȱ Assamȱ assembly,ȱ butȱ itsȱ leadershipȱ quietlyȱ ourȱownȱethnicȱminorities.”18ȱAsȱinȱtheȱNagaȱ preparedȱ forȱ rebellion.ȱ Atȱ midnightȱ onȱ Hills,ȱmoreȱmilitaryȱrepressionȱonlyȱledȱtoȱtheȱ Februaryȱ 28,ȱ 1966,ȱ theȱ MNFȱ unleashedȱ swellingȱ ofȱ theȱ guerillaȱ ranksȱ inȱ theȱ Mizoȱ ‘Operationȱ Jericho’—aȱ blitzkriegȱ operationȱ Hills.ȱ BurntȬoutȱ villagesȱ fullȱ ofȱ bitterȱ Mizoȱ thatȱledȱtoȱtheȱcaptureȱofȱelevenȱtownsȱinȱtheȱ familiesȱ maintainedȱ aȱ steadyȱ flowȱ ofȱ recruitsȱ MizoȱHillsȱinȱoneȱstroke.ȱIndianȱparaȬmilitaryȱ toȱtheȱMNFȱinȱtheirȱbasesȱinȱEastȱPakistan.ȱTheȱ troopsȱ barelyȱ managedȱ toȱ holdȱ onȱ toȱ theȱ creationȱ ofȱ Bangladeshȱ inȱ 1971ȱ affectedȱ theȱ capitalȱ town,ȱ Aizawl.ȱ Theȱ Indianȱ armyȱ tookȱ MNFȱ moreȱ thanȱ theȱ NNC.ȱ Itsȱ immediateȱ moreȱthanȱaȱmonthȱofȱbitterȱfightingȱtoȱregainȱ transȬborderȱbasesȱthatȱfacilitatedȱregularȱexitȱ theȱtownsȱofȱMizoȱHills,ȱafterȱwhichȱtheȱMNFȱ andȱentryȱforȱtheȱguerrillaȱunitsȱwereȱputȱoutȱ guerrillasȱ movedȱ intoȱ theȱ hillsȱ andȱ theȱ ofȱ actionȱ byȱ theȱ Indianȱ armyȱ duringȱ itsȱ pushȱ intoȱ Eastȱ Pakistan.ȱ Byȱ theȱ timeȱ theseȱ basesȱ

13 Subir Bhaumik couldȱ beȱ revivedȱ inȱ theȱ lateȱ 1970s,ȱ theȱ MNFȱ toȱaȱsettlementȱwithȱtheȱentireȱMizoȱinsurgentȱ hadȱaȱrivalȱinȱtheȱChittagongȱHillȱTracts.ȱTheȱ leadership,ȱ notȱ withȱ aȱ splinterȱ group.ȱ Theȱ tribalȱ insurgentsȱ ofȱ theȱ Shantiȱ Bahini,ȱ backedȱ MNFȱ didȱ splitȱ later,ȱ butȱ thoseȱ whoȱ leftȱ theȱ byȱ India,ȱ beganȱ toȱ houndȱ outȱ theȱ MNFȱ toȱ partyȱ wereȱ mostlyȱ formerȱ studentȱ andȱ youthȱ avengeȱ theȱ illȬtreatmentȱ metedȱ outȱ toȱ theȱ leadersȱwhoȱhadȱjoinedȱtheȱMNFȱonlyȱafterȱitȱ ChakmasȱbyȱtheȱMizosȱinȱnortheastȱIndia.19 cameȱoverground.ȱ Theȱ Mizoȱ insurgencyȱ hasȱ beenȱ throughȱ EvenȱafterȱLaldenga’sȱdeath,ȱhisȱfollowersȱ threeȱ distinctȱ phases:ȱ (a)ȱ outbreakȱ andȱ peakȱ haveȱ heldȱ togetherȱ underȱ theȱ leadershipȱ ofȱ intensityȱ duringȱ 1966–71ȱ (b)ȱ declineȱ inȱ Laldengaȇsȱ favouriteȱ protege,ȱ Zoramthanga.ȱ intensityȱfollowedȱbyȱtheȱ1976ȱCalcuttaȱaccordȱ Thereȱ isȱ aȱ lessonȱ inȱ theȱ Mizoram’sȱ storyȱ forȱ andȱ theȱ firstȱ splitsȱ inȱ theȱ MNFȱ soonȱ afterȱ Delhiȱtoȱconsider:ȱsplitsȱengineeredȱwithinȱanȱ followedȱ byȱ surrendersȱ (c)ȱ sporadicȱ hostileȱ insurgentȱorganizationȱmayȱhelpȱinȱimmediateȱ actionȱ andȱ periodicȱ negotiationsȱ afterȱ 1977ȱ controlȱ ofȱ anȱ armedȱ movement,ȱ butȱ theȱ leadingȱtoȱtheȱfinalȱsettlementȱinȱ1986.ȱ multiplicityȱofȱfactionsȱcreatedȱbyȱsplitsȱmakeȱ Byȱ theȱ lateȱ seventies,ȱ theȱ MNF’sȱ resolveȱ aȱ finalȱ settlementȱ throughȱ dialogueȱ difficult.ȱ toȱ fightȱ Indiaȱ hadȱ weakenedȱ andȱ aȱ spateȱ ofȱ Parallelȱpowerȱcentersȱinȱtheȱundergroundȱnotȱ surrendersȱfromȱitsȱranksȱhadȱbeenȱengineeredȱ onlyȱcomplicateȱtheȱprocessȱofȱnegotiation,ȱbutȱ byȱ Mizoram’sȱ chiefȱ minister,ȱ Thengpungaȱ alsoȱinterferesȱwithȱtheȱveryȱmodalitiesȱofȱtheȱ Sailo.ȱ Aȱ formerȱ Indianȱ armyȱ Brigadierȱ whoȱ dialogue.ȱ Toȱ demonstrateȱ theirȱ ownȱ clout,ȱ firstȱstartedȱaȱhumanȱrightsȱmovementȱinȱtheȱ insurgentȱ leadersȱ mayȱ getȱ involvedȱ inȱ stateȱandȱthenȱformedȱtheȱPeoplesȱConferenceȱ competitiveȱ radicalism,ȱ tryingȱ toȱ outdoȱ eachȱ thatȱ wentȱ onȱ toȱ winȱ theȱ elections.ȱ Theȱ MNFȱ otherȱ inȱ challengingȱ theȱ government.ȱ Delhiȱ startedȱ attackingȱ softȱ targetsȱ likeȱ “outsiders”ȱ wasȱ sparedȱ suchȱ aȱ scenarioȱ inȱ Mizoramȱ fromȱ theȱ plainsȱ butȱ afterȱ aȱ whileȱ startedȱ becauseȱ theȱ entireȱ movementȱ stoodȱ behindȱ negotiations.ȱWhenȱheȱbecameȱprimeȱministerȱ Laldengaȱ duringȱ theȱ 1986ȱ Accord.ȱ Aȱ unitedȱ followingȱ theȱ assassinationȱ ofȱ hisȱ motherȱ rebelȱgroupȱlikeȱtheȱMNFȱmayȱpushȱforȱaȱhardȱ IndiraȱGandhi,ȱRajivȱGandhiȱcarriedȱtheȱMizoȱ bargainȱduringȱtheȱprocessȱofȱnegotiationsȱbutȱ peaceȱ processȱ toȱ itsȱ logicalȱ culminationȱ byȱ isȱusuallyȱmoreȱconfidentȱofȱimplementingȱanȱ workingȱ outȱ aȱ settlementȱ acceptableȱ toȱ theȱ accordȱonceȱthatȱisȱreached.ȱȱ MNF.ȱ ȱ Itȱ ensuredȱ theȱ grantȱ ofȱ fullȱ statehoodȱ toȱ TribalȱUnrestȱinȱTripuraȱ Mizoramȱ andȱ accommodatedȱ theȱ MNFȱ inȱ anȱ Unlikeȱ inȱ theȱ Nagaȱ andȱ theȱ Mizoȱ Hills,ȱ theȱ interimȱ powerȬsharingȱ arrangementȱ withȱ theȱ insurgenciesȱ inȱ Manipur,ȱ Tripuraȱ andȱ Assamȱ Congress,ȱ thatȱ wasȱ rulingȱ Mizoramȱ atȱ thatȱ involvedȱ communitiesȱ believedȱ toȱ beȱ time.ȱ Ofȱ theȱ manyȱ accordsȱ thatȱ Rajivȱ Gandhiȱ influencedȱ byȱ Sanskritisationȱ (mainlandȱ signed,ȱtheȱMizoȱaccordȱinȱJuneȱ1986ȱhasȱbeenȱ Indianȱculturalȱinfluences),ȱsoȱtheirȱangstȱwasȱ theȱ mostȱ enduring.ȱ Peaceȱ inȱ Mizoramȱ hasȱ notȱ bornȱ outȱ ofȱ culturalȱ distanceȱ fromȱ held,ȱ theȱ MNFȱ hasȱ wonȱ electionsȱ andȱ ruledȱ mainlandȱ India.ȱ Rather,ȱ itȱ grewȱ outȱ ofȱ acuteȱ Mizoramȱ forȱ twoȱ fullȱ fiveȬyearȱ termsȱ andȱ noȱ frustrationȱ bornȱ outȱ ofȱ lackȱ ofȱ livelihoodȱ breakawayȱ groupȱ hasȱ surfaced,ȱ likeȱ inȱ opportunitiesȱ andȱ theȱ abysmalȱ failureȱ ofȱ Nagaland,ȱ toȱ resumeȱ insurgentȱ activity.ȱ Theȱ governance.ȱ Theseȱ threeȱ statesȱ haveȱ beenȱ presentȱ disturbancesȱ inȱ Mizoramȱ areȱ causedȱ exposedȱ toȱ variousȱ strandsȱ ofȱ leftistȱ ideologyȱ byȱ insurgentȱ groupsȱ ofȱ smallerȱ tribesȱ likeȱ andȱ theȱ rebelsȱ thereȱ oftenȱ sawȱ theȱ problemȱ Hmarsȱ andȱ theȱ Brusȱ butȱ theȱ MNFȬledȱ stateȱ withȱIndiaȱasȱoneȱofȱexploitationȱbyȱDelhi.ȱ governmentȱ hasȱ neutralizedȱ thoseȱ groupsȱ InȱTripura,ȱtheȱCommunistȱPartyȱofȱIndiaȱ throughȱ localȬlevelȱ settlementsȱ withoutȱ (CPI),ȱ thatȱ hadȱ providedȱ leadershipȱ toȱ theȱ havingȱtoȱconcedeȱmuchȱinȱpoliticalȱterms.ȱTheȱ tribespeopleȱinvolvedȱinȱtheirȱarmedȱrebellionȱ Mizoȱ accordȱ hasȱ workedȱ becauseȱ Delhiȱcameȱ inȱ1948–50,ȱjoinedȱIndia’sȱelectoralȱdemocracy.ȱ

14 Insurgencies in India’s Northeast: Conflict, Co-option & Change

Butȱ theȱ changeȱ inȱ Tripura’sȱ demographicȱ majorityȱ statesȱ likeȱ Nagalandȱ andȱ Mizoramȱ characterȱ causedȱ byȱ aȱ ceaselessȱ flowȱ ofȱ whereȱ politicsȱ andȱ culture,ȱ economyȱ andȱ refugeesȱ fromȱ Eastȱ Pakistanȱ provokedȱ youngȱ societyȱ areȱ dominatedȱ byȱ theȱ tribespeopleȱ tribespeopleȱtoȱformȱaȱsuccessionȱofȱinsurgentȱ convertedȱtoȱChristianity.ȱWhileȱtheȱATTFȱhasȱ groupsȱthatȱpromisedȱexpulsionȱofȱtheȱBengaliȱ wiselyȱstayedȱawayȱfromȱtheȱreligiousȱdebateȱ settlersȱ andȱ liberationȱ ofȱ Tripura.ȱ Theȱ andȱidentifiedȱitselfȱwithȱtheȱ“colonialȱthesis”ȱ Sengkrakȱ (literallyȱ meaningȱ “clenchedȱ fist”)ȱ ofȱ theȱ Unitedȱ Liberationȱ Frontȱ ofȱ Assamȱ grewȱ inȱ theȱ lateȱ 1960sȱ toȱ protestȱ againstȱ theȱ (ULFA)ȱ andȱ theȱ Manipuriȱ rebelȱ groups,ȱ theȱ rampantȱ andȱ systematicȱ grabbingȱ ofȱ tribalȱ NLFTȱ hasȱ facedȱ aȱ majorȱ splitȱ byȱ overȬ landsȱ encouragedȱ byȱ functionariesȱ ofȱ emphasizingȱitsȱreligiousȱagenda.ȱȱ Tripura’sȱ BengaliȬdominatedȱ Congressȱ Aȱ factionȱ ledȱ byȱ Nayanbashiȱ Jamatiaȱ government.ȱ Itȱ wasȱ annihilatedȱ byȱ theȱ midȱ brokeȱ awayȱ fromȱ theȱ NLFTȱ afterȱ theȱ rebelȱ 1970sȱ onlyȱ toȱ beȱ followedȱ byȱ theȱ Tribalȱ leadershipȱ orderedȱ theȱ executionȱ ofȱ theȱ NationalȱVolunteersȱ(TNV).ȱAfterȱaȱdecadeȱofȱ Jamatiaȱ spiritualȱ guru,ȱ Hadaȱ Okrahȱ Bikramȱ violence,ȱ theȱ TNVȱ guerrillasȱ returnedȱ toȱ Bahadurȱ Jamatia.ȱ Bikramȱ Bahadurȱ escapedȱ normalȱlifeȱinȱ1988,ȱfollowingȱanȱaccordȱwithȱ twoȱ assassinationȱ attemptsȱ butȱ anotherȱ tribalȱ theȱfederalȱgovernment.ȱȱ guru,ȱ Shantiȱ Kali,ȱ wasȱ killed.ȱ Thisȱ provokedȱ Withinȱfourȱyears,ȱhowever,ȱtheȱstateȱsawȱ tribesȱlikeȱtheȱJamatias,ȱwhoȱcontinueȱtoȱvalueȱ theȱ birthȱ ofȱ twoȱ guerrillaȱ organizations:ȱ theȱ traditionalȱ religiousȱ practices,ȱ againstȱ theȱ AllȬTripuraȱ Tigerȱ Forceȱ (ATTF)ȱ andȱ theȱ NLFTȱ andȱ theȱ ensuingȱ religiousȱ schismȱ hasȱ Nationalȱ Liberationȱ Forceȱ ofȱ Tripuraȱ (NLFT).ȱ weakenedȱtribalȱinsurgencyȱinȱTripura.ȱWhileȱ Bothȱareȱsustainedȱbyȱanȱagendaȱtoȱdriveȱoutȱ theȱ Sengkrakȱ andȱ laterȱ theȱ TNVȱ attackedȱ Bengaliȱ settlers,ȱ whoȱ areȱ blamedȱ forȱ theȱ Bengaliȱsettlersȱandȱsecurityȱforcesȱinȱaȱbidȱtoȱ physical,ȱ cultural,ȱ politicalȱ andȱ economicȱ protectȱtribalȱsettlementsȱfromȱencroachmentsȱ marginalizationȱ ofȱ theȱ indigenousȱ byȱ theȱ Bengaliȱ settlers,ȱ theȱ ATTFȱ andȱ theȱ tribespeople.ȱWithȱtheȱexceptionȱofȱtheȱATTF,ȱ NLFTȱ haveȱ adoptedȱ aȱ tacticȱ ofȱ largeȬscaleȱ whichȱ hasȱ drawnȱ manyȱ ofȱ itsȱ guerillasȱ fromȱ abductionsȱtargetingȱBengaliȱsettlers.ȱȱ theȱ communistȱ massȱ frontsȱ andȱ whichȱ usesȱ Betweenȱ 1995ȱ andȱ 2003,ȱ nearlyȱ 2,000ȱ leftistȱ polemicsȱ inȱ itsȱ articulation,ȱ theȱ otherȱ abductionsȱwereȱreportedȱtoȱtheȱpolice.ȱManyȱ insurgentȱgroupsȱinȱTripuraȱwere—andȱare— wentȱunreportedȱbecauseȱtheȱfamiliesȱpaidȱupȱ fiercelyȱ antiȬleft.ȱ Theyȱ blameȱTripura’sȱrulingȱ silently.ȱForȱaȱsmallȱstateȱlikeȱTripuraȱ(pop:ȱ3ȱ Communistsȱ forȱ failingȱ toȱ stopȱ theȱ influxȱ ofȱ million),ȱ theȱ numberȱ ofȱ abductionsȱ wereȱ Bengalisȱ andȱ forȱ failingȱ toȱ improveȱ theȱ unusuallyȱ high.ȱ Manyȱ ofȱ thoseȱ kidnappedȱ positionȱ ofȱ theȱ tribespeople.ȱ TNVȱ Chiefȱ B.ȱK.ȱ failedȱtoȱreturnȱevenȱafterȱtheirȱfamiliesȱpaidȱaȱ Hrangkhawlȱ usedȱ toȱ callȱ Tripura’sȱ firstȱ ransom.ȱSoȱwidespreadȱwasȱtheȱproblemȱthatȱ Communistȱ chiefȱ ministerȱ Nripenȱ theȱ stateȱ governmentȱ hadȱ toȱ changeȱ theȱ Chakrabartyȱ aȱ “refugeeȱ chiefȱ minister”ȱ inȱ allȱ successionȱlawsȱbecauseȱmanyȱfamilyȱbusinessȱ hisȱletters. 20 couldȱnotȱbeȱrunȱafterȱtheȱheadȱofȱtheȱfamilyȱ Theȱ TNVȱ hadȱ aȱ largeȱ numberȱ ofȱ firstȬ hadȱbeenȱkidnapped.ȱSinceȱtheȱheadȱcouldȱnotȱ generationȱ convertsȱ inȱ itsȱ ranksȱ andȱ nowȱ theȱ beȱ declaredȱ deadȱ untilȱ theȱ bodyȱ wasȱ found,ȱ NLFT,ȱalsoȱdrawsȱitsȱrecruitsȱmostlyȱfromȱtheȱ banksȱ andȱ financialȱ institutionsȱ wouldȱ notȱ “newȱ Christians”ȱ amongstȱ theȱ tribespeople.21ȱ acceptȱ theȱ legalȱ authorityȱ ofȱ theȱ successors.ȱ TheyȱregardȱtheȱacceptanceȱofȱChristianityȱbyȱ Withȱtheȱchangeȱinȱtheȱlaws,ȱaȱpersonȱmissingȱ theȱtribespeopleȱasȱtheȱoneȱandȱtheȱonlyȱwayȱ forȱ aȱ particularȱ periodȱ ofȱ timeȱ isȱ treatedȱ asȱ toȱ breakȱ awayȱ fromȱ theȱ dominantȱ HinduȬ deadȱ inȱ theȱ eyesȱ ofȱ lawȱ toȱ allowȱ forȱ Bengaliȱculture,ȱwhichȱtheyȱblameȱforȱculturalȱ succession.22 marginalisationȱ ofȱ theȱ tribespeople.ȱ Theirȱ ȱȱ Theȱ kidnappingsȱ hadȱ aȱ doubleȱ effect:ȱ itȱ leadersȱ urgeȱ themȱ toȱ lookȱ toȱ otherȱ tribalȬ terrorizedȱ theȱ Bengaliȱ settlers,ȱ forcingȱ

15 Subir Bhaumik hundredsȱ toȱ headȱ forȱ saferȱ places,ȱ andȱ itȱ orientation.ȱ Heȱ opposedȱ Manipur’sȱ mergerȱ earnedȱ hugeȱ amountsȱ ofȱ liquidȱ cashȱ forȱ theȱ withȱ Indiaȱ andȱ heȱ abandonedȱ theȱ Indianȱ rebelȱ groups,ȱ enablingȱ themȱ toȱ buyȱ weaponsȱ communistȱ movementȱ forȱ itsȱ failureȱ toȱ andȱcommunicationȱequipmentȱandȱevenȱpayȱ addressȱ theȱ“nationalȱquestion”ȱinȱperipheralȱ theirȱfightersȱaȱmonthlyȱallowance.ȱAbductionȱ areasȱ likeȱ Manipur,ȱ advocatingȱ insteadȱ thatȱ asȱ anȱ insurgentȱ strategyȱ isȱ notȱ uniqueȱ toȱ “Manipurȱ shouldȱ beȱ aȱ republicȱ withȱ aȱ Tripura,ȱbutȱisȱnotȱasȱrampantȱanywhereȱelseȱ responsibleȱ formȱ ofȱ government.”24ȱȱIrabot’sȱ inȱ theȱ region.ȱ Insurgentsȱ inȱ Assam,ȱ Manipurȱ leftȱseparatistȱideologyȱcontinuedȱtoȱinspireȱaȱ andȱNagaland,ȱnowȱevenȱinȱMeghalaya,ȱhaveȱ wholeȱgenerationȱofȱyoungȱMeiteisȱ(Manipur’sȱ adoptedȱ thisȱ tacticȱ toȱ extortȱ fundsȱ fromȱ theȱ dominantȱHinduȱcommunity).ȱ businessȱ communityȱ andȱ theȱ endowedȱ class,ȱ ȱȱ Inȱ1964,ȱtheȱstate’sȱfirstȱseparatistȱgroup,ȱ butȱ theyȱ haveȱ kidnappedȱ people,ȱ onlyȱ whenȱ theȱ Unitedȱ Nationalȱ Liberationȱ Frontȱ(UNLF)ȱ repeatedȱ “taxȱ notices”ȱ failedȱ toȱ forceȱ theȱ wasȱformed,ȱbutȱitȱsoonȱsplitȱonȱtheȱquestionȱ targetsȱ toȱ payȱ up.ȱ Onȱ theȱ otherȱ hand,ȱ theȱ ofȱ theȱ needȱ forȱ aȱ revolution.ȱ Theȱ UNLFȱ insurgentsȱ inȱ Tripuraȱ abductȱ andȱ thenȱ advocatedȱaȱprogrammeȱofȱsocialȱreform,ȱbutȱ bargain.ȱ Inȱ someȱ cases,ȱ theȱ insurgentsȱ haveȱ aȱ factionȱ withinȱ itȱ advocatedȱ outrightȱ goneȱtoȱtheȱextentȱofȱdemandingȱpaymentȱforȱ revolution.ȱ Thisȱ factionȱ calledȱ itselfȱ theȱ theȱdeadȱbodiesȱofȱvictimsȱwhoȱdiedȱwhileȱinȱ Revolutionaryȱ Governmentȱ ofȱ Manipurȱ rebelȱcaptivity.23 (RGM)ȱandȱitsȱmembersȱwentȱtoȱEastȱPakistanȱ Theȱ ATTFȱ isȱ militarilyȱ weakerȱ thanȱ theȱ forȱ training.ȱ Thoughȱ Pakistanȱ hadȱ welcomedȱ NLFTȱbutȱitȱisȱtheȱmoreȱcohesiveȱofȱtheȱtwo.ȱItȱ Nagaȱ andȱ Mizoȱ rebelsȱ andȱ providedȱ themȱ alsoȱenjoysȱcloseȱlinksȱwithȱtheȱULFAȱandȱtheȱ withȱ sanctuary,ȱ trainingȱ andȱ weapons,ȱ itȱ Manipuriȱ rebelȱ groups,ȱ whileȱ theȱ NLFTȱ hadȱ refusedȱ toȱ helpȱ theȱ Manipuriȱ rebels.ȱ Theyȱ closeȱ linksȱ toȱ theȱ NSCNȱ andȱ theȱ Nationalȱ wereȱallȱarrestedȱandȱreleasedȱnearȱtheȱIndianȱ DemocraticȱFrontȱofȱBodolandȱ(NDFB),ȱwhichȱ border,ȱonlyȱtoȱbeȱpickedȱupȱbyȱIndianȱpolice.ȱ hasȱ beenȱ fightingȱ forȱ anȱ independentȱ Theȱ RGMȱ wasȱ againȱ splitȱ andȱ itsȱ leader,ȱ homeland.ȱ Thisȱ isȱ theȱ contourȱ ofȱ theȱ newȱ Sudhirȱ Kumar,ȱ aȱ proponentȱ ofȱ Meiteiȱ ethnoȬideologicalȱ divideȱ inȱ theȱ separatistȱ revivalism,ȱwasȱchallengedȱbyȱaȱleftistȱgroup,ȱ politicsȱofȱnortheastȱIndia.ȱGroupsȱwithȱleftistȱ ledȱbyȱNameirakpamȱBisheswarȱSingh,ȱwhichȱ tendenciesȱorȱoriginsȱlikeȱtheȱULFA,ȱMPLFȱorȱ believedȱinȱMarxistȬLeninism.ȱ ATTFȱ tendȱ toȱ stickȱ together,ȱ whileȱ Sudhirȱ wasȱ shotȱ deadȱ byȱ hisȱ rivalsȱ andȱ organizationsȱ moreȱ narrowlyȱ focusedȱ onȱ endemicȱfactionalismȱreignedȱuntilȱBisheswar,ȱ ethnicȱ concernsȱ andȱ unitedȱ byȱ theirȱ faithȱ inȱ whoȱhadȱspendȱtimeȱwithȱtheȱNaxaliteȱleadersȱ Christianity,ȱ findȱ themselvesȱ inȱ theȱ sameȱ inȱ jail,ȱ establishedȱ theȱ Revolutionaryȱ Peoplesȱ camp.ȱ Whileȱ thisȱ meansȱ thereȱ cannotȱ beȱ Frontȱ andȱ itsȱ militaryȱ wing,ȱ theȱ Peoplesȱ effectiveȱ tacticalȱ unityȱ amongstȱ theȱ region’sȱ Liberationȱ Armyȱ (PLA)ȱ onȱ Julyȱ 25,ȱ 1978.ȱ separatistȱ groups,ȱ itȱ alsoȱ providesȱ Indianȱ Bisheswarȱ ledȱ theȱ groupȱ ofȱ aboutȱ twentyȱ intelligenceȱ agenciesȱ opportunityȱ forȱ “specialȱ Meiteiȱ rebelsȱ (describedȱ asȱ “Ojhas”ȱ meaningȱ politicalȱoperations”ȱtoȱplayȱoneȱgroupȱagainstȱ pioneersȱ inȱ Manipuri)ȱ whoȱ wereȱ trainedȱ byȱ another.ȱȱ theȱ Chineseȱ inȱ “revolutionaryȱ warfare”ȱ andȱ ȱ “MarxismȬLeninismȱ andȱ Maoȱ Thought.”ȱ Theȱ TheȱManipurȱImbroglioȱ RPFȱ reposedȱ unreservedȱ faithȱ inȱ “classȱwar,”ȱ InȱTripura,ȱtheȱcommunistȱmovement,ȱdespiteȱ “abolitionȱ ofȱ privateȱ propertyȱ afterȱ theȱ itsȱ initialȱ focusȱ onȱ tribalȱ concerns,ȱ neverȱ revolution,”ȱandȱ“cooperationȱwithȱtheȱIndianȱ becameȱ separatistȱ inȱ formȱ orȱ content.ȱ Butȱ inȱ proletariat.”ȱ Itȱ opposedȱ sectarianȱ politicsȱ Manipur,ȱ theȱ legendaryȱ communistȱ leader,ȱ basedȱonȱethnicȱorȱreligiousȱappealȱandȱstatedȱ Hijamȱ Irabotȱ Singh,ȱ betrayedȱ distinctȱ thatȱitsȱforemostȱobjectiveȱwasȱtoȱ“bringȱdownȱ separatistȱ overtonesȱ inȱ hisȱ ideologicalȱ theȱ banditȱ governmentȱ ofȱ Delhi.”ȱ Theȱ PLAȱ

16 Insurgencies in India’s Northeast: Conflict, Co-option & Change leadershipȱ identifiedȱ Chinaȱ asȱ theȱ setbacks,ȱ theȱ PLAȱ regroupedȱ andȱ hitȱ backȱ atȱ ‘fountainheadȱ ofȱ internationalȱ proletarianȱ theȱ securityȱ forcesȱ regularly.ȱ Theȱ UNLFȱ alsoȱ revolution’ȱ andȱ evenȱ creditedȱ Beijingȱ withȱ steppedȱupȱitsȱoperations,ȱdespiteȱaȱsplitȱinȱtheȱ preservingȱ Nepal’sȱ sovereigntyȱ fromȱ Indianȱ group.ȱȱ expansionistȱdesigns.ȱItȱfurtherȱaccusedȱNehruȱ Unlikeȱ mostȱ otherȱ insurgentȱ groupsȱ inȱ forȱ“attemptingȱtoȱtakeȱoverȱTibetȱtoȱcreateȱanȱ theȱ northeast,ȱ theȱ Meiteiȱ rebelsȱ haveȱ aȱ socialȱ allȬIndiaȱempire.”25 programme.ȱBothȱtheȱPLAȱandȱtheȱUNLFȱhaveȱ Anotherȱ similarȱ insurgentȱ groupȱ thatȱ playedȱ theȱ socialȱ watchdogȱ withȱ unfailingȱ surfacedȱ aroundȱ theȱ sameȱ timeȱ wasȱ theȱ zeal,ȱshootingȱdrugȱtraffickers,ȱimposingȱbansȱ Peoplesȱ Revolutionaryȱ Partyȱ ofȱ Kangleipakȱ onȱ liquor,ȱ “culturallyȱ obscene”ȱ Hindiȱ filmsȱ (theȱ ancientȱ nameȱ ofȱ Manipur)ȱ whichȱ wasȱ andȱ evenȱ tobacco.ȱ Aȱ newȱ rebelȱ group,ȱ theȱ betterȱknownȱbyȱitsȱacronym,ȱPREPAK.ȱItȱalsoȱ Kangleiȱ Kanȱ Yanaȱ Lupȱ orȱ KYKLȱ hasȱ evenȱ displayedȱ leftistȱ tendenciesȱ butȱ wasȱ moreȱ attackedȱ studentsȱ whoȱ cheatȱ inȱ examsȱ andȱ pronouncedȱ inȱ itsȱ separatistȱ designsȱ whenȱ itȱ teachersȱwhoȱhelpȱthem.ȱTheyȱwantȱtoȱ“cleanȱ declaredȱ itȱ wouldȱ fightȱ forȱ Manipur’sȱ upȱtheȱsocietyȱinȱwhichȱtheȱrevolutionȱhasȱtoȱ independenceȱandȱdeclaredȱitȱwouldȱsuppressȱ takeȱ place”—aȱ leftistȱ moralȱ hangoverȱ rareȱ “allȱ counterȬrevolutionaries,ȱ Mayangsȱ amongstȱ otherȱ ethnicȱ rebelȱ groupsȱ inȱ theȱ [outsiders],ȱ neoȬcolonialistȱ stoogesȱ andȱ classȱ Northeast.ȱMeiteiȱinsurgencyȱhasȱexperiencedȱ enemies”ȱ andȱ establishȱ aȱ classlessȱ societyȱ inȱ fourȱ distinctȱ phases:ȱ (a)ȱ theȱearlyȱbeginnings,ȱ Manipur.26ȱ Onceȱ theȱ PLAȱ “Ojhas”ȱ returnedȱ withȱ theȱ formationȱ ofȱ theȱ UNLF,ȱ theȱ Meiteiȱ fromȱtheirȱlongȱtrainingȱinȱLhasa,ȱtheyȱsetȱupȱ Stateȱ Committeeȱ andȱ theȱ RGM,ȱ allȱ ofȱ whichȱ CommunistȬtypeȱ secretȱ cells,ȱ builtȱ upȱ anȱ peteredȱoutȱbyȱtheȱendȱofȱ1970;ȱ(b)ȱtheȱbirthȱofȱ arsenalȱ ofȱ stolenȱ weaponsȱ (unlikeȱ inȱ theȱ caseȱ theȱ PLAȱ inȱ 1978,ȱ theȱ beginningȱ ofȱ Chineseȱ ofȱ theȱ separatistȱ Nagasȱ andȱ Mizos,ȱ theȱ PLAȱ help,ȱ heavyȱ violenceȱ throughoutȱ theȱ Imphalȱ didȱnotȱevenȱgetȱaȱstarter’sȱsupplyȱofȱweaponsȱ valleyȱandȱtheȱsevereȱsetbacksȱsufferedȱbyȱtheȱ fromȱ theȱ Chinese)ȱ andȱ startedȱ selectiveȱ majorȱ Meiteiȱ insurgentȱ groups;ȱ (c)ȱ theȱ recruitmentȱ ofȱ cadresȱ forȱ undergroundȱ regroupingȱ ofȱ theseȱ groups,ȱ redefinitionȱ ofȱ militantȱaction.ȱByȱthen,ȱtheȱPREPAKȱhadȱalsoȱ theirȱ politicalȱ objectivesȱ andȱ revivalȱ ofȱ takenȱ theȱ plungeȱ andȱ theȱ UNLFȱ hadȱ insurgencyȱ inȱ theȱ valleyȱ betweenȱ 1988ȱ andȱ reorganizedȱ itselfȱ underȱ Rajȱ Kumarȱ Meghenȱ 1998;ȱ(d)ȱtheȱfreshȱimpetusȱtoȱinsurgencyȱafterȱ (partyȱname:ȱSanaiyama).ȱȱ theȱcreationȱofȱtheȱManipurȱPeoplesȱLiberationȱ Inȱ 1979,ȱ theȱ threeȱ groupsȱ unleashedȱ aȱ Frontȱ (MPLF)ȱ thatȱ broughtȱ togetherȱ severalȱ fierceȱ spellȱ ofȱ urbanȱ guerrillaȱ warfareȱ inȱ theȱ Meiteiȱrebelȱgroupsȱinȱoneȱplatformȱinȱ2003.ȱ Imphalȱ valley.ȱ Specialȱ lawsȱ wereȱ soonȱ Afterȱ majorȱ setbacksȱ inȱ theȱ 1980s,ȱ bothȱ extendedȱ toȱ Manipurȱ andȱ theȱ armyȱ wasȱ theȱPLAȱandȱtheȱUNLFȱhaveȱemergedȱstrongerȱ deployedȱinȱstrength.ȱSmallerȱgroups,ȱlikeȱtheȱ sinceȱtheȱlateȱ1990s.ȱBetweenȱthemselves,ȱtheyȱ Kangleipakȱ Communistȱ Party,ȱ addedȱ toȱ theȱ haveȱmoreȱthanȱ6,000ȱwellȱtrainedȱandȱarmedȱ turmoilȱ inȱ theȱ Imphalȱ valley.ȱ Indianȱ fightersȱ andȱ aȱ moreȱ focusedȱ politicalȱ intelligenceȱ managedȱ toȱ infiltrateȱ theȱ Meiteiȱ programmeȱdevoidȱofȱtheȱideologicalȱbaggageȱ separatistȱ groupsȱ byȱ midȬ1981.ȱ Almostȱ theȱ ofȱtheȱ“Indianȱrevolution.”ȱFraternalȱtiesȱwithȱ entireȱ ChinaȬtrainedȱ leadershipȱ ofȱ theȱ PLAȱ Indianȱ Maoistsȱ stillȱ exist,ȱ butȱ areȱ limitedȱ toȱ wasȱ capturedȱ orȱ killedȱ inȱ justȱ twoȱ expressionsȱ ofȱ support.ȱ Afterȱ theȱ twoȱ groupsȱ encounters—theȱ firstȱ oneȱ atȱ Thekchamȱ inȱ joinedȱ toȱ formȱ theȱ MPLF,ȱ theirȱ strikeȱ powerȱ Augustȱ 1981,ȱ whichȱ ledȱ toȱ theȱ arrestȱ ofȱ PLAȱ andȱ theȱ rangeȱ ofȱ theirȱ operationsȱ haveȱ chairman,ȱ Nameirakpamȱ Bisheswarȱ Singh,ȱ increased.ȱSinceȱ2003,ȱtheȱMPLFȱarmedȱwing,ȱ andȱ theȱ secondȱ oneȱ atȱ Kadamkopkiȱ inȱ Aprilȱ Manipurȱ People’sȱ Armyȱ (MPA)ȱ haveȱ 1982,ȱ inȱ whichȱ Bisheswar’sȱ successor,ȱ effectivelyȱthwartedȱrepeatedȱeffortsȱbyȱIndianȱ Kunjabehariȱ Singhȱ wasȱ killed.ȱ Despiteȱ theseȱ troopsȱandȱborderguardȱtoȱoverrunȱtheirȱmainȱ

17 Subir Bhaumik baseȱareasȱatȱSajitȱTampakȱinȱChandelȱdistrictȱ Delhiȱ dilemmaȱ isȱ serious:ȱ forȱ aȱ finalȱ Nagaȱ andȱinȱChurachandpurȱdistrict,ȱbothȱborderingȱ settlement,ȱ itȱ needsȱ toȱ acceptȱ integrationȱ ofȱ Burma.ȱ Theȱ orchestratedȱ natureȱ ofȱ mobȱ NagaȱareasȱofȱManipurȱandȱotherȱnortheasternȱ violenceȱ duringȱ theȱ agitationȱ againstȱ theȱ statesȱ withȱ Nagaland,ȱ butȱ ifȱ thatȱ happens,ȱ extensionȱofȱtheȱNagaȱceasefireȱtoȱManipurȱinȱ Manipurȱ willȱ goȱ upȱ inȱ flames,ȱ strengtheningȱ 2001ȱ gaveȱ riseȱ toȱ suspicionsȱ thatȱ Meiteiȱ Meiteiȱinsurgencyȱasȱneverȱbefore.ȱ undergroundȱgroupsȱwereȱbehindȱit.ȱNotȱoneȱ Facedȱ withȱ theȱ growingȱ strengthȱ ofȱ theȱ Nagaȱ wasȱ killedȱ duringȱ theȱ violence,ȱ butȱ theȱ Meiteiȱ insurgentȱ groups,ȱ whoȱ refuseȱ toȱ startȱ officeȱ ofȱ everyȱ majorȱ politicalȱ partyȱ inȱ anyȱ kindȱ ofȱ politicalȱ negotiationsȱ andȱ evenȱ Manipur,ȱ theȱ assemblyȱ buildingȱ andȱ theȱ demandȱ plebiscite,ȱ theȱ Indianȱ governmentȱ residencesȱ ofȱ severalȱ topȱ politiciansȱ wereȱ evenȱauthorizedȱtheȱarmyȱ(forȱtheȱfirstȱtime)ȱtoȱ burntȱ down.ȱ Itȱ wasȱ aȱ shortȱ butȱ violentȱ signȱ Suspensionȱ ofȱ Operationsȱ (SOO)ȱ agitationȱ thatȱ couldȱ beȱ controlledȱ onlyȱ afterȱ agreementȱ withȱ eightȱ Kukiȱ andȱ Zomiȱ tribalȱ Delhiȱ backedȱ outȱ toȱ quellȱ Meiteiȱ fearsȱ ofȱ aȱ insurgentȱ groupsȱ activeȱ inȱ southernȱ Manipurȱ possibleȱ slicingȱ awayȱ ofȱ itsȱ NagaȬinhabitedȱ inȱ 2005.ȱ Theseȱ groupsȱ wereȱ thenȱ usedȱ byȱtheȱ territories.ȱȱ Indianȱ armyȱ inȱ itsȱ effortȱ toȱ driveȱ outȱ theȱ Threeȱ yearsȱ later,ȱ Manipurȱ witnessedȱ Meiteiȱ insurgentsȱ fromȱ KukiȬZomiȱ dominantȱ anotherȱ upsurgeȱ afterȱ theȱ allegedȱ rapeȱ andȱ districtsȱlikeȱChurachandpur.ȱTheȱMeiteiȱrebelȱ executionȱ ofȱ aȱ Manipuriȱ woman,ȱ Manorama,ȱ groupsȱlikeȱtheȱUNLFȱrespondedȱharshlyȱandȱ byȱ theȱ paraȬmilitaryȱ Assamȱ Riflesȱ troops.ȱ theirȱ guerrillasȱ wereȱ evenȱ accusedȱ ofȱ rapingȱ Scoresȱ ofȱ elderlyȱ Manipuriȱ womenȱ Kukiȱwomenȱinȱ2006.ȱTheȱhighȱmoralȱgroundȱ demonstratedȱ nudeȱ inȱ frontȱ ofȱ Imphal’sȱ ofȱ theȱ Meiteiȱ insurgentsȱ wasȱ somewhatȱ KanglaȱFortȱhousingȱtheȱparaȬmilitaryȱAssamȱ undermined.ȱ Subsequently,ȱ theȱ Kukiȱ Rifles.ȱ Anotherȱ Meiteiȱ womanȱ Iromȱ Sharmilaȱ organizationsȱ openlyȱ demandedȱ deploymentȱ hasȱ continuedȱ anȱ indefiniteȱ fastȱ (brokenȱ onlyȱ ofȱ additionalȱ Indianȱ militaryȱ unitsȱ inȱ theirȱ byȱ forceȬfeeding)ȱ forȱ sixȱ yearsȱ demandingȱ areasȱ forȱ protectionȱ againstȱ theȱ UNLF.ȱ scrappingȱ ofȱ theȱ controversialȱ Armedȱ Forcesȱ ExploitationȱofȱethnicȱdivisionsȱbyȱtheȱIndianȱ SpecialȱPowersȱAct,ȱ1958,ȱthatȱgivesȱsweepingȱ armyȱ andȱ intelligenceȱ wasȱ notȱ uniqueȱ toȱ powersȱtoȱtheȱsecurityȱforcesȱduringȱcounterȬ Manipurȱ butȱ theȱ useȱ ofȱ theȱ Kukiȱ groupsȱ insurgencyȱ operationsȱ andȱ oftenȱ leadsȱ toȱ againstȱtheȱUNLFȱwasȱtheȱmostȱblatantȱofȱsuchȱ excesses.ȱ Afterȱ theȱ 2004ȱ protests,ȱ theȱ Indianȱ cases.ȱ Theȱ UNLFȱ hasȱ allegedȱ thatȱ theȱ Indianȱ governmentȱ setȱ upȱ aȱ committeeȱ underȱ aȱ armyȱisȱusingȱguerrillasȱofȱtheȱKukiȱNationalȱ formerȱ Supremeȱ Courtȱ judgeȱ thatȱ Armyȱasȱ“scouts”ȱtoȱtrackȱdownȱtheirȱbases.27ȱ recommendedȱ abolitionȱ ofȱ theȱ controversialȱ ȱ act.ȱButȱtheȱgovernmentȱhasȱnotȱyetȱacceptedȱ AssamȱinȱTurmoilȱȱ thatȱunderȱpressureȱofȱtheȱdefenseȱministry.ȱȱ Assam’sȱ experienceȱ inȱ Indiaȱ hasȱ beenȱ theȱ Theȱ angstȱ againstȱ excessesȱ byȱ Indianȱ oppositeȱ ofȱ thatȱ ofȱ theȱ Nagas.ȱ Whenȱ Indiaȱ securityȱforcesȱisȱfurtherȱcompoundedȱbyȱfearsȱ becameȱ free,ȱ theȱ entireȱ northeasternȱ region,ȱ amongstȱ theȱ Meiteisȱ thatȱ theȱ state’sȱ NagaȬ exceptȱ theȱ erstwhileȱ princelyȱ statesȱ ofȱ inhabitedȱ areasȱ mightȱ beȱ givenȱ overȱ toȱ ManipurȱandȱTripura,ȱwereȱallȱpartȱofȱAssamȱ Nagalandȱ toȱ placateȱ theȱ NSCNȱ intoȱ aȱ finalȱ orȱtiedȱtoȱtheȱstateȱinȱsomeȱformȱorȱother.ȱTheȱ settlement.ȱ Delhi’sȱ unqualifiedȱ assuranceȱ ofȱ Assameseȱeliteȱandȱmiddleȱclass,ȱthroughȱtheirȱ notȱ comprosingȱ Manipur’sȱ territorialȱ involvementȱ inȱ theȱ Indianȱ nationalistȱ boundariesȱ isȱ yetȱ toȱ pacifyȱ theȱ Meiteisȱ andȱ movement,ȱwereȱDelhi’sȱobviousȱchoiceȱasȱitsȱ thatȱ helpsȱ theȱ rebelsȱ recruitȱ freely.ȱ Theȱ “politicalȱ subȬcontractor”ȱ inȱ theȱ Northeast.ȱ possibleȱ breakupȱ ofȱ Manipurȱ isȱ aȱ widelyȱ Andȱ duringȱ theȱ firstȱ quarterȱ centuryȱ ofȱ theȱ sharedȱconcernȱandȱthoseȱresistingȱitȱstandȱtoȱ Republic,ȱ Delhiȱ ruledȱ theȱ Northeastȱ throughȱ gainȱ aȱ lotȱ ofȱ popularȱ supportȱ inȱ Manipur.ȱ Assam.ȱButȱasȱIndiaȱfacedȱoneȱhillȱinsurgencyȱ

18 Insurgencies in India’s Northeast: Conflict, Co-option & Change afterȱanotherȱandȱdemandsȱforȱseparateȱtribalȱ riskȱbecauseȱofȱtheȱproximityȱofȱstate’sȱbordersȱ statesȱ multiplied,ȱ Delhiȱ wasȱ forcedȱ toȱ withȱChinaȱandȱPakistan,ȱarguedȱthat,ȱbyȱtheȱ politicallyȱ reorganizeȱ theȱ Northeastȱ inȱ 1972ȱ sameȱ yardstick,ȱ Assam’sȱ oilfieldsȱ andȱ longȱ thatȱ ledȱ toȱ theȱ creationȱ ofȱ severalȱ newȱ states.ȱ railwayȱnetworkȱwouldȱbeȱatȱriskȱasȱwell.ȱ Thatȱ curbedȱ Assamȇsȱ influenceȱ inȱ theȱ regionȱ Inȱ anyȱ typologyȱ ofȱ theȱ protestȱ andȱalienatedȱaȱlargeȱsectionȱofȱtheȱAssameseȱ movementsȱ inȱ northeastȱ India,ȱ Assamȱ wouldȱ fromȱIndia.ȱȱ standȱ outȱ atȱ theȱ endȱ ofȱ aȱ continuum,ȱ withȱ Thisȱalienation,ȱhowever,ȱwasȱnotȱsuddenȱ Nagalandȱ occupyingȱ theȱ otherȱ extreme.ȱ Theȱ andȱwasȱnotȱmerelyȱlinkedȱtoȱDelhi’sȱdecisionȱ Nagasȱ resortedȱ toȱ insurgencyȱ asȱ theȱ firstȱ toȱbreakȱupȱAssam.ȱItȱcanȱbeȱtracedȱbackȱtoȱtheȱ optionȱ ofȱ protestȱ afterȱ negotiationsȱ withȱ theȱ Partition,ȱ whenȱ Assamȱ wasȱ forcedȱ toȱ acceptȱ Indianȱleadershipȱhadȱfailedȱinȱtheȱearlyȱ1950s.ȱ tensȱ ofȱ thousandsȱ ofȱ refugeesȱ fromȱ Eastȱ TheȱAssameseȱmiddleȱclassȱandȱtheȱpeasantryȱ Pakistan.ȱ Despiteȱ stridentȱ oppositionȱ byȱ exhaustedȱtheirȱoptionsȱofȱnonȬviolentȱprotestȱ Assam’sȱ Congressȱ chiefȱ ministerȱ Gopinathȱ andȱ massȱ agitationsȱ (notȱ alwaysȱ peaceful)ȱ Bordoloi,ȱ theȱ federalȱ governmentȱ forcedȱ himȱ beforeȱ someȱ Assameseȱ decidedȱ toȱ startȱ aȱ toȱ resettleȱ moreȱ thanȱ 600,000ȱ Bengaliȱ Hinduȱ violentȱ separatistȱ insurgency.ȱ Theȱ Mizoȱ refugeesȱ inȱ Assamȱ byȱ 1961.ȱ Bordoloiȱ pointedȱ insurgencyȱandȱonesȱinȱTripuraȱandȱManipurȱ outȱthatȱthereȱwereȱ186,000ȱlandlessȱAssameseȱ wouldȱfallȱinȱbetweenȱAssamȱandȱNagaland.ȱȱ peasantsȱawaitingȱresettlementȱonȱreclaimableȱ Theȱoilȱrefineryȱagitationȱraisedȱtheȱissueȱ lands.ȱButȱIndia’sȱHomeȱMinisterȱSardarȱPatelȱ ofȱAssam’sȱ“exploitation”ȱbyȱtheȱIndianȱstate.ȱ insistedȱ thatȱ theȱ reclaimableȱ landsȱ beȱ evenlyȱ Fromȱ 0.1ȱ millionȱ tonnes,ȱ Assam’sȱ annualȱ distributedȱ betweenȱ landlessȱ Assameseȱ crudeȱ outputȱ touchedȱ aȱ peakȱ ofȱ fiveȱ millionȱ peasantsȱ andȱ Bengaliȱ Hinduȱ refugees.ȱ Nehruȱ tonnesȱ inȱ theȱ 1970sȱ beforeȱ beginningȱ toȱ fallȱ threatenedȱ Bordoloiȱ withȱ denialȱ ofȱ federalȱ again.ȱ Beforeȱ theȱ antiȬforeignerȱ agitationȱ developmentȱ fundsȱ unlessȱ Assamȱ agreedȱ toȱ startedȱ inȱ 1979,ȱ Assamȱ receivedȱ onlyȱ Rsȱ 42ȱ shareȱ“India’sȱrefugeeȱburden.”28ȱȱ (lessȱthanȱoneȱUSȱdollar)ȱasȱroyaltyȱforȱeveryȱ Bordoloi’sȱ pleaȱ toȱ checkȱ theȱ continuousȱ metricȱtonneȱofȱcrudeȱoil.ȱTheȱCentreȱcollectedȱ MuslimȱmigrationȱfromȱEastȱPakistanȱalsoȱfellȱ sixȱ timesȱ asȱ muchȱ inȱ cess.ȱ Forȱ aȱ longȱ time,ȱ onȱ deafȱ earsȱ inȱ Delhi.ȱ Thoughȱ theȱ Assameseȱ AssamȱwasȱgettingȱonlyȱRsȱ54ȱasȱsalesȱtaxȱonȱaȱ eliteȱhadȱsomeȱstakeȱinȱIndia’sȱnationȬbuildingȱ tonneȱ ofȱ crudeȱ oil,ȱ whileȱ theȱ federalȱ project,ȱitsȱmiddleȱclassȱandȱruralȱmassesȱwereȱ governmentȱ collectedȱ Rsȱ 991ȱ onȱ theȱ sameȱ immenselyȱ resentfulȱ ofȱ theȱ state’sȱ changingȱ quantity.ȱForȱplywoodȱextractedȱfromȱAssam,ȱ demography,ȱ landȱ lossȱ toȱ Bengaliȱ migrantsȱ theȱ stateȱ receivedȱ onlyȱ 3.5ȱ toȱ fourȱ millionȱ andȱ perceivedȱ “colonialȱ exploitation”ȱ byȱ theȱ rupeesȱ aȱ year—theȱ federalȱ governmentȱ wasȱ Indianȱ state.ȱ Whenȱ Indiaȱ decidedȱ toȱ buildȱ aȱ collectingȱ 800ȱ millionȱ rupeesȱ onȱ it.ȱ Assam’sȱ refineryȱ atȱ Barauniȱ inȱ Biharȱ toȱ processȱ crudeȱ salesȱtaxȱcollectionsȱfromȱteaȱhoveredȱaroundȱ oilȱ fromȱ Assamȱ transportedȱ throughȱ aȱ longȱ Rsȱ 200–300ȱ millionȱ whileȱ Westȱ Bengalȱ pipeline,ȱ theȱ stateȱ eruptedȱ inȱ agitation.ȱ Theȱ collectedȱ 70ȱ percentȱ moreȱ becauseȱ theȱ headȱ movementȱ failedȱ toȱ stopȱ theȱ constructionȱ ofȱ officesȱ ofȱ theȱ teaȱ companiesȱ wereȱ locatedȱ theȱ pipelineȱ butȱ securedȱ forȱ Assamȱ aȱ smallȱ there.29 refineryȱ laterȱ builtȱ atȱ Guwahatiȱ (derisivelyȱ Toȱ thisȱ feelingȱ ofȱ economicȱ exploitation,ȱ describedȱ inȱ Assamȱ asȱ aȱ “toyȱ refinery”).ȱ Anȱ wasȱaddedȱpowerfulȱlinguisticȱsentimentsȱandȱ allȬpartyȱ committee,ȱ theȱ Sangramȱ Parishad,ȱ aȱ lurkingȱ fearȱ thatȱ theȱ Assameseȱ wouldȱ oneȱ coordinatedȱ theȱ agitationȱ andȱ theȱ stateȱ dayȱ becomeȱ foreignersȱ inȱ theirȱ ownȱ land.ȱ Inȱ Congressȱ leadershipȱ alsoȱ cameȱ outȱ openlyȱ inȱ theȱ lateȱ 1960s,ȱ asȱ insurgenciesȱ spreadȱ fromȱ oppositionȱagainstȱtheȱBarauniȱrefinery.ȱChiefȱ Nagalandȱtoȱotherȱareasȱofȱnortheast,ȱAssam’sȱ Ministerȱ Bishnuramȱ Medhi,ȱ whenȱ toldȱ thatȱ aȱ Brahmaputraȱ valleyȱ wasȱ engulfedȱ byȱ largeȱ refineryȱ inȱ Assamȱ wouldȱ beȱ aȱ securityȱ agitations.ȱ Theȱ statewideȱ foodȱ agitationȱ inȱ

19 Subir Bhaumik

1966ȱwasȱfollowedȱbyȱtheȱagitationȱagainstȱtheȱ intoȱ Assameseȱ societyȱ andȱ wereȱ beingȱ calledȱ proposedȱ breakupȱ ofȱ Assamȱ inȱ 1967–68.ȱ Theȱ NaȬAsamiyaȱ (NeoȬAssamese).ȱ Forȱ sixȱ years,ȱ callȱ forȱ boycottȱ ofȱ Republicȱ Dayȱ Celebrationsȱ theȱ massȱ agitationȱ wasȱ sustainedȱ byȱ aȱ highȱ andȱ observanceȱ ofȱ “Unityȱ Day”ȱ inȱ 1968,ȱ theȱ levelȱ ofȱ crossȬethnicȱ participation,ȱ asȱ attackȱ onȱ nonȬAssameseȱ businessȱ thousandsȱ ofȱ Assameseȱ andȱ tribals,ȱ cuttingȱ communitiesȱ thatȱ yearȱ becauseȱ theyȱ wereȱ acrossȱ politicalȱ affiliationsȱ andȱ ageȱ groups,ȱ regardedȱ asȱ theȱ immediateȱ exploitersȱ ofȱ tookȱtoȱtheȱstreetsȱtoȱdemandȱtheȱousterȱofȱtheȱ Assam,ȱ gaveȱ theȱ firstȱ indicationsȱ thatȱ illegalȱ migrants.ȱ “Peopleȇsȱ curfews,”ȱ civilȱ separatistȱsentimentsȱwereȱbuildingȱupȱinȱtheȱ disobedienceȱ programmesȱ andȱ oilȱ blockadesȱ state.ȱ Inȱ 1969,ȱ theȱ leftȱ andȱ regionalȱ partiesȱ paralyzedȱ theȱ administrationȱ acrossȱ theȱ stateȱ organizedȱ anȱ agitationȱ inȱ favourȱ ofȱ aȱ secondȱ asȱ attacksȱ onȱ nonȬAssameseȱ keptȱ pouringȱ oilȱ refineryȱ inȱ Assamȱ toȱ processȱ theȱ state’sȱ fromȱ variousȱ partsȱ ofȱ Assam.ȱ Thereȱ isȱ noȱ growingȱ crudeȱ oilȱ output.ȱ Theȱ newȱ refineryȱ denyingȱ thatȱ theȱ agitationȱ receivedȱ wasȱ setȱ upȱ inȱ Bongaigaon,ȱ butȱ theȱ feelingȱ unprecedentedȱ popularȱ supportȱ thatȱ ledȱ oneȱ gainedȱ groundȱ thatȱ theȱ stateȱ wouldȱ getȱ analyst,ȱMaheshȱJoshi,ȱtoȱcomment:ȱ“Assamȱisȱ nothingȱ unlessȱ itsȱ peopleȱ tookȱ toȱ theȱ streets.ȱ fightingȱ India’sȱ battle.”30ȱȱMoreȱ thanȱ 130ȱ Theȱ breakȬupȱ ofȱ Assamȱ inȱ 1972ȱ wasȱ pushedȱ peopleȱ diedȱ inȱ policeȱ firingsȱ duringȱ theȱ throughȱdespiteȱlargeȬscaleȱprotests.ȱ Februaryȱ 1983ȱ assemblyȱ electionsȱ inȱ Assam,ȱ Inȱsomeȱways,ȱtheseȱmassȱagitationsȱwereȱ evenȱasȱtheȱpollsȱwereȱreducedȱtoȱaȱfarceȱinȱtheȱ aȱ dressȱ rehearsalȱ forȱ theȱ “motherȱ ofȱ allȱ Brahmaputraȱ valley,ȱ whereȱ oneȱ Congressȱ agitations”ȱ thatȱ wasȱ toȱ follow.ȱ Theȱ byȬ candidateȱ wonȱ hisȱ seatȱ afterȱ pollingȱ aȱ fewȱ electionsȱ toȱ theȱ Mangaldoiȱ assemblyȱ hundredȱ votesȱ outȱ ofȱ aȱ totalȱ electorateȱ ofȱ constituencyȱinȱmidȱ1979ȱprovidedȱtheȱfuseȱforȱ 69,000.ȱItȱturnedȱoutȱtoȱbeȱIndia’sȱmostȱviolentȱ India’sȱ mostȱ powerfulȱ andȱ sustainedȱ massȱ electionsȱsinceȱindependence,ȱasȱsupportersȱofȱ agitationȱafterȱIndependence.ȱDuringȱaȱroutineȱ theȱ agitatorsȱ wentȱ afterȱ theȱ minorities,ȱ updateȱ ofȱ theȱ electoralȱ rolls,ȱ 45,000ȱ illegalȱ particularlyȱ Muslimsȱ ofȱ Eastȱ bengaliȱ origin.ȱ migrantsȱ wereȱ foundȱ inȱ theȱ voter’sȱ listȱ byȱ aȱ Theȱ worstȱ massacreȱ occurredȱ inȱ aȱ clusterȱ ofȱ tribunalȱ setȱ upȱ byȱ theȱ stateȱ government.ȱ Onȱ villagesȱinȱNellie,ȱwhereȱmoreȱthanȱ1600ȱwereȱ Juneȱ 8ȱ 1979,ȱ theȱ Allȱ Assamȱ Studentsȱ Unionȱ killed.ȱ (AASU)ȱ observedȱ theȱ firstȱ statewideȱ strike,ȱ Theȱ assumptionȱ ofȱ powerȱ byȱ theȱ demandingȱ deletionȱ ofȱ theȱ namesȱ ofȱ Congressȱinȱaȱfarcicalȱelectionȱmarkedȱbyȱstateȱ “foreigners”ȱ fromȱ theȱ electoralȱ rolls.ȱ Itȱ wasȱ repressionȱ convincedȱ manyȱ Assameseȱ thatȱ quicklyȱ followedȱ inȱ Augustȱ thatȱ yearȱ byȱ theȱ theirȱ concernsȱ wouldȱ beȱ rudelyȱ overlooked.ȱ formationȱ ofȱ theȱ Allȱ Assamȱ Ganaȱ Sangramȱ TheȱUnitedȱLiberationȱFrontȱofȱAsomȱ(ULFA),ȱ Parishad,ȱwhichȱcomposedȱofȱseveralȱregionalȱ formedȱ inȱ 1979,ȱ startedȱ drawingȱ substantialȱ parties,ȱ youthȱ organizations,ȱ theȱ AASUȱ andȱ numberȱ ofȱ recruitsȱ fromȱ theȱ groupsȱ leadingȱ theȱ Asomȱ Sahityaȱ Sabha,ȱ theȱ reveredȱ literaryȱ theȱ antiȬmigrantȱ agitation.ȱ Butȱ manyȱ ofȱ congregationȱofȱtheȱAssamese.ȱȱ ULFA’sȱrecruitsȱandȱleadersȱcameȱfromȱleftistȱ Theȱ leadersȱ ofȱ theȱ agitationȱ hadȱ oneȱ subȬnationalȱ groupsȱ likeȱ theȱ Asamȱ Jatiyabadiȱ specificȱdemand:ȱtheȱuseȱofȱtheȱ1951ȱNationalȱ Yubaȱ Chatraȱ Parishadȱ (AJYCP),ȱ thatȱ Registerȱ forȱ Citizensȱ toȱ determineȱ theȱ propagatesȱ aȱ curiousȱ mixȱ ofȱ Assameseȱ citizenshipȱ ofȱ allȱ thoseȱ livingȱ inȱ Assam.ȱ Allȱ nationalismȱ andȱ radicalȱ Marxismȱ (buildȱ thoseȱidentifiedȱasȱnonȬcitizensȱwouldȱhaveȱtoȱ communismȱ onȱ aȱ nationalistȱ basis),ȱ shunsȱ beȱ pushedȱ backȱ toȱ Bangladesh,ȱ arguedȱ theȱ parliamentaryȱ politicsȱ andȱ advocatesȱ theȱ agitators.ȱ Theȱ studentȱ andȱ youthȱ groupsȱ Assamese’sȱrightȱtoȱdualȱcitizenshipȱandȱselfȬ coercedȱ linguisticȱ andȱ religiousȱ minorities,ȱ determination.ȱTheirȱinfluenceȱonȱtheȱULFA’sȱ particularlyȱ theȱ Muslimsȱ ofȱ Eastȱ Bengaliȱ rhetoricȱbecameȱevidentȱwhenȱtheȱrebelȱgroupȱ origin,ȱ whoȱ hadȱ inȱ largeȱ measureȱ integratedȱ

20 Insurgencies in India’s Northeast: Conflict, Co-option & Change emphasizedȱ onȱ “scientificȱ socialism”ȱ andȱ superintendentȱ Daulatȱ Singȱ Negi,ȱ receivedȱ “twoȬphaseȱrevolution”ȱasȱitsȱgoals.ȱȱ hugeȱpublicity.ȱȱ Theȱ ULFAȱ alsoȱ advocatedȱ TheȱULFAȱalsoȱbuiltȱupȱaȱhugeȱwarȱchestȱ “denationalizationȱ ofȱ ethnicȱ communities”ȱ toȱ byȱ systematicȱ extortion,ȱ raisingȱ tensȱ ofȱ ensureȱ theyȱ acceptedȱ theȱ broadȱ goalsȱ ofȱ millionsȱ ofȱ rupeesȱ fromȱ teaȱ companiesȱ andȱ Assameseȱ nationalism.ȱ Itȱ promisedȱ toȱ otherȱbusinessesȱinȱAssam.ȱItȱentrenchedȱitselfȱ implementȱȱ“scientificȱ socialism”ȱ toȱ buildȱ inȱ ruralȱ Assamȱ throughȱ theȱ Jatiyaȱ Unnayanȱ Assameseȱ societyȱ afterȱ theȱ liberationȱ fromȱ Parishad,ȱaȱfrontȱthatȱundertookȱpublicȱworksȱ Indianȱ colonialȱ rule.ȱ Afterȱ beingȱ veryȱ inȱorderȱtoȱendearȱitselfȱtoȱtheȱmasses.ȱSeveralȱ parochialȱinȱfocusȱduringȱtheȱ1980s,ȱtheȱULFAȱ batchesȱ ofȱ itsȱ guerrillasȱ wereȱ trainedȱ byȱ theȱ soughtȱtoȱwidenȱitsȱpopularȱbaseȱamongȱnonȬ Kachinȱ Independenceȱ Armyȱ (KIA)ȱ andȱ laterȱ Assameseȱ ethnicȱ groupsȱ afterȱ theȱ firstȱ Indianȱ byȱtheȱNSCN,ȱasȱaȱresultȱofȱwhich,ȱbyȱtheȱendȱ militaryȱ operations.ȱ Inȱ 1992,ȱ itȱ articulatedȱ itsȱ ofȱ 1990,ȱ theȱ ULFAȱ hadȱ builtȱ upȱ aȱ standingȱ concernsȱ forȱ theȱ nonȬAssameseȱ byȱ saying:ȱ forceȱ ofȱ someȱ 2,500ȱ fighters,ȱ allȱ armedȱ withȱ “Oursȱ isȱ notȱ aȱ movementȱ forȱ theȱ Asomiyasȱ weaponsȱ boughtȱ inȱ Burma.ȱ Slowlyȱ butȱ (Assamese),ȱ oursȱ isȱ aȱ movementȱ forȱ theȱ steadily,ȱitȱbuiltȱupȱaȱparallelȱadministrationȱinȱ Asombashisȱ (dwellersȱ ofȱ Assam).”ȱ Itȱ theȱ Brahmaputraȱ Valleyȱ andȱ thenȱ soughtȱ toȱ acknowledgedȱ “theȱ contributions”ȱ ofȱ theȱ spreadȱ itsȱ influenceȱ inȱ areasȱ dominatedȱ byȱ peopleȱofȱEastȱBengaliȱstockȱinȱdevelopmentȱofȱ ethnicȱ tribespeopleȱ andȱ otherȱ linguisticȱ orȱ agriculture,ȱ education,ȱ professionsȱ andȱ otherȱ religiousȱminorities.ȱ spheresȱ ofȱ activityȱ andȱ describedȱ theȱ AASUȬ Successiveȱmilitaryȱoperationsȱinȱ1990–91ȱ AAGSPȱ ledȱ antiȬmigrantȱ movementȱ asȱ (Operationȱ Bajrangȱ andȱ Operationȱ Rhino)ȱ “juvenile.”31 brokeȱtheȱbackȱofȱtheȱULFAȱandȱledȱtoȱtheȱfirstȱ Duringȱ theȱ Congressȱ regimeȱ (1983–85),ȱ surrendersȱfromȱtheȱgroupȱinȱ1992.ȱTheȱIndianȱ theȱ ULFAȱ undertookȱ bankȱ robberiesȱ andȱ armyȱ smashedȱ itsȱ majorȱ baseȱ areasȱ withinȱ madeȱ selectȱ assassinationȱ attempts.ȱ Itȱ cameȱ Assamȱandȱinȱneighboringȱstates.ȱManyȱseniorȱ intoȱ itsȱ ownȱ afterȱ theȱ 1985ȱ Assamȱ Accord,ȱ ULFAȱ leaders—districtȱ commanders,ȱ thoseȱ whenȱtheȱnewlyȱformedȱAsomȱGanaȱParishadȱ headingȱ specialȱ unitsȱ orȱ cellsȱ likeȱ group’sȱ (AGP),ȱ ridingȱ theȱ crestȱ ofȱ aȱ popularityȱ wave,ȱ highlyȱ effectiveȱ publicityȱ wingȱ chiefȱ Sunilȱ cameȱ toȱ power.ȱ Unlikeȱ theȱ Nagaȱ orȱ Mizoȱ Nath—wereȱ eitherȱ killedȱ orȱ captured.ȱ Indianȱ rebels,ȱ theȱ ULFAȱ avoidedȱ largeȬscaleȱ intelligenceȱmanagedȱtoȱestablishȱcontactȱwithȱ confrontationsȱwithȱtheȱsecurityȱforces.ȱGivenȱ theȱ ULFAȱ leadershipȱ inȱ 1992ȱ andȱ threeȱ ofȱ itsȱ theȱ flatlandȱ terrainȱ fromȱ whichȱ itȱ wasȱ topȱ leadersȱ (Chairmanȱ Arabindaȱ Rajkhowa,ȱ operatingȱ andȱ theȱ lackȱ ofȱ experienceȱ ofȱ itsȱ ViceȬchairmanȱ Pradipȱ Gogoiȱ andȱ generalȱ newlyȱ trainedȱ guerillaȱ force,ȱ aȱ majorȱ secretaryȱ Anupȱ Chetia)ȱ wereȱ flownȱ toȱ Delhiȱ encounterȱ withȱ theȱ securityȱ forcesȱ wouldȱ beȱ whereȱ theyȱ promisedȱ toȱ beginȱ talksȱ forȱ aȱ suicidalȱ forȱ theȱ ULFA.ȱ So,ȱ itȱ choseȱ aȱ peacefulȱ settlementȱ byȱ givingȱ upȱ theirȱ combinationȱ ofȱ selectiveȱ terrorȱ andȱ parallelȱ demandȱforȱAssam’sȱsovereignty.ȱTheȱULFA’sȱ taxationȱtoȱbuildȱupȱaȱsupportȱbaseȱwithȱhelpȱ organization,ȱ likeȱ theȱ KIAȱ whichȱ trainedȱ itȱ ,ȱ fromȱ elementsȱ withinȱ theȱ AGPȱ leadership.ȱ Inȱ wasȱ howeverȱ alwaysȱ dominatedȱ byȱ theȱ theȱ fiveȱ yearsȱ ofȱ AGPȱ rule,ȱ theȱ ULFAȱ killedȱ militaryȱ wingȱ andȱ itsȱ chiefȱ Pareshȱ Baruaȱ nearlyȱ 100ȱ peopleȱ whoȱ hadȱ beenȱ brandedȱ refusedȱ toȱ giveȱ upȱ armedȱ struggle.ȱ Whenȱ “enemiesȱofȱtheȱpeopleȱofȱAssam.”ȱTheȱvictimsȱ Rajkhowa,ȱ Gogoiȱ andȱ Chetiaȱ returnedȱ toȱ wereȱmostlyȱAssamese,ȱthoughȱtheȱkillingsȱofȱ Bangladeshȱtoȱbringȱhimȱroundȱforȱtalksȱwithȱ someȱhighȬprofileȱnonȬAssameseȱbusinessmenȱ Delhi,ȱ theyȱ wereȱ admonishedȱ forȱ “dealingȱ likeȱ Surendraȱ Paulȱ andȱ Haralalka,ȱ politiciansȱ withȱtheȱenemy”ȱbyȱBarua.ȱȱ likeȱ Unitedȱ Minoritiesȱ Frontȱ leaderȱ Kalipadaȱ Onceȱ theȱ ULFAȱ madeȱ itȱ clearȱ thatȱ itȱ Senȱ andȱ policeȱ officialsȱ likeȱ Dibrugarhȱ policeȱ wouldȱnotȱgiveȱupȱtheȱpathȱofȱarmedȱstruggle,ȱ

21 Subir Bhaumik itȱ facedȱ oneȱ ofȱ theȱ mostȱ ruthlessȱ counterȬ sympathisersȱ likeȱ localȱ editorȱ Paragȱ Kumarȱ insurgencyȱ operationsȱ everȱ unleashedȱ inȱ Das,ȱ whoȱ hadȱ emergedȱasȱanȱidelogueȱofȱtheȱ contemporaryȱ Southȱ Asia.ȱ Indianȱ intelligenceȱ rebelȱ movement.ȱ Andȱ theȱ SULFAȱ wasȱ usedȱmercenariesȱandȱsurrenderedȱmilitantsȱtoȱ providedȱ hugeȱ moneyȱ fromȱ “secretȱ sourceȱ attackȱ ULFAȱ leadersȱ likeȱ Pareshȱ Baruaȱ inȱ funds”ȱ ofȱ theȱ armyȱ andȱ theȱ intelligenceȱ foreignȱ countries.ȱ Manyȱ ofȱ itsȱ leaders,ȱ likeȱ agenciesȱ andȱ theirȱ leadersȱ wereȱ providedȱ Swadhinataȱ Phukan,ȱ wereȱ liquidatedȱ inȱ lucrativeȱbusinessȱdealsȱlikeȱtheȱcontrolȱofȱtheȱ prisonsȱ orȱ inȱ fakeȱ encountersȱ andȱ theirȱ closeȱ coalȱ tradeȱ onȱ theȱ AssamȬMeghalayaȱ border.ȱ relativesȱ wereȱ notȱ spared.ȱ Theȱ ULFAȱ alsoȱ Manyȱ SULFAȱ leadersȱ wouldȱ figureȱ amongstȱ respondedȱ inȱ equalȱ measureȱ withȱ similarȱ Assam’sȱnewȱbillionaries.ȱȱ terrorȱ tactics.ȱ Butȱ itȱ beganȱ toȱ looseȱ outȱ onȱ Whenȱ theȱ regionalȱ partyȱ Asomȱ Ganaȱ popularȱ support,ȱ onceȱ itȱ startedȱ bombingȱ Parishadȱ(AGPȱcameȱbackȱtoȱpowerȱinȱ1996,ȱitȱ locationsȱ inȱ whichȱ civilians,ȱ manyȱ ofȱ themȱ promisedȱ toȱ takeȱ upȱ “theȱ issueȱ ofȱ Assam’sȱ Assamese,ȱ wereȱ killed.ȱ Whenȱ severalȱ schoolȱ selfȬdetermination.”ȱButȱonceȱinȱcontrol,ȱChiefȱ childrenȱ wereȱ killedȱ inȱ theȱ northernȱ townȱ ofȱ Ministerȱ Prafullaȱ Kumarȱ Mahantaȱ notȱ onlyȱ DhemajiȱonȱIndianȱIndependenceȱDayȱinȱ2004,ȱ acceptedȱ theȱ formationȱ ofȱ theȱ Unitedȱ publicȱ opinionȱ inȱ Assamȱ decisivelyȱ turnedȱ Commandȱ toȱ provideȱ securityȱ forcesȱ theȱ againstȱ theȱ ULFA.ȱ Influentialȱ sectionsȱ ofȱ necessaryȱstructureȱandȱleadershipȱtoȱfightȱtheȱ Assameseȱsocietyȱcameȱoutȱopenlyȱagainstȱtheȱ rebels,ȱbutȱalsoȱaskedȱhisȱpoliceȱtoȱgoȱafterȱtheȱ ULFAȱ andȱ evenȱ civilȱ societyȱ leadersȱ closeȱ toȱ ULFA.ȱ Mahantaȱ wasȱ determinedȱ notȱ toȱ haveȱ theȱ rebelsȱ facedȱ severeȱ criticismȱ inȱ theȱ localȱ hisȱgovernmentȱpulledȱdownȱbyȱtheȱCentreȱ(asȱ Assameseȱmediaȱthatȱwasȱonceȱsoȱsupportiveȱ inȱ1990)ȱbyȱallowingȱtheȱULFAȱaȱfreeȱrun.ȱTheȱ ofȱtheȱallȱofȱULFA’sȱactions.ȱ rebelsȱ struckȱ backȱ andȱ nearlyȱ assassinatedȱ Theȱimpositionȱofȱpresident’sȱruleȱinȱ1990ȱ Mahanta,ȱafterȱwhichȱtheyȱstartedȱhisȱcabinetȱ andȱ theȱ subsequentȱ militaryȱ operationsȱ wereȱ colleagues.ȱZoinathȱSarmaȱ(ȱaȱheroȱofȱtheȱantiȬ followedȱ byȱ theȱ returnȱ toȱ powerȱ ofȱ Congressȱ foreignerȱ agitationȱ likeȱ Mahantaȱ andȱ aȱ inȱ 1991.ȱ Theȱ ULFAȱ struckȱ immediately,ȱ ministerȱ inȱ hisȱ government)ȱ wasȱ attackedȱ byȱ kidnappingȱ fourteenȱ seniorȱ officialsȱ onȱ theȱ rebelsȱwhileȱinȱaȱboat.ȱWhileȱZoinathȱSarmahȱ sameȱ day.ȱ Sovietȱ coalȱ engineerȱ Sergeiȱ survived,ȱ hisȱ colleague,ȱ Nagenȱ Sarma,ȱ wasȱ Gritchenkoȱ wasȱ killedȱ whileȱ tryingȱ toȱ flee,ȱ killedȱ inȱ aȱ bombȱ explosionȱ atȱ Nalbari.ȱ Scoresȱ whileȱ aȱ petroleumȱ engineer,ȱ T.ȱ Raju,ȱ wasȱ ofȱAGPȱleadersȱatȱtheȱzonalȱandȱdistrictȱlevelȱ killedȱ inȱ crossfireȱ duringȱ aȱ policeȱ raidȱ onȱ anȱ wereȱ killedȱ toȱ ensureȱ theȱ AGP’sȱ defeatȱ inȱ ULFAȱhideout.ȱAssamȱchiefȱministerȱHiteswarȱ everyȱ electionȱ inȱ theȱ runȬupȱ toȱ theȱ2001ȱstateȱ SaikiaȱfinallyȱmanagedȱtoȱpersuadeȱtheȱULFAȱ assemblyȱpolls.ȱ toȱ releaseȱ theȱ kidnappedȱ officialsȱ withoutȱ Oneȱ canȱ sayȱ thatȱ theȱ wedgeȱ drivenȱ concedingȱ toȱ allȱ itsȱ demands.ȱ Then,ȱ theȱ wilyȱ betweenȱ theȱ AGPȱ andȱ theȱ ULFA,ȱ whoȱ shareȱ Saikiaȱ wentȱ aboutȱ splittingȱ theȱ rebelȱ similarȱ originsȱ inȱ theȱ 1979–85ȱ Assam’sȱ antiȬ organizationȱ withȱ aȱ vengeance.ȱ Theȱ Assamȱ foreignerȱagitation,ȱwasȱaȱsuccessȱofȱtheȱIndianȱ policeȱ wasȱ usingȱ theȱ surrenderedȱ militantsȱ state.ȱ Theȱ Assameseȱ pressȱ wasȱ agogȱ withȱ (popularlyȱ knownȱ asȱ SULFA)ȱ toȱ huntȱ downȱ reportsȱ thatȱ Assamȱ governorȱ formerȱ theirȱcolleaguesȱinȱtheȱunderground.ȱLikeȱtheȱ lieutenantȬgeneralȱS.ȱK.ȱSinhaȱhadȱpromisedȱtoȱ RGNȱ inȱ Nagaland,ȱ theȱ SULFAȱ (thoughȱ notȱ aȱ preventȱ prosecutionȱ ofȱ Chiefȱ Ministerȱ politicalȱplatform)ȱwasȱruthlesslyȱusedȱagainstȱ Mahantaȱinȱaȱmajorȱcorruptionȱcaseȱ(theȱLOCȱ theȱ ULFA.ȱ Theȱ SULFAȱ providedȱ Indianȱ scam)ȱ andȱ gotȱ himȱ toȱ approveȱ theȱ Unifiedȱ securityȱforcesȱwithȱintelligenceȱonȱtheȱULFA,ȱ CommandȱconceptȱandȱgoȱafterȱtheȱULFA.ȱInȱ theyȱ evenȱ wentȱ intoȱ Bhutanȱ toȱ attackȱ theȱ fact,ȱaȱspecialȱcommissionȱhasȱnowȱbeenȱsetȱupȱ ULFA,ȱ andȱ itsȱ membersȱ wereȱ usedȱ inȱ theȱ toȱ investigateȱ theȱ “secretȱ killings”ȱ duringȱ theȱ brutalȱ killingsȱ ofȱ ULFAȱ relativesȱ andȱ AGPȱ regime,ȱ inȱ whichȱ manyȱ ULFAȱ leadersȱ

22 Insurgencies in India’s Northeast: Conflict, Co-option & Change

(afterȱarrest),ȱrelativesȱandȱsympathisersȱwereȱ Assamȱ andȱ that’sȱ leadingȱ toȱ someȱ surrenderȱ liquidated.ȱ already.ȱ Inȱ Aprilȱ 2007ȱ alone,ȱ moreȱ thanȱ 20ȱ ȱȱ TheȱCongressȱvictoryȱinȱ2001ȱdidȱnotȱleadȱ ULFAȱ activistsȱ includingȱ threeȱ topȱ leadersȱ toȱ anȱ immediateȱ respiteȱ inȱ ULFAȬsponsoredȱ wereȱkilledȱandȱmanyȱmoreȱcaptured.ȱȱIndianȱ violenceȱ butȱ byȱ theȱ endȱ ofȱ hisȱ term,ȱ chiefȱ intelligenceȱmayȱevenȱtryȱaȱcovertȱoperationȱtoȱ ministerȱTarunȱGogoiȱhadȱmanagedȱtoȱgetȱtheȱ eliminateȱ Baruaȱ (heȱ hasȱ twiceȱ escapedȱ suchȱ ULFAȱtoȱstartȱnegotiations.ȱTheȱULFAȱformedȱ attemptsȱ inȱ Dhaka)ȱ evenȱ asȱ theȱ Homeȱ theȱ Peoplesȱ Consultativeȱ Groupȱ (PCG)ȱ withȱ Ministryȱ andȱ theȱ Primeȱ Minister’sȱ Officeȱ elevenȱAssameseȱnotablesȱandȱtheȱPCGȱstartedȱ continueȱtoȱwooȱperceivedȱULFAȱmoderates.ȱ negotiationsȱ withȱ Delhi.ȱ Butȱ afterȱ severalȱ ȱ roundsȱ ofȱ PCGȬDelhiȱ talks,ȱ theȱ negotiationsȱ Bodo,ȱKarbiȱandȱDimasaȱInsurgenciesȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱ brokeȱ downȱ inȱ Septemberȱ 2006ȱ andȱ Indianȱ Unlikeȱ theȱ ULFA,ȱ theȱ Nationalȱ Democraticȱ militaryȱ operationsȱ wereȱ resumedȱ inȱ Assam.ȱ Frontȱ ofȱ Bodolandȱ (NDFB),ȱ hasȱ joinedȱ theȱ Theȱ ULFAȱ hitȱ backȱ withȱ serialȱ explosions,ȱ negotiationsȱ directly.ȱ Theȱ NDFBȱ hasȱ alreadyȱ bothȱinȱpopulatedȱareasȱandȱonȱoilȱandȱnaturalȱ acceptedȱaȱceasefireȱandȱlodgedȱitsȱfightersȱinȱ gasȱ pipelines.ȱ Theȱ ULFAȱ stillȱ insistsȱ thatȱ theȱ designatedȱ camps.ȱ Muchȱ youngerȱ toȱ theȱ issueȱ ofȱ Assam’sȱ sovereignityȱ duringȱ itsȱ ULFA,ȱ theȱ NDFBȱ (originallyȱ Bodoȱ Securityȱ discussionsȱ withȱ Indiaȱ isȱ theȱ “coreȱ issue.”ȱ Itȱ Force)ȱ grewȱ outȱ ofȱ theȱ Bodoȱ movementȱ forȱ aȱ hasȱ howeverȱ givenȱ upȱ itsȱ twoȱ earlierȱ preȬ separateȱstate.ȱInȱ1987,ȱtheȱAllȱBodoȱStudentsȱ conditionsȱforȱtalks:ȱnegotiationsȱthroughȱUNȱ Unionȱ (ABSU)ȱ andȱ theȱ Bodoȱ Peoplesȱ Actionȱ mediationȱ andȱ holdingȱ theȱ talksȱ inȱ aȱ foreignȱ Committeeȱ(BPAC)ȱbeganȱtheirȱagitationȱforȱaȱ country.32ȱ Theȱ ULFAȱ stillȱ dependsȱ onȱ Pareshȱ separateȱBodoȱstateȱtheyȱwantedȱtoȱcarveȱoutȱ Baruaȱtoȱdecideȱonȱcrucialȱissuesȱandȱunlessȱheȱ ofȱ Assamȱ withȱ theȱ sloganȱ “Divideȱ Assamȱ agreesȱ toȱ talkȱ directly,ȱ noȱ oneȱ elseȱ can.ȱ Butȱ FiftyȬFifty.”33ȱ Theȱ Bodoȱ movementȱ wasȱ Pareshȱ Barua’sȱ insistenceȱ onȱ “Assam’sȱ markedȱ byȱ extensiveȱ violence,ȱ includingȱ sovereignty”ȱasȱtheȱcoreȱissueȱhasȱupsetȱDelhi.ȱ blowingȱ upȱ ofȱ busesȱ andȱ trains.ȱ Theȱ AGPȱ NoȱgovernmentȱinȱDelhi,ȱhoweverȱliberal,ȱcanȱ government,ȱ pushedȱ onȱ theȱ backȱ footȱ byȱ theȱ compromiseȱ onȱ India’sȱ sovereignty,ȱ soȱ theȱ Bodoȱ agitation,ȱ resortedȱ toȱ heavyȬhandedȱ talksȱ brokeȱ downȱ inȱ Septemberȱ 2006.ȱ Theȱ policeȱ operationsȱ toȱ quellȱ itsȱ pitch.ȱ Butȱ stateȱ ULFA,ȱapprehensiveȱofȱIndianȱdivisiveȱtacticsȱ repressionȱ provokedȱ theȱ Bodosȱ toȱ moreȱ thatȱhadȱsplitȱitȱinȱ1992,ȱdidȱnotȱexposeȱitsȱownȱ violence.ȱ Theyȱ controlledȱ theȱ gatewayȱ toȱ theȱ leadersȱduringȱtheȱ2005–06ȱnegotiationsȱandȱitȱ Northeastȱ andȱ bombingȱ ofȱ theȱ region’sȱ roadȱ hasȱ refusedȱ toȱ comeȱ downȱ toȱ somethingȱ likeȱ andȱ railȱ networksȱ gaveȱ theȱ Bodosȱ aȱ cloutȱ farȱ theȱNSCN’sȱ“specialȱfederalȱrelationship.”ȱ greaterȱ thanȱ theirȱ numbersȱ andȱ resourcesȱ Goingȱbyȱavailableȱindications,ȱtheȱIndianȱ merited.ȱ intelligenceȱ agenciesȱ willȱ continueȱ toȱ makeȱ AfterȱAssamȱcameȱunderȱpresident’sȱrule,ȱ effortsȱ toȱ lureȱ Pareshȱ Baruaȱ outȱ ofȱ hisȱ lairȱ inȱ intenseȱ behindȬtheȬscenesȱ negotiationsȱ withȱ Dhakaȱ forȱ “directȱ talks.”ȱ Theȱ lessonsȱ ofȱ theȱ theȱ ABSUȬBPACȱ leadersȱ started.ȱ Withȱ theȱ MizoȱpeaceȱprocessȱisȱnotȱlostȱonȱDelhi—itȱisȱ Congressȱ backȱ inȱ power,ȱ Indianȱ ministerȱ alwaysȱ desirableȱ toȱ dealȱ withȱ theȱ entireȱ RajeshȱPilotȱpilotedȱanȱagreementȱinȱ1993ȱwithȱ organizationȱ duringȱ theȱ peaceȱ processȱ ratherȱ theȱ ABSUȬBPACȱ combineȱ thatȱ promisedȱ aȱ thanȱ splitȱ andȱ divide.ȱ Butȱ ifȱ Baruaȱ refusesȱ toȱ territorialȱcouncilȱforȱtheȱBodosȱinȱwesternȱandȱ stopȱhisȱbombersȱandȱcontinuesȱtheȱviolenceȱinȱ centralȱAssam.ȱChiefȱMinisterȱHiteswarȱSaikiaȱ Assam,ȱ Delhiȱ mayȱ tryȱ toȱ splitȱ theȱ ULFAȱ byȱ feltȱ slightedȱ becauseȱ theȱ dealȱ wasȱ struckȱ isolatingȱ itsȱ hardlineȱ elements—andȱ ifȱ that’sȱ behindȱ hisȱ backȱ andȱ madeȱ sureȱ itȱ didȱ notȱ notȱpossible,ȱitȱwillȱtryȱtoȱweakenȱtheȱULFAȱbyȱ work.ȱTheȱAssamȱgovernmentȱrefusedȱtoȱhandȱ organisingȱ surrendersȱ fromȱ itsȱ ranks.ȱ Itȱ hasȱ overȱthousandsȱofȱvillagesȱthatȱwouldȱfallȱintoȱ alreadyȱ intensifiedȱ theȱ militaryȱ operationsȱ inȱ theȱ agreedȱ boundaryȱ ofȱ theȱ Bodolandȱ

23 Subir Bhaumik

Territorialȱ Councilȱ onȱ groundsȱ thatȱ Bodosȱ westernȱ Assam,ȱ mostȱ ofȱ theseȱ displacedȱ wereȱ aȱ minorityȱ inȱ thoseȱ villagesȱ andȱ theirȱ peoplesȱwillȱgoȱbackȱhome.ȱȱ majorityȱnonȬBodoȱpopulationȱfeltȱinsecureȱinȱ Theȱ conflictȱ inȱ theȱ Bodoȱ areasȱ tookȱ aȱ aȱ BodoȬdominatedȱ administrativeȱ differentȱ turnȱ onceȱ theȱ NDFBȱ foundȱ aȱ dispensation.34 challengerȱ inȱ Bodoȱ insurgentȱ politics.ȱ Theȱ Theȱimpasseȱoverȱtheȱcouncil’sȱboundaryȱ remnantsȱ ofȱ theȱ oldȱ Bodoȱ Volunteerȱ Forceȱ torpedoedȱitsȱfuture.ȱSaikiaȱgotȱhisȱprotegeȱinȱ organizedȱ themselvesȱ intoȱ theȱ Bodolandȱ theȱ Bodoȱ movementȱ toȱ headȱ theȱ Territorialȱ LiberationȱTigersȱForceȱ(BLTF)ȱandȱdemandedȱ Councilȱ onȱ anȱ interimȱ basis,ȱ butȱ theȱ bodyȱ aȱ separateȱ Bodoȱ state,ȱ butȱ withinȱ India.ȱ Theȱ neverȱ wentȱ throughȱ electionsȱ andȱ failedȱ toȱ BLTF,ȱwhichȱwasȱbackedȱbyȱtheȱABSUȬBPACȱ findȱ anȱ institutionalȱ footing.ȱ Asȱ theȱ ABSUȬ combine,ȱ endorsedȱ anȱ autonomistȱ agendaȱ BPACȱ combineȱ stoodȱ discreditedȱ “withȱ aȱ becauseȱ itȱ foundȱ theȱ NDFB’sȱ secessionistȱ kingdomȱ whichȱ hadȱ noȱ boundaries,”ȱ theȱ agendaȱ“farȱtooȱunrealisticȱandȱunattainable.”ȱ NDFBȱemergedȱfromȱtheȱshadowsȱtoȱintensifyȱ TheȱBLTFȱalsoȱteamedȱupȱwithȱgroupsȱlikeȱtheȱ itsȱarmedȱinsurgentȱmovement.ȱBesidesȱtakingȱ BengalȱTigersȱ(formedȱtoȱdefendȱtheȱBengalis)ȱ aȱ leafȱ outȱ ofȱ theȱ ULFA’sȱ book—byȱ usingȱ toȱfightȱtheȱNDFB,ȱwhoȱallegedȱthatȱtheȱIndianȱ systematicȱ extortionȱ ofȱ theȱ teaȱ industryȱ andȱ militaryȱ intelligenceȱ wasȱ backingȱ bothȱ theȱ otherȱ businessesȱ inȱ theȱ Bodoȱ area,ȱ shiftingȱ BLTFȱ andȱ theȱ Bengalȱ Tigers.ȱ Inȱ private,ȱ majorȱbasesȱtoȱBhutan,ȱandȱresortingȱtoȱselectȱ militaryȱ officialsȱ haveȱ ownedȱ upȱ toȱ attackingȱ assassinationȱ ofȱ rivalsȱ withinȱ theȱ theȱ NDFBȱ basesȱ inȱ collaborationȱ withȱ theȱ community—theȱ NDFBȱ alsoȱ wentȱ aboutȱ itsȱ BLTFȱandȱtheȱBengalȱTigers.36 programmeȱ ofȱ ethnicȱ cleansing.ȱ Theȱ Assamȱ Soȱ whileȱ theȱ ULFA,ȱ thoughȱ muchȱ governmentȱwasȱrefusingȱtoȱgiveȱtheȱproposedȱ weakened,ȱ hasȱ neverȱ hadȱ aȱ rivalȱ thatȱ couldȱ Bodolandȱ Territorialȱ Councilȱ possessionȱ ofȱ challengeȱ itsȱ primacyȱ inȱ Asomiyaȱ separatistȱ 2,570ȱvillagesȱonȱgroundsȱthatȱBodosȱwereȱlessȱ politics,ȱ theȱ NDFBȱ gotȱ involvedȱ inȱ aȱ fierceȱ thanȱfiftyȱpercentȱofȱtheirȱpopulation.ȱInȱorderȱ fratricidalȱ feudȱ withȱ theȱ BLTFȱ andȱ itsȱ allies.ȱ toȱcreateȱaȱBodoȱmajorityȱinȱareasȱlackingȱone,ȱ WhileȱtheȱIndianȱmilitaryȱhaveȱusedȱtheȱBLTFȱ theȱ NDFBȱ unleashedȱ aȱ violentȱ campaign,ȱ andȱ theȱ Bengalȱ Tigersȱ toȱ checkȱ theȱ NDFBȱ targetingȱ allȱ nonȬBodoȱ communitiesȱ inȱ theȱ militarily,ȱ Delhiȱ complementedȱ itȱ byȱ area.ȱ politicallyȱ appeasingȱ theȱ Bodosȱ throughȱ aȱ Theȱ worstȱ ofȱ theseȱ campaignsȱ targetedȱ powerȬsharingȱ arrangementȱ underȱ aȱ regionalȱ theȱ Adivasisȱ (descendantsȱ ofȱ theȱ Santhal,ȱ autonomyȱ schemeȱ withȱ theȱ BLTF.ȱ Theȱ Mundaȱ andȱ Oraonȱ tribesmenȱ broughtȱ toȱ subsequentȱisolationȱofȱtheȱNDFBȱforcedȱitȱtoȱ Assamȱ fromȱ centralȱ Indiaȱ byȱ theȱ British)ȱ startȱtalksȱandȱhelpedȱIndiaȱsanitizeȱoneȱofȱtheȱ duringȱtheȱ1996ȱelections.ȱTheȱAdivasisȱsetȱupȱ mostȱ violentȱ theatresȱ ofȱ insurgency,ȱ ethnicȱ theirȱ ownȱ militantȱ group,ȱ Cobraȱ Forceȱ andȱ violenceȱ andȱ internalȱ displacement.ȱ Inȱ Birsaȱ Commandoȱ Forceȱ toȱ resistȱ theȱ attacks.ȱ Decemberȱ 2003,ȱ theȱ Indianȱ governmentȱ cameȱ Nearlyȱ aȱ quarterȱ ofȱ aȱ millionȱ people—bothȱ toȱaȱsettlementȱwithȱtheȱBLTF,ȱonȱtheȱbasisȱofȱ Bodosȱ andȱ nonȬBodos—wereȱ displacedȱ andȱ whichȱanȱautonomousȱterritorialȱcouncilȱwithȱ nearlyȱ 100,000ȱ peopleȱ wereȱ killed.35ȱ Withȱ localȱ selfȬgovernmentȱ powersȱ wasȱ setȱ upȱ forȱ peaceȱ nowȱ returningȱ toȱ theȱ areaȱ afterȱ theȱ theȱ Bodos.ȱ Theȱ BLTFȱ wasȱ disbandedȱ andȱ itsȱ creationȱ ofȱ theȱ Bodolandȱ Territorialȱ leadersȱ andȱ activistsȱ joinedȱ upȱ toȱ formȱ theȱ AutonomousȱCouncilȱafterȱtheȱ2003ȱBodolandȱ BodolandȱPeoplesȱProgressiveȱFront.ȱȱ Accord,ȱ almostȱ twoȬthirdsȱ ofȱ theseȱ displacedȱ Thoughȱ riddenȱ byȱ factionalism,ȱ theȱ peopleȱ haveȱ returnedȱ home.ȱ Lackȱ ofȱ fundsȱ dominantȱ factionȱ ofȱ theȱ BPPFȱ isȱ nowȱ andȱ conflictȱ ofȱ authorityȱ isȱ delayingȱ theȱ representedȱinȱAssam’sȱCongressȬledȱcoalitionȱ processȱofȱrehabilitation,ȱbutȱifȱpeaceȱholdsȱinȱ governmentȱwithȱthreeȱministers.ȱForȱtheȱfirstȱ time,ȱ theȱ Bodosȱ areȱ wellȱ representedȱ inȱ theȱ

24 Insurgencies in India’s Northeast: Conflict, Co-option & Change

Assamȱ government,ȱ inȱ additionȱ toȱ enjoyingȱ importance—theȱ corridorȱ hasȱ beenȱ theȱ fruitsȱ ofȱ regionalȱ autonomy.ȱ Bothȱ Delhiȱ traditionallyȱ usedȱ byȱ theȱ Nagaȱ andȱ theȱ andȱ theȱ Assamȱ governmentȱ haveȱ highȱ stakesȱ Manipuriȱ rebelsȱ toȱ reachȱ Eastȱ Pakistan,ȱ nowȱ inȱ makingȱ aȱ successȱ ofȱ theȱ Bodoȱ autonomyȱ Bangladesh,ȱ whileȱ northeastȱ India’sȱ northȬtoȬ experiment.ȱ Ifȱ thisȱ works,ȱ otherȱ recalcitrantȱ southȱrailroadȱnetworksȱpassesȱthroughȱit.ȱTheȱ tribesȱ likeȱ theȱ Karbisȱ andȱ theȱ Dimasasȱ mayȱ Dimasaȱ andȱ theȱ Karbiȱ insurgencyȱ mayȱ beȱ acceptȱ autonomyȱ insteadȱ ofȱ pressingȱ forȱ territoriallyȱ limitedȱ becauseȱ ofȱ theirȱ smallerȱ separateȱ homelands.ȱ Assamȱ willȱ thusȱ beȱ populationȱ base,ȱ butȱ withȱ theȱ rightȱ kindȱ ofȱ sparedȱ furtherȱ divisions.ȱ Assamȱ needsȱ toȱ alliances,ȱtheyȱcanȱstillȱposeȱaȱproblem.ȱGrantȱ surviveȱasȱaȱpolyglotȱstateȱifȱtheȱNortheastȱisȱ ofȱ autonomyȱ andȱ appeasementȱ ofȱ theȱ Karbisȱ toȱ getȱ overȱ theȱ dangerousȱ spectreȱ ofȱ andȱtheȱDimasasȱisȱseenȱbyȱmanyȱasȱcrucialȱtoȱ fragmentationȱ owingȱ toȱ separateȱ homelandȱ India’sȱ counterȬinsurgencyȱ strategyȱ inȱ demandsȱ thatȱ foreclosesȱ theȱ possibilityȱ ofȱ Northeast—itȱisȱnoȱlongerȱaȱproblemȱofȱAssamȱ ethnicȱreconciliation.ȱ alone.ȱ Theȱ ULFAȱ promisesȱ aȱ federalȱ Assamȱ toȱ Everyȱ insurgencyȱ inȱ Assamȱ haveȱ beenȱ allȱ tribesȱ andȱ minoritiesȱ ifȱ itȱ gainsȱ freedom.ȱ weakenedȱ throughȱ organizationalȱ splitsȱ Oneȱcannotȱgaugeȱitsȱcommitmentȱtoȱtheȱcauseȱ causedȱ byȱ personalityȱ tussles,ȱ clanȱ rivalriesȱ ofȱaȱmultiȬethnicȱAssam,ȱbutȱforȱtheȱmoment,ȱ withinȱ theȱ tribesȱ orȱ onȱ crucialȱ issuesȱ ofȱ itsȱ solidarityȱ withȱ theȱ “Asombashi”ȱ (dwellerȱ whetherȱ toȱ continueȱ anȱ armedȱ movementȱ orȱ ofȱ Assam)ȱ ratherȱ theȱ Asomiyaȱ (ethnicȱ settleȱ forȱ greaterȱ autonomy.ȱ Theȱ Indianȱ stateȱ Assamese)ȱ alone,ȱ setsȱ theȱ stageȱ forȱ fraternalȱ hasȱtakenȱadvantageȱofȱtheseȱsplits,ȱwonȱoverȱ relationshipsȱ betweenȱ theȱ Assameseȱ breakawayȱfactionsȱwithȱfundsȱandȱfavorsȱandȱ insurgentsȱ andȱ thoseȱ fromȱ theȱ Bodo,ȱ theȱ usedȱ themȱ toȱ attackȱ dominantȱ rebelȱ groupsȱ Dimasaȱ andȱ theȱ Karbiȱ tribes.ȱ Butȱ withȱ theȱ bothȱ withinȱ Assamȱ andȱ acrossȱ itsȱ bordersȱ Bodosȱ gettingȱ theirȱ ownȱ autonomous,ȱ ifȱ notȱ whereȱ theȱ rebelsȱ areȱ located.ȱ Theȱ Indianȱ independent,ȱ homeland,ȱ andȱ otherȱ ethnicȱ governmentȱ hasȱ openedȱ talksȱ withȱ rebelȱ rebelsȱ groupsȱ inȱ Assamȱ haveȱ startedȱ groupsȱ butȱ resumedȱ militaryȱ operationsȱ negotiationsȱwithȱDelhi.ȱTheȱdominantȱfactionȱ wheneverȱ theȱ rebelsȱ refusedȱ toȱ acceptȱ aȱ dealȱ ofȱtheȱDimaȱHalamȱDagoȱ(DHD),ȱfightingȱforȱaȱ withinȱDelhi’sȱclimbȬdownȱlimits.ȱItȱhasȱevenȱ separateȱ homelandȱ forȱ theȱ Dimasaȱ tribe,ȱ isȱ usedȱ foreignȱ mercenariesȱ toȱ targetȱ ULFAȱ nowȱnegotiatingȱwithȱDelhi.ȱInitiallyȱtheȱDHDȱ leadersȱabroad.ȱButȱIndianȱleadersȱacceptȱthatȱ wasȱ supportedȱ byȱ theȱ NSCNȱ butȱ nowȱ theȱ militaryȱ offensivesȱ andȱ theȱ covertȱ operationsȱ NSCNȱ isȱ uncomfortableȱ withȱ theȱ DHD’sȱ areȱonlyȱtoȱ“softenȱup”ȱtheȱrebelsȱandȱpoliticalȱ visionȱ ofȱ aȱ separateȱ Dimasaȱ homelandȱ thatȱ reconciliationȱ throughȱ settlementsȱ holdsȱ theȱ includesȱ partsȱ ofȱ Nagaland,ȱ includingȱ theȱ keyȱ toȱ conflictȱ resolutionȱ inȱ Assamȱ andȱ townȱofȱDimapur.ȱ elsewhereȱ inȱ Northeast. 37ȱ Butȱ soȱ longȱ asȱ theȱ Theȱ Unitedȱ Peoplesȱ Democraticȱ termsȱofȱaȱsettlementȱdoesȱnotȱsuitȱDelhi,ȱtheȱ Solidarityȱ (UPDS)ȱ isȱ similarlyȱ fightingȱ forȱ aȱ federalȱ securityȱ forcesȱ andȱ intelligenceȱ willȱ separateȱhomelandȱforȱtheȱKarbiȱtribe.ȱButȱoneȱ continueȱmilitaryȱoperationsȱagainstȱtheȱrebelsȱ ofȱ itsȱ factionsȱ hasȱ startedȱ negotiationsȱ withȱ inȱ Assamȱ andȱ initiateȱ covertȱ actionȱ toȱ splitȱ Delhi.ȱBothȱtheȱDHDȱandȱtheȱUPDSȱhaveȱfedȱ them,ȱ whileȱ rewardingȱ defectorsȱ whoȱ onȱtheȱfailureȱofȱtheȱearlierȱgenerationȱofȱKarbiȱ surrenderȱandȱhelpȱtheȱgovernment.ȱ andȱ Dimasaȱ leadership,ȱ whoȱ usedȱ agitpropȱ ȱ methodsȱ toȱ secureȱ autonomyȱ butȱ lostȱ theirȱ TheȱForeignȱHandȱ credibilityȱ dueȱ toȱ largeȱ scaleȱ corruption.ȱ Butȱ India’sȱ Northeastȱ shareȱ aȱ totalȱ ofȱ 5,200ȱ bothȱ theȱ DHDȱ andȱ theȱ UPDSȱ haveȱ beenȱ kilometersȱ ofȱ borderȱ withȱ China,ȱ Bhutan,ȱ weakenedȱ byȱ splits.ȱ Theȱ Karbiȱ Anglongȱ andȱ BurmaȱandȱBangladesh.ȱNepalȱdoesȱnotȱhaveȱaȱ theȱ Northȱ Cacharȱ Hillsȱ haveȱ strategicȱ

25 Subir Bhaumik borderȱ withȱ theȱ Northeastȱ butȱ itȱ isȱ barelyȱ aȱ relationsȱ withȱ Bangladeshȱ souredȱ afterȱ theȱ fewȱ hundredȱ kilometersȱ awayȱ fromȱ theȱ assassinationȱofȱtheȱcountry’sȱfoundingȱfather,ȱ westernȱ tipȱ ofȱ Assam.ȱ Duringȱ theȱ lastȱ fiftyȱ Sheikhȱ Mujiburȱ Rehman,ȱ Indiaȱ backedȱ theȱ years,ȱ mostȱ ofȱ theseȱ neighborsȱ haveȱ eitherȱ ShantiȱBahiniȱguerrillasȱfightingȱforȱautonomyȱ beenȱ hostileȱ towardsȱ Indiaȱ orȱ haveȱ failedȱ toȱ andȱ selfȬruleȱ inȱ theȱ Chittagongȱ Hillȱ Tracts.ȱ controlȱ theȱ turmoilȱ inȱ theirȱ ownȱ frontierȱ Supportȱ forȱ theȱ Shantiȱ Bahiniȱ wasȱ regions.ȱ Rebelȱ groupsȱ thrivingȱ there,ȱ withȱ orȱ discontinuedȱ inȱ theȱ midȱ 1990sȱ andȱ Indiaȱ withoutȱ theȱ supportȱ ofȱ theȱ neighboringȱ pressurisedȱ theȱ rebelsȱ toȱ signȱ anȱ accordȱ withȱ countries,ȱ haveȱ helpedȱ theȱ armedȱ rebellionsȱ Bangladesh.40ȱ Throughoutȱ theȱ 1950s,ȱ Indianȱ againstȱ Delhi.ȱ Withoutȱ suchȱ longȱ andȱ oftenȱ intelligenceȱ supportedȱ theȱ Tibetanȱ armedȱ untenantedȱ bordersȱ andȱ withoutȱ theȱ supportȱ struggleȱagainstȱtheȱChinese.ȱȱ ofȱ India’sȱ hostileȱ neighborsȱ likeȱ Pakistan,ȱ Thus,ȱIndia’sȱNortheast,ȱwithȱitsȱdauntingȱ Chinaȱ andȱ Bangladesh,ȱ theȱ insurgenciesȱ inȱ topographyȱ andȱ complexȱ regionalȱ NortheastȱIndiaȱmayȱnotȱhaveȱfoundȱsurvivalȱ surroundings,ȱ hasȱ witnessedȱ aȱ continuousȱ easy.ȱ Muchȱ asȱ neighboringȱ countriesȱ likeȱ spellȱ ofȱ “insurgentȱ crossfire”ȱ betweenȱ Indiaȱ China,ȱPakistanȱandȱBangladeshȱhaveȱbackedȱ andȱherȱrecalcitrantȱneighbors.ȱOverȱaȱperiodȱ insurgenciesȱ inȱ India’sȱ northeast,ȱ Indianȱ ofȱ time,ȱ Chinaȱ andȱ Indiaȱ stoppedȱ backingȱ intelligenceȱ agencies,ȱ sometimesȱ withȱ USȱ guerrillaȱ armiesȱ againstȱ eachȱ other.ȱ Indianȱ backing,ȱ haveȱ usedȱ theȱ Northeastȱ toȱ backȱ backingȱforȱtheȱBurmeseȱrebelȱgroupsȱhasȱalsoȱ armedȱrebellionsȱinȱneighboringȱcountries.38 stoppedȱasȱDelhiȱappearsȱkeenȱtoȱappeaseȱtheȱ Theȱ Naga,ȱ theȱ Mizoȱ andȱ laterȱ theȱ Burmeseȱ militaryȱ junta,ȱ whichȱ inȱ turnȱ Manipuriȱ rebelsȱ receivedȱ supportȱ fromȱ undertakesȱ periodicȱ militaryȱ campaignsȱ Pakistanȱ andȱ Chinaȱ whileȱ almostȱ allȱ againstȱnortheastȱIndianȱmilitantsȱbasedȱinȱitsȱ northeasternȱ rebelȱ groupsȱ thriveȱ onȱ supportȱ Sagaingȱ Division.ȱ Indianȱ supportȱ forȱ theȱ fromȱ Bangladesh.ȱ Theȱ Burmeseȱ orȱ theȱ Shantiȱ Bahiniȱ insurgencyȱ inȱ theȱ Chittagongȱ Bhutaneseȱ haveȱ notȱ backedȱ northeastȱ Indianȱ Hillȱ Tractsȱ hasȱ alsoȱ ended.ȱ Butȱ Pakistanȱ andȱ rebelsȱ butȱ haveȱ oftenȱ failedȱ toȱ preventȱ themȱ Bangladeshȱ continueȱ toȱ supportȱ theȱ ethnicȱ fromȱ usingȱ itsȱ territory.ȱ Onȱ theȱ otherȱ hand,ȱ rebelȱ armiesȱ ofȱ northeastȱ India.ȱ Pakistan’sȱ Indiaȱ backedȱ severalȱ separatistȱ campaignsȱ InterȱServicesȱIntelligenceȱ(ISI)ȱhasȱdevelopedȱ acrossȱ theȱ bordersȱ ofȱ itsȱ Northeast.ȱ Theȱ mostȱ “safeȱ locations”ȱ inȱ andȱ closeȱ linksȱ withȱ theȱ powerfulȱ rebelȱ armyȱ onȱ Burma’sȱ westernȱ intelligenceȱorganizationsȱofȱBangladeshȱsinceȱ borders,ȱ theȱ Kachinȱ Independenceȱ Army,ȱ theȱmidȬ1980s.ȱBothȱPakistanȱandȱBangladeshȱ developedȱ closeȱ linksȱ withȱ northeastȱ Indianȱ providedȱ weapons,ȱ trainingȱ andȱ sanctuaryȱ toȱ separatistȱ groupsȱ likeȱ theȱ NNC,ȱ theȱ NSCNȱ northeastȱIndianȱrebelsȱonȱaȱregularȱbasis.ȱ andȱ theȱ ULFA.ȱ Butȱ byȱ theȱ endȱ ofȱ theȱ 1980s,ȱ Unlikeȱ Bangladesh,ȱ Bhutanȱ hasȱ neverȱ India’sȱ externalȱ intelligence,ȱ Researchȱ andȱ deniedȱtheȱpresenceȱofȱnortheastȱIndianȱrebelsȱ AnalysisȱWingȱ(RAW),ȱpersuadedȱtheȱKIAȱtoȱ inȱ itsȱ territory.ȱ Theȱ kingdom’sȱ governmentȱ discontinueȱ supportȱ toȱ theȱ northeastȱ Indianȱ triedȱtoȱpersuadeȱtheȱrebelsȱtoȱleaveȱandȱthenȱ rebelsȱinȱexchangeȱforȱIndianȱsupportȱforȱtheirȱ usedȱ militaryȱ forceȱ toȱ dislodgeȱ them.ȱ Burmaȱ armedȱcampaignȱagainstȱRangoon.ȱSomeȱotherȱ hasȱ neverȱ directlyȱ backedȱ theȱ rebelsȱ ofȱ Burmeseȱ rebelȱ groupsȱ inȱ theȱ Chinȱ Hillsȱ andȱ Northeastȱ andȱ haveȱ oftenȱ attackedȱ basesȱ ofȱ theȱ Arakansȱ wereȱ alsoȱ supportedȱ byȱ Indianȱ Nagaȱrebelsȱinȱitsȱterritory.ȱButȱitsȱcontrolȱoverȱ intelligence.39 itsȱlongȱwesternȱfrontierȱwithȱIndiaȱisȱnotȱtotalȱ Duringȱ theȱ Bangladeshȱ liberationȱ war,ȱ andȱ itȱ hasȱ avoidedȱ attackingȱ bothȱ theȱ Indiaȱ trainedȱ thousandsȱ ofȱ Bengaliȱ guerrillasȱ AssameseȱandȱtheȱManipuriȱrebelsȱforȱreasonsȱ inȱ hundredsȱ ofȱ campsȱ locatedȱ inȱ theȱ notȱ yetȱ clear.ȱ Atȱ theȱ momentȱ theȱ crossfireȱ ofȱ northeasternȱstatesȱofȱTripura,ȱMeghalayaȱandȱ mutuallyȱ sponsoredȱ insurgenciesȱ operatingȱ Assamȱ asȱ alsoȱ inȱ Westȱ Bengal.ȱ Whenȱ India’sȱ acrossȱ nationalȱ frontiersȱ inȱ Southȱ Asiaȱ onȱ aȱ

26 Insurgencies in India’s Northeast: Conflict, Co-option & Change reciprocalȱbasisȱisȱbeginningȱtoȱwane.ȱForȱtheȱ operationalȱ campsȱ forȱ theȱ Shantiȱ Bahiniȱ inȱ lastȱ fiftyȱ years,ȱ however,ȱ theȱ Northeastȱ hasȱ Tripuraȱ andȱ Mizoramȱ forȱ moreȱ thanȱ twentyȱ witnessedȱ thisȱ phenomenonȱ ofȱ mutuallyȱ yearsȱ (1975–96).ȱ Itȱ ranȱ campsȱ forȱ theȱ Tibetanȱ supportedȱ transȬborderȱ insurgenciesȱ withȱ allȱ guerrillasȱinȱ1956–62.42 itsȱdoublespeak,ȱdeniabilityȱandȱdeterrence.ȱȱ Indianȱintelligenceȱranȱhideoutsȱandȱarmsȱ Theȱpatronageȱofȱinsurgencyȱhasȱnotȱbeenȱ cachesȱ inȱ Arunachalȱ Pradesh,ȱ Nagaland.ȱ limitedȱ toȱ countries.ȱ Withinȱ theȱ Northeast,ȱ Manipurȱ andȱ Mizoramȱ forȱ theȱ Kachinȱ stateȱ governmentsȱ haveȱ backedȱ insurgentȱ Independenceȱ Army,ȱ theȱ Arakanȱ Armyȱ andȱ groupsȱ againstȱ eachȱ otherȱ andȱ Indianȱ federalȱ theȱ Chinȱ Nationalȱ Frontȱ ofȱ Burma.ȱTheȱNNCȱ intelligenceȱ agenciesȱ haveȱ backedȱ insurgentsȱ andȱNSCN,ȱtheȱMNFȱandȱtheȱManipuriȱrebelȱ asȱ partȱ ofȱ Delhi’sȱ ployȱ toȱ settleȱ scoresȱ withȱ groupsȱ maintainedȱ campsȱ inȱ Burmeseȱ stateȱ governmentsȱ seenȱ asȱ hostileȱ toȱ theȱ territoryȱ andȱ itȱ isȱ primarilyȱ toȱ dislodgeȱ themȱ interestsȱ toȱ theȱ rulingȱ partyȱ atȱ theȱcentre.ȱAllȱ fromȱthereȱthatȱIndiaȱstartedȱhelpingȱBurmeseȱ acrossȱ Southȱ Asia,ȱ theȱ sponsorshipȱ ofȱ rebelȱ groups.ȱ Betweenȱ 1958ȱ andȱ 1971,ȱ whenȱ insurgencyȱ hasȱ remainedȱ anȱ easyȱ optionȱ forȱ Pakistanȱ lostȱ itsȱ easternȱ wing,ȱ elevenȱ batchesȱ unleashingȱaȱlowȬcostȱproxyȱoffensiveȱagainstȱ ofȱNagaȱrebelsȱ(someȱnumberingȱtwoȱhundredȱ aȱrivalȱnationȱorȱaȱhostileȱgovernment.ȱ guerrillasȱ orȱ more)ȱ reachedȱ Eastȱ Pakistanȱ forȱ Betweenȱ 1956ȱ andȱ 1971,ȱ Pakistan’sȱ ISIȱ trainingȱandȱweapons.ȱOneȱofȱtheȱtwoȱlargestȱ backedȱtheȱNNC,ȱtheȱMNFȱandȱtheȱSengkrakȱ groupsȱ ofȱ Nagaȱ guerrillas,ȱ moreȱ thanȱ fiveȱ ofȱTripura.ȱChinaȱstartedȱaidingȱtheȱNNC,ȱtheȱ hundredȱ fightersȱ ledȱ byȱ Dusoiȱ Chakesang,ȱ MNFȱ andȱ laterȱ theȱ PLAȱ ofȱ Manipurȱ butȱ tookȱ theȱ longȱ routeȱ toȱ Eastȱ Pakistanȱ throughȱ discontinuedȱ allȱ helpȱ afterȱ 1980.ȱ Thereȱ areȱ theȱChinȱHillsȱinȱOctoberȱ1963ȱandȱreturnedȱinȱ reportsȱofȱtheȱULFAȱandȱtheȱMPLFȱreceivingȱ Octoberȱ 1964.ȱ Militaryȱ officialsȱ estimatesȱ thatȱ substantialȱ quantitiesȱ ofȱ Chineseȱ weaponsȱ atȱ leastȱ 3,000ȱ Nagaȱ guerrillasȱwereȱtrainedȱinȱ throughȱBhutanȱandȱBurma,ȱbutȱperhapsȱtheseȱ Eastȱ Pakistan,ȱ whereȱ theȱ Nagaȱ Armyȱ hadȱ weaponsȱ comeȱ throughȱ YunnanȬbasedȱ mafiaȱ sevenȱcamps.43 groupsȱ likeȱ theȱ Blackhouse.ȱ Theyȱ getȱ theseȱ Theȱ Nagaȱ guerrillasȱ wereȱ trainedȱ byȱ weaponsȱ fromȱ China’sȱ governmentȱ ordnanceȱ instructorsȱ fromȱ Pakistan’sȱ Specialȱ Servicesȱ factoriesȱ likeȱ Norincho,ȱ butȱ itȱ isȱ notȱ clearȱ Groupȱ(SSG),ȱanȱeliteȱspecialȱforcesȱunit,ȱwhoȱ whetherȱ Beijingȱ isȱ supplyingȱ weaponsȱ toȱ hadȱ trainedȱ theȱ mujahidsȱ sentȱ intoȱ Indianȱ NortheastȱIndianȱrebelsȱthroughȱmafiaȱproxiesȱ Kashmirȱ asȱ partȱ ofȱ Operationȱ Gibraltarȱ inȱ orȱ justȱ makingȱ profitsȱ forȱ itsȱ ordnanceȱ 1965.ȱ Oneȱ veteranȱ SSGȱ officer,ȱ Colonelȱ S.S.ȱ establishments.ȱȱ Medhi,ȱ whoȱ hadȱ trainedȱ bothȱ theȱ Nagasȱ andȱ Bangladeshȱbacksȱalmostȱallȱnortheasternȱ theȱ Kashmirȱ mujahids,ȱ laterȱ toldȱ theȱ author:ȱ Indianȱ militantȱ groups—theȱ guerillasȱ fromȱ “Theȱ Nagasȱ wereȱ farȱ betterȱ fightersȱ thanȱ theȱ Assam,ȱ Meghalaya,ȱ Manipurȱ andȱ Tripuraȱ mujahids.ȱ Theyȱ wereȱ disciplinedȱ andȱ haveȱaroundȱ125ȱcamps,ȱsmallerȱhideoutsȱandȱ dedicatedȱandȱquicklyȱpickedȱupȱtactics.ȱTheyȱ safeȱhousesȱinȱitsȱterritory.41ȱIndiaȱbackedȱtheȱ clearlyȱhadȱaȱcause.ȱTheȱmujahidsȱfromȱAzadȱ Bengaliȱ guerrillaȱ campaignȱ inȱ 1971ȱ andȱ Kashmirȱwereȱunruly.”44 trainedȱ thousandsȱ ofȱ guerillasȱ inȱ Tripura,ȱ Afterȱ itsȱ shortȱ borderȱ warȱ withȱ Indiaȱ inȱ Assamȱ andȱ Meghalaya.ȱ Later,ȱ manyȱ politicalȱ 1962,ȱ Chinaȱ startedȱ trainingȱ theȱ Nagaȱ opponentsȱ ofȱ theȱ Bangladeshȱ militaryȱ juntaȱ rebels.TheȱfirstȱbatchȱofȱNagaȱArmy,ȱaboutȱ300ȱ escapedȱ intoȱ northeastȱ Indiaȱ andȱ wereȱ strong,ȱ leftȱ forȱ Chinaȱ inȱ Juneȱ 1966.ȱ Ledȱ byȱ sheltered.ȱTheȱBangladeshȱliberationȱwarȬheroȱ Thinoselie,ȱ theȱ militaryȱ commander,ȱ andȱ Kaderȱ (Tiger)ȱ Siddiquiȱ escapedȱ intoȱ Muivah,ȱtheȱcommissar,ȱtheyȱreachedȱYunnanȱ Meghalayaȱ andȱ wasȱ allowedȱ toȱ stayȱ inȱ theȱ afterȱaȱmarchȱofȱ97ȱdays.ȱTheȱsecondȱbatchȱofȱ townȱ ofȱ Burdwanȱ inȱ Westȱ Bengalȱ forȱ aroundȱ NagaȱArmy,ȱaboutȱ250ȱstrong,ȱwentȱtoȱChinaȱ eighteenȱ years.ȱ Indiaȱ alsoȱ ranȱ trainingȱ andȱ inȱ 1968ȱ underȱ theȱ leadershipȱ ofȱ Mowuȱ

27 Subir Bhaumik

Angami,ȱ theȱ militaryȱ commander,ȱ andȱ Issacȱ 4,000ȱ Mizoȱ guerrillasȱ inȱ theȱ Chittagongȱ Hillȱ Chisiȱ Swu,ȱ theȱ commissar.ȱ Theȱ Chineseȱ Tracts.ȱ Mostȱ ofȱ themȱ underwentȱ trainingȱ trainedȱ fourȱ subsequentȱ batchesȱ ofȱ Nagaȱ impartedȱ byȱ SSGȱ instructorsȱ andȱ receivedȱ guerrillas.ȱTheȱfirstȱtwoȱbatchesȱwereȱlargeȱbutȱ weapons.ȱ Whenȱ theȱ Bangladeshȱ Liberationȱ theȱ subsequentȱ batchesȱ wereȱ muchȱ smaller.ȱ Warȱbrokeȱout,ȱtheȱMNFȱunitsȱfoughtȱwithȱtheȱ TheȱNagaȱrebelȱleadershipȱfacedȱaȱdilemmaȱinȱ Pakistaniȱ troopsȱ againstȱ theȱ Bengaliȱ “Muktiȱ decidingȱ theȱ sizeȱ ofȱ theȱ batchesȱ theyȱ wouldȱ Fauj”ȱ(liberationȱarmy).ȱFourȱbatchesȱofȱMizoȱ sendȱ forȱ training—ifȱ theȱ batchȱ wasȱ small,ȱ itȱ guerrillasȱ wentȱ toȱ Chinaȱ forȱ trainingȱ afterȱ couldȱ beȱ annihilatedȱ byȱ aȱ majorȱ Indianȱ orȱ 1971,ȱ whenȱ theȱ MNFȱ turnedȱ toȱ Chinaȱ forȱ Burmeseȱ militaryȱ operation,ȱ butȱ theyȱ wouldȱ trainingȱ andȱ weaponsȱ afterȱ loosingȱ itsȱ baseȱ beȱharderȱtoȱdetect.ȱOnȱtheȱotherȱhand,ȱifȱtheȱ areaȱinȱEastȱPakistan.ȱTheȱfirstȱMNFȱbatchȱledȱ batchȱconsistedȱofȱaȱfewȱhundredȱguerrillas,ȱitȱ byȱ Damkoshiakȱ Gangteȱ startedȱ forȱ Chinaȱ inȱ wouldȱ beȱ difficultȱ toȱ conceal,ȱ itsȱ supplyȱ 1973ȱ butȱ itȱ tookȱ themȱ aȱ marchȱ ofȱ thirteenȱ problemsȱ wouldȱ increase,ȱ butȱ itȱ wouldȱ comeȱ monthsȱ toȱ reachȱ Tinsumȱ Countyȱ inȱ Yunnan.ȱ backȱ withȱ aȱ muchȱ largerȱ bodyȱ ofȱ trainedȱ Afterȱ training,ȱ theȱ Chineseȱ gaveȱ themȱ someȱ guerrillasȱ andȱ moreȱ weapons.ȱ Forȱ tacticalȱ weaponsȱandȱgoldȱchains,ȱsomeȱofȱwhichȱtheyȱ reasons,ȱtheȱNagasȱchoseȱtoȱsendȱlargeȱbatchesȱ hadȱtoȱhandȱoverȱtoȱtheȱKachinsȱonȱtheirȱwayȱ toȱ Pakistanȱ andȱ Chinaȱ inȱ theȱ initialȱ stagesȱ back.ȱ Anȱ Intelligenceȱ Bureauȱ officialȱ hasȱ becauseȱ theyȱ hadȱ theȱ elementȱ ofȱ surprise.ȱ revealedȱthatȱDamkoshiakȱhadȱbeenȱrecruitedȱ Subsequentȱbatchesȱwereȱsmallerȱsoȱthatȱtheyȱ asȱaȱjuniorȱoperativeȱbyȱtheȱIB’sȱstationȱchiefȱinȱ couldȱslipȱthrough.ȱ Manipur,ȱB.R.ȱSanyalȱandȱthenȱinfiltratedȱintoȱ Indianȱmilitaryȱintelligenceȱestimatesȱthatȱ theȱMNF.ȱThisȱofficialȱclaimsȱthatȱDamkoshiakȱ PakistanȱandȱChinaȱtrainedȱnearlyȱ5,000ȱNagaȱ justȱ walkedȱ backȱ intoȱ theȱ IB’sȱ outpostȱ inȱ guerrillasȱ inȱ all.ȱ Aȱ batchȱ ofȱ 300ȱ guerrillasȱ Morehȱ withȱ mostȱ ofȱ hisȱ ChinaȬreturnedȱ underwentȱ specialȱ trainingȱ inȱ advancedȱ guerrillasȱ andȱ surrenderedȱ onȱ Juneȱ 30,ȱ 1975ȱ guerrillaȱ warfareȱ andȱ specialȱ operationsȱ inȱ afterȱ beingȱ inȱ touchȱ withȱ theȱ IBȱ fromȱ hisȱ 1969ȱ inȱ theȱ Chittagongȱ Hillȱ Tracts.ȱ Chineseȱ temporaryȱlocationsȱinȱBurma.46 andȱ Pakistaniȱ instructorsȱ jointlyȱ impartedȱ Subsequentȱ batchesȱ ofȱ MNFȱ wereȱ smallȱ trainingȱ toȱ thisȱ batch.ȱ Byȱ then,ȱ India’sȱ twoȱ andȱtheirȱexperienceȱwithȱtheȱChineseȱwasȱfarȱ hostileȱ neighborsȱ hadȱ setȱ upȱ aȱ jointȱ “ChinaȬ fromȱhappy.ȱLikeȱtheȱNagas,ȱtheȱMizosȱhadȱtoȱ Pakistanȱ Coordinationȱ Bureau”ȱ toȱ coordinateȱ handȱoverȱhalfȱofȱtheȱweaponsȱtheyȱgotȱfromȱ theȱ guerrillaȱ warȱ inȱ theȱ Northeast.ȱ Twoȱ theȱ Chineseȱ toȱ theȱ Kachinȱ Independenceȱ intelligenceȱ officersȱ fromȱ theȱ Foreignȱ Liaisonȱ Army.ȱIfȱweȱcompareȱpatternsȱofȱsponsorshipȱ Committeeȱ ofȱ theȱ Chineseȱ Communistȱ Partyȱ toȱ guerillaȱ campaignsȱ inȱ Southȱ Asia,ȱ twoȱ andȱ fourȱ fromȱ theȱ Chineseȱ PLA’sȱ trainingȱ trendsȱareȱclearlyȱdiscernible.ȱFirst,ȱtheȱIndiansȱ division,ȱ includingȱ aȱ fullȱ colonel,ȱ wereȱ basedȱ andȱ theȱ Americansȱ trainedȱ muchȱ largerȱ inȱ Dhakaȱ andȱ Chittagongȱ underȱ diplomaticȱ batchesȱ ofȱ Tibetanȱ guerrillasȱ inȱ aȱ shortȱ timeȱ cover.ȱ Theyȱ teamedȱ upȱ withȱ aȱ Pakistaniȱ SSGȱ betweenȱ 1956ȱ andȱ 1961ȱ thanȱ theȱ numberȱ ofȱ complementȱ supportedȱ byȱ theȱ ISI’sȱ Eastȱ Nagaȱ insurgentsȱ trainedȱ byȱ Chinaȱ andȱ Pakistanȱ regionalȱ headquarters.ȱ Theȱ twelveȬ Pakistan.ȱ Inȱ fiveȱ yearsȱ ofȱ peakȱ sponsorship,ȱ memberȱCoordinationȱBureauȱconsistedȱofȱsixȱ moreȱ thanȱ 20,000ȱ Tibetanȱ fightersȱ underwentȱ Chineseȱ andȱ sixȱ Pakistaniȱ officials,ȱ butȱ thereȱ trainingȱ inȱ Indiaȱ andȱ theȱ US,ȱ whileȱ theȱ wereȱ noȱ representativesȱ fromȱ theȱ northeastȱ Chineseȱ andȱ theȱ Pakistanisȱ trainedȱ onlyȱ oneȬ Indianȱrebelȱgroups.45 fourthȱ thatȱ numberȱofȱNagaȱguerrillasȱoverȱaȱ Afterȱ theȱ Mizoȱ insurrection,ȱ Pakistanȱ muchȱlongerȱduration.ȱIfȱweȱlookȱatȱtheȱmoreȱ openedȱmanyȱmoreȱcampsȱforȱtheȱMNFȱinȱtheȱ thanȱ60,000ȱBengaliȱguerrillasȱtrainedȱbyȱIndiaȱ Chittagongȱ Hillȱ Tracts.ȱ Betweenȱ 1967ȱ andȱ inȱ eightȱ monthsȱ inȱ 1971,ȱ theȱ contrastȱ isȱ 1971,ȱ seventeenȱ campsȱ wereȱ housingȱ 3,000– sharper—evenȱ ifȱ weȱ includeȱ theȱ trainingȱ

28 Insurgencies in India’s Northeast: Conflict, Co-option & Change impartedȱ toȱ nearlyȱ sixȱ thousandȱ Mizoȱ Chinaȱwasȱalsoȱconcernedȱwithȱconsolidatingȱ guerrillasȱbyȱPakistanȱandȱChina.ȱ itsȱ positionȱ inȱ Tibetȱ andȱ wasȱ backingȱ theȱ Second,ȱtheȱtrainingȱspansȱofȱtheȱTibetansȱ rebelsȱ inȱ northeastȱ Indiaȱ onlyȱ toȱ deterȱ Indiaȱ wereȱshorterȱthanȱtheȱNagas.ȱWhileȱaȱTibetanȱ fromȱ activelyȱ backingȱ theȱ Tibetanȱ guerrillas;ȱ fighterȱspentȱtwoȱtoȱthreeȱmonthsȱinȱanȱIndianȱ (d)ȱ Indiaȱ wasȱ burdenedȱ withȱ aȱ hugeȱ flowȱ ofȱ trainingȱ campȱ andȱ perhapsȱ asȱ muchȱ inȱ anȱ refugeesȱ fromȱ Tibetȱ andȱ Bangladesh,ȱ whileȱ specialistȱ Americanȱ facility,ȱ theȱ Nagasȱ Pakistanȱ orȱ Chinaȱ facedȱ noȱ refugeeȱ exodusȱ underwentȱfourȱtoȱfiveȱmonthsȱofȱtrainingȱonȱ fromȱtheȱNortheast.ȱIndiaȱthereforeȱpitchedȱitsȱ anȱ average.ȱ Theȱ trainingȱ spanȱ ofȱ theȱ Bengaliȱ sponsorshipȱ ofȱ guerrillaȱ armiesȱ inȱ Tibetȱ andȱ guerrillaȱwasȱshorterȱthanȱtheȱTibetans—30–45ȱ Bangladeshȱatȱaȱhighȱlevelȱbecauseȱitȱwasȱkeenȱ daysȱ andȱ 60ȱ inȱ theȱ caseȱ ofȱ thoseȱ givenȱ toȱresolveȱtheȱcrisisȱquickly.ȱȱ specialistȱ sabotageȱ trainingȱ orȱ specialȱ tasks.ȱ Afterȱ theȱ Shillongȱ Accord,ȱ theȱ Nagaȱ TheȱNagasȱsufferedȱtheȱabsenceȱofȱaȱcommonȱ movementȱ splitȱ upȱ andȱ weakened.ȱ Theȱ MNFȱ borderȱwithȱtheȱsponsorȱcountriesȱandȱhadȱtoȱ alsoȱbeganȱmovingȱtowardsȱaȱfinalȱsettlementȱ takeȱ longȱ circuitousȱ routesȱ thatȱ addedȱ toȱ theȱ withȱIndiaȱafterȱtheȱ1976ȱCalcuttaȱagreement.ȱ trainingȱtime.ȱTheȱSinoȬPakistaniȱsponsorshipȱ China,ȱ underȱ Dengȱ Xiaoping,ȱ startedȱ toȱ lookȱ toȱtheȱNagaȱandȱMizoȱinsurgenciesȱreachedȱaȱ forȱ waysȱ toȱ normalizeȱ relationsȱ withȱ India.ȱ criticalȱ stageȱ withȱ theȱ formationȱ ofȱ theȱ TheȱManipuriȱPLAȱwasȱsupportedȱbecauseȱofȱ CoordinationȱBureauȱwhenȱitȱwasȱcutȱshortȱbyȱ itsȱideologicalȱaffiliations,ȱbutȱonlyȱjust.ȱWhenȱ theȱ Bengaliȱ revoltȱ ofȱ 1971ȱ andȱ theȱ Indianȱ itȱstartedȱtoȱloseȱitsȱwayȱinȱtheȱfaceȱofȱsevereȱ intervention.ȱ Inȱ fact,ȱ aȱ seniorȱ RAWȱ officialȱ repressionȱ andȱ strongȱ counterȬinsurgencyȱ statedȱ thatȱ Indianȱ supportȱ forȱ theȱ Bengaliȱ measures,ȱ Chinaȱ stoppedȱ aidingȱ it.ȱ Repeatedȱ revoltȱwasȱcrucialȱtoȱmatchȱtheȱSinoȬPakistaniȱ effortsȱbyȱtheȱULFAȱandȱtheȱNSCNȱinȱtheȱlateȱ sponsorshipȱ forȱ theȱ guerrillaȱ armiesȱ ofȱ 1980sȱ toȱ secureȱ Chineseȱ helpȱ didȱ notȱ leadȱ toȱ Northeastȱ Indiaȱ andȱ finallyȱ getȱ theȱ betterȱ ofȱ anyȱ directȱ assistanceȱ fromȱ Beijing.ȱ Indianȱ India’sȱ enemiesȱ inȱ aȱ “whoȬgetsȬwhomȱ first”ȱ intelligenceȱ doesȱ haveȱ someȱ evidenceȱ thatȱ situation. 47 ChineseȱintelligenceȱputȱtheȱNSCN,ȱledȱbyȱtheȱ TheȱmuchȱsmallerȱnumbersȱofȱNagaȱandȱ ChinaȬtrainedȱ Muivah,ȱ inȱ touchȱ withȱ theȱ MizoȱrebelsȱtrainedȱbyȱPakistanȱandȱChinaȱinȱ Khmerȱ Rougeȱ (anotherȱ ChinaȬbackedȱ group)ȱ comparisonȱ toȱ theȱ numbersȱ ofȱ Tibetansȱ andȱ inȱCambodia.ȱThatȱconnectionȱhelpedȱtheȱlaterȱ BengaliȱguerrillaȱfightersȱtrainedȱbyȱIndiaȱwithȱ generationsȱofȱNaga,ȱAssameseȱandȱManipuriȱ USȱ supportȱ couldȱ beȱ attributedȱ toȱ theȱ rebelsȱsecureȱlargeȱquantitiesȱofȱweaponsȱfromȱ following:ȱ (a)ȱ Pakistanȱ wasȱ primarilyȱ theȱ Khmerȱ Rougeȱ orȱ throughȱ blackȬmarketȱ interestedȱinȱtakingȱawayȱKashmirȱfromȱIndiaȱ operatorsȱcloseȱtoȱthem.ȱȱ andȱsupportȱtoȱtheȱrebelsȱinȱtheȱNortheastȱwasȱ UnlikeȱtheȱPakistaniȱsupportȱforȱtheȱNagaȱ forȱaȱlimitedȱtacticalȱpurpose,ȱnamely,ȱtoȱkeepȱ andȱ theȱ Mizoȱ rebels,ȱ theȱ elementȱ ofȱ theȱ potȱ boilingȱ inȱ theȱ remoteȱ regionȱ andȱ clandestinityȱ inȱ Indianȱ supportȱ wasȱ absentȱ ensureȱ dispersalȱ ofȱ Indianȱ forcesȱ onȱ twoȱ fromȱ theȱ veryȱ beginning.ȱ Journalists,ȱ foreignȱ flanks;ȱ (b)ȱ Nagalandȱ hadȱ noȱ commonȱ borderȱ diplomatsȱandȱdignitariesȱvisitedȱBangladeshiȱ withȱeitherȱEastȱPakistanȱandȱChinaȱandȱonlyȱ refugeeȱcampsȱandȱalsoȱthoseȱwhereȱtheȱMuktiȱ whenȱtheȱMizoȱinsurrectionȱstartedȱcouldȱtheȱ Faujȱguerillasȱwereȱbeingȱtrained.ȱTheȱBengaliȱ twoȱ workȱ onȱ aȱ strategyȱ toȱ unsettleȱ theȱ guerrillasȱ wouldȱ useȱ theseȱ campsȱ forȱ NortheastȱbyȱusingȱtheȱborderȱwhichȱtheȱMizoȱ launchingȱoperationsȱinsideȱEastȱPakistanȱandȱ HillsȱsharedȱwithȱEastȱPakistan;ȱ(c)ȱTheȱMizoȱ thenȱ returnȱ toȱ base.ȱ Everyȱ timeȱ theyȱ cameȱ Hillsȱ borderȱ withȱ Eastȱ Pakistanȱ wasȱ narrowȱ back,ȱ theyȱ briefedȱ Indianȱ intelligenceȱ andȱ andȱcouldȱeasilyȱbeȱblockedȱbyȱIndianȱtroopsȱ militaryȱ officialsȱ inȱ detail,ȱ procuringȱ whereasȱ India’sȱ borderȱ withȱ Tibetȱ wasȱ tooȱ informationȱ thatȱ wouldȱ ultimatelyȱ beȱ usefulȱ longȱ toȱ beȱ sealedȱ completelyȱ byȱ theȱ Chinese.ȱ forȱtheȱIndianȱmilitaryȱaction.ȱUnlikeȱtheȱNagaȱ

29 Subir Bhaumik andȱMizoȱrebels,ȱwhoȱwereȱtrainedȱandȱtoldȱtoȱ provocationȱforȱtheȱIndianȱsponsorshipȱofȱtheȱ returnȱ toȱ fightȱ inȱ theirȱ hillsȱ againstȱ Indianȱ ShantiȱBahiniȱguerrillas,ȱmadeȱupȱofȱChakma,ȱ forcesȱ withȱ noȱ regularȱ controlȱ byȱ“handlers,”ȱ Marmaȱ andȱ Tripuriȱ tribesmen,ȱ wasȱ theȱ theȱ Bengaliȱ guerrillasȱ remainedȱ inȱ closeȱ militaryȱ coupȱ thatȱ killedȱ Sheikhȱ Mujiburȱ contactȱ withȱ Indianȱ officials.ȱ Duringȱ theȱ Rehmanȱandȱmanyȱmembersȱofȱhisȱfamily.ȱToȱ Bengaliȱuprisingȱinȱ1971,ȱIndiaȱwaitedȱforȱtheȱ IndiraȱGandhi,ȱtheȱcoupȱamountedȱaȱpoliticalȱ firstȱtwoȱmonthsȱbeforeȱPrimeȱMinisterȱIndiraȱ actȱinȱdefianceȱofȱIndia.ȱWithinȱaȱweekȱofȱtheȱ Gandhiȱ decidedȱ toȱ aidȱ theȱ guerrillas.ȱ Indianȱ coup,ȱ seniorȱ RAWȱ officialsȱ arrivedȱ inȱ intelligenceȱ hadȱ openedȱ someȱ channelsȱ ofȱ Tripura’sȱcapital,ȱAgartalaȱtoȱtakeȱtheȱChakmaȱ communicationȱ withȱ theȱ Awamiȱ Leagueȱ inȱ dissidentȱleadersȱofȱtheȱChittagongȱHillȱTractsȱ 1968.ȱ Aȱ seniorȱ Awamiȱ Leagueȱ leader,ȱ toȱ Delhiȱ forȱ negotiations.ȱ Theȱ Parbattyaȱ ChittaranjanȱSutar,ȱhadȱsetȱupȱbaseȱinȱCalcuttaȱ ChattogramȱJanaȱSanghatiȱSamityȱ(PCJSS)ȱwasȱ aroundȱ theȱ timeȱ whenȱ theȱ situationȱ inȱ Eastȱ aȱ politicalȱ partyȱ thatȱ hadȱ contestedȱ electionsȱ Pakistanȱstartedȱtoȱspinȱoutȱofȱcontrol.ȱȱ andȱ sentȱ representativesȱ toȱ theȱ Bangladeshȱ Theȱ brutalȱ Pakistaniȱ militaryȱ crackdownȱ parliament.ȱItȱwantedȱextensiveȱautonomyȱforȱ inȱ Marchȱ 1971ȱ againstȱ theȱ Awamiȱ League,ȱ theȱ Chittagongȱ Hillȱ Tracts,ȱ aȱ hillȱ regionȱ whichȱhadȱgotȱaȱsweepingȱmajorityȱinȱtheȱ1970ȱ dominatedȱbyȱtribesȱthatȱwereȱneitherȱMuslimȱ elections,ȱ forcedȱ Indiaȱ toȱ supportȱ theȱ norȱ Bengali.ȱ Havingȱ failedȱ toȱ getȱ that,ȱ theȱ provisionalȱBangladeshȱgovernmentȱonȱIndianȱ PCJSSȱwasȱslowlyȱveeredȱtowardsȱaȱcourseȱofȱ soil,ȱafterȱwhichȱtheȱtrainingȱandȱarmingȱofȱtheȱ confrontationȱwithȱDhaka.ȱ Muktiȱ Faujȱ wentȱ aheadȱ atȱ greatȱ speed.ȱ Theȱ opportunityȱ cameȱ inȱ 1975ȱ whenȱ Betweenȱ200ȱandȱ250ȱcampsȱforȱtheȱMuktiȱFaujȱ Sheikhȱ Mujiburȱ Rehmanȱ wasȱ killedȱ inȱ aȱ wereȱ setȱ upȱ inȱ Westȱ Bengalȱ andȱ inȱ theȱ threeȱ militaryȱ coupȱ andȱ anȱ angryȱ Indiaȱ tookȱ theȱ northeasternȱstatesȱofȱTripura,ȱMeghalayaȱandȱ initiativeȱ toȱ armȱ andȱ trainȱ theȱ Shantiȱ Bahini.ȱ Assam.48ȱ Theȱ levelȱ ofȱ coordinationȱ betweenȱ Byȱtheȱendȱofȱ1979,ȱIndiaȱhadȱtrainedȱsevenȱtoȱ theȱ Indianȱ militaryȱ machineȱ andȱ theȱ Muktiȱ eightȱ hundredȱ guerrillasȱ ofȱ theȱ Shantiȱ Bahiniȱ Faujȱbeganȱtoȱgrowȱfirmlyȱwithȱtheȱprogressȱofȱ includingȱ itsȱ entireȱ militaryȱ leadership.ȱ Justȱ theȱ guerrillaȱ campaignȱ andȱ wasȱ finallyȱ beforeȱ Mrs.ȱ Gandhiȱ wasȱ defeatedȱ inȱ theȱ1977ȱ formalizedȱ withȱ theȱ settingȱ upȱ ofȱ theȱ Jointȱ parliamentaryȱ elections,ȱ RAWȱ officialsȱ toldȱ Commandȱ justȱ beforeȱ theȱ war.ȱ Byȱ midȱ 1971,ȱ theȱ Shantiȱ Bahiniȱ thatȱ Indiaȱ wasȱ preparedȱ toȱ Mrsȱ Gandhiȱ hadȱ decidedȱ onȱ militaryȱ supportȱuptoȱ15,000ȱguerrillasȱwithȱbothȱlightȱ interventionȱ toȱ breakȱ upȱ Pakistan,ȱ whichȱ andȱ heavyȱ weaponsȱ likeȱ mortars.ȱ Shantiȱ explainsȱwhyȱtheȱIndiansȱwereȱsupportingȱtheȱ Bahiniȱ leadersȱ rememberȱ howȱ theyȱ wereȱ Muktiȱ Faujȱ quiteȱ openly.ȱ Theȱ successfulȱ askedȱtoȱgetȱusedȱtoȱdryȱIndianȬmadeȱrationsȱ conclusionȱ ofȱ theȱ Bangladeshȱ Liberationȱ Warȱ forȱdeepȱpenetrationȱstrikesȱinsideȱtheȱCHT. 49ȱ owedȱ asȱ muchȱ tooȱ Indianȱ supportȱ forȱ theȱ Afterȱ aȱ briefȱ cessationȱ ofȱ support,ȱ theȱ guerrillaȱ movementȱ andȱ Mrsȱ Gandhi’sȱ Chittagongȱ Hillȱ Tractsȱ operationsȱ wereȱ decisionȱtoȱmilitarilyȱinterveneȱasȱtoȱPakistan’sȱ resumedȱ byȱ theȱ RAWȱ afterȱ Indiraȱ Gandhiȱ failureȱ forȱ politicalȱ accomodationȱ thatȱ ledȱ toȱ cameȱ backȱ toȱ powerȱ inȱ 1980.ȱ Byȱ then,ȱ theȱ civilȱ war.ȱ Theȱ Pakistaniȱ militaryȱ however,ȱ theȱ PCJSSȬShantiȱ Bahiniȱ wasȱ tornȱ crackdownȱ forcedȱ theȱ Awamiȱ Leagueȱ intoȱ apartȱ byȱ aȱ fratricidalȱ feudȱ thatȱweakenedȱtheȱ guerrillaȱwarfareȱthatȱitȱwasȱjustȱnotȱpreparedȱ onceȱpowerfulȱguerrillaȱorganization.ȱȱ for.ȱ Theȱ hugeȱ refugeeȱ exodusȱ forcedȱ Indiaȱ toȱ Inȱtheȱsummerȱofȱ1986,ȱtheȱLarmaȱfactionȱ act,ȱ orȱ atȱ leastȱ gaveȱ itȱ aȱ rationaleȱ toȱ justifyȱ unleashedȱaȱfreshȱoffensiveȱinȱtheȱChittagongȱ militaryȱaction.ȱȱ Hillȱ Tracts.ȱ Butȱ retaliationȱ byȱtheȱBangladeshȱ Withinȱ fourȱ yearsȱ ofȱ theȱ liberationȱ ofȱ securityȱforcesȱandȱtheȱMuslimȱsettlersȱforcedȱ Bangladesh,ȱIndiaȱsponsoredȱanotherȱguerrillaȱ moreȱ thanȱ 65,000ȱ Chakmasȱ andȱ Marmasȱ toȱ campaignȱ inȱ thatȱ country.ȱ Theȱ immediateȱ fleeȱ intoȱ Tripura.ȱ Theȱ Shantiȱ Bahini,ȱ nowȱ

30 Insurgencies in India’s Northeast: Conflict, Co-option & Change muchȱweakenedȱbyȱfactionalism,ȱfailedȱtoȱstopȱ Bangladesh.ȱMyȱownȱextensiveȱinvestigationsȱ theȱ fragmentationȱ ofȱ theȱ CHTȱ intoȱ threeȱ suggestsȱthatȱtheȱIndianȱclaimsȱareȱfarȱoverȱtheȱ administrativeȱ districts.ȱ Neitherȱ wasȱ Indiaȱ mark.51ȱAfterȱbeingȱpushedȱoutȱofȱBhutan,ȱtheȱ willingȱtoȱstepȱupȱtheȱheatȱinȱtheȱCHTȱnorȱwasȱ ULFAȱ hasȱ setȱ upȱ atȱ leastȱ eightȱ basesȱ inȱ theȱ theȱ Bahiniȱ capableȱ ofȱ deliveringȱ aȱ massiveȱ Mymensinghȱ regionȱ borderingȱ theȱ Indianȱ blow.ȱ Theȱ PCJSSȱ startedȱ negotiationsȱ inȱ 1992ȱ stateȱ ofȱ Meghalaya.ȱ Theȱ ULFAȱ hasȱ andȱreachedȱaȱsettlementȱwithȱDhakaȱinȱ1997,ȱ traditionallyȱmaintainedȱonlyȱaȱtransitȱcampȱatȱ albeitȱ underȱ Indianȱ pressure.ȱ Bangladeshȱ Sherpurȱ butȱ nowȱ itsȱ presenceȱ inȱ theȱ areaȱ hasȱ startedȱ providingȱ shelterȱ toȱ theȱ rebelsȱ fromȱ grown.ȱ Theȱ largestȱ ULFAȱ campȱ isȱ saidȱ toȱ beȱ Northeastȱ Indiaȱ inȱ midȱ 1978,ȱ twoȱ yearsȱ afterȱ basedȱ inȱ Halughat,ȱ nearȱ theȱ borderȱ withȱ Indiaȱ startedȱ trainingȱ andȱ armingȱ theȱ Shantiȱ Meghalaya.ȱTheȱULFA’sȱleadership,ȱhowever,ȱ Bahini.ȱTheȱMNFȱcameȱbackȱtoȱtheȱChittagongȱ hasȱstayedȱinȱDhaka,ȱmaintainingȱatȱleastȱfourȱ Hillȱ Tractsȱ inȱ 1978ȱ andȱ setȱ upȱ sixȱ camps:ȱ safeȱ housesȱ onȱ aȱ regularȱ basis.ȱ Theȱ Assamȱ Centralȱ Headquartersȱ atȱ Chhimtlang,ȱ supplyȱ policeȱhasȱprovidedȱdetailsȱofȱallȱtheȱlocationsȱ headquartersȱ atȱ Rumabazar,ȱ Generalȱ theȱ ULFAȱ militaryȱ wingȱ chiefȱ Pareshȱ Baruaȱ Headquartersȱ atȱ Alikadam,ȱ tacticalȱ hasȱ usedȱ sinceȱ hisȱ stayȱ inȱ Bangladesh.52ȱ Theȱ headquartersȱ forȱ theȱ Dampaȱ Areaȱ Commandȱ locationsȱhaveȱbeenȱchangedȱfromȱtimeȱtoȱtimeȱ (westȱ Mizoram)ȱ atȱ Newȱ Langkor,ȱ tacticalȱ toȱ avoidȱ attacksȱ byȱ Bangladeshiȱ criminalȱ headquartersȱatȱLama,ȱandȱtwoȱsmallerȱtransitȱ syndicatesȱ closeȱ toȱ Indianȱ intelligence.ȱ Oneȱ campsȱ closeȱ toȱ Parvaȱ andȱ Tuipuibariȱ villagesȱ suchȱsyndicate,ȱSevenȱStar,ȱwasȱbelievedȱtoȱbeȱ inȱMizoram.50 responsibleȱ forȱ atleastȱ fiveȱ attacksȱ onȱ himȱ atȱ AsȱtheȱMNFȱincreasedȱitsȱpresenceȱinȱtheȱ separateȱlocations.ȱȱ Chittagongȱ Hillȱ Tracts,ȱ itȱ inadvertentlyȱ Afterȱ theȱ pulloutȱ fromȱ Bhutan,ȱ steppedȱintoȱChakmaȬdominatedȱareas.ȱInȱthatȱ Bangladeshȱisȱnowȱtheȱmajorȱforeignȱareaȱforȱ period,ȱ toȱ obligeȱ theȱ RAW,ȱ theȱ Shantiȱ Bahiniȱ theȱ ULFAȱ andȱ theȱ otherȱ rebelȱ groupsȱ ofȱ attackedȱ theȱ MNFȱ columnsȱ andȱ campsȱ atȱ sixȱ Assamȱ andȱ Meghalaya.ȱ Theȱ NDFBȱ andȱ theȱ differentȱ places.ȱ Theȱ MNFȱ sufferedȱ upȱ toȱ ANVCȱ basesȱ areȱ alsoȱ locatedȱ inȱ theȱ thirtyȱ casualtiesȱ andȱ theirȱ operationsȱ wereȱ Mymensinghȱ region,ȱ notȱ farȱ fromȱ theȱ ULFAȱ stifled.ȱ Itsȱ animosityȱ towardsȱ theȱ Chakmasȱ bases.ȱ Theseȱ twoȱ rebelȱ groupsȱ haveȱ beenȱ increased.ȱ Byȱ 1984,ȱ theȱ Tribalȱ Nationalȱ “taxing”ȱ theȱ coalȱ exportsȱ toȱ Bangladesh.ȱ Theȱ Volunteersȱ (TNV)ȱ ofȱ Tripuraȱ hadȱ alsoȱ setȱ MPLFȱofȱManipurȱhasȱmoreȱbasesȱinȱBurma’sȱ uptenȱcampsȱinȱtheȱChittagongȱHillȱTracts—itsȱ Sagaingȱ Divisionȱ thanȱ inȱ Bangladesh,ȱ butȱ itȱ headquartersȱ wasȱ locatedȱ atȱ Singlum,ȱ theȱ runsȱnotȱlessȱthanȱsixȱbasesȱinȱtheȱSylhetȱarea.ȱ militaryȱwingȱheadquartersȱatȱThangnanȱwithȱ Theȱ largestȱ MPLFȱ campȱ inȱ Bangladeshȱ isȱ aȱ ringȱ ofȱ transitȱ campsȱ aroundȱ them.ȱ locatedȱ atȱ Chotodemaiȱ andȱ Bhanugach.ȱ Bothȱ Subsequently,ȱ theȱ NSCNȱ alsoȱ cameȱ toȱ theȱ theseȱcampsȱhouseȱfiftyȱtoȱseventyȱguerrillasȱatȱ ChittagongȱHillȱTractsȱandȱsetȱupȱthreeȱbases,ȱ anyȱ pointȱ inȱ time.ȱ Sinceȱ Burma’sȱ armyȱ hadȱ includingȱ theȱ oneȱ atȱ Silopiȱ thatȱ wasȱ earlierȱ onlyȱlimitedȱcontrolȱoverȱitsȱwesternȱfrontier,ȱ usedȱ byȱ theȱ NNC.ȱ Andȱ afterȱ 1990,ȱ theȱ DGFIȱ Indianȱ intelligenceȱ dealtȱ directlyȱ withȱ theȱ developedȱ closeȱ linksȱ withȱ theȱ ULFA,ȱ theȱ powerfulȱ Kachinȱ Independenceȱ Organizationȱ NDFB,ȱtheȱPLAȱandȱUNLFȱofȱManipur.ȱNowȱ (KIO)ȱ whichȱ wasȱ aidingȱ guerrillasȱ fromȱ evenȱ Meghalayaȱ rebelȱ groupsȱ likeȱ theȱ Achikȱ Northeastȱ India.ȱ Deniedȱ Chineseȱ supportȱ Nationalȱ Volunteersȱ Councilȱ andȱ Tripuraȱ whenȱ Beijingȱ turnedȱ toȱ improveȱ itsȱ relationsȱ rebelȱgroupsȱlikeȱtheȱATTFȱandȱtheȱNLFTȱareȱ withȱtheȱBurmeseȱmilitaryȱjunta,ȱtheȱKIOȱwasȱ basedȱinȱBangladesh.ȱȱ alsoȱcompelledȱtoȱlookȱtoȱIndia.ȱAȱseniorȱRAWȱ Theȱ Indianȱ governmentȱ hasȱ recentlyȱ officialȱwhoȱsetȱupȱIndia’sȱlinksȱwithȱtheȱKIOȱ claimedȱ thatȱ 190ȱ basesȱ belongingȱ toȱ elevenȱ saysȱ theyȱ wereȱ givenȱ atȱ leastȱ twoȱ largeȱ rebelȱ groupsȱ fromȱ northeastȱ Indiaȱ existȱ inȱ consignmentsȱ ofȱ weaponsȱ betweenȱ 1990ȱ andȱ

31 Subir Bhaumik

1992ȱandȱpromisedȱmore.ȱForȱitsȱpart,ȱtheȱKIOȱ whenȱtheȱULFAȱandȱtheȱNDFBȱstartedȱmovingȱ agreedȱ toȱ denyȱ support,ȱ bases,ȱ weaponsȱ orȱ intoȱtheȱsouthernȱfoothillsȱofȱBhutanȱinȱ1992– trainingȱtoȱtheȱnortheastȱIndianȱrebelȱgroups.ȱ 93.ȱ Theȱ firstȱ ULFAȱ basesȱ inȱ Bhutanȱ wereȱ onȱ Indeed,ȱ forȱ twoȱ years,ȱ aȱ teamȱ ofȱ threeȱ RAWȱ theȱ border—Guabari,ȱ Ngalamȱ andȱ Kalikhola.ȱ agents,ȱ equippedȱ withȱ communicationȱ Butȱ byȱ theȱ endȱ ofȱ theȱ decade,ȱ theȱ ULFAȱ hadȱ equipment,ȱwereȱbasedȱinȱtheȱKachinȱ“secondȱ setȱ upȱ atȱ leastȱ seventeenȱ campsȱ inȱ theȱ fourȱ brigade”ȱ headquartersȱ atȱ Pasao,ȱ monitoringȱ southernȱ districtsȱ ofȱ theȱ kingdom.ȱ Anȱ northeastȱIndianȱrebelȱmovementsȱinȱtheȱarea.ȱ Assameseȱ securityȱ analyst,ȱ withȱ impeccableȱ Burmeseȱintelligenceȱsoonȱfoundȱoutȱthatȱ sourcesȱ inȱ theȱ state’sȱ intelligence,ȱ hasȱ listedȱ theȱ KIOȱ hadȱ beenȱ receivingȱ weaponsȱ fromȱ thirtyȱbasesȱrunȱbyȱtheȱULFA,ȱtheȱNDFBȱandȱ Indiaȱandȱwastedȱnoȱtimeȱtoȱblockȱtheȱsupplyȱ theȱ Kamtapurȱ Liberationȱ Organisationȱ (KLO)ȱ routes.53ȱ Afterȱ 1988,ȱ Burmaȱ receivedȱ hugeȱ inȱ southernȱ Bhutanȱ atȱ theȱ peakȱ ofȱ theirȱ consignmentsȱ ofȱ Chineseȱ militaryȱ hardware.ȱ presenceȱ inȱ theȱ kingdom.55ȱ Theseȱ existedȱ inȱ Theȱ KIOȱ lostȱ hugeȱ areasȱ duringȱ theȱ theȱ arcȱ betweenȱ Daifamȱ inȱ easternȱ Bhutanȱ toȱ Tatmadaw’sȱ winterȱ offensiveȱ ofȱ 1992–93.ȱ Inȱ Samsteȱ inȱ westernȱ Bhutanȱ onȱ theȱ eveȱ ofȱ theȱ Februaryȱ 1994,ȱ theyȱ declaredȱ aȱ ceasefireȱ likeȱ “OperationȱAllȱClear”ȱlaunchedȱbyȱtheȱRoyalȱ manyȱBurmeseȱrebelȱarmiesȱhadȱalreadyȱdone.ȱ BhutaneseȱarmyȱonȱDecemberȱ15,ȱ2003.ȱ Butȱ thoughȱ theȱ RAWȬKIOȱ relationsȱ failedȱ toȱ “Operationȱ Allȱ Clear”ȱ wasȱ growȱ afterȱ theȱ ceasefire,ȱ theȱ KIOȱ keptȱ itsȱ comprehensiveȱandȱrelentless,ȱlastingȱforȱmoreȱ promiseȱofȱnotȱallowingȱanyȱnortheastȱIndianȱ thanȱaȱmonth,ȱduringȱwhichȱallȱtheȱ30ȱcampsȱ rebelȱ groupȱ toȱ beȱ basedȱ inȱ areasȱ itȱ controls.ȱ ofȱ theȱ rebelsȱ wereȱ demolished.ȱ India’sȱ armyȱ Norȱdidȱtheyȱsupplyȱweaponsȱtoȱtheȱnortheastȱ chiefȱatȱthatȱtime,ȱGeneralȱN.CȱVijȱsaidȱatleastȱ Indianȱ rebelsȱ orȱ trainȱ them.ȱ Afterȱ 1997,ȱ Indiaȱ 650ȱ militantsȱ hadȱ beenȱ neutralized—killedȱ orȱ discontinuedȱ allȱ formsȱ ofȱ supportȱ toȱ theȱ captured.ȱ Mediaȱ reportsȱ saidȱ betweenȱ 90ȱ toȱ Burmeseȱrebelȱarmiesȱitȱhadȱsoȱfarȱhelped.ȱ 120ȱ rebelsȱ wereȱ killedȱ byȱ sixteenȱ Bhutaneseȱ Andȱ ifȱ Indiaȱ deniedȱ herȱ territoryȱ toȱ theȱ soldiers.ȱ Theȱ Bhutaneseȱ armyȱ hadȱ toȱ raiseȱ KIO,ȱ theȱ CNFȱ orȱ theȱ NUPA,ȱ theȱ Burmeseȱ 5000ȱtroopsȱforȱsixȱyearsȱandȱestablishȱtwentyȱ startedȱ attackingȱ theȱ NSCNȱ basesȱ thoughȱ armyȱcampsȱonȱitsȱsouthernȱbordersȱbeforeȱitȱ exceptȱ forȱ oneȱ occasion,ȱ itȱ avoidedȱ attackingȱ couldȱ launchȱ “Operationȱ Allȱ Clear”ȱ againstȱ theȱ ULFAȱ andȱ Manipuriȱ rebelȱ bases.ȱ Theȱ theȱ rebels.56ȱ Indianȱ militaryȱ sourcesȱ sayȱ thatȱ majorȱ hiccupȱ inȱ thisȱ emergingȱ relationshipȱ notȱ onlyȱ didȱ Delhiȱ providedȱ substantialȱ wasȱ theȱ captureȱ ofȱ 192ȱ Manipuriȱ rebelsȱ andȱ suppliesȱofȱweaponsȱandȱammunitionȱbutȱtheȱ theȱseizureȱofȱ1,600ȱunitsȱofȱweaponryȱbyȱtheȱ broadȱ strategicȱ visionȱ forȱ “Operationȱ Allȱ TatmadawȱduringȱoperationsȱaroundȱTamuȱinȱ Clear”ȱ wasȱ drawnȱ upȱ inȱ closeȱ consultationȱ Novemberȱ 2001.ȱ Indiaȱ didȱ notȱ takeȱ kindlyȱ toȱ withȱ theȱ Indianȱ army.ȱ Oneȱ Indianȱ militaryȱ theȱ Burmeseȱ refusalȱ toȱ handȱ overȱ theȱ rebels,ȱ officialȱbasedȱinȱAssamȱclaimedȱtheȱBhutaneseȱ thatȱ includedȱ someȱ ofȱ theȱ topȱ gunsȱ ofȱ theȱ “hadȱbeenȱperfectȱinȱcarryingȱoutȱtheȱplanȱofȱ Meiteiȱinsurgency,ȱincludingȱUNLFȱchairmanȱ actionȱweȱdrewȱupȱforȱthem.”57 RajkumarȱMeghenȱaliasȱSanayaima.54ȱButȱnowȱ ȱ IndiaȱhasȱstartedȱgivingȱBurmaȱtanks,ȱartilleryȱ FutureȱPortentsȱȱ piecesȱ andȱ anȱ assortmentȱ ofȱ otherȱ heavyȱ “OperationȱAllȱClear”ȱmayȱprovideȱtheȱfutureȱ weaponsȱ afterȱ sheȱ agreedȱ toȱ attackȱ allȱ modelȱforȱmilitaryȱcooperationȱbetweenȱSouthȱ northeasternȱrebelȱbasesȱinȱitsȱterritory.ȱȱ Asianȱ neighborsȱ inȱ anȱ eraȱ ofȱ warȱ againstȱ Givenȱ Bhutan’sȱ economicȱ andȱ strategicȱ terrorism.ȱSoȱfarȱtheyȱbackedȱinsurgentȱforcesȱ dependenceȱ onȱ India,ȱ oneȱ wouldȱ haveȱ leastȱ againstȱeachȱotherȱbutȱnowȱmanyȱofȱthemȱareȱ expectedȱ herȱ enemiesȱ toȱ findȱ shelterȱ inȱ theȱ joiningȱ ranksȱ inȱ transȬnationalȱ joint/ȱ landȱofȱtheȱDrukȱYul.ȱIndianȱintelligenceȱandȱ coordinatedȱ operationsȱ toȱ controlȱ andȱ itsȱ militaryȱ establishmentȱ wereȱ slowȱ toȱ reactȱ

32 Insurgencies in India’s Northeast: Conflict, Co-option & Change neutralizeȱinsurgentȱarmies.ȱTheseȱmayȱenjoyȱ insurgencyȱ operations.ȱ Andȱ theseȱ operationsȱ theȱblessingsȱofȱtheȱU.S.ȱTheȱeraȱofȱ“Insurgentȱ haveȱ allȱ theȱ fourȱ elementsȱ ofȱ theȱ Kautilayanȱ Crossfire”ȱ inȱ Southȱ Asiaȱ isȱ perhapsȱ notȱ yetȱ statecraft—Shamȱ (reconciliationȱ throughȱ overȱ butȱ theȱ eraȱ ofȱȈCounterȬInsurgencyȱ andȱ negotiations),ȱ Damȱ (monetaryȱ inducementsȱ CooperationȈȱ mayȱ justȱ beȱ beginning.ȱ Soȱ farȱ throughȱ transferȱ ofȱ federalȱ largesse),ȱ Dandaȱ Indiaȱ reposedȱ faithȱ inȱ titȬforȬtatȱ gesturesȱ toȱ (useȱofȱforceȱthroughȱmilitaryȱoperations)ȱandȱ counterȱ Pakistani,ȱ Chineseȱ orȱ Bangladeshiȱ Bhedȱ (Splitȱ inȱ rebelȱ ranks).ȱ Theȱ militaryȱ backingȱ toȱ Indianȱ insurgents.ȱ Butȱ sinceȱ responseȱisȱtheȱimmediateȱandȱtheȱmostȱvisibleȱ withdrawingȱ supportȱ toȱ theȱ Shantiȱ Bahiniȱ inȱ aspectȱofȱtheȱresponseȱbutȱitȱisȱalwaysȱmixedȱ Bangladesh’sȱ CHTȱ regionȱ andȱ theȱ Arakaneseȱ withȱ federalȱ largesses,ȱ engineeredȱ splitsȱ andȱ rebelsȱ ofȱ Burma,ȱ Indiaȱ hasȱ refrainedȱ fromȱ attemptsȱatȱreconciliation.ȱȱ backingȱ rebelsȱ inȱ neighbouringȱ countries.ȱ Theȱ structureȱ forȱ theȱ militaryȱ responseȱ Insteadȱ itȱ hasȱ resortedȱ toȱ buildingȱ upȱ hasȱalsoȱevolvedȱoverȱtheȱyearsȱinȱNortheast.ȱȱ diplomaticȱ pressureȱ andȱ offeredȱ concessionsȱ Theȱ Unifiedȱ Commandȱ structure,ȱ developedȱ toȱcountriesȱwhoȱactȱagainstȱantiȬIndianȱrebels.ȱȱ inȱ Assamȱ sinceȱ 1997ȱ isȱ headedȱ byȱ theȱ state’sȱ Theȱ Indianȱ militaryȱ machine,ȱ perhapsȱ chiefȱ civilianȱ administratorȱ (usuallyȱ theȱ chiefȱ withȱ theȱ mostȱ extensiveȱ andȱ longestȱ secretaryȱofȱtheȱstateȱgovernment)ȱbutȱitȱgivesȱ commitmentȱinȱcounterȬinsurgencyȱanywhereȱ muchȱpowerȱtoȱtheȱarmyȱinȱactualȱoperationalȱ inȱ theȱ world,ȱ isȱ seekingȱ dividendsȱ fromȱ theȱ planningȱ andȱ coordinateȱ useȱ ofȱ allȱ militaryȱ expectedȱ cooperationȱ withȱ theȱ neighboringȱ andȱotherȱparaȬmilitaryȱforces.ȱItȱalsoȱprovidesȱ militariesȱtoȱlendȱaȱcuttingȱedgeȱtoȱitsȱoverallȱ aȱ platformȱ forȱ necessaryȱ coordinationȱ andȱ counterȬinsurgencyȱ strategy—inȱ whichȱ intelligenceȱ sharingȱ betweenȱ theȱ army,ȱ theȱ militaryȱ actionȱ againstȱ theȱ rebelsȱ isȱ paraȬmilitaryȱ forcesȱ andȱ theȱ police.ȱ Attemptsȱ complementedȱ byȱ covertȱ intelligenceȱ toȱ setȱ upȱ aȱ transȬregionalȱ coordinatingȱ bodyȱ operationsȱthatȱdividesȱtheȱrebelȱranksȱandȱisȱ forȱconductingȱcounterȬinsurgencyȱoperationsȱ usuallyȱ followedȱ upȱ byȱ politicalȱ dealsȱ toȱ coȬ acrossȱallȱtheȱnortheasternȱstatesȱhas,ȱhoweverȱ optȱ rebelȱ leadersȱ andȱ recalcitrantȱ ethnicȱ notȱ beenȱ successfulȱ soȱ farȱ becauseȱ ofȱ turfȱ groupsȱ throughȱ autonomistȱ powerȱ sharingȱ battlesȱ andȱ interȬstateȱ rivalries.ȱ Suchȱ rivalriesȱ arrangements.ȱ Theseȱ arrangementsȱ areȱ canȱ evenȱ goȱ toȱ theȱ extentȱ ofȱ theȱ Tripura’sȱ formalizedȱinȱaccordsȱthatȱhelpȱbringȱinȱhugeȱ policeȱ chiefȱ accussingȱ theȱ Mizoramȱ quantamȱ ofȱ federalȱ largesseȱ forȱ theȱ governmentȱ (runȱ byȱ formerȱ MNFȱ insurgencyȬaffectedȱ regionȱ andȱ helpȱ theȱ undergroundȱ rebels)ȱ ofȱ backingȱ rebelsȱ inȱ hisȱ formerȱinsurgentsȱturnedȱpoliticiansȱtoȱhaveȱaȱ state.58 shareȱ ofȱ theȱ cake.ȱ Inȱ theȱ lastȱ moreȱ thanȱ fiftyȱ Theȱ usualȱ militaryȱ responseȱ toȱ years,ȱ theȱ Indianȱ stateȱ hasȱ stuckȱ toȱ theȱ insurgencyȱinȱNortheastȱhasȱfollowedȱaȱthreeȱ Kautilyanȱ preceptsȱ inȱ itsȱ counterȬinsurgencyȱ phaseȱ strategy:ȱ (a)ȱ “prevent,ȱ protectȱ andȱ responseȱ inȱ theȱ Northeastȱ andȱ thatȱ hasȱ preserve”ȱ phaseȱ whenȱ theȱ armyȱ getsȱ itsȱ providedȱ theȱ modelȱ forȱ similarȱ effortsȱ bearingsȱ onȱ theȱ movementȱ throughȱ aȱ mixȱ ofȱ elsewhereȱ inȱ theȱ country,ȱ albeitȱ withȱ someȱ “areaȱ domination,”ȱ staticȱ guardingȱ ofȱ targetsȱ modificationsȱ toȱ helpȱ adjustȱ toȱ localȱ (humanȱ andȱ material)ȱ andȱ “cordonȱ andȱ peculiarities.ȱȱ search”ȱ operationsȱ intendedȱ toȱ segregateȱ theȱ Aȱ revoltȱ likeȱ inȱ theȱ Mizoȱ hillsȱ orȱ evenȱ aȱ rebelsȱ fromȱ theȱ peopleȱ andȱ denyȱ themȱ seriousȱ breakdownȱ ofȱ lawȱ andȱ orderȱ likeȱ inȱ supplies;ȱ (b)ȱ theȱ “infiltrationȱ andȱ isolation”ȱ Assamȱhasȱbeenȱmetȱwithȱhugeȱdeploymentȱofȱ phaseȱ thatȱ involvesȱ penetratingȱ rebelȱ groupsȱ militaryȱunitsȱinȱ“aidȱtoȱcivilȱauthorities.”ȱTheȱ toȱ generateȱ credibleȱ intelligenceȱ followedȱ byȱ UnifiedȱCommandȱstructureȱthatȱwasȱsetȱupȱinȱ selectȱcounterȬactionȱtoȱkeepȱtheȱrebelsȱonȱtheȱ Assamȱ inȱ 1997–98ȱ isȱ nowȱ beingȱ offeredȱ asȱ aȱ runȱandȱtheȱunleashingȱofȱaȱpropagandaȱeffortȱ modelȱ structureȱ toȱ conductȱ counterȬ toȱdenyȱtheȱrebelsȱlocalȱsupport;ȱ(c)ȱtheȱ“attackȱ

33 Subir Bhaumik andȱfinish”ȱphaseȱwhenȱrebelȱbasesȱorȱmobileȱ theȱ separatistsȱ inȱ Nagalandȱ andȱ theȱ factȱ thatȱ squadsȱ areȱ attackedȱ inȱ largeȱ numbersȱ andȱ theȱceasefire,ȱbyȱandȱlarge,ȱisȱholdingȱthere;ȱ(c)ȱ theirȱorganizationȱisȱsplitȱthroughȱengineeredȱ theȱsplitsȱandȱtheȱweakeningȱofȱtheȱinsurgentȱ defections.ȱ Inȱ recentȱ years,ȱ theȱ armyȱhasȱalsoȱ groupsȱ inȱ Tripura;ȱ (d)ȱ theȱ growingȱ lackȱ ofȱ startedȱdirectȱdealsȱwithȱrebelȱgroupsȱtoȱplayȱ popularȱsupportȱforȱgroupsȱsuchȱasȱtheȱULFAȱ themȱoffȱagainstȱotherȱsuchȱgroups.ȱ whichȱhasȱresortedȱtoȱterrorȱtacticsȱlikeȱbombȱ Inȱ Manipur,ȱ theȱ armyȱ concludedȱ explosionsȱ inȱ crowdedȱ areas;ȱ (e)ȱ theȱ controlȱ Suspensionȱ Ofȱ Operationsȱ (SOO)ȱ agreementsȱ establishedȱȱbyȱ intelligenceȱ overȱ theȱ KukiȬ withȱ eightȱKukiȱandȱZomiȱmilitantȱgroupsȱinȱ ZomiȱrebelȱgroupsȱȱinȱManipurȱandȱtheirȱuseȱ 2005.ȱ Theseȱ groupsȱ wereȱ laterȱ draftedȱ intoȱ againstȱ Meiteiȱ rebelȱ groups.ȱ Theȱ influenceȱ ofȱ operationsȱagainstȱMeiteiȱrebelȱgroupsȱlikeȱtheȱ theȱ greatȱ Kautilyaȱ onȱ postȬcolonialȱ India’sȱ Unitedȱ Nationalȱ Liberationȱ Frontȱ (UNLF)ȱ byȱ counterȬinsurgencyȱ strategyȱ remainsȱ asȱ theȱarmy.ȱTheȱmilitaryȱintelligence,ȱwhichȱhadȱ preponderantȱ asȱ ever.ȱ Butȱ reconciliationȱ thatȱ previouslyȱ limitedȱ themselvesȱ toȱ organisingȱ heȱ suggestedȱ isȱ nowȱ attemptedȱ notȱ merelyȱ surrendersȱ fromȱ rebelȱ groups,ȱ haveȱ startedȱ withȱ theȱ insurgentsȱ butȱ alsoȱ withȱ India’sȱ gettingȱintoȱdealsȱdirectlyȱwithȱrebelȱgroupsȱtoȱ neighborsȱ whoȱ areȱ willingȱ toȱ lendȱ aȱ handȱ inȱ balanceȱ offȱ eachȱ other.ȱ Quiteȱ often,ȱ theȱ stateȱ neutralizingȱtheȱrebelsȱfightingȱIndia.ȱ governmentsȱ andȱ theirȱ policeȱ asȱ wellȱ asȱ Forȱ theȱ Indianȱ nationȬstate,ȱ thereȱ areȱ federalȱintelligenceȱagenciesȱareȱupsetȱwithȱtheȱ someȱlessonsȱtoȱabsorbȱfromȱitsȱmoreȱthanȱfiveȱ armyȱwhenȱitȱhasȱstruckȱsuchȱdealsȱwithȱrebelȱ decadesȱ ofȱ counterȬinsurgencyȱ experienceȱ inȱ groups.ȱ Theȱ Manipurȱ government,ȱ forȱ Northeast.ȱȱ instance,ȱ demandedȱ detailsȱ onȱ theȱ SOOsȱ x Preventionȱ ratherȱ thanȱ cure—itȱ isȱ signedȱwithȱtheȱeightȱKukiȬZomiȱrebelȱgroupsȱ importantȱ toȱ respondȱ toȱ grievancesȱ byȱ theȱ armyȱ andȱ madeȱ itȱ clearȱ thatȱ thoseȱ amongstȱ theȱ smallerȱ ethnicȱ groupsȱ ifȱ agreementsȱ wouldȱ beȱ summarilyȱ rejectedȱ ifȱ theyȱ areȱ unhappyȱ withȱ theȱ federalȱ theyȱinvolvedȱtheȱstate’sȱterritorialȱissues.59 authoritiesȱ orȱ regionalȱ powerȬcentresȱ Theȱfederalȱgovernmentȱhasȱtakenȱcareȱofȱ likeȱ theȱ stateȱ governments.ȱ Solutions,ȱ theȱ muchȱ ofȱ theȱ securityȱ relatedȱ expenditureȱ moreȱ substantiveȱ thanȱ mereȱ transferȱ incurredȱ byȱ theȱ Northeasternȱ states.ȱ Theȱ ofȱfederalȱlargesses,ȱhaveȱtoȱbeȱofferedȱ annualȱquantamȱofȱcentralȱassistanceȱreleasedȱ centeringȱ roundȱ comprehensiveȱ forȱsecurityȱexpenditureȱtoȱNortheasternȱstatesȱ devolutionȱ ofȱ powerȱ andȱ supportȱ forȱ hasȱgoneȱupȱfromȱ104.86ȱcroresȱ(1,048ȱmillion)ȱ developmentȱ ofȱ infrastructure—andȱ Indianȱ rupeesȱ inȱ 2000–01ȱ toȱ 150.41ȱ croresȱ inȱ thisȱ hasȱ toȱ happenȱ beforeȱ theȱ 2004–05ȱ writesȱ offȱ theȱ hugeȱ costȱ ofȱ securityȱ ethnicitiesȱ turnȱ toȱ armedȱ guerrillaȱ causedȱbyȱinsurgentȱaction.ȱAlmostȱhalfȱtheseȱ warfare.ȱ amountsȱhaveȱgoneȱintoȱAssamȱwhereȱtheȱcostȱ AssamȱchiefȱHiteswarȱSaikia’sȱofferȱinȱ ofȱguardingȱeconomicȱinstallationsȱlikeȱoilȱandȱ 1993–94ȱ toȱ createȱ autonomousȱ gasȱpipelinesȱandȱrefineriesȱ(thatȱareȱbombedȱ councilsȱ forȱ manyȱ ethnicȱ groupsȱ byȱrebels)ȱcallsȱforȱlargeȱdeploymentȱofȱparaȬ ratherȱthanȱofferȱoneȱtoȱtheȱBodosȱandȱ militaryȱ personnel.ȱ Overȱ theȱ lastȱ fiveȱ yearsȱ thanȱfaceȱsimilarȱdemandsȱfromȱotherȱ (2001ȱtoȱ2005),ȱtheȱfatalitiesȱinȱinsurgentȱactionȱ communitiesȱisȱaȱcaseȱinȱpoint.ȱȱ inȱtheȱNortheastȱhasȱdroppedȱfromȱ600ȱinȱ2001ȱ x Createȱ stakeȬholders,ȱ notȱ surrogates— toȱ393ȱinȱ2005.60 Delhiȱ shouldȱ offerȱ solutionsȱ forȱ theȱ Theȱ downwardȱ trendȱ inȱ insurgentȱ wholeȱ ethnicȱ groupȱ andȱ notȱ justȱ activitiesȱinȱnortheastȱIndiaȱmayȱbeȱattributedȱ assumeȱaȱproblemȱhasȱbeenȱsolvedȱbyȱ toȱ(a)ȱpoliticalȱreconciliationȱinȱsomeȱerstwhileȱ buyingȱoffȱtheȱrebels.ȱForȱinstance,ȱinȱ troubledȱareasȱlikeȱtheȱBodoȬdominatedȱareasȱ Tripura,ȱ itȱ isȱ importantȱ toȱ tackleȱ theȱ ofȱ Assam;ȱ (b)ȱ theȱ ongoingȱ negotiationsȱ withȱ problemȱ ofȱ tribalȱ landlessnessȱ thanȱ

34 Insurgencies in India’s Northeast: Conflict, Co-option & Change

justȱ bringingȱ aboutȱ theȱ surrenderȱ ofȱ divisionsȱ inȱ theȱ ethnicȱ societiesȱ thatȱ rebelȱ groupsȱ andȱ providingȱ themȱ makeȱ themȱ susceptibleȱ toȱ longȱ termȱ attractiveȱ rehabilitationȱ packages.ȱ instabilityȱandȱviolence.ȱ Suchȱ aȱ policyȱ onlyȱ encouragesȱ poorȱ x Humaniseȱ militaryȱ operations,ȱ improveȱ tribalsȱ fromȱ landlessȱ familiesȱ toȱ takeȱ intelligence—Ifȱ Indiaȱ believesȱ theȱ toȱ insurgency.ȱ Theȱ Tripuraȱ Northeastȱ isȱ partȱ ofȱ itsȱ country;ȱ itȱ isȱ governmentȱ canȱ getȱ uptoȱ 65ȱ km2ȱ ofȱ incumbentȱ toȱ pushȱ theȱ militaryȱ toȱ fertileȱlandsȱthatȱhasȱbeenȱunderȱwaterȱ operateȱwithȱaȱhumanȱface.ȱBrutalisedȱ forȱ thirtyȱ yearsȱ byȱ decommissioningȱ armiesȱ areȱ noȱ goodȱ asȱ fightingȱ theȱ 10ȱ MWȱ Gumtiȱ Hydelȱ projectȱ machines,ȱasȱformerȱIndianȱarmyȱchiefȱ whichȱ hasȱ stoppedȱ producingȱ Generalȱ Shankarȱ Roychoudhuriȱ onceȱ electricityȱduringȱsummersȱbecauseȱofȱ toldȱmeȱinȱaȱBBCȱinterview—andȱoneȱ lackȱofȱwaterȱinȱreservoir.ȱ onlyȱ hasȱ toȱ lookȱ toȱ theȱ brutalitiesȱ x Attemptȱ reconciliation,ȱ notȱ justȱ buyȱ perpetratedȱ byȱ theȱ Pakistanisȱ inȱ 1971ȱ time—Longȱ drawnȱ negotiations,ȱ likeȱ andȱtheȱcauseȱforȱtheȱlossȱofȱitsȱeasternȱ theȱoneȱwithȱtheȱNSCNȱ,ȱmayȱweakenȱ wingȱ isȱ notȱ hardȱ toȱ see.ȱ Theȱ Indianȱ orȱ discreditȱ existingȱ rebelȱ groupsȱ butȱ armyȱandȱparaȬmilitaryȱforcesȱmustȱbeȱ theyȱ don’tȱ endȱ upȱ providingȱ durableȱ professionallyȱ trainedȱ toȱ avoidȱ politicalȱ solutionsȱ toȱ issuesȱ thatȱ areȱ “overkill,”ȱ intelligenceȱ gatheringȱ hasȱ political.ȱ Theȱ settlementȱ hasȱ workedȱ toȱ beȱ improvedȱ toȱ provideȱ preciseȱ inȱ Mizoramȱ becauseȱ itȱ offeredȱ theȱ locationsȱofȱrebelsȱsoȱthatȱharassmentȱ rebels—andȱ theȱ Mizoȱ people—aȱ ofȱ theȱ civilianȱ populationȱ canȱ beȱ comprehensiveȱ politicalȱ packageȱ minimizedȱ andȱ theȱ forcesȱ mustȱ takeȱ includingȱ statehood.ȱ Longȱ drawnȱ partȱinȱgenuineȱandȱnotȱcosmeticȱcivicȱ negotiationsȱmayȱweakenȱgroupsȱlikeȱ actionȱ programmesȱ thatȱ willȱ benefitȱ theȱ NSCNȱ butȱ unlessȱ theȱ issueȱ isȱ theȱlocalȱpopulation.ȱȱ resolved,ȱsomeȱotherȱrebelȱoutfitȱmayȱ x Allowȱ betterȱ linkagesȱ withȱ theȱ emergeȱ withȱ theȱ unfinishedȱ agenda.ȱ neighborhood—Indiaȱshouldȱnotȱmerelyȱ Thisȱexplainsȱwhyȱinȱmostȱstates,ȱrebelȱ improveȱtiesȱwithȱitsȱneighborsȱtoȱuseȱ groupsȱhaveȱwitheredȱawayȱonlyȱtoȱbeȱ themȱ forȱ counterȬinsurgencyȱ replacedȱ byȱ otherȱ groupsȱ equallyȱ purposes—itȱ shouldȱ allowȱ localȱ violent.ȱȱ populationsȱ toȱ benefitȱ fromȱ crossȬ x Splitȱwork,ȱbutȱcomprehensiveȱsettlementsȱ borderȱ linkagesȱ throughȱ orderȱ tradeȱ workȱ better—Split,ȱ soȱ frequentlyȱ usedȱ andȱbetterȱpeopleȬtoȬpeopleȱcontact.ȱIfȱ byȱIndiaȱinȱnortheast,ȱhasȱbeenȱusefulȱ Indiaȱcanȱgetȱneighboringȱcountriesȱtoȱ toȱweakenȱrebelȱgroupsȱwhenȱtheyȱareȱ allowȱ ethnicitiesȱ likeȱ theȱ Nagasȱ andȱ fightingȱbutȱtheȱbenefitsȱareȱprimarilyȱ theȱ Mizosȱ toȱ haveȱ regularȱ andȱ tactical—itȱ createsȱ multipleȱ unhinderedȱ accessȱ toȱ areasȱ ofȱ theirȱ contendersȱforȱtheȱsameȱpoliticalȱspaceȱ ethnicȱ cousinsȱ inȱ Burmaȱ andȱ andȱ failsȱ toȱ bringȱ aboutȱȱaȱ consensusȱ Bangladesh,ȱ itȱ willȱ goȱ aȱ longȱ wayȱ toȱ neededȱ forȱȱaȱ durableȱ andȱ aȱ reduceȱtheȱurgeȱforȱattainingȱfreedomȱ comprehensiveȱ settlement—thatȱ isȱ throughȱarmedȱguerrillaȱwarfare.ȱȱȱ whyȱ theȱ settlementȱ hasȱ workedȱ inȱ x Doȱawayȱwithȱtheȱmainstream—Lastȱbutȱ Mizoramȱ becauseȱ Laldengaȱ couldȱ notȱ theȱ least,ȱ Indiaȱ mustȱ giveȱ upȱ thisȱ carryȱ theȱ entireȱ MNFȱ behindȱ itȱ andȱ grandȱideaȱofȱaȱ“nationalȱmainstream”ȱ thatȱisȱpreciselyȱwhyȱtheȱ1975ȱShillongȱ becauseȱthereȱisȱnotȱoneȱinȱthisȱhugelyȱ AccordȱfailedȱinȱNagaland.ȱSplitsȱalsoȱ diverseȱ country.ȱ Indiaȱ isȱ aȱ flowerȱ createȱ unwelcomedȱ andȱ bitterȱ gardenȱ whereȱ theȱ multiplicityȱ ofȱ theȱ

35 Subir Bhaumik

identityȱ isȱ aȱ factȱ ofȱ life,ȱ soȱ noȱ ethnicȱ ȱ group,ȱ howeverȱ small,ȱ shouldȱ beȱ ȱ compelledȱtoȱundergoȱmainstreaming.ȱ ȱ India’sȱ burgeoningȱ economyȱ andȱ herȱ obviousȱ successȱ inȱ soȱ manyȱ differentȱ ȱ spheresȱ shouldȱ giveȱ itsȱ leadersȱ theȱ ȱ necessaryȱ confidenceȱ toȱ handleȱ ȱ diversityȱatȱtheȱpoliticalȱlevel.ȱInȱviewȱ ȱ ofȱ itsȱ ownȱ recordȱ inȱ containingȱ theȱ ȱ insurgenciesȱ inȱ theȱ Northeast,ȱ Indianȱ leadersȱshouldȱnotȱbeȱundulyȱhauntedȱ ȱ byȱ theȱ spectreȱ ofȱ balkanizationȱ thatȱ ȱ existedȱinȱtheȱ1960s.ȱȱ ȱ x Giveȱ upȱ ethnicityȱ asȱ theȱ policyȱ basisȱ inȱ ȱ Northeast—everȱ sinceȱ theȱ creationȱ ofȱ ȱ Nagalandȱ asȱ aȱ separateȱ stateȱ andȱ theȱ subsequentȱ breakȬupȱ ofȱ Assam,ȱȱ ȱ ethnicȱgroupsȱinȱNortheastȱIndiaȱhaveȱ ȱ foundȱ thatȱ assertionȱ ofȱ theirȱ ethnicȱ ȱ identity,ȱ mifȱ necessaryȱ throughȱ ȱ violence,ȱhasȱpaid.ȱTheȱIndianȱstate,ȱinȱ ȱ itsȱ effortsȱ toȱ containȱ strongerȱ movements,ȱhaveȱalsoȱpatronizedȱandȱ ȱ boostedȱsmallerȱethnicitiesȱlikeȱtheȱuseȱ ȱ ofȱ theȱ KukiȬZomiȱ groupsȱ againstȱ theȱ ȱ Meiteisȱsinceȱ2005.ȱThatȱhasȱtoȱchange.ȱ ȱ Furtherȱ fragmentationȱ ofȱ existingȱ ȱ statesȱ inȱ theȱ Northeastȱ hasȱ toȱ beȱ stoppedȱ andȱ multiȬethnicȱ solutionsȱ ȱ haveȱtoȱbeȱworkedȱout.ȱȱ ȱ ȱȱ ȱ ȱ ȱ ȱ ȱ ȱ ȱ ȱ ȱ ȱ ȱ ȱ ȱ ȱ ȱ

36 Insurgencies in India’s Northeast: Conflict, Co-option & Change

Endnotes

1 Air Commodore Prashant Dixit, “Weaponisation of Indian Society through Illicit arms production and trade,” paper presented at seminar of Control Arms Foundation of India at Delhi on March 20, 2007. Dixit, a senior fellow at the Institute of Defense and Strategic Analysis in Delhi, lists 72 insurgent groups as being active in India's northeastern region.

2 Andrew Mack, “Why Big Nations Lose Small Wars: The Politics of Asymmetric Conflicts” in World Politics, Vol 27, No.2, January 1975. Other studies by Gil Meron, Ivan Arreguin-Toft and T.V. Paul advance similar arguments.

3 Kautilya's Arthasastra, Translated by L.N.Rangarajan, Penguin Classics Series, 1992.

4 Udayon Mishra (The Periphery Strikes Back, Shimla , 2000) and Sanjib Baruah (India against Itself, OUP, Delhi,1999) see the Northeast problem primarily in the context of the region’s confrontation with the Indian nation-state.

5 See Muivah’s interview with the author in Irrawady magazine, Chiang Mai (Thailand), January 2007.

6 For details of state-sponsored guerrilla campaigns in South Asia, see Subir Bhaumik, Insurgent Crossfire, Lancers, Delhi, 1996.

7 Muivah, interview with Subir Bhaumik, “A Naga Ultimatum” Irrawaddy magazine, Chiang Mai. January 2006.

8 Muivah argued his entire case for “Greater Naga state” and “special federal relationship” in this rather detailed interview with the author, Irrawaddy magazine, Chiang Mai, January 2006.

9 Former Manipur governor Ved Marwah told a seminar organised by the Delhi Policy Group on August 20–21, 2006 that he had put it on record his “serious reservations” about integration of Naga-dominant districts of Manipur with Nagaland.

10 Udayon Misra, 2000, the Periphery Strikes Back: Challenges to the Nation-state in Assam and Nagaland, Simla: Indian Institute of Advanced Study.

11 Kuldip Nayar, “Nagaland: Too Distant and Too Alienated,” India Abroad Weekly, New Jersey, U.S., December 15, 1995.

12 S.C. Dev, Nagaland: The Untold Story, (Calcutta: Pearl Publishers, 1987). Mr. Dev was senior administrator in Nagaland and received the Padma Shri award for “outstanding service under great adversity.”

13 Nibedon, Nirmal, 1978. Nagaland: The Night of the Guerillas, Delhi, Lancer, 1980

14 S.C.Dev, ibid.

15 Details of the India-NNC negotiations provided in Subir Bhaumik, Naga Peace Process (Kathmandu: South Asia Forum for of Human Rights, 2000).

16 G.K.Pillai, former joint secretary (Northeast) in Indian Home Ministry, interview with author, aired on BBC World Service, August 19, 1997.

17 For details of the Mizo uprising, See Nirmal Nibedon. 1980. The Dagger Brigade. Lancer Delhi.

18 V.S. Jafa, “Counter-Insurgency: The Use and Abuse of Military Force,” Faultlines, November 1999, Pages 96–97.

37 Subir Bhaumik

19 For details of MNF-Shanti Bahini clashes in CHT, see Subir Bhaumik, Inssurgent Crossfire, 1996, Lancer, Delhi.

20 TNV Chief B K Hrangkhawl, in letter to Tripura Chief Minister Nripen Chakrabarty on January 24,1985.

21 “In the name of Father?: Christian Insurgents and armed groups in Northern Uganda, Tripura and South Moluccas,” by Koen Vlassenroot, Bruno De Cordier and Jerome Adam, Conflict Research Group, Ghent University, Belgium.

22 See details of the Tripura government order in report entitled “New Succession Law for Tripura Missing Families” in Tripura Times, November 22, 2004, Agartala.

23 The ATTF demanded one million rupees to hand over the remains of Yugobroto Chakrabarty, tea planter of Tripura who died of renal failure while a hostage in ATTF’s Satcherri camp. This revelation by his brother, Santimoy Chakrabarty was reported in a special report on Tripura in BBC Bengali Service “Bishes Protibedon” aired at 2200 hours Indian Time on July 16, 2004.

24 V.Venkata Rao, “Meitei Nationalism,” paper presented at Northeast India History Congress’s annual conference at Imphal, 1983.

25 The RPF-PLA’s standpoint was reflected in several issues of their mouthpiece DAWN between September 1978 and July 1979. (All Dawn issues available with author).

26 Prepak’s political manifesto, available with author, called for “total nationalization of trade and commerce, revival of voluntary labor in Manipur and establishment of a government based on a mix of Communist and ancient Meitei ideals.”

27 UNLF publicity secretary Tombi alleged KNA guerrillas were used as scouts against their base in Dingpi area by the Indian army. Four guerrillas of the UNLF’s 293 battalion were killed by the army, see Imphal Free Press Journal, May 5, 2007.

28 For details of the conflict between the central leadership and the Assam leadership of the Congress, see Udayon Misra , The Periphery Strikes Back: Challenges to the Nation-state in Assam and Nagaland (Simla: Indian Institute of Advanced Study, 2000).

29 See Misra, The Periphery Strikes Back, ibid.

30 Quoted in Hussain, Monirul (edited), 2005. Coming out of Violence: Essays on Ethnicity, Conflict Resolution and Peace Process in Northeast India, Delhi, Regency Publications.

31 “Asombasi Purbobangeeya Jonogoshtiloi ULFA-r Ahwan (in Assamese) [ULFA’s call to the East Bengali peoples living in Assam], carried by Budhbar (literally Wednesday), an Assamese weekly, Guwahati, June 1992, P. 5–6.

32 ULFA’s military wing chief Paresh Barua, interview with author, broadcast on BBC Bengali “Bishes Protibedon” (Special Report) at 2200 hours IST , October 13, 2006.

33 The author was present at the 20th ABSU convention at Banshbari in 1987 when the decision to start the movement for a separate Bodo state was adopted with the slogan “Divide Assam Fifty-Fifty.”

34 Assam Chief Minister Hiteswar Saikia in press conference on May 13, 1993.

38 Insurgencies in India’s Northeast: Conflict, Co-option & Change

35 See Subir Bhaumik “Flower Garden or Fluid Corridor: A Conceptual Framework for Refugee Inflows and Internal Displacement in Northeast India” in O.P. Mishra and Anindyo. J. Majumdar (eds) “The Elsewhere People: Cross-border Migration, Refugee Protection and State Response” . 2003. Lancers. Delhi.

36 Indian military intelligence Lieutenant Colonels G. Shankar and G. Srikumar, both involved in the anti- NDFB operations, disclosed in conversation with the author that the BLTF and the Bengal Tigers were both armed by them and the fighters of these groups regularly accompanied the Indian army on attacks on NDFB bases.

37 Indian Home Minister Shivraj Patil told the Lok Sabha on October 18, 2006 that the government was still keen to open talks with the ULFA and the other insurgent groups in Northeast and that military operations could not solve what was essentially a political problem, see Times of India, October 19, 2006.

38 For a detailed study of South Asia’s externally-supported insurgencies, see Subir Bhaumik, Insurgent Crossfire (Delhi: Lancers, 1996).

39 B.B. Nandi, the former additional secretary of RAW, set up close links with the KIA during his tenure as RAW station chief in Bangkok. He developed a personal rapport with KIO chief Maran Brangsein and settled on a quid pro quo: the KIA promised not to help any northeast Indian rebel group any more, the RAW promised weapons and ammunition that the KIA needed to fight the Burmese junta. This relationship was short-lived, however, and did not last beyond 1993. The KIA announced a ceasefire with Burmese forces in 1994 and have not resumed fighting with the Tatmadaw (Burmese army). B.B. Nandi gave a detailed interview to this author on May 25, 2003, providing a graphic account of the RAW-KIO relationship.

40 Subir Bhaumik, “Strategic Pawn: Indian Policy in the Chittagong Hill Tracts” in “Living on the Edge: Essays on the Chittagong Hill Tracts (eds: Subir Bhaumik,Meghna Guha Thakurta and Sabyasachi Basu Ray Chaudhury) [Kathmandu : South Asia Forum for Human Rights, 1997] Pages 127–139.

41 Subir Bhaumik, “Politics of Sanctuary: Indian Rebel Bases in Bangladesh” in “Bangladesh: Treading the Taliban Trail” (edited by Jaideep Saikia) [Delhi: Vision Books, 2006] p. 186–206.

42 M.S.Kohli & Kenneth Conboy, Spies in the Himalayas: Secret Missions and Perilous Climbs, (Delhi: Harper Collins-India Today joint venture publication, 2002). It not only reveals how Indian intelligence helped train the Tibetan rebels but also how India used some of its best mountaineers to place plutonium devices on Himalayan peaks to monitor Chinese nuclear activity in the 1960s.

43 General K.V. Krishna Rao, former Indian army chief and later Governor of Nagaland, in interview with author, broadcast on “South Asia Report” program of BBC World Service, July 6, 1995. Rao had access to details of “interrogation reports” of surrendered and captured Naga rebels and also was privy to all confidential reports of Military Intelligence.

44 Colonel S.S. Medhi had published in 1988 from Karachi his recollections of the failed “Operation Gibraltar,” a 1965 operation initiated by the Pakistani Special Forces to train and induct thousands of mujahids from Pakistani Kashmir into Indian Kashmir for intense guerrilla war after which the Pakistan army was to make the big push to liberate Kashmir. While discussing the 1965 war in an interview with the author on February 3, 1990 at Oxford, Medhi disclosed how the SSG had trained and armed the Naga (and later the Mizo rebels) from Northeast India. He was part of the SSG complement based in East Pakistan.

45 Ibid. Details of the Sino-Pakistani Coordination Bureau were revealed by S.S. Medhi in the same interview at Oxford, February 3, 1990.

46 IB official Subir Dutta, just retired from service and winner of President’s Police Medal, was in charge of its Moreh outpost when Damkoshiak walked in with his entire group of China-returned guerrillas, surprising the army and the local police.

39 Subir Bhaumik

47 P.N. Banerji, RAW’s joint secretary (east), quoted in Subir Bhaumik, Insurgent Crossfire (Delhi, Lancers, 1996). p. 33.

48 Major Rafiqul Islam, A Tale of Millions, (Dhaka : Bangladesh Books International, 1981).

49 PCJSS/ Shanti Bahini leader Priti Kumar Chakma, then in charge of its “foreign liaison unit” based in Agartala (Tripura), in an interview with author on March 26, 1995.

50 Details of the escape of the MNF leaders is provided by Nirmal Nibedon, Mizoram: The Dagger Brigade (Delhi: Lancers, 1980).

51 Subir Bhaumik, “Politics of Sanctuary: Indian Rebel Bases in Bangladesh” in “Bangladesh: Treading the Taliban Trail” (edited by Jaideep Saikia) [Delhi: Vision Books, 2006] p.186–206.

52 Khagen Sarma, Inspector-General (Special Branch) of Assam Police, in a press conference at Guwahati on June 14, 2006, revealed the twelve locations used by ULFA military wing chief Paresh Barua as residences since he moved to Dhaka in 1991. He also provided details of ULFA cadres taken to Pakistan for training from the ULFA’s bases in Bangladesh.

53 RAW former secretary B.B. Nandi, interview with author on May 25, 2003 at his residence in Calcutta, where he lives after a chequered career spanning over three decades.

54 Vivek Katju, Indian ambassador to Burma in 2001, interview to author on December 26, 2001, expressed anger and disgust, because the Burmese were unwilling to send back the 192 arrested guerrillas to India for standing trial.

55 Jaideep Saikia, “Terrorism Sans Frontiers: ULFA Digs Deeper into Bhutan,” in O.P. Mishra and Sucheta Ghosh (eds.), Terrorism and Low-Intensity Conflict in South Asia Region (Delhi: Manak, 2003). p. 438–60.

56 Pravin Kumar, “External Linkages and Internal Security: Assessing Bhutan's Operation All Clear,” Strategic Analysis, Delhi, Vol 28 No 3, July–September 2004.

57 Retired Major General Gaganjit Singh, former GOC, 20 Division based on Assam-Bhutan border in interview to author, February 3, 2004.

58 Tripura police director General G.M. Srivastava alleged that Mizoram is now the “regrouping zone for Tripura rebels,” interview telecast on Northeast TV channel, December 1, 2006.

59 Manipur chief minister Okram Ibobi Singh in a press conference at Imphal, reported in Imphal Free Press Journal, August 28, 2005.

60 Annual Reports, Ministry of Home Affairs, Government of India 2000–01 to 2004–05.

40 Insurgencies in India’s Northeast: Conflict, Co-option & Change

Bibliographyȱȱ ȱ Alam,ȱK.ȱ1983.ȱTheȱDevelopmentȱExperienceȱinȱAssam,ȱGuwahati:ȱDuttaȱBaruaȱ&ȱCo.ȱ ȱ Barpujari,ȱH.K.ȱ1980.ȱAssamȱinȱtheȱDaysȱofȱtheȱCompanyȱ(1826–42)ȱGuwahati,ȱSpectrum.ȱȱ ȱ ______.ȱ1981.ȱProblemsȱofȱtheȱHillȱTribes:ȱNorthȬeastȱFrontierȱ(1873–1962),ȱGuwahati,ȱSpectrumȱ ȱȱ Baruah,ȱSanjib.ȱ1999.ȱIndiaȱagainstȱItself:ȱPoliticsȱofȱNationalityȱinȱAssam,ȱPhiladelphia,ȱUniversityȱofȱ PennsylvaniaȱPress.ȱ ȱ ______.ȱ2004.ȱDurableȱDisorder:ȱUnderstandingȱtheȱPoliticsȱofȱNortheastȱIndia,ȱDelhi,ȱOUP.ȱ ȱ ______.ȱ2003.ȱ“LookȱEastȱbutȱviaȱNortheast,”ȱIndianȱExpress,ȱNewȱDelhi,ȱDecemberȱ12ȱȱ ȱ Bhaumik,ȱSubir.ȱ1996.ȱInsurgentȱCrossfire:ȱNortheastȱIndia,ȱDelhi,ȱLancers.ȱȱ ȱ ______.ȱ1998.ȱ“NorthȬeastȱIndia:ȱTheȱEvolutionȱofȱaȱPostȬColonialȱRegion”ȱinȱ“WagesȱofȱFreedom:ȱ FiftyȱYearsȱofȱtheȱIndianȱNationȬstate”ȱ(ed:ȱParthaȱChatterjee),ȱDelhi,ȱOUP.ȱ ȱ ______.ȱ2003.ȱ“Bangladesh:ȱTheȱSecondȱFrontȱofȱIslamicȱTerror”ȱinȱ“TerrorismȱandȱLowȬIntensityȱ ConflictȱinȱSouthȱAsianȱRegionȱ(eds:ȱO.PȱMishraȱ&ȱSuchetaȱGhosh),ȱDelhi,ȱManakȱPublishers.ȱ ȱ ______.ȱ2004.ȱ“Ethnicity,ȱIdeologyȱandȱReligion:ȱSeparatistȱMovementsȱinȱIndia’sȱNorthȬeast”ȱinȱ “Religiousȱ Radicalismȱ andȱ Securityȱ inȱ Southȱ Asia”ȱ (eds:ȱ Satu.P.Limaye,ȱ Robertȱ Wirshingȱ &ȱ MohanȱMalik),ȱHonolulu,ȱHawaii,ȱAsiaȱPacificȱCenterȱforȱSecurityȱStudies.ȱ2005.ȱ ȱ ______.ȱ “Guns,ȱ Drugsȱ andȱ Rebels—India’sȱ Burmaȱ Policy,”ȱ Delhi,ȱ Seminarȱ magazine.ȱ Meghnaȱ GuhaȱThakurtaȱandȱSabyasachiȱBasuȱRayȱChaudhury),ȱKathmandu.ȱSAFHR.ȱȱ ȱ Bhattacharjee,ȱ J.B.ȱ (edited)ȱ 1982.ȱ Socialȱ Tensionȱ inȱ NorthȬeastȱ India,ȱ Calcutta,ȱ Researchȱ Indiaȱ Publications.ȱȱ ȱ Bhattacharjee,ȱS.R.,ȱ1989,ȱTribalȱInsurgencyȱinȱTripura:ȱAȱStudyȱinȱtheȱExplorationȱofȱCauses,ȱDelhi,ȱ InterȬIndiaȱPublications.ȱȱ ȱ Bose,ȱ Ashish;ȱ Tiplutȱ Nongbriȱ &ȱ Nikhileshȱ Kumar.ȱ 1990.ȱ Tribalȱ Demographyȱ andȱ Developmentȱ inȱ NorthȬeastȱIndia,ȱDelhi,ȱB.RȱPublishingȱCorporation.ȱ ȱ Chaube,ȱS.K,ȱ1973,ȱHillȱPoliticsȱinȱNortheastȱIndia,ȱDelhi,ȱOrientȱLongmans.ȱȱ ȱ Conboy,ȱKennethȱ&ȱM.S.ȱKohli.ȱ2002.ȱSpiesȱinȱtheȱHimalayas:ȱSecretȱMissionsȱandȱPerilousȱClimbs,ȱ Delhi,ȱHarperȱCollinsȬIndiaȱTodayȱjointȱventureȱpublishing.ȱ ȱ Das,ȱAmiyaȱKumar,ȱ1982.ȱAssam’sȱAgony,ȱDelhi.ȱLancers.ȱDatta,ȱP.S.,ȱ1990ȱ ȱ EthnicȱMovementsȱinȱPolyȬCulturalȱAssam,ȱDelhi,ȱHarȬAnandȱPublications.ȱ ȱ

41 Subir Bhaumik

Dev,ȱS.C,ȱ1987.ȱNagaland:ȱTheȱUntoldȱStory,ȱCalcutta,ȱPearlȱPublishers.ȱ ȱ Egreteau,ȱ Renaud,ȱ 2003.ȱ Wooingȱ theȱ Generals:ȱ India’sȱ Newȱ Burmaȱ Policy,ȱ Delhi,ȱ Authorspress,ȱ CentreȱdeȱSciencesȱHumaines.ȱ ȱ Gohain,ȱ Hiren,ȱ Augustȱ 1973,ȱ “Originsȱ ofȱ theȱ Assameseȱ Middleȱ Class,”ȱ Socialȱ Scientistȱ (Journal),ȱ Delhi.ȱ ȱ Goswami,ȱDilip,ȱ1974,ȱ“ElitesȱandȱEconomicȱDevelopment,”ȱTheȱNorthȬeastȱResearchȱBulletin,ȱVol.V,ȱ DibrugarhȱUniversity,ȱDibrugarhȱ(Assam).ȱ ȱȱ Guha,ȱ Amalendu,ȱ 1977;ȱ Planter’sȱ Rajȱ toȱ Swarajȱ Freedomȱ Struggleȱ andȱ Electoralȱ Politicsȱ inȱ Assamȱ (1826Ȭ1947)ȱ,ȱDelhi,ȱIndianȱCouncilȱofȱHistoricalȱResearch.ȱ ȱ ______.ȱ “Littleȱ Nationalismȱ Turnedȱ Chauvinist:ȱ Assam’sȱ antiȬforeignerȱ upsurgeȱ (1979Ȭ80)”ȱ Octoberȱ1980,ȱEconomicȱandȱPoliticalȱWeekly,ȱSpecialȱNumber,ȱBombay.ȱGopalkrishnan.R,ȱ1995,ȱ InsurgentȱNorthȬeasternȱRegionȱofȱIndia,ȱDelhi,ȱVikas.ȱ ȱ Gundevia,ȱY.D,ȱ1975,ȱWarȱandȱPeaceȱinȱNagaland,ȱDehradun,ȱPalitȱandȱPalit.ȱ ȱ Horam,ȱ M.,ȱ 1988,ȱ Nagaȱ Insurgency:ȱ Theȱ Lastȱ Thirtyȱ Years,ȱ Delhi,ȱ Cosmoȱ Publicationsȱ Hussain,ȱ Monirulȱ (edited),ȱ 2005.ȱ Comingȱ outȱ ofȱ Violence:ȱEssaysȱonȱEthnicity,ȱConflictȱResolutionȱandȱ PeaceȱProcessȱinȱNorthȬeastȱIndia,ȱDelhi,ȱRegencyȱPublications.ȱȱ ȱ Lintner,ȱ Bertil,ȱ 1990.ȱ Landȱ ofȱ Jade:ȱ Journeyȱ throughȱ Insurgentȱ Burma,ȱ Bangkok,ȱ Whiteȱ Lotusȱ &ȱ Kiscadaleȱ,ȱEdinburghȱ(Scotland).ȱ ȱ ______.ȱ1999.ȱBurmaȱinȱrevolt:ȱOpiumȱandȱInsurgencyȱsinceȱ1948,ȱBangkok,ȱSilkwormȱBooks.ȱ ȱ Karlekar,ȱHiranmoy,ȱ2005.ȱBangladesh:ȱTheȱNextȱAfghanistan,ȱDelhi,ȱSageȱPublishers.ȱ ȱ Lokendrajit,ȱSoyam,ȱ1988.ȱ“IdentityȱandȱCrisisȱofȱIdentity:ȱAȱCaseȱStudyȱofȱManipur”ȱInȱ“Manipurȱ:ȱ PastȱandȱPresent”ȱ(editedȱbyȱN.Sanajaoba)ȱDelhi,ȱMittalȱPublications.ȱȱ ȱ Misra,ȱ Tillotama,ȱ Augustȱ 9,ȱ 1980,ȱ “Assam:ȱ Aȱ Colonialȱ Hinterland,”ȱ Economicȱ &ȱ Politicalȱ Weekly,ȱ Bombayȱ ȱ Misra,ȱ Udayon,ȱ 2000,ȱ Theȱ Peripheryȱ Strikesȱ Back:ȱ Challengesȱ toȱ theȱ NationȬstateȱ inȱ Assamȱ andȱ Nagaland,ȱSimla:ȱIndianȱInstituteȱofȱAdvancedȱStudy.ȱȱ ȱ McCoy,ȱAlfred,ȱ1972,ȱTheȱPoliticsȱofȱHeroinȱinȱSouthȬeastȱAsia,ȱNewȱYork,ȱHarperȱAndȱRow.ȱȱ ȱ Nayyar,ȱV.K,ȱ1991,ȱThreatȱfromȱWithin:ȱIndia’sȱinternalȱsecurityȱenvironment,ȱLancer,ȱDelhi.ȱ ȱ Nibedon,ȱNirmal,ȱ1978.ȱNagaland:ȱTheȱNightȱofȱtheȱGuerillas,ȱDelhi,ȱLancer.ȱȱ ȱ ______.ȱ1980,ȱMizoram:ȱTheȱDagger’sȱBrigade,ȱDelhi,ȱLancer.ȱȱ ȱ

42 Insurgencies in India’s Northeast: Conflict, Co-option & Change

______.ȱ 1981,ȱ Northeastȱ Indiaȱ :ȱ Theȱ Ethnicȱ Explosion,ȱ Delhi,ȱ Lancerȱ 64Draftȱ Only.ȱ Notȱ forȱ circulation.ȱȱ ȱ Pakem.ȱBȱ(edited),ȱ1997.ȱInsurgencyȱinȱNorthȬeastȱIndia,ȱDelhi,ȱOmsons.ȱȱ ȱ ______.ȱ1990,ȱNationality,ȱEthnicityȱandȱCulturalȱIdentityȱinȱNorthȬeastȱIndia,ȱDelhi,ȱOmsonsȱȱ ȱ Phadnis,ȱUrmila,ȱ1989.ȱEthnicityȱandȱNationȬBuildingȱinȱSouthȱAsia,ȱDelhi,ȱSageȱPublications.ȱȱ ȱ Raman,ȱB,ȱ2002.ȱIntelligence:ȱPast,ȱPresentȱandȱFuture,ȱDelhi,ȱLancer.ȱȱ ȱ RoyȱBurman,ȱB.K.,ȱ1995.ȱIndigenousȱandȱTribalȱPeoplesȱandȱtheȱUNȱandȱInternationalȱAgencies.ȱ ȱ RajivȱGandhiȱInstituteȱforȱContemporaryȱStudies,ȱPaper.ȱNoȱ27.ȱȱ ȱ Saikia,ȱ Jaideepȱ ,ȱ 2004,ȱ Terrorȱ Sansȱ Frontiersȱ :ȱ Islamistȱ Militancyȱ inȱ Northeastȱ Indiaȱ Delhi,ȱ Visionȱ Booksȱȱ ȱ ______.ȱȱ(edited),ȱ2006,ȱBangladeshȱ:ȱTreadingȱtheȱTalibanȱTrail,ȱDelhi,ȱVisionȱBooks.ȱȱ ȱ Singh,ȱB.P.,ȱ1987.ȱTheȱProblemȱofȱChange:ȱAȱStudyȱofȱNorthȬeastȱIndia,ȱDelhi,ȱOUP.ȱSingh,ȱL.P.,ȱ1994.ȱ Nationalȱ Policyȱ forȱ theȱ Northeast,ȱ Unpublishedȱ Paper,ȱ Delhi,ȱ Seminar.ȱ Thomas,ȱ C.Jȱ (edited),ȱ DimensionsȱofȱDisplacedȱPeopleȱinȱNorthȬeastȱIndia,ȱDelhi,ȱRegencyȱPublications.ȱȱ ȱ Verghese,ȱB.G,ȱ2004.ȱIndia’sȱNortheastȱResurgent:ȱEthnicity,ȱInsurgency,ȱGovernance,ȱDevelopment,ȱ Delhi,ȱKonarkȱPublishers.ȱ ȱ

43

ȱ InternalȱConflictsȱandȱStateȬBuildingȱȱ ChallengesȱinȱAsiaȱ ȱ ProjectȱInformationȱ

Internal Conflicts and State-Building Challenges in Asia Project Rationale, Purpose, and Outline

Project Director: Muthiah Alagappa Principal Researchers: Morten Pedersen (Burma/Myanmar) Saroja Dorairajoo (southern Thailand) Mahendra Lawoti (Nepal) Samir Kumar Das (northeast India) Neil DeVotta (Sri Lanka)

Rationale

Internal Conflicts and State-Building Challenges in Asia is part of a larger East-West Center project on state building and governance in Asia that investigates political legitimacy of governments, the relationship of the military to the state, the development of political and civil societies and their roles in democratic development, the role of military force in state formation, and the dynamics and management of internal conflicts arising from nation- and state-building processes. An earlier project investigating internal conflicts arising from nation- and state- building processes focused on conflicts arising from the political consciousness of minority communities in China (Tibet and Xinjiang), Indonesia (Aceh and Papua), and southern

Philippines (the Moro Muslims). Funded by the Carnegie Corporation of New York, that highly successful project was completed in March 2005. The present project, which began in July 2005, investigates the causes and consequences of internal conflicts arising from state- and nation- building processes in Burma/Myanmar, southern Thailand, Nepal, northeast India, and Sri

Lanka, and explores strategies and solutions for their peaceful management and eventual settlement.

Internal conflicts have been a prominent feature of the Asian political landscape since 1945. Asia has witnessed numerous civil wars, armed insurgencies, coups d'état, regional rebellions, and

47 revolutions. Many have been protracted; several have far-reaching domestic and international consequences. The civil war in Pakistan led to the break up of that country in 1971; separatist struggles challenge the political and territorial integrity of China, India, Indonesia, Burma, the

Philippines, Thailand, and Sri Lanka; political uprisings in Thailand (1973 and 1991), the

Philippines (1986), South Korea (1986), Taiwan (1991) Bangladesh (1991), and Indonesia

(1998) resulted in dramatic political change in those countries. Although the political uprisings in

Burma (1988) and China (1989) were suppressed, the political systems in those countries, as well as in Vietnam, continue to confront problems of legitimacy that could become acute; and radical

Islam poses serious challenges to stability in Pakistan, Bangladesh, and Indonesia. The Thai military ousted the democratically-elected government of Thaksin Shinawatra in 2006. In all, millions of people have been killed in the internal conflicts, and tens of millions have been displaced. Moreover, the involvement of external powers in a competitive manner (especially during the Cold War) in several of these conflicts had negative consequences for domestic and regional security.

Internal conflicts in Asia can be traced to contestations over political legitimacy (the title to rule), national identity, state building, and distributive justice––that are often interconnected. With the bankruptcy of the socialist model and transitions to democracy in several countries, the number of internal conflicts over political legitimacy has declined in Asia. However, the legitimacy of certain governments continues to be contested from time to time, and the remaining communist and authoritarian systems are likely to confront challenges to their legitimacy in due course.

Internal conflicts also arise from the process of constructing modern nation-states, and the unequal distribution of material and status benefits. Although many Asian states have made considerable progress in constructing national communities and viable states, several countries,

48 including some major ones, still confront serious problems that have degenerated into violent conflict. By affecting the political and territorial integrity of the state as well as the physical, cultural, economic, and political security of individuals and groups, these conflicts have great potential to affect domestic and international stability.

Purpose

Internal Conflicts and State-Building Challenges in Asia examines internal conflicts arising from the political consciousness of minority communities in Burma/Myanmar, southern Thailand, northeast India, Nepal, and Sri Lanka. Except for Nepal, these states are not in danger of collapse. However, they do face serious challenges at the regional and local levels which, if not addressed, can negatively affect the vitality of the national state in these countries. Specifically, the project has a threefold purpose: (1) to develop an in-depth understanding of the domestic, transnational, and international dynamics of internal conflicts in these countries in the context of nation- and state-building strategies; (2) to examine how such conflicts have affected the vitality of the state; and (3) to explore strategies and solutions for the peaceful management and eventual settlement of these conflicts.

Design

A study group has been organized for each of the five conflicts investigated in the study. With a principal researcher for each, the study groups comprise practitioners and scholars from the respective Asian countries, including the region or province that is the focus of the conflict, as well as from Australia, Britain, Belgium, Sweden, and the United States. The participants list that follows shows the composition of the study groups.

49 All five study groups met jointly for the first time in Washington, D.C., on October 30–

November 3, 2005. Over a period of five days, participants engaged in intensive discussion of a

wide range of issues pertaining to the conflicts investigated in the project. In addition to

identifying key issues for research and publication, the meeting facilitated the development of

cross-country perspectives and interaction among scholars who had not previously worked

together. Based on discussion at the meeting, twenty-five policy papers were commissioned.

The study groups met separately in the summer of 2006 for the second set of meetings, which

were organized in collaboration with respected policy-oriented think tanks in each host country.

The Burma and southern Thailand study group meetings were held in Bangkok July 10–11 and

July 12–13, respectively. These meetings were cosponsored by The Institute of Security and

International Studies, Chulalongkorn University. The Nepal study group was held in Kathmandu,

Nepal, July 17–19, and was cosponsored by the Social Science Baha. The northeast India study

group met in New Delhi, India, August 9–10. This meeting was cosponsored by the Centre for

Policy Research. The Sri Lanka meeting was held in Colombo, Sri Lanka, August 14–16, and

cosponsored by the Centre for Policy Alternatives. In each of these meetings, scholars and

practitioners reviewed and critiqued papers produced for the meetings and made suggestions for

revision.

Publications

This project will result in twenty to twenty-five policy papers providing a detailed examination

of particular aspects of each conflict. Subject to satisfactory peer review, these 18,000- to

24,000-word essays will be published in the East-West Center Washington Policy Studies series, and will be circulated widely to key personnel and institutions in the policy and intellectual

50 communities and the media in the respective Asian countries, the United States, and other relevant countries. Some studies will be published in the East-West Center Washington Working

Papers series.

Public Forums

To engage the informed public and to disseminate the findings of the project to a wide audience, public forums have been organized in conjunction with study group meetings.

Five public forums were organized in Washington, D.C., in conjunction with the first study group meeting. The first forum, cosponsored by The Johns Hopkins University’s School of

Advanced International Studies, discussed the conflict in southern Thailand. The second, cosponsored by The Sigur Center for Asian Studies of The George Washington University, discussed the conflict in Burma. The conflicts in Nepal were the focus of the third forum, which was cosponsored by the Asia Program at The Woodrow Wilson International Center for

Scholars. The fourth public meeting, cosponsored by the Foreign Policy Studies program at The

Brookings Institution, discussed the conflicts in northeastern India. The fifth forum, cosponsored by the South Asia Program of the Center for Strategic and International Studies, focused on the conflict in Sri Lanka.

Funding Support

The Carnegie Corporation of New York is once again providing generous funding support for the project.

51

Project Director Muthiah Alagappa, Ph.D. Director, East-West Center Washington (from February 2001 to January 2007) Distinguished Senior Fellow, East-West Center (from February 1, 2007) ______Burma/Myanmar Study Group

Morten Pedersen Zaw Oo United Nations University American University Principal Researcher Martin Smith Mary Callahan Independent Analyst, London University of Washington David I. Steinberg Christina Fink Georgetown University Chiang Mai University David Tegenfeldt Hope International Development Agency, Saboi Jum Shalom Foundation, Yangon Yangon

Kyi May Kaung Mya Than Freelance Writer/Analyst, Washington, D.C. Chulalongkorn University

Tom Kramer Tin Maung Maung Than Freelance Consultant, Amsterdam Institute of Southeast Asian Studies, Singapore

Curtis Lambrecht Ardeth Thawnghmung Yale University University of Massachusetts, Lowell

David Scott Mathieson Meredith Weiss Australian National University East-West Center Washington

Win Min Khin Zaw Win Chiang Mai University Independent Researcher, Yangon Harn Yawnghwe Euro-Burma Office, Brussels

______Southern Thailand Study Group Marc Askew Victoria University, Melbourne Saroja Dorairajoo National University of Singapore Suchit Bunbongkarn Principal Researcher Chulalongkorn University

Thanet Aphornsuvan Kavi Chongkittavorn Thammasat University Nation Multimedia Group, Bangkok

53 Neil John Funston Surin Pitsuwan Australian National University MP, Thai House of Representatives

Surat Horachaikul Thitinan Pongsudhirak Chulalongkorn University Chulalongkorn University

Srisompob Jitpiromsri Chaiwat Satha-Anand Prince of Songkla University, Pattani Campus Thammasat University

Joseph Chinyong Liow Vaipot Srinual Nanyang Technological University, Singapore Supreme Command Headquarters, Thailand

Chandra-nuj Mahakanjana Wattana Sugunnasil National Institute of Development Prince of Songkla University, Pattani Campus Administration, Bangkok Panitan Wattanayagorn Duncan McCargo Chulalongkorn University University of Leeds Imtiyaz Yusuf Celakhan (Don) Pathan Assumption University, Bangkok The Nation Newspaper, Bangkok

______

Nepal Study Group Sumitra Manandhar-Gurung Lumanthi and National Coalition Against Racial Discrimination, Kathmandu Mahendra Lawoti Western Michigan University Harka Gurung (deceased) Principal Researcher Transparency International, Nepal

Itty Abraham Dipak Gyawali East-West Center Washington Royal Nepal Academy of Science and Technology, Kathmandu Meena Acharya Tanka Prasad Acharya Memorial Foundation, Krishna Hacchethu Kathmandu Tribhuvan University

Lok Raj Baral Susan Hangen Nepal Center for Contemporary Studies, Ramapo College, New Jersey Kathmandu Lauren Leve Surendra Raj Bhandari University of North Carolina, Chapel Hill Law Associates Nepal, Kathmandu Prakash Chandra Lohani Chandra Dev Bhatta Former Finance Minister, Nepal London School of Economics Pancha Narayan Maharjan Krishna Bhattachan Tribhuvan University, Kirtipur Tribhuvan University

54 Sukh Deo Muni Hari Sharma Observer Research Foundation, New Delhi Social Science Baha, Kathmandu

Anup Pahari Sudhindra Sharma Foreign Service Institute, Arlington Interdisciplinary Analyst (IDA), Kathmandu

Rajendra Pradhan Dhruba Kumar Shrestha Social Science Baha, Kathmandu Tribhuvan University

Shree Govind Shah Seira Tamang Environmental Resources Planning and Centre for Social Research and Development, Monitoring/Academy of Social Justice & Human Kathmandu Rights, Kathmandu Bishnu Raj Upreti Saubhagya Shah National Centre of Competence in Research, Tribhuvan University Kathmandu

______Northeast India Study Group Uddipana Goswami Center for Studies in Social Science, Kolkata Samir Kumar Das University of Calcutta Bejoy Das Gupta Principal Researcher Institute of International Finance, Inc., Washington, D.C. Dipankar Banerjee Institute of Peace and Conflict Studies, New Partha S. Ghosh Delhi Jawaharlal Nehru University

Sanjay Barbora Sanjoy Hazarika North Eastern Social Research Centre, Assam Centre for North East Studies and Policy Research, New Delhi Kalyan Barooah Assam Tribune Anil Kamboj Institute for Defence Studies and Analyses, Sanjib Baruah New Delhi Center for Policy Research, New Delhi Bard College, New York Bengt Karlsson Uppsala University, Sweden M.P. Bezbaruah UN – WTO (World Tourism Organization), New Dolly Kikon Delhi Stanford University

Pinaki Bhattacharya Ved Marwah The Mathrubhumi, Kerala Centre for Policy Research, New Delhi

Subir Bhaumik Pratap Bhanu Mehta British Broadcasting Corporation, Kolkata Centre for Policy Research, New Delhi Sukh Deo Muni Observer Research Foundation, New Delhi

55 Bhagat Oinam E.N. Rammohan Jawaharlal Nehru University National Security Council, New Delhi

Pradip Phanjoubam Bibhu Prasad Routray Imphal Free Press, Manipur Institute for Conflict Management, New Delhi

V.R. Raghavan Ronojoy Sen Delhi Policy Group The Times of India, New Delhi

Rajesh Rajagopalan Prakash Singh Jawaharlal Nehru University Border Security Force (Ret’d.)

Swarna Rajagopalan George Verghese Chaitanya––The Policy Consultancy, Chennai Centre for Policy Research, New Delhi

______Sri Lanka Study Group Anberiya Hanifa Neil DeVotta Muslim Women’s Research and Action Forum, Hartwick College Colombo Principal Researcher Dayan Jayatilleka Ravinatha P. Aryasinha University of Colombo American University N. Kandasamy Sunanda Deshapriya Center for Human Rights and Development in Centre for Policy Alternatives, Colombo Colombo

Rohan Edrisinha S.I. Keethaponcalan Centre for Policy Alternatives, Colombo University of Colombo

Nimalka Fernando N. Manoharan International Movement Against All Forms of Institute of Peace and Conflict Studies, New Discrimination & Racism, Colombo Delhi

Bhavani Fonseka Dennis McGilvray Centre for Policy Alternatives, Colombo University of Colorado at Boulder

Mario Gomez Jehan Perera Berghof Foundation for Conflict Studies, National Peace Council of Sri Lanka, Colombo Colombo Gajendrakumar Ponnambalam Air Vice Marshall Harry Goonetileke MP, Sri Lanka Colombo Mirak Raheem Centre for Policy Alternatives, Colombo

56 Darini Rajasingham Muttukrishna Sarvananthan Centre for Poverty Analysis, Colombo Point Pedro Institute of Development, Sri Lanka John Richardson, Jr. American University Peter Schalk Uppsala University, Sweden Norbert Ropers Berghof Foundation for Conflict Studies, Asanga Tilakaratne Colombo University of Kelaniya

Kanchana N. Ruwanpura Jayadeva Uyangoda Hobart and William Smith Colleges, New York University of Colombo

P. Sahadevan Asanga Welikala Jawaharlal Nehru University Centre for Policy Alternatives, Colombo

Paikiasothy Saravanamuttu Jayampathy Wickramaratne Centre for Policy Alternatives, Colombo Ministry of Constitutional Affairs, Sri Lanka

Javid Yusuf Attorney-at-Law, Colombo

57

Background of the Conflicts in Northeast India

Northeast India owes its geographical distinctiveness in relation to the Indian “mainland” to the partition of the subcontinent in 1947. But as an official Indian category it dates from 1971 following a radical reorganization of internal boundaries and creation of new states. The region is connected with the rest of India through a narrow corridor, which is approximate thirty-three kilometers wide on the eastern side and twenty-one kilometers wide on the western side. This constitutes barely one percent of the boundaries of the region, while the remaining 99 percent of its boundaries are international––with China’s Tibet region to the north, Bangladesh to the southwest, Bhutan to the northwest, and Burma/Myanmar to the east. The region comprises the seven Indian states of Assam, Arunachal Pradesh, Manipur, Meghalaya, Mizoram, Nagaland, and Tripura––also known as “Seven Sisters.” Since 2003, Sikkim has been included as the eighth member of the regional North Eastern Council. With the exception of Nagaland, which became a state in 1963, most of the states in the region were reorganized between 1971 and 1987. These cover a total area of over 254,645 square kilometers (about 8.7 percent of India’s territory) and, according to the 2001 Census of India, have a combined population of 38,495,089 people––roughly 3.73 per cent of the country’s population. The region accounts for one of the largest concentrations of “tribal” people in the country–– constituting about 30 percent of the total population––though with a skewed distribution of over 60 percent in Arunachal Pradesh, Manipur, Meghalaya, Mizoram, and Nagaland together. Three states––Nagaland, Mizoram and Meghalaya––contain an overwhelming majority of Christians (90, 87, and 70 percent respectively). The region is characterized by extraordinary ethnic, cultural, religious, and linguistic diversity, with more than 160 Scheduled Tribes and over 400 distinct tribal and subtribal groupings, and a large and diverse nontribal population concentrated mainly in Assam, Manipur, and Tripura. An estimated 220 languages belonging to the Indo- Aryan, Sino-Tibetan, and Austric language families are spoken in the region––the largest concentration of languages in the subcontinent. Although the Ahoms were successful in gradually consolidating the greater part of the region under a single political unit in the course of their rule (1228–1826), court chronicles of the Kacharis (1515–1818), the Jaintias (1500–1835), the Manipur Kings (1714–1949), and other local groups point out how they had historically retained varying degrees of independence into

59 the nineteenth century, when the British took over the region. Colonial rulers took nearly a century to finally annex the entire region and exercised their control over the hills primarily as a loosely administered “frontier” area, thereby separating it from the “subjects” of the thickly populated plains. Northeast India has been the theater of the earliest and longest-lasting insurgency in the country––in the Naga Hills––where violence centering on independentist demands commenced in 1952, followed by the Mizo rebellion in 1966 and a multiplicity of more recent conflicts that have proliferated especially since the late 1970s. Every state in the region excepting Sikkim is currently affected by some form of insurgent violence, and four of these (Assam, Manipur, Nagaland, and Tripura) have witnessed scales of conflict that could––at least between 1990 and 2000, be characterized as low intensity conflicts. The Government of India has entered into ceasefire agreements––renewed from time to time until today—with two of the leading factions of the National Socialist Council of Nagaland in 1997 and 2001. The Government of India and one of these factions, the National Socialist Council of Nagaland (Isak-Muivah), are now reportedly involved in discussing “substantive issues” while trying to reach a “permanent and honorable” solution to the long-standing problem. The Mizo National Front and the Government of India signed a Memorandum of Understanding in 1986 and their rebel leader, Laldenga, subsequently formed his own political party and became chief minister of Mizoram State. The United National Liberation Front (UNLF)––the armed opposition group active in the valley of Manipur, contests the “Merger Agreement” that the king of Manipur signed with the Government of India in 1949 on the grounds that the king signed it under duress. The United Liberation Front of Assam (ULFA) too questions Assam’s inclusion in the Indian Union. Attempts have been made to bring UNLF and ULFA to the negotiating table. The Government’s response to independentist demands so far has included enacting extraordinary legislation like the Armed Forces (Special Powers) Act of 1958, utilizing security forces to suppress rebellion, promoting economic development, and negotiating peace agreements with the insurgent organizations. Although landlocked on all sides, migration, whether from across the international borders or from other parts of India, continues unabated. A significant part of the immigration into the region is thought to be cross-border and illegal––especially of foreigners from Bangladesh. The region has frequently been rocked by violent tremors of anti-immigrant

60 sentiments. Although a major problem, the Government often finds it difficult to detect and disenfranchise—let alone deport the foreigners. Conflicts in Northeast India have not only focused on the Indian state, but also manifest intergroup and intragroup dimensions. Intergroup conflicts based on mutually rivaling “homeland” demands (say, between the Bodos and the non-Bodos, the Karbis and the Dimasas in Assam, the Nagas and the Kukis/Paites in the hills of Manipur, the Mizos and the Brus/Reangs in Mizoram, etc.) and struggle for power among competing groups have sparked conflicts and internal displacements. The multiple forms of resistance in the exceptionally diverse ethnic landscape have produced politics and struggles with multiple competing agendas.

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MapȱofȱNortheastȱIndiaȱ

63 WorkingȱPapersȱ

PreviousȱPublicationsȱ

WorkingȱPaperȱNumberȱ1,ȱMayȱ2004ȱ DemographicsȱandȱDevelopmentȱinȱXinjiangȱafterȱ1949ȱ ȱ StanleyȱToopsȱ ȱ WorkingȱPaperȱNumberȱ2,ȱOctoberȱ2004ȱ China’sȱPolicyȱonȱTibetanȱAutonomyȱ ȱ WarrenȱW.ȱSmithȱ ȱ WorkingȱPaperȱNumberȱ3,ȱJanuaryȱ2005ȱ DelaysȱinȱtheȱPeaceȱNegotiationsȱbetweenȱtheȱPhilippineȱGovernmentȱandȱtheȱ MoroȱIslamicȱLiberationȱFront:ȱCausesȱandȱPrescriptionsȱ ȱ SolimanȱM.ȱSantos,ȱJr.ȱ ȱ WorkingȱPaperȱNumberȱ4,ȱJulyȱ2005ȱ HumanȱRightsȱinȱSoutheastȱAsia:ȱTheȱSearchȱforȱRegionalȱNormsȱ ȱ HermanȱJosephȱS.ȱKraftȱ ȱ WorkingȱPaperȱNumberȱ5,ȱAugustȱ2006ȱ Decentralization,ȱLocalȱGovernment,ȱandȱSocioȬpoliticalȱConflictȱinȱSouthernȱ Thailandȱ ȱ ChandraȬnujȱMahakanjanaȱ ȱ WorkingȱPaperȱNumberȱ6,ȱNovemberȱ2006ȱ CommittingȱSuicideȱforȱFearȱofȱDeath:ȱPowerȱShiftsȱandȱPreventiveȱWarȱ ȱ DongȱSunȱLeeȱ ȱ WorkingȱPaperȱNumberȱ7,ȱMarchȱ2007ȱ FacesȱofȱIslamȱinȱSouthernȱThailandȱ ȱ ImtiyazȱYusufȱ ȱ WorkingȱPaperȱNumberȱ8,ȱAprilȱ2007ȱ InternalȱDisplacement,ȱMigration,ȱandȱPolicyȱinȱNortheasternȱIndiaȱ ȱ UddipanaȱGoswamiȱ ȱ WorkingȱPaperȱNumberȱ9,ȱMayȱ2007ȱ OriginsȱofȱtheȱUnitedȱStatesȬIndiaȱNuclearȱAgreementȱ ȱ IttyȱAbrahamȱ

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