Internal Displacement, Migration, and Policy in Northeastern India

No. 8, April 2007 InternalȱDisplacement,ȱ Migration,ȱandȱPolicyȱinȱ PAPERS

ȱ NortheasternȱIndia Uddipana Goswami

East-West Center Washington WORKING EastȬWestȱCenterȱ TheȱEastȬWestȱCenterȱisȱanȱ internationallyȱrecognizedȱeducationȱ andȱresearchȱorganizationȱ establishedȱbyȱtheȱU.S.ȱCongressȱinȱ 1960ȱtoȱstrengthenȱunderstandingȱ andȱrelationsȱbetweenȱtheȱUnitedȱ StatesȱandȱtheȱcountriesȱofȱtheȱAsiaȱ Pacific.ȱThroughȱitsȱprogramsȱofȱ cooperativeȱstudy,ȱtraining,ȱ seminars,ȱandȱresearch,ȱtheȱCenterȱ worksȱtoȱpromoteȱaȱstable,ȱpeacefulȱ andȱprosperousȱAsiaȱPacificȱ communityȱinȱwhichȱtheȱUnitedȱ Statesȱisȱaȱleadingȱandȱvaluedȱ partner.ȱFundingȱforȱtheȱCenterȱ comesȱforȱtheȱU.S.ȱgovernment,ȱ privateȱfoundations,ȱindividuals,ȱ corporationsȱandȱaȱnumberȱofȱAsiaȬ Pacificȱgovernments.ȱȱ

EastȬWestȱCenterȱWashington EstablishedȱonȱSeptemberȱ1,ȱ2001,ȱtheȱ primaryȱfunctionȱofȱtheȱEastȬWestȱ CenterȱWashingtonȱisȱtoȱfurtherȱtheȱ EastȬWestȱCenterȱmissionȱandȱtheȱ institutionalȱobjectiveȱofȱbuildingȱaȱ peacefulȱandȱprosperousȱAsiaȱPacificȱ communityȱthroughȱsubstantiveȱ programmingȱactivitiesȱfocusedȱonȱ theȱthemeȱofȱconflictȱreductionȱinȱtheȱ AsiaȱPacificȱregionȱandȱpromotingȱ Americanȱunderstandingȱofȱandȱ engagementȱinȱAsiaȱPacificȱaffairs.

ContactȱInformation: Editor,ȱEWCWȱWorkingȱPapers EastȬWestȱCenterȱWashington 1819ȱLȱStreet,ȱNW,ȱSuiteȱ200 Washington,ȱD.C.ȱȱ20036 Tel:ȱ(202)ȱ293Ȭ3995 Fax:ȱ(202)ȱ293Ȭ1402 [email protected] Uddipana Goswamiȱis a Ph.D. fellow at the Centre for Studies in Social Sciences, Calcutta (CSSSCAL).

EastȬWestȱCenterȱWashingtonȱWorkingȱPapers ThisȱWorkingȱPaperȱisȱaȱproductȱofȱtheȱEastȬWestȱCenterȱWashingtonȱprojectȱonȱ InternalȱConflictsȱandȱStateȬBuildingȱChallengesȱinȱAsia.ȱSeeȱpagesȱ45—61ȱȱforȱ details.

No. 8, April 2007 InternalȱDisplacement,ȱ Migration,ȱandȱPolicyȱinȱ NortheasternȱIndia Uddipana Goswami

EastȬWestȱCenterȱWashington WorkingȱPapers areȱnonȬreviewedȱ andȱuneditedȱprepublicationsȱreportingȱonȱresearchȱinȱprogress.ȱ TheseȱworkingȱpapersȱareȱalsoȱavailableȱinȱPDFȱformatȱonȱtheȱ EastȬWestȱCenterȱWashington’sȱwebsiteȱPublicationsȱpageȱatȱ www.eastwestcenterwashington.org/publications.ȱAdditionalȱ paperȱcopiesȱcanȱbeȱobtainedȱbyȱcontactingȱtheȱtheȱEastȬWestȱ CenterȱWashingtonȱoffice.ȱȱTheȱpriceȱforȱEWCWȱWorkingȱPapers isȱ$3.00ȱeachȱplusȱpostage.ȱȱ

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Internal Displacement, Migration, and Policy in Northeastern India

Executive Summary other non-native populations there has been The paper is divided into four sections: taken as an example for elucidation. Migration; Illegal Migration and Policy There is also a close look at migrations Lacunae; Ethnic Politics and Internal from the various neighboring countries and a Displacement; and State Responses to Internal discussion of illegal migration, and the state’s Displacement. In the first section I discuss the response all such migrations. The case of colonial policy environment, altered continued influx from Bangladesh—mainly administrative boundaries and concepts and into Assam—has been taken as a case in point. how all this aided/abetted large-scale The inefficacy of the various instruments migrations into the Northeast. Demographic suggested by various quarters for tackling the patterns were fast changing under the colonial problem have been discussed and the sincerity administration’s policy of importing more of all quarters towards solving the problem migrants to people a frontier region, and this questioned. approach did not lapse when a post-colonial “Illegal Migration and Policy Lacunae” government was ushered in. deals entirely with the phenomenon of I subsequently look at how colonial continued illegal migration. It outlines the legacies lived on in the postcolonial period. tragedy of confounding legal settlers with Postcolonial policies reflected this while influx illegal migrants. It suggests that the problem of population continued unabated. The case of should be addressed by its real nature, and Arunachal and settlement of refugees and propensities to color it—in a fundamentalist hue, for instance—should be questioned. Uddipana Goswami

Economicsȱ beingȱ atȱ theȱ rootȱ ofȱ theȱ problem,ȱ toȱ theȱ present,ȱ andȱ toȱ addȱ toȱ thatȱ thereȱ isȱ noȱ findingȱ anȱ economicȱ solutionȱ isȱ advocated.ȱ guaranteeȱ thatȱ theȱ emotionalȱ geographiesȱ ofȱ Theȱconceptȱofȱworkȱpermitsȱtoȱdailyȱworkersȱ twoȱ rivalȱ contendersȱ forȱ theȱ sameȱ pieceȱ ofȱ fromȱ acrossȱ theȱ borderȱ isȱ examinedȱ asȱ oneȱ landȱ wouldȱ deriveȱ fromȱ theȱ sameȱ periodȱ inȱ suchȱ possibility,ȱ whileȱ examiningȱ aȱ similarȱ history.ȱ Besides,ȱ ethnicȱ boundariesȱ andȱ extraȬlegalȱsystemȱalreadyȱinȱplaceȱinȱTripura.ȱȱ definitionsȱ beingȱ dynamic,ȱ thereȱ isȱ everyȱ Itȱ alsoȱ pronouncesȱ theȱ inefficacy/ȱ possibilityȱ ofȱ splinterȱ ethnicitiesȱ demandingȱ redundancyȱ ofȱ actsȱ likeȱ theȱ Illegalȱ Migrantsȱ exclusiveȱrightsȱoverȱtheȱsameȱhomeland.ȱ (Determinationȱ byȱ Tribunals)ȱ Act,ȱ 1983ȱ andȱ Anȱinquiryȱintoȱhowȱandȱwhereȱtheȱideaȱ showsȱhowȱsuchȱanȱactȱcanȱandȱhasȱintensifiedȱ ofȱ exclusivityȱ originatedȱ follows.ȱ Itȱ isȱ tracedȱ theȱchasmȱbetweenȱcommunities.ȱ backȱ toȱ theȱ colonialȱ policiesȱ ofȱ “protectiveȱ “Ethnicȱ Politicsȱ andȱ Internalȱ DisplaceȬ discrimination”ȱ whichȱ wereȱ mythologizedȱ asȱ ment”ȱ dealsȱ withȱ internalȱ displacement.ȱ Itȱ theȱ idealȱ toolsȱ ofȱ governingȱ theȱ “others”.ȱ Inȱ startsȱ withȱ clarifyingȱ thatȱ theȱ paperȱ isȱ onlyȱ retainingȱ theseȱ colonialȱ instrumentsȱ ofȱ aboutȱ displacementȱ inducedȱ byȱ ethnicȱ governanceȱ andȱ introducingȱ changesȱ toȱ conflicts,ȱ andȱ goesȱ onȱ toȱ discussȱ theȱ kindȱ ofȱ them—forȱ instance,ȱ inȱ theȱ shapeȱ ofȱ theȱ Sixthȱ ethnicȱ politicsȱ prevalentȱ inȱ theȱ Northeastȱ Schedule—toȱ allowȱ theseȱ “other”ȱ whichȱ breedsȱ violenceȱ andȱ consequentlyȱ communitiesȱ toȱ “developȱ alongȱ theȱ linesȱ ofȱ internalȱdisplacement.ȱ theirȱ ownȱ genius”,ȱ theȱ postcolonialȱ stateȱ letȱ Itȱ discussesȱ theȱ kindsȱ ofȱ ethnicȬ looseȱaȱrhetoricȱthatȱwasȱtoȱbeȱusedȱbyȱfutureȱ formation/reformation/constructionȱ thatȱ areȱ insurgentsȱ againstȱ itȱ inȱ theȱ processȱ ofȱ rampantȱinȱtheȱNortheastȱtodayȱandȱanalyzesȱ demandingȱ protectiveȱ discriminationsȱ andȱ theȱ“fastȬfoodȱstyleȱpolitics”ȱthatȱisȱatȱtheȱrootȱ exclusiveȱ homelands.ȱ Theȱ tokenȱ natureȱ ofȱ ofȱ it.ȱ Itȱ alsoȱ analyzesȱ howȱ thisȱ brandȱ ofȱ theseȱ instrumentsȱ howeverȱ isȱ quiteȱ obviousȱ politics—whichȱ dolesȱ outȱ autonomiesȱ andȱ andȱtheyȱareȱseenȱasȱhavingȱbeenȱtakenȱdownȱ otherȱ sopsȱ atȱ theȱ dropȱ ofȱ aȱ hatȱ inȱ orderȱ toȱ toȱtheȱlevelȱofȱburlesque,ȱalmost.ȱ controlȱtheȱinfluentialȱethnicȱelite—hasȱledȱtoȱ Theȱsectionȱlooksȱatȱtheȱreorganizationȱofȱ hostilityȱandȱviolenceȱbetweenȱethnicitiesȱandȱ theȱNortheasternȱstatesȱwhichȱintensifiedȱsinceȱ communities.ȱ Newerȱ andȱ newerȱ ethnicȱ theȱ 1960s—aȱ processȱ thatȱ endedȱ inȱ 1987—asȱ formulationsȱ andȱ constructionȱ haveȱ croppedȱ anotherȱcauseȱofȱintensificationȱofȱtheȱideaȱofȱ upȱinȱorderȱtoȱreapȱtheȱbenefitsȱgrantedȱbyȱanȱ exclusiveȱ homelands.ȱ Itsȱ failureȱ isȱ shownȱ byȱ overȬgenerousȱ state.ȱ Theȱ fluxȱ andȱ fluidityȱ inȱ theȱ factȱ thatȱ evenȱ Mizoram—whichȱ hasȱ beenȱ ethnicȱ andȱ interȬethnicȱ dynamicsȱ thatȱ hasȱ toutedȱ asȱ theȱ postcolonialȱ Indianȱ state’sȱ resultedȱfromȱsuchȱpoliticsȱhasȱbeenȱillustratedȱ successfulȱ managementȱ ofȱ ethnicȱ aspiraȬ byȱ takingȱ theȱ casesȱ ofȱ theȱ Nagaȱ andȱ Bruȱ tions—hasȱ seenȱ turbulenceȱ latelyȱ andȱ identityȱ formationȱ onȱ theȱ oneȱ hand,ȱ andȱ theȱ rumblingsȱ ofȱ dissatisfactionȱ haveȱ beenȱ oftenȱ BodoȬKoch,ȱ HmarȬMizoȱ interȬrelationȱ onȱ theȱ heardȱemanatingȱfromȱit.ȱ other.ȱ Itȱshowsȱhowȱtheȱreorganizationȱofȱstatesȱ Theȱ politicsȱ ofȱ ethnicȱ homelandsȱ isȱ alsoȱ startedȱ borderȱ disputesȱ betweenȱ theȱ variousȱ heldȱresponsibleȱforȱmuchȱofȱtheȱconflicts.ȱTheȱ statesȱandȱtheseȱdisputesȱhaveȱbeenȱkeptȱaliveȱ absurdityȱofȱdemandingȱexclusiveȱhomelandsȱ andȱ allowedȱ toȱ fester.ȱ Asȱ aȱ result,ȱ thereȱ hasȱ isȱ illustratedȱ throughȱ aȱ descriptionȱ ofȱ theȱ beenȱ violenceȱ andȱ largeȬscaleȱ internalȱ overlappingȱ cartographiesȱ ofȱ variousȱ homeȬ displacement.ȱ Displacementȱ hasȱ alsoȱ beenȱ landsȱbeingȱdemandedȱbyȱinnumerableȱethnicȱ causedȱ byȱ theȱ state’sȱ counterinsurgencyȱ groups.ȱ Theȱ problem,ȱ itȱ isȱ discussed,ȱ arisesȱ measuresȱ suchȱ asȱ groupingȱ ofȱ villagesȱ inȱ becauseȱ theseȱ imaginedȱ cartographiesȱ drawȱ Mizoramȱ andȱ Manipur.ȱ Evenȱ theȱ apparentlyȱ mostlyȱ uponȱ legendary,ȱ mythicalȱ orȱ preȬ wellȬmeaningȱpoliciesȱofȱtheȱstateȱtowardsȱthisȱ colonialȱ memories,ȱ withȱ littleȱ orȱ noȱ referenceȱ regionȱ haveȱ beenȱ halfȬbaked,ȱ causingȱ moreȱ

2 Internal Displacement, Migration, and Policy in Northeastern India traumaȱ thanȱ reliefȱ toȱ theȱ targetȱ populations.ȱ IDPs.ȱRehabilitationȱisȱalsoȱmadeȱaȱcasualtyȱofȱ TheȱSulungsȱofȱArunachalȱPradeshȱareȱaȱcaseȱ theȱgameȱofȱpoliticalȱoneȬupmanship.ȱ inȱpoint.ȱ Itȱ endsȱ withȱ aȱ noteȱ ofȱ cautionȱ thatȱ aȱ Thereȱ isȱ aȱ lookȱ atȱ howȱ theȱ state’sȱ continuedȱ apatheticȱ standȱ onȱ theȱ partȱ ofȱ theȱ inaptitudeȱinȱhandlingȱethnicȱaspirationsȱleadsȱ governmentȱtowardsȱIDPsȱmightȱbreedȱfurtherȱ toȱ violence,ȱ bloodshedȱ andȱ internalȱ displacȬ insurgentȱactivities.ȱBetterȱethnicȱmanagementȱ ement.ȱForȱexample,ȱwhenȱtheȱBodoȱlaunchedȱ instrumentsȱ areȱ calledȱ for,ȱ inȱ theȱ absenceȱ ofȱ aȱ movementȱ inȱ 1987ȱ toȱ demandȱ anȱ ethnicȱ whichȱtheȱstateȱmightȱnotȱbeȱableȱtoȱretainȱitsȱ homeland,ȱtheȱstateȱfirstȱusedȱthemȱforȱitsȱownȱ dubiousȱcontrolȱoverȱtheȱNortheast.ȱ endsȱ andȱ fueledȱ anȱ alreadyȱ volatileȱ interȬ ȱ ethnicȱ relationship.ȱ Itȱ thenȱ setȱ aȱ nearȱ Migrationȱ impossibleȱ conditionȱ inȱ returnȱ forȱ autonomy,ȱ Theȱ historyȱ ofȱ theȱ northeasternȱ partȱ ofȱ Indiaȱ aȱ conditionȱ toȱ fulfillȱ whichȱ violenceȱ wasȱ hasȱbeenȱaȱhistoryȱofȱmigration.ȱBeforeȱwrittenȱ indispensable.ȱTheȱresultȱwasȱmoreȱlargeȬscaleȱ history,ȱtheȱflowȱwasȱmainlyȱfromȱtheȱeasternȱ violence,ȱ ethnicȱ cleansingȱ exercisesȱ andȱ direction,ȱ soȱ thatȱ mostȱ ofȱ theȱ ethnicitiesȱ thatȱ internalȱdisplacement.ȱ todayȱ claimȱ toȱ beȱ theȱ autochthonsȱ canȱ traceȱ Thisȱsectionȱthenȱgoesȱonȱtoȱoutlineȱsomeȱ theirȱ ancestriesȱ andȱ affinitiesȱ toȱ theȱ eastȱ ofȱ otherȱ indigenousȬsettlerȱ conflictsȱ whichȱ haveȱ India,ȱmostlyȱtoȱSoutheastȱAsia.ȱSubsequently,ȱ createdȱ internallyȱ displacedȱ peopleȱ (IDPs)ȱ inȱ peopleȱfromȱtheȱwesternȱdirectionȱalsoȱbeganȱ theȱ Northeast.ȱ Itȱ analyzesȱ theȱ “indigenous”ȱ comingȱ inȱ andȱ communitiesȱ likeȱ theȱ casteȱ categoryȱfirstȱwhichȱisȱaȱdisputedȱcategoryȱinȱ Hinduȱ Axamiy¬1Ȭspeakingȱ populationȱ ofȱ theȱ Northeast,ȱ andȱ isȱ oftenȱ usedȱ veryȱ looselyȱ Assamȱoftenȱtraceȱtheirȱoriginsȱbackȱtoȱpartsȱofȱ inȱ everydayȱ politicalȱ andȱ socialȱ discourse.ȱ Aȱ mainlandȱ India2.ȱ Inȱ fact,ȱ theȱ Axamiy¬ȱ fewȱ casesȱ ofȱ internalȱ displacementȱ throughȱ languageȱalso,ȱunlikeȱmostȱotherȱlanguagesȱofȱ indigenousȬsettlerȱ conflictsȱ areȱ outlined.ȱ theȱnortheast,ȱdevelopedȱfromȱtheȱsameȱrootsȱ SettlerȬsettler,ȱ andȱ indigenousȬindigenousȱ asȱmanyȱmainlandȱIndianȱlanguages.ȱAllȱtheseȱ conflictsȱ areȱ alsoȱ touchedȱ uponȱ toȱ showȱ thatȱ earlyȱmigrantsȱcould,ȱhowever,ȱgainȱaȱclaimȱtoȱ conflictsȱ inȱ theȱ Northeastȱ areȱ notȱ uniȬ nativityȱinȱthisȱregionȱoverȱaȱperiodȱofȱtime.ȱȱ dimensional.ȱ ȱ “Stateȱ Responsesȱ toȱ Internalȱ DisplaceȬ ColonialȱPolicyȱEnvironmentȱAndȱ ment”ȱ dealsȱ withȱ theȱ state’sȱ responsesȱ toȱ PopulationȱShiftsȱ internalȱ displacementȱ inȱ theȱ Northeast.ȱ Itȱ Exactlyȱ whenȱ thisȱ “meltingȱ pot”ȱ ofȱ migrantȱ illustratesȱ how,ȱ despiteȱ theȱ recurringȱ ethnicitiesȱturnedȱintoȱaȱ“witch’sȱcauldron”ȱofȱ incidencesȱ ofȱ internalȱ displacementȱ inȱ theȱ ethnicȱ troubleȱ andȱ turmoilȱ cannotȱ beȱ pinȬ Northeastȱ andȱ inȱ spiteȱ ofȱ theȱ severityȱ ofȱ theȱ pointedȱbutȱitsȱgenesisȱcanȱcertainlyȱbeȱtracedȱ phenomenon,ȱ theȱ stateȱ hasȱ beenȱ seenȱ doingȱ backȱ andȱ identifiedȱ asȱ theȱ effectsȱ ofȱ Britishȱ preciousȱ littleȱ toȱ eitherȱ preventȱ itsȱrecurrenceȱ colonialȱ policies.ȱ Theȱ problemȱ reallyȱ beganȱ orȱ tackleȱ itsȱ occurrence.ȱ Inȱ fact,ȱ apathyȱ hasȱ whenȱ colonialismȱ cameȱ toȱ thisȱ partȱ ofȱ theȱ beenȱ theȱ hallmarkȱ ofȱ theȱ state’sȱ responseȱ toȱ world—inȱ 1826,ȱ almostȱ aȱ centuryȱ afterȱ mostȱ internalȱ displacementȱ inȱ theȱ Northeast.ȱ Itȱ otherȱpartsȱofȱmainlandȱIndia.ȱTheȱnewȱregimeȱ outlinesȱ someȱ ofȱ theȱ coerciveȱ measuresȱ thatȱ broughtȱ along,ȱ onȱ theȱ oneȱ hand,ȱ itsȱ haveȱ beenȱ usedȱ uponȱ IDPsȱ byȱ variousȱ mechanismȱofȱlargeȬscale,ȱavariciousȱeconomicȱ administrationsȱandȱconcludesȱthatȱthereȱisȱnoȱ exploitationȱofȱtheȱcoloniesȱandȱonȱtheȱother,ȱitȱ coherentȱ IDPȱ policyȱ ofȱ theȱ state;ȱ adȱ hocȱ importedȱ itsȱ policyȱ ofȱ isolatingȱ theȱ territoriesȱ measuresȱ areȱ takenȱ afterȱ everyȱ incidenceȱ ofȱ theyȱcontrolledȱfromȱrivalȱcolonialȱpowersȱbyȱ displacement,ȱ andȱ theyȱ areȱ moreȱ oftenȱ thanȱ demarcatingȱnewȱfrontiers.ȱ notȱ inimicalȱ toȱ theȱ safetyȱ andȱ securityȱ ofȱ theȱ

3 Uddipana Goswami

Oneȱonlyȱneedsȱtoȱreadȱtheȱ1907ȱRomanesȱ withȱtheirȱinclusionȱinȱtheȱdistrictȱofȱGoalpara,ȱ Lecture,ȱ “Frontiers”,ȱ byȱ Lordȱ Curzonȱ ofȱ whichȱ hadȱ beenȱ aȱ commercialȱ hubȱ ofȱ Britishȱ Kedleston,ȱ Viceroyȱ ofȱ Indiaȱ (1898–1905)ȱ andȱ BengalȱevenȱbeforeȱitȱbecameȱaȱpartȱofȱAssamȱ BritishȱForeignȱSecretaryȱ(1919–24),ȱtoȱseeȱhowȱ inȱ 1826,ȱ slightȱ tricklesȱ ofȱ migrationȱ wereȱ colonialȱ interventionȱ wasȱ introducingȱ newȱ observed.ȱByȱ1879,ȱHunterȱ(1998:ȱ120)ȱnoted:ȱ perceptionsȱ ofȱ territoryȱ andȱ belongingȱ inȱ theȱ ȱ nonȬWesternȱworld.ȱ Fromȱ theȱ neighbouringȱ parganas3ȱ ofȱ ȱ GoalparaȱproperȱandȱKamrupȱthereȱisȱaȱslightȱ InȱAsia,ȱtheȱoldestȱinhabitedȱcontinent,ȱthereȱ butȱ increasingȱ influxȱ ofȱ peopleȱ intoȱ theȱ hasȱalwaysȱbeenȱaȱstrongȱinstinctiveȱaversionȱ Easternȱ Dwars,ȱ asȱ theȱ newȱ soilȱ hereȱ isȱ moreȱ toȱtheȱacceptanceȱofȱfixedȱboundaries,ȱarisingȱ productiveȱ thanȱ theȱ oldȱ landȱ whichȱ theyȱ partlyȱfromȱtheȱnomadicȱhabitsȱofȱtheȱpeople,ȱ leave.ȱ partlyȱ fromȱ theȱ dislikeȱ ofȱ preciseȱ ȱ arrangementsȱ thatȱ isȱ typicalȱ ofȱ theȱ orientalȱ Meanwhileȱ Goalparaȱ hadȱ alreadyȱ acquiredȱ mind,ȱbutȱmoreȱstillȱfromȱtheȱideaȱthatȱinȱtheȱ quiteȱ aȱ cosmopolitanȱ characterȱ andȱ whenȱ itsȱ vicissitudesȱofȱfortuneȱmoreȱisȱtoȱbeȱexpectedȱ multiȬethnicȱ population—asȱ wellȱ asȱ theȱ fromȱ anȱ unsettledȱ thanȱ fromȱ aȱ settledȱ populationȱ fromȱ theȱ Brahmaputraȱ plains— Frontier…ȱȱ beganȱmovingȱintoȱtheȱDuars,ȱtheirȱpopulationȱ ȱ patternȱ naturallyȱ changed.ȱ Pressureȱ onȱ landȱ …OccasionallyȱinȱAsia,ȱandȱalmostȱinvariablyȱ andȱ forestȱ resourcesȱ alsoȱ increasedȱ asȱ theȱ inȱ Africa,ȱ theȱ curiousȱ phenomenonȱ isȱ witnessed,ȱ sometimesȱ underȱ Treatyȱ colonialȱ rulersȱ importedȱ moreȱ andȱ moreȱ stipulations,ȱasȱaȱruleȱindependentlyȱthem,ȱofȱ peopleȱtoȱfacilitateȱitsȱcommercialȱexploitationȱ theȱ demarcationȱ ofȱ boundariesȱ byȱ ofȱ theȱ newȱ colony.ȱ First,ȱ theȱ teaȬtribesȱ andȱ Commissionersȱ drawnȱ notȱ fromȱ theȱ countryȱ otherȱ Adivasiȱ settlers4ȱ fromȱ mainlandȱ Indiaȱ directlyȱ affectedȱ butȱ fromȱ theȱ greatȱ Powersȱ wereȱ broughtȱ inȱ primarilyȱ toȱ workȱ inȱ theȱ betweenȱorȱwithinȱwhoseȱspheresȱofȱinfluenceȱ newlyȱ establishedȱ teaȱ gardensȱ inȱ theȱ Duars.ȱ itȱ mayȱ lie.ȱ Thusȱ Greatȱ Britainȱ andȱ Russiaȱ Secondly,ȱ Muslimȱ peasantsȱfromȱneighboringȱ determinedȱ onȱ theirȱ ownȱ accountȱ theȱ northȬ Eastȱ Bengalȱ wereȱ facilitatedȱ toȱ settleȱ inȱ allȱ westȱFrontierȱofȱAfghanistanȱinȱ1886.ȱ fallowȱ land—cultivableȱ orȱ uncultivable— ȱ underȱ theirȱ wastelandȱ developmentȱ andȱ Inȱ contrastȱ toȱ suchȱ “fixedȱ boundaries”ȱ wereȱ colonizationȱ schemes.ȱȱAsȱ newerȱ andȱ newerȱ preȬcolonialȱ formsȱ ofȱ sovereignty,ȱ adminisȬ economicȱ avenuesȱ openedȱ up,ȱ otherȱ commȬ trationȱ andȱ control.ȱ Forȱ instance,ȱ ifȱ weȱ readȱ unities,ȱ likeȱ Eastȱ Bengaliȱ Hindus,ȱ Rajasthanisȱ theȱ historyȱ ofȱ theȱ Ahomȱ kingdomȱ onȱ itsȱ andȱ theȱ Barpetiaȱ Mahajansȱ (tradersȱ fromȱ theȱ northernȱ frontier,ȱ weȱ comeȱ acrossȱ theȱ systemȱ BarpetaȱareaȱinȱAssam),ȱfollowedȱsuitȱtoȱfillȱupȱ ofȱ periodicalȱ revenueȱ collectionȱ byȱ rotationȱ theȱniches.ȱ betweenȱtheȱAhomȱandȱBhutaneseȱkingsȱfromȱ ȱ theȱ flatȱ foothillȱ tractȱ calledȱ theȱ Duarsȱ (duarȱ ColonialȱLegacies,ȱPostcolonialȱPoliciesȱandȱ literallyȱ meansȱ door).ȱ Theȱ indigenousȱ popuȬ PopulationȱShiftsȱȱ lationȱofȱtheseȱDuarsȱmeanwhileȱcontinuedȱtoȱ TheȱEasternȱDuarsȱareȱjustȱanȱexampleȱofȱhowȱ beȱadministeredȱbyȱpettyȱkingsȱandȱchieftainsȱ reshufflingȱ ofȱ administrativeȱ boundariesȱ andȱ ofȱtheirȱownȱ(Bhuyanȱ1974;ȱGoswamiȱ2005).ȱȱ creationȱ ofȱ newȱ onesȱ byȱ theȱ colonialȱ rulersȱ TheȱDuarsȱwereȱtakenȱoverȱbyȱtheȱBritishȱ beganȱtoȱchangeȱtheȱdemographicȱpatternsȱofȱ inȱ 1864ȱ followingȱ theȱ AngloȬBhutanȱ war.ȱ Ofȱ northeastȱ India.ȱ Artificialȱ andȱ unbalancedȱ these,ȱ theȱ Easternȱ Duarsȱ wereȱ annexedȱ toȱtheȱ changesȱ toȱ theȱ sameȱ wereȱ alsoȱ effectedȱ forȱ administrativeȱ unitȱ ofȱ Assamȱ inȱ 1866.ȱ Atȱ theȱ commercialȱends,ȱasȱweȱshallȱseeȱsubsequentlyȱ time,ȱ theyȱ wereȱ sparselyȱ populatedȱ withȱ inȱ thisȱ section.ȱ Andȱ then,ȱ thereȱ wasȱ theȱ barelyȱanyȱmigrationȱintoȱtheȱarea.ȱHowever,ȱ frontierization5ȱ policyȱ underȱ whichȱ theȱ

4 Internal Displacement, Migration, and Policy in Northeastern India

Northeastȱ ofȱ Indiaȱ wasȱ beingȱ shapedȱ underȱ monarchsȱ andȱ revivedȱ byȱ theȱ Britishȱ afterȱ anȱ theȱ colonialȱ dispensationȱ asȱ theȱ lastȱ landȱ interval.ȱ frontierȱ ofȱ theȱ empire,ȱ withȱ Burmaȱ (theȱ ȱ Protectoratesȱ ofȱ theȱ Shanȱ States)ȱ formingȱ theȱ Theȱ fairsȱ ceasedȱ temporarilyȱ duringȱ theȱ bufferȱ betweenȱ theȱ Britishȱ andȱ theȱ Frenchȱ turmoilȱ inȱ theȱ Ahomȱ dynastyȱ inȱ lateȱ colonialȱterritories.ȱTheȱpolicyȱcontinuedȱevenȱ eighteenthȱcenturyȱandȱtheȱBurmeseȱinvasionȱ intoȱ theȱ postcolonialȱ eraȱ creatingȱ largeȱ scaleȱ ofȱ earlyȱ nineteenth;ȱ theyȱ flourishedȱ againȱ underȱ Britishȱ controlȱ afterȱ theȱ 1820s,ȱ andȱ byȱ destabilizationȱ ofȱ populationȱ equationsȱ andȱ theȱ turnȱ ofȱ theȱ centuryȱ aȱ largeȱ volumeȱ ofȱ ethnicȱ equilibrium.ȱ Theȱ caseȱ ofȱ Arunachalȱ goodsȱflowedȱupȱandȱdownȱtheȱhillsȱandȱbackȱ Pradeshȱamplyȱmanifestsȱallȱofȱthis.ȱ andȱ forthȱ acrossȱ theȱ Himalayas.ȱ Beyondȱ thisȱ ȱ regulatedȱ trade,ȱ overseenȱ byȱ theȱ colonialȱ ColonialȱLegacy:ȱTheȱCaseȱofȱArunachalȱPradeshȱ government,ȱ individualȱ traders,ȱ mostlyȱ Theȱoutermostȱfringeȱofȱtheȱnortheastȱfrontierȱ Marwarisȱ andȱ laterȱ Britishȱ entrepreneurs,ȱ ofȱtheȱBritishȱEmpireȱinȱIndiaȱwasȱArunachalȱ alsoȱ boughtȱ andȱ soldȱ goodsȱ byȱ settingȱ upȱ Pradesh.ȱUnderȱcolonialȱadministrationȱitȱwasȱ shopsȱ inȱ theȱ majorȱ townsȱ inȱ Assam.ȱ Byȱ theȱ calledȱtheȱNorthȱEastȱFrontierȱTracts.ȱThoughȱ earlyȱ twentiethȱ century,ȱ theseȱ increasinglyȱ professionalizedȱ capitalists…ȱ hadȱ succeededȱ theȱ Britishȱ professedlyȱ followedȱ aȱ policyȱ ofȱ inȱ displacingȱ theȱ stateȬregulatedȱ fairs…ȱ nonȬinterferenceȱtowardsȱthisȱfrontierȱtract,ȱinȱ Arunachalȱ tribesȱ beganȱ toȱ tradeȱ moreȱ andȱ realityȱcolonialȱcommercialȱvisions,ȱespeciallyȱ moreȱinȱtheȱmarketȱtownsȱofȱAssamȱandȱlessȱ ofȱ rubberȱ andȱ teaȱ plantations,ȱ oftenȱledȱthemȱ andȱ lessȱ acrossȱ theȱ mountains;ȱ evenȱ toȱinterveneȱandȱinterfere.ȱTheȱBengalȱFrontierȱ adventuresomeȱ Tibetanȱ traders,ȱ fromȱ Nepal,ȱ Regulationȱ Actȱ wasȱ passedȱ inȱ 1873ȱ wherebyȱ expandedȱ intoȱ Assamȱ andȱ fromȱ thereȱ intoȱ “innerȱ lines”ȱ wereȱ drawn,ȱ ostensiblyȱ toȱ Arunachalȱ(vanȱSpengenȱ2000:ȱ182).ȱAlthoughȱ preventȱ indiscriminateȱ landȱ purchase,ȱ trade,ȱ thisȱ southernȱ driftȱ towardȱ Assamȱ wasȱ andȱsettlementȱinȱtheseȱtracts.ȱWhatȱremainedȱ certainlyȱ encouragedȱ byȱ Britishȱ colonialȱ policyȱ andȱ propelledȱ byȱ theȱ disruptionȱ unsaid—andȱ whatȱ turnedȱ outȱ toȱ beȱ theȱ realȱ causedȱ byȱ theȱ Chineseȱ expansionȱ intoȱ Tibetȱ reasonȱ forȱ theȱenactmentȱofȱsuchȱaȱlaw—wasȱ afterȱ 1950,ȱ thisȱȇȇsouthernȱ orientationȇȇȱ wasȱ aȱ consolidationȱ ofȱ colonialȱ controlȱ overȱ resȬ longȬtermȱ developmentȱ inȱ responseȱ toȱ theȱ ourcesȱ andȱ commercialȱ activitiesȱ inȱ theȱ area.ȱ advantagesȱ ofȱ tradeȱ inȱ Assam,ȱ suchȱ asȱ railȱ TheȱScheduleȱDistrictȱActȱofȱ1874ȱformedȱthisȱ lines,ȱ roads,ȱ modernȱ commercialȱ practicesȱ frontierȱ regionȱ intoȱ “backwardȱ tracts”ȱ andȱ andȱaȱstableȱpoliticalȱsituationȱ(Ibid:ȱ143).ȱ “agencyȱ areas”ȱ whichȱ wereȱ subsequentlyȱ ȱ classifiedȱ asȱ ‘excludedȱ areas’ȱ underȱ theȱ PostcolonialȱPolicies:ȱTheȱCaseȱofȱArunachalȱ Governmentȱ ofȱ Indiaȱ Actȱ 1935.ȱ Indigenousȱ Pradeshȱ formsȱ ofȱ governmentȱ wereȱ allowedȱ toȱ Theȱ storyȱ ofȱ Arunachalȱ Pradeshȱ didȱ notȱ continueȱ inȱ theseȱ excludedȱ areasȱ overȱ whichȱ changeȱ muchȱ underȱ theȱ postcolonialȱ regime.ȱ theȱ Governorȱ wasȱ allowedȱ toȱ legislateȱ (forȱ Afterȱ theȱ colonialȱ powersȱ withdrew,ȱ instruȬ detailsȱseeȱBoseȱ1997).ȱȱ mentsȱ likeȱ theȱ innerȱ lineȱ andȱ directȱ adminȬ Throughoutȱ thisȱ period,ȱ controlledȱ butȱ istrationȱ byȱ theȱ centralȱ governmentȱ throughȱ constantȱmovementsȱofȱpeopleȱcontinuedȱintoȱ theȱ Governorȱ asȱ itsȱ representativeȱ wereȱ theȱ Northȱ Eastȱ Frontierȱ Tract,ȱ someȱ withȱ continued.ȱ Tillȱ 1965,ȱ Arunachalȱ Pradeshȱ activeȱfacilitationȱbyȱtheȱcolonizers,ȱmainlyȱforȱ continuedȱ underȱ directȱ centralȱ rule,ȱ despiteȱ commercialȱ purposes.ȱ Stuartȱ Blackburnȱ beingȱ aȱ partȱ ofȱ theȱ stateȱ ofȱ Assam.ȱ Itsȱ (2003/04)ȱ hasȱ succinctlyȱ capturedȱ theȱ subtleȱ administrativeȱ unitsȱ continuedȱ toȱ beȱ calledȱ linkȱbetweenȱcolonialȱcommercialȱcontrolȱandȱ “frontierȱ divisions”ȱ andȱ itsȱ chargeȱ continuedȱ populationȱmovementȱinȱhisȱdiscussionȱofȱtheȱ toȱ restȱ withȱ theȱ Externalȱ Affairsȱ Ministry.ȱ annualȱ tradeȱ fairsȱ heldȱ inȱ theȱ Duarȱ townȱ ofȱ Evenȱ inȱ postcolonialȱ Indiaȱ then,ȱ Arunachalȱ UdalguriȱwhichȱwereȱpatronizedȱbyȱtheȱAhomȱ continuedȱ toȱ beȱ treatedȱ asȱ aȱ frontierȱ atȱ anȱ

5 Uddipana Goswami empire’sȱend,ȱmainlyȱbecauseȱofȱherȱproximityȱ advantageȱ ofȱ thisȱ thatȱ aȱ smallȱ populationȱ ofȱ toȱChina.ȱȱ illegalȱBurmeseȱworkersȱhasȱbeenȱcomingȱintoȱ Theȱ 1962ȱ warȱ withȱ Chinaȱ ledȱ toȱ aȱ moreȱ Arunachalȱ Pradesh—besidesȱ Nagaland,ȱ inclusionaryȱ visionȱ forȱ Arunachalȱ tillȱ 1972,ȱ Manipurȱ andȱ Mizoram—mainlyȱ owingȱ toȱ calledȱ NEFAȱ (Northȱ Eastȱ Frontierȱ Agency),ȱ deplorableȱ workingȱ conditionsȱ andȱ humanȱ afterȱ whichȱ theȱ Homeȱ Ministryȱ tookȱ charge,ȱ rightsȱ inȱ Burma,ȱ aȱ processȱ thatȱ wasȱ setȱ inȱ andȱ districtsȱ wereȱ formedȱ withȱ Deputyȱ motionȱ byȱ theȱ Neȱ Winȱ takeoverȱ ofȱ Burmeseȱ Commissionersȱ inȱ chargeȱ likeȱ elsewhereȱ inȱ governmentȱinȱ1962ȱ(Lwinȱ2003).ȱ India.ȱȱInȱ 1987,ȱ itȱ becameȱ aȱ fullȬfledgedȱ stateȱ However,ȱnoneȱofȱtheseȱmovementsȱintoȱ (forȱ aȱ detailedȱ discussionȱ seeȱ Boseȱ 1997).ȱ Itȱ Arunachalȱ Pradeshȱ wasȱ ofȱ asȱ greatȱ aȱ nowȱhasȱaȱrepresentativeȱformȱofȱgovernȬmentȱ magnitudeȱ andȱ hadȱ asȱ longȬtermȱ anȱ adverseȱ withȱ aȱ 60ȱ memberȱ legislativeȱ assembly,ȱ ofȱ effectȱasȱtheȱsettlementȱinȱtheȱ1960sȱofȱTibetanȱ whichȱ59ȱseatsȱareȱreservedȱforȱtheȱScheduledȱ refugeesȱfromȱChineseȱOccupiedȱTibetȱandȱofȱ Tribes6ȱ whoȱ constituteȱ moreȱ thanȱ 60ȱ percentȱ Chakmaȱ andȱ Hajongȱ refugeesȱ fromȱ theȱ ofȱ theȱ populationȱ (64.22ȱ percentȱ accordingȱ toȱ Chittagongȱ Hillȱ Tractsȱ (CHT)ȱ ofȱ Bangladeshȱ theȱ2001ȱcensus).ȱThroughȱallȱtheseȱchangesȱinȱ (thenȱ Eastȱ Pakistan).ȱ Andȱ thisȱ wasȱ theȱ itsȱ administrationȱ andȱ despiteȱ allȱ theȱ outcomeȱ ofȱ aȱ “postcolonial”ȱ administration’sȱ instrumentsȱ ofȱ protectiveȱ disȬcriminationȱ policyȱtowardsȱtheȱfrontierȱstate,ȱatȱthatȱtimeȱaȱ whichȱcontinueȱtillȱthisȱday—indeedȱatȱtimes,ȱ partȱofȱAssam.ȱȱ becauseȱofȱtheseȱveryȱinstruments—Arunachalȱ Theȱ Tibetanȱ refugeesȱ cameȱ toȱ Indiaȱ Pradeshȱ hasȱ seenȱ muchȱ theȱ sameȱ populationȱ duringȱ 1960–65ȱ alongȱ withȱ theȱ Dalaiȱ Lamaȱ influxȱandȱdemographicȱimbalancesȱasȱtheȱrestȱ whoȱ hadȱ fledȱ Tibetȱ toȱ escapeȱ persecution.ȱ Ofȱ ofȱtheȱNortheasternȱstate.ȱ theseȱ aboutȱ 15,000ȱ wereȱ settledȱ inȱ Arunachalȱ ȱ Pradeshȱ (Bhaumikȱ 2003).ȱ Inȱ 1964ȱ again,ȱ PopulationȱShifts:ȱTheȱCaseȱofȱArunachalȱPradeshȱ withdrawalȱ ofȱ theȱ Specialȱ Areaȱ Statusȱ andȱ Populationȱinfluxȱfromȱneighboringȱcountriesȱ constructionȱofȱtheȱKaptaiȱdamȱinȱtheȱCHTȱledȱ intoȱ Arunachalȱ continuedȱ evenȱ afterȱ theȱ toȱaȱmassȱexodusȱofȱChakmaȱpeopleȱfromȱtheȱ colonizersȱ wentȱ back,ȱ andȱ quiteȱoftenȱasȱpartȱ region.ȱ Theȱ dam,ȱ itȱ isȱ estimated,ȱ affectedȱ ofȱdeliberateȱstateȱpolicy.ȱNepalis,ȱforȱinstance,ȱ nearlyȱ 100,000ȱ peopleȱ (Singhȱ 2003).ȱ Ofȱ these,ȱ wereȱ especiallyȱ broughtȱ intoȱ Assamȱ byȱ theȱ variousȱestimatesȱplaceȱtheȱnumberȱofȱpeopleȱ postcolonialȱ Indianȱ stateȱ inȱ theȱ wakeȱ ofȱ theȱ settledȱ inȱ Arunachalȱ Pradeshȱ betweenȱ 15,000ȱ 1962ȱ IndoȬChinaȱ warȱ toȱ buildȱ borderȱ roadsȱ andȱ20,000ȱ(seeȱDuttaȱ2002,ȱSinghȱ2003).ȱTheseȱ andȱ railwaysȱ inȱ Arunachalȱ Pradeshȱ (thenȱ peopleȱ hadȱ enteredȱ theȱ borderȱ statesȱ ofȱ NEFA)ȱ (Hussainȱ 1993)ȱ toȱ bringȱ theȱ frontierȱ northeastȱ Indiaȱ lookingȱ forȱ shelterȱ withȱ areasȱcloserȱtoȱadministrativeȱcenters.ȱȱ ethnicitiesȱmoreȱakinȱtoȱthemȱthanȱtheȱMuslimȱ Itȱ isȱ trueȱ thatȱ someȱ populationȱ moveȬ Bengalisȱandȱwereȱgivenȱmigrationȱcertificates,ȱ mentsȱ haveȱ beenȱ happeningȱ withoutȱ stateȱ inȱ consultationȱ withȱ theȱ Chiefȱ Ministerȱ ofȱ patronageȱ asȱ well.ȱ Smallȱ scaleȱ populationȱ Assam,ȱ byȱ theȱ Governorȱ ofȱ Assamȱ whoȱ wasȱ movementsȱ likeȱ thatȱ ofȱ theȱ transnationalȱ theȱcenter’sȱrepresentativeȱrulerȱofȱArunachal.ȱ Singpho—Kachinȱ inȱ Burma—communityȱ Sabyasachiȱ Basuȱ Rayȱ Chaudhuryȱ (2003)ȱ hasȱ livingȱ onȱ eitherȱ sideȱ ofȱ theȱ borderȱ betweenȱ observed:ȱ Indiaȱ andȱ Burmaȱ haveȱ beenȱ traditionallyȱ ȱ takingȱ placeȱ sinceȱ beforeȱ theȱ colonialȱ Perhapsȱ theȱ incidentȱ ofȱ theȱ SinoȬIndianȱ constructionȱ ofȱ internationalȱ bordersȱ andȱ borderȱ clashȱ inȱ 1962ȱ andȱ theȱ growingȱ continueȱtoȱhappenȱtillȱthisȱday.ȱMovementȱofȱ intensityȱ ofȱ theȱ Nagaȱ andȱ Mizoȱ insurgenciesȱ Burmeseȱ peoplesȱ intoȱ Arunachalȱ Pradeshȱ isȱ inȱtheȱNortheastȱIndiaȱencouragedȱtheȱIndianȱ decisionȬmakersȱ toȱ settleȱ theȱ ‘IndiaȬfriendly’ȱ notȱ aȱ newȱ phenomenonȱ consideringȱ theȱ proximityȱandȱethnicȱaffinity.ȱAndȱitȱisȱtakingȱ

6 Internal Displacement, Migration, and Policy in Northeastern India

ousteesȱ fromȱ theȱ CHTȱ inȱ thisȱ areaȱ forȱ 1,497ȱ Chakmaȱ spreadȱ overȱ threeȱ constitȬ strategicȱreasons.ȱ uenciesȱ votedȱ inȱ Arunachalȱ forȱ theȱ firstȱ timeȱ ȱ (Dasȱ 2004).ȱ Inȱ 1996,ȱ theȱ Supremeȱ Courtȱ ofȱ TheȱWhiteȱPaperȱonȱChakmaȱandȱHajongȱRefugeeȱ Indiaȱ hadȱ amendedȱ itsȱ earlierȱ standȱ onȱ theȱ Issueȱ (Governmentȱ ofȱ Arunachalȱ Pradeshȱ refugeeȱ issueȱ andȱ directedȱ theȱ Arunachalȱ 1996)ȱ quotesȱ aȱ letterȱ fromȱ theȱ Governor,ȱ governmentȱ toȱ forwardȱ allȱ applicationsȱ forȱ Vishnuȱ Sahai,ȱ toȱ theȱ Chiefȱ Minister,ȱ BPȱ citizenshipȱbyȱtheȱrefugeesȱtoȱtheȱGovernmentȱ Chaliha:ȱ ofȱIndiaȱandȱtoȱrefrainȱfromȱevictingȱthemȱtillȱ ȱ theȱ applicationsȱ areȱ underȱ considerationȱ Theseȱ Chakmasȱ wouldȱ beȱ quiteȱ suitableȱ (Singhȱ 2003,ȱ Duttaȱ 2002).ȱ Earlierȱ though,ȱ inȱ peopleȱtoȱgoȱintoȱtheȱTirapȱdivisionȱofȱNEFAȱ 1993,ȱ itȱ hadȱ upheldȱ aȱ Guwahatiȱ Highȱ Courtȱ whereȱ thereȱ isȱ easilyȱ foundȱ vacantȱ land,ȱ inȱ verdictȱ ofȱ 1992ȱ whichȱ hadȱ declaredȱ theȱ theȱ areaȱ aboutȱ whichȱ youȱ andȱ Iȱ haveȱ oftenȱ spoken.ȱ Chakmaȱ residingȱ inȱ Arunachalȱ Pradeshȱ asȱ ȱ “foreigner/aliens”ȱ (Governmentȱ ofȱ Arunachalȱ Aȱ specialȱ censusȱ conductedȱ byȱ theȱ GovernȬ Pradeshȱ1996).ȱȱ mentȱ ofȱ Arunachalȱ Pradeshȱ inȱ 1991ȱ putȱ theȱ M.M.ȱ Jacob,ȱ Governorȱ ofȱ Arunachalȱ populationȱ ofȱ theȱ Chakmaȱ refugeesȱ atȱ 65,000ȱ Pradeshȱforȱaȱwhileȱinȱ1996ȱandȱformerȱUnionȱ (Duttaȱ 2002).ȱ Today,ȱ theyȱ areȱ theȱ largestȱ Ministerȱ ofȱ Stateȱ forȱ Homeȱ Affairs,ȱ hasȱ beenȱ refugeeȱ groupȱ andȱ secondȱ largestȱ populationȱ quotedȱ (Governmentȱ ofȱ Arunachalȱ Pradeshȱ groupȱ inȱ theȱ state.ȱ Inȱ Changlang,ȱ theȱ onlyȱ 1996)ȱasȱsaying,ȱ unreservedȱ constituencyȱ ofȱ Arunachal,ȱ theȱ ȱ Chakmaȱ areȱ aȱ majorityȱ andȱ ifȱ grantedȱ …thereȱ isȱ noȱ questionȱ ofȱ deportingȱ theseȱ refugeesȱfromȱtheȱstateȱofȱArunachalȱPradesh.ȱ citizenshipȱandȱconcurrentȱpoliticalȱrights,ȱtheȱ Theȱgeneralȱpublicȱinȱtheȱstateȱwillȱhaveȱtoȱbeȱ Arunachaleseȱ fearȱ thatȱ theȱ politicalȱ equationȱ convincedȱ thatȱ theȱ burdenȱ ofȱ theȱ canȱ easilyȱ changeȱ inȱ favorȱ ofȱ theȱ refugees.ȱ rehabilitationȱ ofȱ refugeesȱ willȱ haveȱ toȱ beȱ Allegationsȱ ofȱ illegalȱ influxȱ ofȱ moreȱ Chakmaȱ sharedȱ byȱ theȱ countryȱ asȱ aȱ wholeȱ includingȱ fromȱCHTȱandȱimportȱofȱcrossȬborderȱviolenceȱ ArunachalȱPradesh.ȱ inȱconjunctionȱwithȱChakmaȱinsurgentȱgroupsȱ ȱ ofȱCHTȱhaveȱalsoȱsurfaced.ȱȱ PostcolonialȱPopulationȱInfluxȱIntoȱ Thereȱ hasȱ beenȱ anȱ ongoingȱ agitation,ȱ Northeastȱ mainlyȱ ledȱ byȱ theȱ Allȱ Arunachalȱ Studentsȱ Despiteȱ protestsȱ byȱ localȱ populationsȱ then,ȱ Unionȱ (AAPSU),ȱ againstȱ theȱ Indianȱ governȬ populationȱflowȱintoȱtheȱNortheastȱhasȱlargelyȱ ment’sȱ willingnessȱ toȱ grantȱ citizenshipȱ toȱ theȱ beenȱ abetted,ȱ facilitatedȱ orȱ condonedȱ byȱ theȱ Chakmaȱrefugees.ȱTheȱanimosityȱtowardsȱtheȱ state.ȱ Likeȱ theȱ refugeeȱ flowȱ intoȱ Arunachalȱ refugeesȱ isȱ unanimousȱ andȱ theȱ contentionȱ isȱ Pradesh,ȱ otherȱ statesȱ ofȱ theȱ Northeastȱ haveȱ thatȱwhenȱtheȱdecisionȱtoȱsettleȱtheȱrefugeesȱinȱ alsoȱhadȱtoȱhouseȱforeignȱpopulations.ȱȱ Arunachalȱwasȱtaken,ȱnoȱrepresentativeȱofȱtheȱ ȱ indigenousȱ peoplesȱ wasȱ consulted,ȱ sinceȱ InfluxȱfromȱBurmaȱ indeed,ȱthereȱwasȱnoȱsystemȱofȱrepresentation.ȱ Burmeseȱ refugees,ȱ forȱ instance,ȱ haveȱ beenȱ Theȱ electedȱ representatives,ȱ withȱ theȱ Chiefȱ fleeingȱ toȱ Indiaȱ sinceȱ colonialȱ timesȱ andȱ oneȱ Ministerȱ atȱ theirȱ head,ȱ haveȱ nowȱ demandedȱ suchȱ majorȱ flowȱ wasȱ ofȱ Burmeseȱ peopleȱ ofȱ thatȱtheȱChakmaȱshouldȱleaveȱtheȱstate.ȱ Indianȱ origin,ȱ mainlyȱ intoȱ Manipur,ȱ duringȱ Theȱ tussleȱ continuesȱ withȱ theȱ centreȱ theȱ Secondȱ Worldȱ War7.ȱ Aboutȱ 25,000ȱ adamantȱthatȱasȱperȱtheȱIndiraȬMujibȱtreatyȱofȱ Burmeseȱ fledȱ toȱ Northeastȱ Indiaȱ againȱ afterȱ 1972,ȱ Indiaȱ hasȱ agreedȱ toȱ takeȱ responsibilityȱ theȱNeȱWinȱgovernmentȱputȱtheȱAliensȱActȱinȱ forȱ allȱ migrantsȱ whoȱ enteredȱ Indiaȱ beforeȱ placeȱ inȱ 1967ȱ (Bhaumikȱ 2003).ȱ Studentsȱ andȱ 1971—theȱyearȱBangladeshȱwasȱborn.ȱInȱ2004,ȱ politicalȱactivistsȱfromȱBurma,ȱwhoseȱnumbersȱ

7 Uddipana Goswami areȱdifficultȱtoȱestimate,ȱbeganȱtoȱseekȱasylumȱ InfluxȱfromȱBangladeshȱ afterȱ theȱ repressiveȱ measuresȱ takenȱ byȱ theȱ Butȱbyȱfarȱtheȱlargestȱnumberȱofȱmigrantsȱintoȱ Burmeseȱ governmentȱ sinceȱ 1987.ȱ Repressionȱ theȱ Northeastȱ hasȱ beenȱ fromȱ whatȱ isȱ nowȱ inȱ theȱ Arakanȱ Hillȱ Tractsȱ causedȱ aboutȱ 2,000ȱ Bangladeshȱ andȱ wasȱ formerlyȱ Eastȱ Pakistanȱ Rakhainesȱ toȱ comeȱ toȱ Manipurȱ andȱ Mizoramȱ andȱpriorȱtoȱthat,ȱEastȱBengal.ȱTheȱmagnitudeȱ andȱotherȱpartsȱofȱtheȱNortheast.ȱAccordingȱtoȱ andȱ incessancyȱ ofȱ inflowingȱ populationsȱ andȱ oneȱ source,ȱ theȱ totalȱ numberȱ ofȱ postȬ1987ȱ theȱ severityȱ ofȱ resistanceȱ toȱ thisȱ influx,ȱ Burmeseȱ refugeesȱ inȱ theȱ northeastȱ isȱ aboutȱ certainlyȱ callsȱ forȱ aȱ closerȱ andȱ moreȱ 12,000ȱ (Bhaumikȱ 2003).ȱ However,ȱ estimatesȱ historicizedȱlookȱatȱtheȱphenomenon.ȱ varyȱ andȱ theȱ Mizoramȱ Homeȱ Ministerȱ Whenȱ theȱ Britishȱ firstȱ cameȱ toȱ Assamȱ inȱ Tawnluiaȱ wasȱ reportedȱ onȱMarchȱ14,ȱ2006ȱasȱ 1826,ȱ theyȱ sawȱ immenseȱ fallowȱ landsȱ withȱ expressingȱconcernȱoverȱtheȱinflowȱofȱ“atȱleastȱ veryȱ fewȱ peopleȱ toȱ cultivateȱ themȱ andȱ payȱ 25,000ȱ Burmeseȱ intoȱ theȱ state”,ȱ thatȱ is,ȱ revenue.ȱ Sinceȱ 1838,ȱ theyȱ beganȱ drawingȱ upȱ Mizoramȱ aloneȱ (Southȱ Asiaȱ Terrorismȱ Portalȱ newȱ wastelandȱ settlementȱ rulesȱ (Guhaȱ 1977)ȱ 2006).ȱ butȱ evenȱ inȱ 1902,ȱ Henryȱ Cotton,ȱ Chiefȱ ȱ Commissionerȱ ofȱ Assam,ȱ wasȱ forcedȱ toȱ InfluxȱfromȱBhutanȱ remarkȱ Followingȱ theȱ 1988ȱ declarationȱ byȱ anȱ ȱ increasinglyȱ insularȱ Bhutaneseȱ governmentȱ Theȱ millionsȱ ofȱ acresȱ ofȱ uncultivableȱ landsȱ thatȱ almostȱ 1/6thȱ ofȱ theȱ populationȱ ofȱ Southȱ nowȱlyingȱwasteȱrepresentȱmillionsȱofȱrupeesȱ Bhutanȱwereȱforeigners,ȱviolenceȱbrokeȱoutȱinȱ whichȱ mightȱ beȱ dugȱ outȱ ofȱ theȱ soil,ȱ butȱ areȱ theȱ hillȱ kingdomȱ whichȱ ledȱ toȱ nearlyȱ 100,000ȱ nowȱ allowedȱ toȱ lieȱ uselessȱ likeȱ theȱ talentȱ wrappedȱinȱaȱnapkin.ȱ(Barpujariȱ2004:ȱ50).ȱ Lhotsampaȱ (Nepaliȱ settledȱ inȱ Southernȱ ȱ Bhutan)ȱ fleeingȱ toȱ Nepalȱ andȱ Indiaȱ inȱ 1991.ȱ Thusȱbeganȱtheȱprocessȱofȱimportingȱpeasantsȱ Mostȱ ofȱ themȱ wentȱ toȱ easternȱ Nepal;ȱ aȱ fewȱ fromȱ neighboringȱ Eastȱ Bengal,ȱ whoȱ wereȱ cameȱ toȱ Assamȱ andȱ Westȱ Bengalȱ whereȱ theyȱ facilitatedȱ byȱ easyȱ settlementȱ rulesȱ andȱ joinedȱ theirȱ ethnicȱ kinȱ (Bhaumikȱ 2003).ȱ Theȱ infrastructuralȱ developmentȱ likedȱ theȱ extenȬ actualȱ numberȱ ofȱ refugeesȱ couldȱ notȱ beȱ sionȱ ofȱ railwaysȱ fromȱ Westȱ Bengalȱ toȱ Assamȱ ascertainedȱ asȱ theyȱ foundȱ shelterȱ amongȱ andȱ viaȱEast.ȱEnteringȱAssamȱthroughȱtheȱwesternȱ mingledȱeasilyȱwithȱtheȱlocalȱpopulation.ȱ andȱ southernȱ borders,ȱ theȱ Eastȱ Bengaliȱ ȱ peasants,ȱmostlyȱMuslims,ȱspreadȱtoȱallȱpartsȱ InfluxȱfromȱNepalȱ ofȱAssamȱandȱbeyondȱtoȱtheȱotherȱstatesȱofȱtheȱ Nepaliȱpeoplesȱcameȱtoȱtheȱregionȱduringȱtheȱ northeast.ȱBeingȱhardyȱandȱinȱdesperateȱneedȱ colonialȱ periodȱ asȱ soldiersȱ andȱ manualȱ ofȱlivelihood,ȱtheyȱsettledȱinȱallȱavailableȱland,ȱ laborersȱwhoȱsettledȱhereȱsubsequently.ȱSomeȱ evenȱinȱstretchesȱconsideredȱuncultivable,ȱandȱ whoȱ hadȱ comeȱ asȱ cultivatorsȱ andȱ graziers,ȱ producedȱfoodȱgrains—byȱ1947,ȱAssamȱhadȱaȱ wereȱ financiallyȱ assistedȱ inȱ theirȱ passageȱ toȱ riceȱ surplusȱ thanksȱ toȱ theseȱ peasantsȱ Indiaȱ byȱ theȱ colonialȱ governmentȱ thatȱ hadȱ (Bhaumikȱ2003)—asȱwellȱasȱaȱnumberȱofȱvegeȬ alreadyȱ drawnȱ upȱ favorableȱ termsȱ ofȱ landȱ tablesȱ andȱ cropsȱ earlierȱ unknownȱ inȱ theȱ settlementȱ (Barpujariȱ 2004:ȱ 48).ȱ Theȱ IndoȬ northeast.ȱEvenȱafterȱEastȱBengalȱbecameȱEastȱ Nepalȱ Friendshipȱ Treatyȱ ofȱ 1950ȱ andȱ twoȱ Pakistanȱ theseȱ peasantsȱ continuedȱ toȱ comeȱ otherȱ similarȱ treatiesȱ inȱ 1951ȱ andȱ 1956ȱ alsoȱ intoȱ theȱ northeast.ȱ Politicalȱ repressionȱ ofȱ facilitatedȱ theirȱsettlementȱinȱvariousȱpartsȱofȱ BengaliȱnationalismȱbyȱPakistaniȱauthoritiesȱisȱ theȱ northeast.ȱ Besides,ȱ theȱ settlementȱ ofȱ citedȱ asȱ oneȱ reasonȱ ofȱ theȱ continuedȱ influx,ȱ Nepaliȱ workforceȱ inȱ Arunachalȱ hasȱ alreadyȱ thoughȱeconomicȱcompulsionsȱcannotȱbeȱruledȱ beenȱmentioned.ȱ outȱeither.ȱ ȱ

8 Internal Displacement, Migration, and Policy in Northeastern India

Ideally,ȱ afterȱ theȱ creationȱ ofȱ Bangladeshȱ areasȱ (Internalȱ Displacementȱ Monitoringȱ andȱ reinforcementȱ ofȱ internationalȱ boundȬ Centreȱ2006).ȱ aries,ȱ theȱ flowȱ shouldȱ haveȱ stopped.ȱ Itȱ wasȱ StatesȱlikeȱManipurȱandȱNagalandȱwhichȱ alsoȱ agreedȱ byȱ theȱ signatoriesȱ toȱ theȱ Assamȱ doȱnotȱshareȱaȱborderȱwithȱBangladesh,ȱhaveȱ Accord—whichȱ endedȱ theȱ Assamȱ Movementȱ alsoȱfeltȱtheȱimpactȱofȱBangladeshiȱmigration.ȱ (1979–85)ȱagainstȱillegalȱmigration—thatȱ1971,ȱ Andȱ thoughȱ inȱ theseȱ states,ȱ “dataȱ isȱ andȱ noȱ later8,ȱ shouldȱ beȱ takenȱ asȱ theȱ cutȬoffȱ conspicuousȱ byȱ itsȱ absenceȱ …anecdotalȱ yearȱ forȱ grantingȱ citizenshipȱ rightsȱ toȱ theseȱ evidenceȱisȱabundant”ȱ(Routrayȱ&ȱDashȱ2006).ȱ immigrantsȱ andȱ theȱ borderȱ shouldȱ beȱ fencedȱ ȱ inȱorderȱtoȱstopȱillegalȱinflux.ȱButȱtheȱfencingȱ PostcolonialȱResponsesȱtoȱPopulationȱShiftsȱ ofȱtheȱborderȱhasȱbeenȱdelayedȱendlesslyȱandȱ Inȱ anotherȱ reportȱ toȱ theȱ Presidentȱ ofȱ Indiaȱ inȱ diplomaticȱ faceȬoffsȱ betweenȱ Indiaȱ andȱ 1998,ȱSKȱSinhaȱhasȱsaid:ȱ Bangladeshȱ overȱ theȱ issueȱ continueȱ toȱ ȱ postponeȱ theȱ searchȱ forȱ aȱ solution.ȱ Inȱ theȱ IllegalȱmigrationȱfromȱAssamȱhasȱbeenȱtakingȱ meantime,ȱ illegalȱ immigrationȱ continuesȱ toȱ placeȱ primarilyȱ forȱ economicȱ reasons.ȱ happen—thoughȱperhapsȱnotȱofȱtheȱquantumȱ Bangladeshȱ isȱ theȱ worldȇsȱ mostȱ denselyȱ thatȱ Ajayȱ Singh,ȱ Governorȱ ofȱ Assam,ȱ wouldȱ populatedȱcountryȱwithȱaȱpopulationȱdensityȱ ofȱ969ȱperȱsquareȱkilometre.ȱTheȱgrowthȱrateȱ haveȱ theȱ governmentȱ believe.ȱ Inȱ aȱ ofȱ populationȱ inȱ thatȱ countryȱ isȱ 2.2ȱ perȱ centȱ “confidential”ȱreportȱtoȱtheȱPresidentȱofȱIndia,ȱ andȱ itsȱ populationȱ isȱ growingȱ atȱ theȱ rateȱ ofȱ Singhȱclaimed,ȱȱ 2.8ȱ millionȱ perȱ year.ȱ Eachȱ yearȱ nearlyȱ oneȱ ȱ thirdȱofȱBangladeshȱgetsȱinundatedȱbyȱfloods,ȱ Theȱborderȱisȱliterallyȱoneȱofȱtheȱworld’sȱmostȱ displacingȱ 19ȱ millionȱ people.ȱ 70ȱ millionȱ fluidȱ borderȱ (sic)ȱ crossedȱ daily,ȱ borderȱ peopleȱ constitutingȱ 60ȱ perȱ centȱ ofȱ theȱ officialsȱsay,ȱbyȱsomeȱ6,000ȱBangladeshisȱwhoȱ populationȱ liveȱ belowȱ theȱ povertyȱ line.ȱ Theȱ comeȱ inȱ searchȱ ofȱ work,ȱ oftenȱ stayingȱ onȱ toȱ perȱ capitaȱ incomeȱ inȱ Bangladeshȱ isȱ 170ȱ joinȱ theȱ estimatedȱ 20ȱ millionȱ illegalȱ dollarsȱ perȱ year,ȱ whichȱ isȱ muchȱ lowerȱ thanȱ immigrantsȱ inȱ theȱ countryȱ (citedȱ inȱ Khoslaȱ theȱperȱcapitaȱincomeȱinȱIndiaȱ(Sinhaȱ1998).ȱ 2006).ȱ ȱ ȱ Itȱisȱcommonȱknowledgeȱthenȱthatȱmostȱofȱtheȱ Thatȱtheȱ272ȱkmȱlongȱlandȱandȱwaterȱborder— illegalȱimmigrantsȱareȱpoorȱpeopleȱinȱsearchȱofȱ ofȱ aȱ totalȱ ofȱ 4,095ȱ kmȱ IndoȬBanglaȱ border— livelihood,ȱmainlyȱpeasantsȱinȱsearchȱofȱland.ȱ whichȱAssamȱsharesȱwithȱBangladeshȱisȱquiteȱ Andȱ yet,ȱ conspiracyȱ theoriesȱ aboundȱ andȱ impossibleȱ toȱ fenceȱ isȱ almostȱ aȱ certainty.ȱ Aȱ differentȱ dimensionsȱ haveȱ beenȱ soughtȱ toȱ beȱ recentȱ visitȱ byȱ theȱ authorȱ toȱ theȱ IndoȬBanglaȱ givenȱtoȱtheȱproblemȱofȱillegalȱmigrationȱfromȱ borderȱ inȱ Dhubriȱ districtȱ (Aprilȱ 2006)ȱ hasȱ Bangladeshȱwithoutȱaddressingȱtheȱrootȱofȱtheȱ reinforcedȱtheȱabsurdityȱofȱtryingȱtoȱfenceȱoffȱ problem,ȱ whichȱ isȱ undoubtedlyȱ economic.ȱ theȱborder.ȱTheȱporousȱnatureȱofȱtheȱborderȱisȱ Sinha’sȱ reportȱ (1998)ȱ stressesȱ onȱ theȱ owedȱ notȱ merelyȱ toȱ administrativeȱ procrasȬ “lebensraum”ȱtheoryȱthatȱsomeȱotherȱopinionȬ tination/inefficiency,ȱ butȱ alsoȱ toȱ theȱ natȬ makersȱ alsoȱ subscribeȱ to.ȱ Accordingȱ toȱ thisȱ ural/physicalȱqualitiesȱofȱtheȱborder.ȱOverȱandȱ theory,ȱtheȱoutflowȱofȱpeopleȱfromȱBangladeshȱ aboveȱthat,ȱtheȱexcessiveȱrelianceȱonȱfencingȱasȱ isȱpartȱofȱaȱconspiracyȱtoȱmakeȱAssamȱpartȱofȱaȱ theȱ onlyȱ solutionȱ toȱ containingȱ illegalȱ influxȱ greaterȱ Bangladesh.ȱ Toȱ that,ȱ mainstreamȱ canȱalsoȱitselfȱbeȱquestioned.ȱBesides,ȱanotherȱ nationalȱ partiesȱ ofȱ Indiaȱ likeȱ theȱ Bharatiyaȱ strongȱargumentȱagainstȱborderȱfencingȱisȱthatȱ Janataȱ Partyȱ (BJP)ȱ haveȱ oftenȱ givenȱ aȱ itȱ leadsȱ toȱ internalȱ displacement.ȱ Inȱ Tripuraȱ communalȱangleȱtoȱraiseȱfearsȱofȱIslamizationȱ alone,ȱ itȱ hasȱ beenȱ reportedȱ thatȱ fencingȱ hasȱ ifȱinfluxȱisȱallowedȱtoȱcontinue.ȱAȱreportȱinȱtheȱ displacedȱcloseȱtoȱ70,000ȱpeopleȱinȱtheȱborderȱ Organiser,ȱ mouthpieceȱ ofȱ theȱ BJP,ȱ onȱ anȱ antiȬ immigrationȱ rallyȱ heldȱ inȱ Guwahatiȱ onȱȱ

9 Uddipana Goswami

Novemberȱ 11,ȱ 2005,ȱ byȱ theȱ Akhilȱ Bharatiyaȱ citizenshipȱ ofȱ Bharatȱ underȱ theȱ Citizenshipȱ Vidyarthiȱ Parishadȱ (ABVP),ȱ aȱ youthȱ organȬ Actȱ (Amended)ȱ2004ȱasȱwasȱdoneȱinȱGujaratȱ izationȱwhichȱlikeȱtheȱBJPȱisȱalsoȱaȱmemberȱofȱ andȱ Rajasthanȱ forȱ Hindusȱ fromȱ Pakistanȱ (Organiserȱ2005).11 theȱSanghȱParivar9,ȱreadsȱlikeȱthis:ȱ ȱ ȱ Speakingȱ asȱ chiefȱ guestȱ atȱ theȱ rally,ȱ Shriȱ Theȱ gameȱ thusȱ continuesȱwhereȱatȱsomeȱ MuzaffarȱHussain,ȱaȱnotedȱjournalist,ȱsaidȱtheȱ pointȱ orȱ theȱ other,ȱ theȱ magnitudeȱ ofȱ illegalȱ Pakistaniȱ intelligenceȱ agency,ȱ ISI,ȱ wasȱ influxȱisȱnotedȱwithȱalarmȱbyȱoneȱpartyȱorȱtheȱ workingȱ forȱ totalȱ Islamisationȱ ofȱ Assamȱ andȱ other.ȱ Onȱ theȱ otherȱ hand,ȱ however,ȱ theyȱ theȱ governmentȱ andȱ fundamentalistȱ procrastinateȱoverȱanyȱconcreteȱsolutionȱtoȱtheȱ organisationsȱ ofȱ Bangladeshȱ wereȱ followingȱ problem.ȱ Inȱ theȱ world’sȱ biggestȱ democracy,ȱ itsȱ directions.ȱ Heȱ saidȱ theȱ ISIȱ wasȱ workingȱ theȱ ‘oneȱ man,ȱ oneȱ vote’ȱ formulaȱ ensuresȱ thatȱ towardsȱachievingȱtheȱ1934ȱproposalȱmadeȱinȱ tacitlyȱcondoningȱongoingȱinfluxȱprovidesȱforȱ Bhopalȱ whenȱ theȱ nameȱ ofȱ theȱ proposedȱ aȱ largerȱ voteȬbank.ȱ Theȱ tragedyȱ isȱ thatȱ theȱ Islamicȱ nationȱ Pakistanȱ wasȱ mootedȱ andȱ theȱ secondȱletterȱ“A”ȱwasȱforȱAssam.ȱHeȱfurtherȱ frenzyȱ thatȱ isȱ simultaneouslyȱ whippedȱ upȱ saidȱ Indiaȱ savedȱ Bangladeshisȱ fromȱ theȱ againstȱtheȱimmigrantsȱblursȱtheȱlineȱbetweenȱ atrocitiesȱ ofȱ Pakistaniȱ dictators,ȱ sentȱ theȱ legalȱ citizensȱ ofȱ theȱ stateȱ andȱ illegalȱ Indianȱ armyȱ forȱ theirȱ protectionȱ andȱ alsoȱ immigrants.ȱ Legally,ȱ sinceȱ theȱ signingȱ ofȱ theȱ helpedȱ themȱ developȱ asȱ aȱ nation.ȱ Butȱ theȱ AssamȱAccordȱinȱ1985,ȱallȱmigrantsȱwhoȱhadȱ sameȱ Bangladeshȱ wasȱ todayȱ helpingȱ ourȱ comeȱ toȱ Indiaȱ beforeȱ theȱ formationȱ ofȱ enemies.ȱ Talkingȱ aboutȱ ABVP,ȱ heȱ saidȱ theȱ Bangladeshȱinȱ1971ȱareȱIndianȱcitizens;ȱinȱtheȱ movementsȱ byȱ ABVP,ȱ broughtȱ soȱ manyȱ popularȱ imaginationȱ fedȱ onȱ imagesȱ ofȱ changesȱinȱtheȱcountryȱandȱtheȱnewȱagitationȱ religiousȱ andȱ culturalȱ invasion,ȱ however,ȱ allȱ againstȱ infiltratorsȱ wouldȱ definitelyȱ proveȱ fruitful.ȱ Heȱ saidȱ theȱ governmentȱ mustȱ takeȱ Bengaliȱ Muslimsȱ fromȱ Eastȱ Pakistanȱ orȱ Eastȱ theȱ issueȱ ofȱ missingȱ Pakistaniȱ nationalsȱ inȱ Bengalȱ (nowȱ Bangladesh)ȱ areȱ alsoȱ illegalȱ Indiaȱ veryȱ seriously.ȱ “Peopleȱ ofȱ Assamȱ infiltrators.ȱ Monirulȱ Hussainȱ (1993)ȱ showsȱ shouldȱ alsoȱ askȱ whyȱ Moinulȱ Haqȱ fromȱ how,ȱsinceȱtheȱAssamȱMovement,ȱtheȱgulfȱhasȱ Dhubriȱ districtȱ ofȱ Assamȱ mastermindedȱ theȱ increasedȱ betweenȱ theȱ Axamiy¬Ȭspeakingȱ bombȱblastsȱinȱDelhi.ȱTheyȱmustȱunderstandȱ peopleȱandȱtheȱMuslimsȱofȱEastȱBengaliȱoriginȱ thereȱ wasȱ aȱ conspiracyȱ toȱ createȱ aȱ inȱ Assam—naȬȱ orȱ neoȬAsamiyaȱ asȱ heȱ callsȱ “Mughlistan”ȱ byȱ bringingȱ togetherȱ Assamȱ them—mostȱofȱwhomȱhaveȱbeenȱinȱAssamȱforȱ andȱ severalȱ districtsȱ ofȱ Westȱ Bengalȱ andȱ generations:ȱ Bihar.ȱ Theyȱ mustȱ riseȱ againstȱ itȱ otherwiseȱ theirȱ ownȱ identityȱ willȱ beȱ inȱ danger.ȱ Shriȱ ȱ HussainȱalsoȱcalledȱuponȱnationalistȱMuslimsȱ Thoughȱtheȱmovementȱcontinuedȱforȱsixȱlongȱ toȱraiseȱaȱvoiceȱagainstȱantiȬnationalȱactivitiesȱ yearsȱ fromȱ 1979Ȭ85,ȱ yetȱ noneȱ fromȱ theȱ (Organiserȱ2005a).ȱ leadershipȱ couldȱ veryȱ preciselyȱ ascertainȱ theȱ ȱ numberȱ ofȱ foreignȱ nationalsȱ livingȱ inȱ Assamȱ illegally.ȱ Fantasticȱ andȱ inconsistentȱ figuresȱ Theyȱ wouldȱ ratherȱ haveȱ Bangladeshiȱ Hindusȱ wereȱ citedȱ inȱ theȱ pressȱ andȱ variousȱ otherȱ settleȱ inȱ theȱ northeast,ȱ grantingȱthemȱrefugeeȱ platformsȱ ofȱ theȱ movement.ȱ Theȱ estimatedȱ statusȱ andȱ subsequentlyȱ citizenship.ȱ Asȱ aȱ numberȱofȱforeignȱnationalsȱinȱAssamȱrangedȱ statementȱ issuedȱ byȱ theȱ Rashtriyaȱ SwayȬ fromȱ 2ȱ lakhsȱ toȱ 77ȱ lakhs…theȱ fantasticȱ amsevakȱ Sanghȱ (RSS),ȱ 10ȱ definedȱ byȱ AGȱ numbersȱ providedȱ byȱ theȱ leadershipȱ ofȱ theȱ Nooraniȱ (2005)ȱ asȱ “fascistȱ inȱ itsȱ setȬupȱ andȱ movementȱ andȱ theirȱ supportersȱ andȱ outlookȱ andȱ committedȱ toȱ theȱ cultȱ ofȱ hate,”ȱ collaboratorsȱinȱtheȱpressȱservedȱtwoȱdistinctȱ announced:ȱ purposesȱ simultaneously:ȱ (1)ȱ itȱ deepenedȱ ȱ sharplyȱ theȱ fearȱ ofȱ theȱ Asamiyasȱ ofȱ losingȱ theirȱ numericalȱ dominanceȱ inȱ Assamȱ andȱ …theȱ Sanghȱ demandsȱ thatȱ theȱ Hinduȱ theirȱ identity;ȱ andȱ (2)ȱ itȱ alsoȱ madeȱ theȱ refugeesȱfromȱBangladeshȱshouldȱbeȱgrantedȱ Bengalisȱ andȱ theȱ neoȬAsamiyaȱ groupsȱ

10 Internal Displacement, Migration, and Policy in Northeastern India

suspiciousȱ ofȱ theȱ realȱ motivesȱ ofȱ theȱ Muslimȱimmigrantsȱdoȱconstituteȱaȱmajorityȱinȱ leadershipȱ ofȱ theȱ movementȱ becauseȱ suchȱ atȱleastȱfiveȱdistrictsȱofȱAssamȱandȱthereȱisȱnoȱ inflatedȱ figuresȱ whichȱ theyȱ providedȱ mustȱ instrumentȱinȱplaceȱtoȱdetermineȱhowȱmanyȱofȱ haveȱ includedȱ manyȱ Indiansȱ inȱ theȱ categoryȱ themȱareȱlegalȱandȱhowȱmanyȱillegal.ȱAlso,ȱitȱ ofȱforeigners.ȱThisȱconfusionȱcreatedȱbyȱwildȱ doesȱnotȱappearȱasȱthoughȱanyȱgovernmentȱorȱ estimatesȱ sharpenedȱ theȱ divisionȱ betweenȱ AsamiyasȱandȱtheȱBengalisȱonȱtheȱoneȱhand,ȱ anyȱpoliticalȱpartyȱisȱoverlyȱenthusiasticȱaboutȱ andȱ betweenȱ theȱ Asamiyasȱ andȱ theȱ neoȬ determiningȱ theȱ same,ȱ thoughȱ theyȱ doȱ allȱ Asamiyasȱ onȱ theȱ other.ȱ Theȱ fearȱ ofȱ theȱ makeȱtheȱrightȱnoisesȱatȱtheȱopportuneȱtimes.ȱ Bengaliȱ andȱ theȱ NaȬAsamiyaȱ Muslimsȱ wasȱ Forȱ instance,ȱ inȱ aȱ preȬelectionȱ speechȱ inȱ compoundedȱ whenȱ theȱ Asamiyaȱ bourgeoisȱ 2001ȱinȱAssam,ȱformerȱPrimeȱMinisterȱofȱIndiaȱ pressȱ repeatedlyȱ identifiedȱ theȱ Bengaliȱ andȱ andȱ BJPȱ leader,ȱ Atalȱ Bihariȱ Vajpayee,ȱ hadȱ theȱ NaȬAsamiyaȱ Muslimȱ inhabitedȱ areasȱ asȱ announcedȱthatȱhisȱparty,ȱthenȱinȱpower,ȱwasȱ theȱareaȱofȱBangladeshiȱnationals…ȱ seriouslyȱ consideringȱ grantingȱ workȱ permitsȱ ȱ toȱ infiltratorsȱ fromȱ Bangladeshȱ (Upadhyayȱ Indeedȱ theȱ volatileȱ reactionȱ againstȱ theȱ 2001).ȱ Theȱ factȱ thatȱ noȱ stepsȱ wereȱ takenȱ toȱ migrantȱ communityȱ wasȱ sparkedȱ offȱ byȱ implementȱ itȱ subsequentlyȱ indicatesȱ itȱ mightȱ observationȱofȱanomaliesȱinȱtheȱvoter’sȱlistȱofȱ haveȱ beenȱ justȱ anȱ electoralȱ gimmick.ȱ Aȱ theȱ Mangaldoiȱ parliamentaryȱ constituency— possibleȱ solutionȱ thoughȱ mightȱ lieȱ inȱ thisȱ whichȱ hasȱ aȱ considerableȱ immigrantȱ popȬ systemȱifȱimplemented.ȱ ulation—whereȱtheȱdeathȱofȱaȱsittingȱMemberȱ Economicȱ compulsionsȱ beingȱ theȱ mainȱ ofȱ Parliamentȱ (MP)ȱ inȱ 1979ȱ hadȱ raisedȱ theȱ causeȱ forȱ illegalȱ influx,ȱ ifȱ workȱ permitsȱ areȱ needȱ forȱ byeȬelections.ȱ Inȱ theȱ meantime,ȱ theȱ issuedȱ toȱ borderȬcrossersȱ fromȱ Bangladesh,ȱ itȱ thenȱ Chiefȱ Electionȱ Commissioner,ȱ S.L.ȱ wouldȱ guaranteeȱ themȱ aȱ regularȱ incomeȱ andȱ Sakhdarȱhadȱdeclaredȱaȱfewȱmonthsȱback:ȱ mightȱjustȱinfluenceȱthemȱnotȱtoȱsettleȱinȱIndia.ȱ ȱ Asȱitȱhappens,ȱinȱtheȱborderȱstateȱofȱTripura,ȱ Iȱwouldȱlikeȱtoȱreferȱtoȱtheȱalarmingȱsituationȱ thereȱ isȱ alreadyȱ aȱ regularȱ influxȱ ofȱ wageȱ inȱsomeȱstates,ȱespeciallyȱinȱtheȱNorthȱEasternȱ region,ȱ wherefromȱ reportsȱ areȱ comingȱ earners,ȱrickshawȱpullers,ȱscavengersȱandȱbeȬ regardingȱ largeȬscaleȱ inclusionsȱ ofȱ foreignȱ ggarsȱfromȱtheȱborderingȱareasȱofȱBangladeshȱ nationalsȱinȱtheȱelectoralȱrolls.ȱInȱoneȱcase,ȱtheȱ onȱ aȱ dayȬtoȬdayȱ basis.ȱ Functioningȱ throughȱ populationȱinȱ1971ȱcensusȱrecordedȱincreasesȱ middlemenȱ calledȱ “linemen”,ȱ aȱ parallelȱ asȱ highȱ asȱ 34.98%ȱ overȱ 1961ȱ censusȱ figuresȱ systemȱofȱborderȱcontrolȱhasȱbeenȱinȱplaceȱinȱ andȱthisȱfigureȱwasȱattributedȱtoȱtheȱinfluxȱofȱ theȱ stateȱ throughȱ whichȱ aȱ paymentȱ ofȱ upȱ toȱ aȱ largeȱ numberȱ ofȱ personsȱ fromȱ foreignȱ INRȱ 200ȱ (1USD=45INRȱ approx)ȱ toȱ theȱ borderȱ countries.ȱ Theȱ influxȱ hasȱ becomeȱ aȱ regularȱ securityȱforcesȱofȱbothȱcountriesȱsupplyȱtokensȱ feature.ȱ Iȱ thinkȱ itȱ mayȱ notȱ beȱ aȱ wrongȱ orȱ passesȱ toȱ crossȱ theȱ borderȱ intoȱ Indiaȱ fromȱ assessmentȱ toȱ makeȱ thatȱ onȱ theȱ basisȱ ofȱ increaseȱ ofȱ 34.98%ȱ betweenȱ twoȱ census,ȱ theȱ whereȱ theyȱ goȱ backȱ toȱ Bangladeshȱ afterȱ theȱ 13 increaseȱ wouldȱ likelyȱ toȱ beȱ recordedȱ inȱ theȱ dayȱ isȱ done .ȱ Thoughȱ noȱ officialȱ dataȱ isȱ 1991ȱ censusȱ wouldȱ beȱ moreȱ thanȱ 100%ȱ overȱ available,ȱ theȱ prevalenceȱ ofȱ thisȱ quasiȬlegalȱ theȱ 1961ȱ census.ȱ Inȱ otherȱ words,ȱ aȱ stageȱ systemȱ isȱ commonȱ knowledgeȱ amongȱ peopleȱ wouldȱbeȱreachedȱwhenȱtheȱstateȱmayȱhaveȱtoȱ inȱ theȱ borderȱ areas.ȱ Ifȱ legalizedȱ byȱ theȱ state,ȱ reckonȱwithȱtheȱforeignȱnationalsȱwhoȱmayȱinȱ andȱ ifȱ theȱ smoothnessȱ andȱ efficiencyȱ withȱ allȱ probabilityȱ constituteȱ aȱ sizeableȱ whichȱ theȱ systemȱ operatesȱ nowȱ canȱ beȱ percentageȱ ifȱ notȱ theȱ majorityȱ ofȱ populationȱ duplicatedȱ underȱ aȱ legalȱ frameworkȱ andȱ inȱtheȱstateȱ(citedȱinȱHussainȱ1993).12ȱ extendedȱtoȱallȱpartsȱofȱtheȱNortheast,ȱperhapsȱ ȱ lesserȱ migrantsȱ wouldȱ beȱ encouragedȱ toȱ IllegalȱMigrationȱandȱPolicyȱLacunaeȱ settle—afterȱ allȱ underȱ theȱ currentȱ extraȬlegalȱ Today,ȱ thoughȱ theȱ prognosticationȱ ofȱ stateȬ arrangement,ȱaȱdailyȱcrossingȱintoȱIndiaȱcostsȱ wideȱ majorityȱ hasȱ notȱ quiteȱ materialized,ȱ themȱ almostȱ halfȱ orȱ moreȱ thanȱ halfȱ ofȱ theirȱ

11 Uddipana Goswami dailyȱ earningsȱ onȱ Indianȱ soil:ȱ thereȱ isȱ noȱ TheȱBJPȱandȱtheȱAASUȱjoinedȱtheȱchorusȱandȱ sayingȱ howȱ manyȱ mightȱ haveȱ decidedȱ itȱ isȱ oftenȱ cameȱ outȱ soundingȱ louder.ȱ Finally,ȱ onȱ cheaperȱtoȱsettleȱinȱIndiaȱthanȱtoȱundertakeȱtheȱ theȱbasisȱofȱaȱpublicȱinterestȱlitigationȱfiledȱbyȱ recurringȱdangerȱandȱexpenditure.ȱ AASUȱ leaderȱ (subsequentlyȱ anȱ AGPȱ MP),ȱ Manyȱ civilȱ societyȱ bodiesȱ likeȱ theȱ Allȱ SarbanandaȱSonowal,ȱtheȱactȱwasȱstruckȱdownȱ Assamȱ Student’sȱ Unionȱ (AASU),ȱ whichȱ hadȱ asȱ“unconstitutional”ȱbyȱtheȱSupremeȱCourtȱofȱ alsoȱ beenȱ inȱ theȱ forefrontȱ ofȱ theȱ Assamȱ Indiaȱ onȱ Julyȱ 12,ȱ 2005.ȱ Butȱ theȱ debateȱ Movement,ȱ oftenȱ chantȱ theȱ mantraȱ ofȱȈdetȬ continuesȱ whetherȱ thisȱ isȱ enoughȱ toȱ stopȱ ectionȱandȱdeportation”ȱofȱillegalȱmigrantsȱasȱ illegalȱ immigration,ȱ orȱ indeed,ȱ ifȱ theȱ actȱ wasȱ ifȱ thatȱ wasȱ theȱ panaceaȱ toȱ theȱ problem.ȱ Butȱ everȱ suchȱ aȱ potentȱ toolȱ ofȱ protectingȱ illegalȱ withȱtheȱBangladeshiȱgovernmentȱunwillingȱtoȱ immigrantsȱatȱall.ȱ evenȱadmitȱthatȱanyȱmigrationȱintoȱIndiaȱtakesȱ ȱ place,ȱtheȱquestionȱarises:ȱwhereȱdoȱweȱdeportȱ IllegalȱMigrantsȱ(Determinationȱbyȱ theȱ illegalȱ migrants?ȱ Theȱ onlyȱ memorableȱ Tribunals)ȱActȱ instanceȱ ofȱ anyȱ migrantȱ populationȱ beingȱ Theȱ raisonȱ dȇêtreȱ ofȱ theȱ IMȱ (DT)ȱ Actȱ wasȱ repatriatedȱfromȱtheȱNortheastȱwasȱinȱtheȱcaseȱ ostensiblyȱdetectionȱandȱdeportationȱofȱillegalȱ ofȱ theȱ Chakmaȱ refugeesȱ numberingȱ overȱ migrantsȱ butȱ certainȱ provisionsȱ inȱ itȱ wereȱ 50,000ȱwhoȱhadȱfledȱtoȱTripuraȱandȱMizoramȱ definitelyȱinimicalȱtoȱitsȱstatedȱintent.14ȱItȱwasȱ sinceȱ 1975ȱ whenȱ insurgentȱ activitiesȱ andȱ passedȱ inȱ 1983ȱ byȱ aȱ governmentȱ thatȱ quiteȱ clashesȱ betweenȱ militantsȱ andȱ securityȱ forcesȱ evidently,ȱinȱtheȱeyesȱofȱtheȱAssameseȱpeopleȱ hadȱintensifiedȱinȱtheȱCHT.ȱByȱ1998,ȱtheyȱwereȱ lackedȱ legitimacy15.ȱ Theȱ mostȱ obviouslyȱ repatriatedȱ afterȱ theȱ insurgentsȱ beganȱ problematicȱareasȱinȱthisȱactȱwere:ȱ negotiationsȱwithȱtheȱgovernmentȱandȱsignedȱ ȱ aȱ peaceȱ agreementȱ (Bhaumikȱ 2003).ȱ Butȱ theȱ a)ȱ Itȱprovidedȱforȱtwoȱindividualsȱlivingȱ Bangladeshȱ governmentȱ hasȱ notȱ alwaysȱ beenȱ withinȱtheȱsameȱpoliceȱstationȱlimitȱasȱ soȱ forthcomingȱ withȱ admissionsȱ ofȱ itsȱ theȱ suspectedȱ illegalȱ migrantȱ toȱ nationalsȱ beingȱ onȱ Indianȱ soil;ȱ insurgentȱ approachȱanȱIMDTȱTribunal,ȱdepositȱaȱ pressureȱ andȱ internalȱ politicalȱ dynamicsȱ forȱ sumȱbetweenȱINRȱ10Ȭ100ȱasȱstipulatedȱ onceȱaidedȱtheȱreturnȱofȱmigrantȱpopulation.ȱȱ andȱthenȱfileȱaȱcomplaint.ȱ Furthermore,ȱ detectionȱ itselfȱ hasȱ notȱ b)ȱ Itȱ alsoȱ restrictedȱ complainantsȱ byȱ provedȱanȱeasyȱtask,ȱorȱoneȱthatȱanyȱagency— sayingȱ thatȱ “noȱ personȱ shallȱ makeȱ government,ȱ political,ȱ civil—hasȱ seriouslyȱ setȱ moreȱ thanȱ tenȱ suchȱ applicationsȱ orȱ outȱtoȱattempt.ȱEvenȱtheȱAsomȱGanaȱParishadȱ moreȱthanȱtenȱsuchȱdeclarations”ȱ (AGP)—theȱ membersȱ ofȱ whichȱ partyȱ wereȱ c)ȱ Itȱ leftȱ theȱ onusȱ ofȱ provingȱ theȱ drawnȱ fromȱ theȱ leadershipȱ ofȱ theȱ Assamȱ citizenshipȱ credentialsȱ ofȱ theȱ suspectȱ Movementȱandȱwhichȱcameȱtoȱpowerȱinȱ1985ȱ onȱtheȱcomplainantȱandȱtheȱpolice,ȱnotȱ ridingȱonȱpromisesȱofȱdetectingȱandȱdeportingȱ onȱtheȱaccused.ȱȱ illegalȱ migrants—soonȱ disappointedȱ itsȱ mainȱ d)ȱ Itȱ alsoȱ providedȱ thatȱ “ifȱ theȱ supportȱbase,ȱtheȱAxamiy¬ȱmiddleȱclass,ȱwithȱ applicationȱ isȱ foundȱ frivolousȱ orȱ aȱlackȱofȱpoliticalȱwillȱinȱthisȱdirection.ȱRather,ȱ vexatious”ȱ theȱ Centralȱ Governmentȱ afterȱ aȱ humiliatedȱ electoralȱ defeatȱ inȱ theȱ mayȱnotȱacceptȱit.ȱȱȱȱ subsequentȱ elections,ȱ theȱ partyȱ wasȱ seenȱ ȱ tryingȱtoȱappeaseȱtheȱimmigrantsȱandȱthisȱinȱaȱ Mostȱ importantlyȱ however,ȱ thisȱ actȱ wasȱ inȱ wayȱbroughtȱthemȱbackȱtoȱpowerȱinȱ1996.ȱTheȱ operationȱ onlyȱ toȱ theȱ stateȱ ofȱ Assam.ȱ Andȱ asȱ onlyȱ wayȱ itȱ triedȱ toȱ redeemȱ itselfȱ wasȱ byȱ theȱ Supremeȱ Courtȱ verdictȱ thatȱ struckȱ downȱ raisingȱfeebleȱcriesȱagainstȱtheȱIllegalȱMigrantsȱ theȱactȱstated,ȱȱ (Determinationȱ byȱ Tribunals)ȱ Actȱ [IMȱ (DT)],ȱ ȱ 1983ȱ(toȱbeȱdiscussedȱinȱdetailȱsubsequently).ȱ

12 Internal Displacement, Migration, and Policy in Northeastern India

…thoughȱenquiriesȱwereȱinitiatedȱinȱ3,10,759ȱ Theȱ politicalȱ necessityȱ inȱ thisȱ instanceȱ wasȱ casesȱ underȱ theȱ IMDTȱ Act,ȱ onlyȱ 10,015ȱ dictatedȱ byȱ theȱ grimȱ denouementȱ ofȱ theȱ personsȱ wereȱ declaredȱ illegalȱ migrantsȱ andȱ enforcedȱ Februaryȱ 1983ȱ electionsȱ thatȱ onlyȱ 1,481ȱ illegalȱ migrantsȱ wereȱ physicallyȱ traumatisedȱ theȱ peopleȱ ofȱ theȱ Stateȱ cuttingȱ expelledȱ upȱ toȱ Aprilȱ 30,ȱ 2000ȱ (Theȱ Hinduȱ acrossȱ allȱ otherȱ divides,ȱ andȱ mostȱ ofȱ allȱ theȱ 2005).ȱ Muslimȱ minority.ȱ Since,ȱ despiteȱ allȱ theȱ ȱ normativeȱ claimsȱ thatȱ theȱ Assamȱ agitationȱ Thereȱ haveȱ alsoȱ beenȱ reportsȱ ofȱ genuineȱ wasȱ againstȱ allȱ illegalȱ aliensȱ andȱ madeȱ noȱ citizensȱbeingȱexpelledȱwithȱorȱwithoutȱcoverȱ distinctionȱ betweenȱ anȱ “infiltrant”ȱ (Muslim)ȱ ofȱtheȱIMȱ(DT),ȱandȱofȱexpelledȱpeopleȱasȱwellȱ andȱ aȱ “refugee”ȱ (Hindu)ȱ onȱ theȱ ground,ȱ theȱ Muslimȱ minorityȱ hadȱ feltȱ theȱ bruntȱ ofȱ theȱ asȱillegalȱimmigrantsȱcomingȱintoȱAssamȱwithȱ animositiesȱletȱloose.ȱSoȱlegislationȱprovidingȱ theȱhelpȱofȱmiddleȱmenȱinȱtheȱbordersȱknownȱ forȱ greaterȱ protectiveȱ measuresȱ againstȱ asȱ“NightȱBirds”ȱ(Bhaumikȱ2006).ȱSoȱwhyȱtheȱ harassmentȱ thanȱ wasȱ availableȱ underȱ theȱ projectionȱ ofȱ aȱ nearȱ fetishisticȱ importanceȱ Foreignersȱ Act,ȱ 1946,ȱ wasȱ considered.ȱ Theȱ givenȱ toȱ theȱ IMȱ (DT)ȱ Actȱ byȱ a)ȱ theȱ minorityȱ PreambleȱtoȱtheȱIMDTȱActȱresonatesȱwithȱallȱ immigrantȱ Muslimȱ communityȱ asȱ itsȱ onlyȱ theseȱ elements:ȱ theȱ hypocrisy,ȱ theȱ saviorȱ fromȱ arbitraryȱ harassment,ȱ andȱ byȱ b)ȱ opportunismȱandȱtheȱpoliticalȱnecessity.ȱȱ theȱ dominantȱ Axamiy¬ȱ middleȱ classȱ asȱ theȱ ȱ onlyȱ deterrentȱ towardsȱ detectionȱ andȱ deporȬ Forȱ theȱ Muslimsȱ ofȱ Eastȱ Bengaliȱ originȱ whoȱ tationȱ ofȱ illegalȱ migrants?ȱ Theȱ searchȱ forȱ anȱ hadȱ beenȱ inȱ Assamȱ forȱ generationsȱ butȱ hadȱ answerȱ wouldȱ takeȱ usȱ backȱ toȱ theȱ periodȱ ofȱ nonethelessȱ toȱ faceȱ theȱ Nellieȱ pogromȱ ofȱ theȱenactmentȱofȱtheȱact,ȱandȱtoȱtheȱunravelingȱ 1983—theȱ numberȱ casualtiesȱ ofȱ theȱ pogromȱ ofȱaȱshamefulȱperiodȱinȱtheȱhistoryȱofȱAssamȱ haveȱ beenȱ placedȱ anywhereȱ betweenȱ 1,200ȱ whenȱ minorityȱ communitiesȱ wereȱ harassed,ȱ (Hussainȱ 2001)ȱ toȱ 3,300ȱ (Rehmanȱ 2006)—thisȱ killed,ȱ displacedȱ andȱ alienatedȱ byȱ someȱ secȬ actȱnaturallyȱprovidedȱsomeȱsenseȱofȱsecurity.ȱ tionsȱ ofȱ theȱ agitatorsȱ whoȱ participatedȱ inȱ theȱ Byȱ theȱ sameȱ token,ȱ forȱ aȱ generationȱ ofȱ AssamȱMovement.ȱȱ Axamiy¬ȱ ingrainedȱ withȱ theȱ paranoiaȱ thatȱ Itȱ wasȱ aȱ Movementȱ thatȱ beganȱ withȱ aȱ causedȱ theȱ Nellieȱ massacre,ȱ theȱ actȱ wasȱ nonȬviolentȱ agendaȱ andȱ hadȱ anȱ overȬ anathema.ȱButȱasȱPrabhakaraȱ(2005)ȱquestions:ȱ whelminglyȱnationalisticȱfervor,ȱevidentȱfromȱ ȱ itsȱ hugeȱ supportȱ base16.ȱ Butȱ graduallyȱ asȱ Theȱ situationȱ onȱ theȱ groundȱ hasȱ changedȱ politicalȱ opportunismȱ andȱ hypocrisyȱ creptȱ inȱ dramaticallyȱ overȱ theȱ pastȱ twoȱ decades;ȱ toȱ someȱ extentȱ thisȱ isȱ alsoȱ theȱ caseȱ withȱ theȱ amongȱ theȱ middleȱ classȱ leadership,ȱ theȱ inveterateȱopponentsȱofȱnotȱmerelyȱtheȱIMDTȱ minoritiesȱbeganȱtoȱfeelȱinsecure—besidesȱtheȱ Actȱ butȱ allȱ theȱ otherȱ politicalȱ shenanigansȱ Muslimȱimmigrants,ȱtheȱ“tribal”ȱcommunitiesȱ thatȱareȱassociatedȱwithȱit…ȱ alsoȱ beganȱ toȱ feelȱ vulnerable.ȱ Itȱ wasȱ notȱ ȱ entirelyȱ “voteȱ bankȱ politics”,ȱ asȱ Prabhakaraȱ Asȱforȱthoseȱwhoȱcontinueȱwithȱtheirȱfixationȱ (2005)ȱexplains,ȱthatȱwasȱbehindȱtheȱenactmentȱ withȱ theȱ act,ȱ heȱ saysȱ theyȱ “seemȱ toȱ beȱ livingȱ ofȱthisȱact.ȱ irrevocablyȱ inȱ theȱ past”.ȱȱAsȱ theȱ authorȱ hasȱ ȱ alsoȱnotedȱelsewhere:ȱ …theȱ enactmentȱ ofȱ theȱ IMDTȱ Actȱ wasȱ notȱ dictatedȱ entirelyȱ byȱ opportunisticȱ ȱ considerations,ȱ nowȱ popularlyȱ referredȱ toȱ asȱ Theȱheadstonesȱofȱallȱtheȱpeopleȱmassacredȱinȱ “voteȱbankȱpolitics”.ȱInȱoneȱwayȱorȱtheȱotherȱ Nellieȱ inȱ theȱ worstȱ showȱ ofȱ Axamiyaȱ suchȱȈvoteȱbankȱpoliticsȈȱprevailsȱthroughoutȱ chauvinismȱ haveȱ beenȱ inscribedȱ inȱ theȱ theȱ country.ȱ Butȱ inȱ mattersȱ ofȱ politicsȱ andȱ Assameseȱ language!...ȱ Aȱ processȱ ofȱ publicȱ affairs,ȱ evenȱ theȱ mostȱ opportunistȱ reinventionȱ ofȱ theȱ selfȱ isȱ atȱ workȱ amongȱ theȱ choicesȱ areȱ alsoȱ dictatedȱ byȱ politicalȱ communityȱ whichȱ theȱ authorȱ hadȱ theȱ necessities.ȱȱ opportunityȱtoȱobserveȱinȱtheȱcourseȱofȱaȱfolkȱ

13 Uddipana Goswami

meetȱatȱAditpurȱinȱKalgachiaȱinȱJanuaryȱ2005.ȱ Darrangȱ district,ȱ membersȱ ofȱ bothȱ Notȱ becauseȱ of,ȱ butȱ independentȱ ofȱ theȱ communitiesȱwereȱdisplacedȱ(Hussainȱ2001).ȱȱ dominantȱ society’sȱ constructionȱ ofȱ itsȱ otherȬ ȱ ness,ȱ theȱ Muslimsȱ ofȱ Eastȱ Bengaliȱ originȱ areȱ chartingȱoutȱtheirȱownȱidentity,ȱmarkingȱoutȱ EthnicȱPoliticsȱandȱInternalȱ theirȱ ownȱ differences.ȱ Thoughȱ notȱ rampant,ȱ Displacementȱ suchȱ confidenceȱ isȱ alsoȱ evidentȱ fromȱ theirȱ Beforeȱ embarkingȱ onȱ aȱ discussionȱ ofȱ internalȱ deviationȱ fromȱ theirȱ traditionalȱ politicalȱ displacementȱ inȱ Northeastȱ India,ȱ itȱ wouldȱ beȱ affiliations.ȱ Inȱ theȱ parliamentaryȱ electionsȱ appropriateȱ toȱ mentionȱ hereȱ thatȱ theȱ paperȱ heldȱinȱ2004,ȱanȱAGPȱcandidateȱwonȱfromȱtheȱ dealsȱexclusivelyȱwithȱdisplacementsȱinducedȱ Muslimȱ majorityȱ Mangaldoiȱ constituencyȱ byȱ ethnicȱ conflicts.ȱ Itȱ isȱ ofȱ courseȱ trueȱ thatȱ whichȱ hasȱ beenȱ theȱ strongholdȱ ofȱ theȱ Congressȱeverȱsinceȱitȱtookȱonȱtheȱroleȱofȱtheȱ certainȱinstancesȱofȱdisasterȱorȱ“development”ȱ saviourȱ ofȱ theȱ immigrantsȱ inȱ postȬ inducedȱdisplacementsȱareȱalsoȱcloselyȱlinkedȱ independenceȱ Assam.ȱ Aȱ teacherȱ atȱ theȱ withȱorȱleadȱtoȱsuchȱconflicts.ȱForȱinstance,ȱtheȱ BallabhȱBhaiȱPatelȱHighȱSchoolȱinȱKopatiȱwasȱ proposedȱTipaimukhȱdamȱhasȱalreadyȱcausedȱ confidentȱ enoughȱ inȱ hisȱ claimȱ toȱ AxamiyaȬ aȱlotȱofȱhostilityȱbetweenȱcommunities.ȱToȱbeȱ nessȱ toȱ declareȱ thatȱ theȱ scrappingȱ ofȱ theȱ builtȱinȱaȱHmarȱdominatedȱarea,ȱsomeȱsectionsȱ IMDTȱ Actȱ heldȱ noȱ threatȱ forȱ him.ȱ Andȱ thisȱ ofȱtheȱHmarȱhaveȱwelcomedȱtheȱprojectȱinȱtheȱ wasȱinȱaȱconversationȱthatȱtookȱplaceȱinȱJulyȱ hopeȱofȱbeingȱbenefitedȱbyȱit,ȱalthoughȱothersȱ 2004ȱ muchȱ beforeȱ theȱ Supremeȱ Courtȱ hadȱ haveȱposedȱquestionsȱaboutȱrehabilitationȱandȱ scrappedȱtheȱactȱ(Goswamiȱ2005).ȱ lossȱofȱagriculturalȱlands.ȱButȱstrongerȱprotestsȱ ȱ areȱ comingȱ fromȱ nonȬHmarȱ communities.ȱ Itȱ isȱ aȱ greatȱ injusticeȱ doneȱ toȱ settlerȱ commȬ Leadersȱ ofȱ theȱ Zeliangrongȱ Nagaȱ villagesȱ unitiesȱlikeȱtheȱMuslimsȱofȱEastȱBengaliȱoriginȱ whichȱ areȱ expectedȱ toȱ beȱ submergedȱ haveȱ whoȱ haveȱ contributedȱ aȱ lotȱ toȱ theȱ economyȱ registeredȱ theirȱ protestȱ againstȱ theȱ andȱ societyȱ ofȱ theirȱ adoptedȱ countryȱ toȱ government’sȱ policyȱ ofȱ developingȱ oneȱ confoundȱ themȱ withȱ illegalȱ migrantsȱ fromȱ communityȱatȱtheȱcostȱofȱanother:ȱ theirȱpartȱofȱtheȱworldȱ(whichȱhasȱseenȱmuchȱ ȱ geoȬpoliticalȱ changesȱ since)ȱ andȱ persecuteȱ “Itȱ isȱ notȱ rightȱ toȱ bringȱ advantageȱ toȱ oneȱ groupȱ atȱ theȱ costȱ ofȱ another,”ȱ saysȱ Dȱ themȱ asȱ such.ȱ Butȱ despiteȱ theȱ ignominyȱ Dikambui,ȱ theȱ presidentȱ ofȱ theȱ Zeliangrongȱ attachedȱ toȱ Nellie,ȱ theȱ incidentȱ isȱ aȱ braveȱ Union,ȱtheȱapexȱsocialȱbodyȱofȱtheȱpeopleȱofȱ reminderȱofȱhowȱaȱsettlerȱcommunityȱheldȱitsȱ Tamenglong.ȱItȱisȱimmenselyȱinfluential.ȱTheȱ ownȱ againstȱ oddsȱ andȱ successfullyȱ resistedȱ ZeliangrongȱtribeȱisȱpartȱofȱtheȱNagaȱgroupsȱ beingȱ internallyȱ displaced;ȱ theȱ survivorsȱ thatȱ predominateȱ inȱ Tamenglong.ȱ “Ifȱ someȱ returnedȱtoȱtheirȱvillagesȱeventually.ȱȱ peopleȱ shallȱ getȱ aȱ littleȱ benefitȱ atȱ theȱ costȱ ofȱ Butȱ violentȱ confrontationsȱ betweenȱ ourȱpeopleȱhowȱcanȱtheȱgovernmentȱtradeȱoffȱ communitiesȱwereȱnotȱaȱoneȬoffȱphenomenonȱ oneȱ community’sȱ futureȱ againstȱ theȱ others?”ȱ thatȱtookȱplaceȱduringȱtheȱAssamȱMovement.ȱ ThisȱtiradeȱisȱrepeatedȱbyȱeveryȱZeliangrongȱ elderȱ orȱ leaderȱ thatȱ oneȱ meets.ȱ Veryȱ oftenȱ itȱ Theȱ nextȱ sectionȱ dealsȱ withȱ interȬethnicȱ boilsȱ intoȱ anger.ȱ “Ifȱ thisȱ isȱ whatȱ theȱ conflictsȱinȱAssamȱandȱtheȱNortheastȱandȱhowȱ governmentȱ wantsȱ toȱ doȱ thenȱ weȱ shallȱ haveȱ theseȱ haveȱ causedȱ internalȱ displacementȱ noȱ optionȱ butȱ toȱ pickȱ upȱ arms.ȱ Weȱ shallȱ amongȱpopulations.ȱIndeed,ȱduringȱtheȱAssamȱ defendȱ ourȱ wayȱ ofȱ lifeȱ andȱ ourȱ lands,”ȱ saysȱ movementȱitself,ȱotherȱcommunitiesȱinȱconflictȱ Guiliangȱ Panmei,ȱ adviserȱ Zeliangrongȱ withȱ eachȱ otherȱ wereȱ forcedȱ toȱ migrateȱ Women’sȱUnion.ȱThisȱisȱnotȱanȱemptyȱthreatȱ internally.ȱ Forȱ instance,ȱ followingȱ theȱ violentȱ inȱ aȱ districtȱ whereȱ Nagaȱ groupsȱ areȱ immȬ confrontationsȱbetweenȱtheȱAxamiy¬Ȭspeakingȱ enselyȱ powerful.ȱ Theyȱ areȱ concernedȱ withȱ andȱ Bodoȱ peopleȱ inȱ 1983ȱ atȱ Gohpurȱ inȱ whatȱ theȱ Zeliangrongȱ Nagaȱ inȱ Tamenglongȱ

14 Internal Displacement, Migration, and Policy in Northeastern India

willȱ lose,ȱ ifȱ theȱ Tipaimukhȱ damȱ comesȱ upȱ Censuses,ȱcountedȱasȱaȱtribalȱcommunityȱbutȱ (Sethiȱ2006).ȱ notȱ enumeratedȱ soȱ separately.ȱ Theyȱ wereȱ insteadȱincludedȱwithȱtheȱSonowalȱKachari,ȱaȱ ȱ peopleȱ closelyȱ related,ȱ andȱ theirȱ numbersȱ Again,ȱallegationsȱhaveȱarisenȱthatȱinȱorderȱtoȱ wereȱ subsumedȱ inȱ theȱ totalȱ ofȱ theȱ Sonowalȱ reinforceȱ theirȱ strengthȱ againstȱ theȱ dominantȱ Kachari….ȱ Dimasaȱcommunity,ȱthereȱareȱplansȱtoȱbringȱinȱ ȱ theȱ displacedȱ Hmarȱ populationȱ fromȱ theȱ …Accordingȱ toȱ Dr.ȱ B.ȱ K.ȱ Gohain,ȱ theȱ Stateȇsȱ Tipaimukhȱ areaȱ intoȱ Assam’sȱ Northȱ Cacharȱ HomeȱCommissionerȱwhoȱisȱcloselyȱengagedȱ (NC)ȱ Hillsȱ districtȱ whereȱ theȱ communityȱ hasȱ inȱ theȱ issue,ȱ theȱ estimatedȱ populationȱ ofȱ someȱ presenceȱ (Hmarȱ 2003).ȱ Thus,ȱ theȱ damȱ Thengalȱ Kachariȱ isȱ ‘aboutȱ 3.5ȱ lakh’,ȱ aȱ figureȱ thatȱ isȱ alsoȱ citedȱ asȱ theȱ estimatedȱ ‘totalȱ hasȱ alreadyȱ ledȱ toȱ frictionȱ betweenȱ theȱ populationȱ ofȱ theȱ councilȱ area’ȱ whichȱ ofȱ communitiesȱandȱifȱitȱisȱconstructedȱthereȱisȱnoȱ courseȱwillȱalsoȱincludeȱmanyȱpeopleȱwhoȱareȱ sayingȱwhatȱotherȱconflictsȱwillȱvisitȱtheȱareaȱ notȱ Thengalȱ Kachari…ȱ Accordingȱ toȱ Dr.ȱ andȱhowȱmanyȱmoreȱpeopleȱwillȱbeȱdisplacedȱ Mohammedȱ Taher,ȱ theȱ highlyȱ regardedȱ thanȱ justȱ theȱ projectȬaffectedȱ ones.ȱ Butȱ theȱ geographerȱ andȱ demographerȱ ofȱ theȱ State,ȱ veryȱfactȱthatȱtheȱTipaimukhȱsagaȱbeginsȱwithȱ theȱtotalȱpopulationȱofȱtheȱThengalȱKachariȱisȱ aȱ“development”ȱproject,ȱmeansȱthatȱinȱorderȱ unlikelyȱtoȱbeȱveryȱmuchȱoverȱ10,000…ȱ toȱunderstandȱitsȱdynamicsȱinȱitsȱtotality,ȱoneȱ ȱ wouldȱ haveȱ toȱ enterȱ intoȱ aȱ discussionȱ andȱ …aȱcommunityȱneverȱenumeratedȱseparatelyȱ andȱ neverȱ findingȱ evenȱ aȱ mentionȱ inȱ allȱ theȱ analysisȱ ofȱ theȱ state’sȱ developmentȱ policies,ȱ literatureȱ onȱ theȱ tribalȱ peopleȱ ofȱ theȱ State,ȱ indigenousȱapproachesȱtoȱdevelopmentȱandȱaȱ includingȱ literatureȱ publishedȱ byȱ theȱ plethoraȱ ofȱ otherȱ issuesȱ besides.ȱ Forȱ theȱ sakeȱ GovernmentȱofȱAssam,ȱaboutȱwhoseȱnumbersȱ ofȱ maintainingȱ aȱ clearȱ focusȱ andȱ owingȱ toȱ orȱ habitatȱ littleȱ isȱ known,ȱ hasȱ withinȱ aȱ fewȱ economyȱ ofȱ space,ȱ therefore,ȱ theȱ discussionȱ weeksȱ ofȱ theȱ formationȱ ofȱ aȱ ‘Demandȱ willȱ henceforthȱ remainȱ confinedȱ toȱ displaceȬ Committee’ȱ forȱ theȱ formationȱ ofȱ anȱ mentȱ directlyȱ inducedȱ byȱ conflictsȱ betweenȱ autonomousȱ councilȱ foundȱ thisȱ demandȱ ethnicities.ȱ Andȱ thatȱ wouldȱ meanȱ takingȱ aȱ conceded.ȱ Theȱ alacrity,ȱ notȱ toȱ speakȱ ofȱ lookȱ atȱ theȱ ethnicȱ politicsȱ ofȱ theȱ Northeastȱ democraticȱ responseȱ toȱ popularȱ demand,ȱ isȱ astounding,ȱ givenȱ theȱ historyȱ ofȱ violentȱ first.ȱ agitationsȱ thatȱ haveȱ markedȱ theȱ grudgingȱ ȱ concessionȱ inȱ respectȱ ofȱ evenȱ theȱ mostȱ ‘FastȬFood’ȱPoliticsȱandȱEthnicȱReȬ legitimateȱofȱdemands.ȱȱ organizationȱ ȱ WHOȱareȱtheȱThengalȱKachariȱandȱwhereȱdoȱ …Theȱ strangeȱ storyȱ ofȱ theȱ TKACȱ (Thengalȱ theyȱfitȱintoȱinȱthisȱcategorizationȱ(ofȱtribesȱofȱ Kachariȱ Autonomousȱ Council)ȱ providesȱ aȱ Assam)?ȱTheȱsimpleȱanswerȱis:ȱNowhere.ȱTheȱ mostȱ salutaryȱ andȱ strikingȱ instanceȱ ofȱ thisȱ communityȱ hasȱ neverȱ beenȱ separatelyȱ newȱfastȬfoodȱstyleȱpolitics,ȱpickingȱoutȱchatȬ enumeratedȱ inȱ anyȱ ofȱ theȱ fiveȱ Censusȱ patȱ solutionsȱ outȱ ofȱ aȱ hatȱ toȱ anyȱ andȱ everyȱ operationsȱ (1951,ȱ 1961,ȱ 1971,ȱ 1991ȱ andȱ 2001)ȱ problem,ȱ withoutȱ evenȱ consideringȱ whetherȱ conductedȱinȱAssamȱsinceȱIndependence…ȱȱ suchȱaȱprocessȱofȱmechanicalȱautonomisationȱ ȱ andȱ theȱ consequentȱ inescapableȱ atomisationȱ Onȱtheȱfaceȱofȱit,ȱtheȱThengalȱKachari,ȱasȱtheȱ ofȱ Assamȱ isȱ theȱ onlyȱ wayȱ outȱ ofȱ theȱ moreȱ veryȱ denominationȱ ofȱ Kachariȱ indicates,ȱ fundamentalȱ predicamentȱ thatȱ isȱ facingȱ shouldȱ haveȱ beenȱ recognisedȱ asȱ aȱ tribalȱ Assam.ȱThisȱisȱtheȱrealȱpurportȱandȱmoralȱofȱ community,ȱpartȱofȱtheȱgreatȱKachariȱfamily,ȱ thisȱtaleȱ(Prabhakaraȱ2005a).ȱ andȱ enumeratedȱ inȱ successiveȱ Censusesȱ asȱ aȱ ȱ Scheduledȱ Tribe.ȱ Thisȱ hasȱnotȱbeenȱtheȱ case.ȱ Inherentȱ inȱ thisȱ pieceȱ byȱ MSȱ Prabhakaraȱ isȱ aȱ Accordingȱtoȱtheȱgovernmentȱandȱcommunityȱ critiqueȱ ofȱ ethnicȱ reȬformulationsȱ inȱ responseȱ leadersȱthatȱthisȱcorrespondentȱhasȱspokenȱto,ȱ toȱcurrentȱ“fastȬfoodȱstyleȱpolitics”.ȱInȱfact,ȱhisȱ theȱ Thengalȱ Kachariȱ were,ȱ inȱ allȱ theseȱ

15 Uddipana Goswami pieceȱisȱveryȱcreativelyȱcalledȱ“Manufacturingȱ Interestingly,ȱ theȱ Bodoȱ andȱ theȱ Kochȱ Identities?”ȱ andȱ thoughȱ heȱ admitsȱ thatȱ Rajbongshiȱ ofȱ Assamȱ areȱ beingȱ increasinglyȱ changesȱinȱethnicȱaffiliationsȱareȱpartȱofȱsocialȱ constructedȱ asȱ distinctȱ ethnicities,ȱ thoughȱ ifȱ fluxȱ andȱ dynamism,ȱ heȱ alsoȱ pointȱ outȱ howȱ someȱ historicalȱ accountsȱ areȱ toȱ beȱ believed,ȱ politicalȱsystemsȱofȱrewardsȱandȱpunishmentsȱ theȱKochȱareȱ“detribalized”ȱBodoȱwhoȱtookȱtoȱ haveȱ shapedȱ theseȱ inȱ Assamȱ inȱ recentȱ years.ȱ Hinduismȱ earlier.ȱ Andȱ yet,ȱ whenȱ theȱ Bodoȱ Thusȱthereȱisȱinȱtheȱstate:ȱ movementȱ began,ȱ theȱ Kochȱ Rajbongshiȱ wereȱ ȱ amongȱ theȱ firstȱ targetsȱ ofȱ aȱ spateȱ ofȱ violenceȱ …theȱ ongoingȱ agitationȱ withȱ deadlinesȱ unleashedȱ againstȱ nonȬBodoȱ communitiesȱ inȱ announcedȱandȱextendedȱforȱrecognitionȱasȱaȱ anȱ effortȱ toȱ createȱ anȱ “exclusive”ȱ Bodoȱ Scheduledȱ Tribeȱ byȱ sixȱ OBCȱ communitiesȱofȱ homeland.ȱ theȱState:ȱtheȱKochȱRajbongshiȱtoȱwhichȱstreamȱ ȱ mostȱofȱtheȱSaraniyaȱKacharisȱbelong,ȱtheȱTaiȱ ChangingȱInterȬethnicȱEquationsȱ Ahom,ȱ whoȱ ruledȱ Assamȱ duringȱ medievalȱ times,ȱtheȱMoran,ȱtheȱMottock,ȱtheȱChutiyaȱandȱ InȱtheȱNortheast,ȱsuchȱcasesȱofȱchangingȱinterȬ theȱAdivasi,ȱtheȱappellationȱnowȱpreferredȱbyȱ ethnicȱ dynamicsȱ inȱ responseȱ toȱ stateȱ policiesȱ teaȱ gardenȱ labourȱ andȱ exȬteaȱ gardenȱ labour.ȱ andȱ politicalȱ flipȬflopsȱ areȱ many.ȱ Weȱ mayȱ Asȱagainstȱtheseȱdemandsȱoneȱhasȱtoȱsetȱtheȱ furtherȱ examineȱ theȱ caseȱ ofȱ theȱ Hmarȱ andȱ certainȱ oppositionȱ fromȱ theȱ existingȱ Mizoȱ interȬrelation.ȱ Ofȱ allȱ theȱ Northeasternȱ Scheduledȱ Tribesȱ againstȱ makingȱ anyȱ statesȱwhereȱtheȱHmarȱhaveȱbeenȱtraditionallyȱ concessionȱ onȱ suchȱ demands.ȱ Theȱ Bodoȱ living,ȱ itȱ isȱ onlyȱ inȱ Mizoramȱ thatȱ theyȱ haveȱ Kachari,ȱ despiteȱ securingȱ recognitionȱ asȱ aȱ someȱamountȱofȱautonomy.ȱThoughȱtheȱgrantȱ `SixthȱScheduleȱtribeȇȱandȱsoȱqualifyingȱtoȱbeȱ andȱnatureȱofȱthisȱautonomyȱhasȱbeenȱbroughtȱ aȱScheduledȱTribeȱinȱtheȱhillȱdistricts,ȱhasȱtillȱ nowȱ notȱ securedȱ suchȱ recognitionȱ inȱ Karbiȱ intoȱquestion,ȱandȱmuchȱresentmentȱcontinuesȱ 18 Anglongȱ(Prabhakaraȱ2005a).ȱ regardingȱ itsȱ functioning ,ȱ itȱ hasȱ oftenȱ beenȱ ȱ citedȱ byȱ theȱ majorityȱ Mizoȱ populationȱ asȱ aȱ Ifȱ“detribalization”17ȱwasȱaȱmeansȱofȱacquiringȱ tokenȱofȱtheirȱrecognitionȱofȱtheȱHmarȱasȱtheirȱ socialȱacceptanceȱinȱpreȬcolonialȱAssam,ȱwithȱ kin.ȱ Therefore,ȱ whenȱ inȱ earlyȱ 2006,ȱ theȱ theȱ introductionȱ ofȱ theȱ instrumentsȱ ofȱ Manipurȱ Hmarȱ fledȱ toȱ Mizoramȱ followingȱ protectiveȱ discrimination,ȱ theȱ trendȱ ofȱ heightenedȱ violentȱ activitiesȱ byȱ Meiteiȱ “retribalization”ȱ began.ȱ Adȱ hocȱ solutionsȱ toȱ insurgentsȱ inȱ theirȱ areas,ȱ theyȱ wereȱ givenȱ deepȱ rootedȱ problemsȱ willȱ afterȱ all,ȱ generateȱ shelterȱbyȱtheȱgovernmentȱjustȱasȱotherȱHmarȱ adȱ hocȱ responsesȱ amongȱ theȱ communitiesȱ internallyȱ displacedȱ peopleȱ (IDPs)ȱ hadȱ beenȱ affected,ȱtoȱtheȱextentȱthatȱtheyȱhaveȱresortedȱ shelteredȱearlier—notablyȱwhenȱinȱAprilȱ2003,ȱ toȱ creationȱ ofȱ adȱ hocȱ ethnicitiesȱ nowȱ inȱ theȱ Dimasaȱ andȱ Hmarȱ insurgentȱ activityȱ hadȱ northeast.ȱIfȱbeingȱaȱScheduledȱTribeȱqualifiesȱ displacedȱ themȱ fromȱ Assam.ȱ Andȱ theȱ reliefȱ aȱcommunityȱforȱanȱautonomousȱcouncil,ȱandȱ campȱ wasȱ setȱ upȱ inȱ Sakawrdai,ȱ theȱ headȬ ifȱcouncilsȱbeginȱtoȱbeȱdisbursedȱwithȱasȱmuchȱ quartersȱ ofȱ theȱ Sinlungȱ Hillsȱ Developmentȱ alacrityȱasȱtheȱTKAC,ȱeveryȱcommunityȱwouldȱ Council,ȱ theȱ seatȱ ofȱ Hmarsȱ inȱ Mizoram—aȱ wantȱ toȱ reȬinventȱ itselfȱ towardsȱ gettingȱ stepȱthatȱworkedȱinȱtheȱinterestȱofȱtheȱmajorityȱ scheduledȱ status.ȱ Andȱ whenȱ theȱ alreadyȱ ofȱtheȱIDPs,ȱconsideringȱthatȱreportsȱofȱclashesȱ scheduledȱ communitiesȱ feelȱ theirȱ privilegedȱ ofȱ thoseȱ whoȱ stayedȱ outsideȱ theȱ campȱ withȱ positionsȱ slippingȱ away,ȱ andȱ theirȱ rewardsȱ localȱvillagersȱwereȱsoonȱtoȱsurface.ȱ beingȱ distributedȱ amongȱ manyȱ contenders,ȱ Meanwhile,ȱ theȱ issueȱ ofȱ integrationȱ ofȱ naturallyȱ oppositionsȱ wouldȱ arise.ȱ Thus,ȱ theȱ whatȱ hasȱ beenȱ constructedȱ asȱ theȱ Zoȱ tribalȱ KochȱRajbongshi’sȱdemandȱforȱinclusionȱinȱtheȱ brotherhoodȱ resurfaced.ȱ Theȱ dailyȱ Newslinkȱ scheduledȱ categoryȱ hasȱ beenȱ constantlyȱ (2006)ȱcommented:ȱ opposedȱbyȱtheȱBodo.ȱȱ ȱ

16 Internal Displacement, Migration, and Policy in Northeastern India

Becauseȱ ofȱ theirȱ perceivedȱ needȱ toȱ preserveȱ areȱ forcedȱ toȱ liveȱ separately.ȱ Anyȱ moveȱ theirȱuniqueȱculturalȱidentities,ȱHmars,ȱPaitesȱ towardsȱtheȱdisintegrityȱofȱtheȱZoȱtribesȱwillȱ andȱotherȱethnicȱtribesȱofȱtheȱZoȱfamilyȱlivingȱ beȱ stronglyȱ opposedȱ byȱ theȱ ZNPȱ (Newslinkȱ outsideȱMizoramȱhadȱresistedȱcomingȱinsideȱ 2006a).ȱ theȱ encompassingȱ umbrellaȱ ofȱ theȱ Mizoȱ ȱ identity.ȱHowever,ȱtheȱneedȱtoȱbeȱaȱpartȱofȱaȱ Ironically,ȱ theȱ Hmarȱ ofȱ Mizoramȱ hadȱ earlierȱ biggerȱcommunityȱisȱslowlyȱbeingȱrealizedȱbyȱ demandedȱ aȱ separateȱ state—andȱ hasȱ beenȱ theseȱ otherȱ tribesȱ withȱ theȱ adventȱ ofȱ anȱ concededȱ theȱ Sinlungȱ Hillsȱ Developmentȱ identityȱ crisisȱ amongȱ theȱ variousȱ peoplesȱ ofȱ Council—allegingȱ homogenizingȱ tendenciesȱ theȱregionȱduringȱtheȱlastȱfewȱdecades.ȱ byȱtheȱdominantȱLushaiȱcommunity.ȱ ȱ ȱ TheȱHmarȱInpuiȱ(HmarȱMainȱHouse)ȱandȱtheȱ NewȱEthnicȱFormulationsȱ HmarȱYouthȱAssociationȱrespondedȱinȱkindȱtoȱ Notȱ merelyȱ areȱ relationsȱ betweenȱ ethnicȱ theȱ Mizo’sȱ hospitality.ȱ Itȱ issuedȱ aȱ statementȱ communitiesȱ redefinedȱ andȱ reformulatedȱ inȱ (Newslinkȱ2006b)ȱsaying:ȱ thisȱ wayȱ inȱ theȱ Northeast,ȱ butȱ newȱ ethnicȱ ȱ identitiesȱ areȱ alsoȱ constructed,ȱ thusȱ illusȬ Weȱhaveȱrediscoveredȱourȱdeepȱbrotherhoodȱ asȱweȱhaveȱlearntȱthatȱourȱplightȱhadȱevokedȱ tratingȱthatȱidentitiesȱthatȱareȱincludedȱpopuȬ deepȱ sympathiesȱ amongȱ theȱ Mizoȱ kindredȱ larlyȱ underȱ theȱ “ethnic”ȱ labelȱ alsoȱ canȱ andȱ scatteredȱallȱoverȱtheȱworld.ȱ haveȱhadȱcivicȱformulations.ȱTheȱeffortsȱbeingȱ ȱ madeȱ towardsȱ theȱ constructionȱ ofȱ theȱ Butȱinȱaȱsplendidȱdemonstrationȱofȱdiplomaticȱ scatteredȱNagaȱ“tribes”ȱasȱaȱsingleȱnationȱandȱ dexterity,ȱ theȱ Centralȱ YMAȱ president,ȱ J.H.ȱ identity—sometimesȱ alsoȱ throughȱ allegedȱ Zoremthanga,ȱsaidȱheȱwasȱinȱfavorȱofȱtheȱIDPsȱ “ethnicȱ conversion”—isȱ theȱ mostȱ obviousȱ returningȱtoȱManipurȱ“sinceȱoccupationȱofȱanyȱ example.ȱ Anotherȱ recentȱ effortȱ atȱ ethnicȱ landȱ outsideȱ Mizoramȱ byȱ Zoȱ kindredȱ tribesȱ reorganizationȱisȱthatȱofȱtheȱBru.ȱ wouldȱ meanȱ aȱ greaterȱ Mizoram.”ȱ (Newslinkȱ TheȱBruȱhaveȱbeenȱlivingȱtraditionallyȱinȱ 2006d)ȱȱ Assam,ȱ Mizoramȱ andȱ Tripura.ȱ Theirȱ biggestȱ Aȱ memberȱ ofȱ theȱ Mizoramȱ opposition,ȱ concentrationȱwasȱinȱTripuraȱwhereȱtheyȱwereȱ theȱ Zoramȱ Nationalistȱ Partyȱ (ZNP),ȱ hadȱ theȱ secondȱ largestȱ indigenousȱ communityȱ tillȱ earlierȱ inȱ theȱ yearȱ suggestedȱ theȱ needȱ forȱ royalȱ persecutionȱ followingȱ anȱ uprisingȱ redrawingȱ theȱ politicalȱ boundariesȱ alongȱ displacedȱ aȱ lotȱ ofȱ themȱ inȱ theȱ 1942–43ȱ (forȱ ethnicȱlines,ȱinȱnaïveȱforgetfulness—Mizoramȱ detailsȱ seeȱ Chakravartiȱ 2002,ȱ Chakrabortyȱ afterȱ all,ȱ likeȱ mostȱ otherȱ statesȱ ofȱ theȱ 2004).ȱTheȱonesȱthatȱmovedȱtoȱMizoramȱwereȱ Northeast,ȱ wasȱ reorganizedȱ byȱ theȱ centralȱ alwaysȱlookedȱuponȱasȱ“outsiders”ȱevenȱtoȱtheȱ governmentȱ onȱ theȱ basisȱ ofȱ ethnicityȱ (toȱ beȱ extentȱ thatȱ theirȱ namesȱ haveȱ beenȱ struckȱ offȱ discussedȱ inȱ detailsȱ later).ȱ Obviously,ȱ sinceȱ theȱvoters’ȱlistȱfromȱtimeȱtoȱtime.ȱButȱitȱwasȱinȱ then,ȱ theȱ definitionȱ andȱ boundariesȱ ofȱ theȱ Mizoramȱ thatȱ theirȱ processȱ ofȱ reinventionȱ ofȱ Mizoȱ identityȱ hadȱ changedȱ asȱ hadȱ theȱ theȱselfȱbegan.ȱ equationȱwithȱcertainȱotherȱethnicities,ȱsoȱthatȱ Theȱ wordȱ “Bru”ȱ derivesȱ fromȱ “Bruha”ȱ theȱ ZNPȱ couldȱ announceȱ basedȱ onȱ theȱ reȬ theȱcommonȱmythicalȱancestorȱofȱaȱnumberȱofȱ definitionȱ ofȱ theȱ ZoȬHmarȱ relationȱ thatȱ wasȱ alliedȱclans,ȱofȱwhichȱtheȱReangȱareȱtheȱmostȱ takingȱshape:ȱ dominant.ȱ Inȱ fact,ȱ allȱ theȱ subȬclans—Uchoiȱ ȱ (Husoi),ȱ Chamrong,ȱ Wariem,ȱ Raichak,ȱ Reangȱ Aȱ nationȱ isȱ builtȱ byȱ God.ȱ Therefore,ȱ theseȱ —whichȱ fallȱ inȱ toȱ twoȱ majorȱ clans—Mulsoiȱ manȱ madeȱ boundariesȱ shouldȱ notȱ foreverȱ andȱMeska—wereȱclubbedȱtogetherȱunderȱtheȱ divideȱtheȱnation.ȱTheȱZNPȱNationalȱCouncilȱ nameȱ“Reang”ȱtillȱaȱconsciousȱeffortȱwasȱmadeȱ Meetingȱ hasȱ rededicatedȱ itselfȱ towardsȱ inȱ theȱ 1990sȱ toȱ popularizeȱ theȱ umbrellaȱ bringingȱtogetherȱunderȱaȱsingleȱstateȱunderȱaȱ identityȱ ofȱ Bruȱ forȱ allȱ ofȱ them.ȱ Theyȱ thenȱ singleȱ governmentȱ theȱ Zoȱ ethnicȱ tribesȱ whoȱ

17 Uddipana Goswami beganȱ increasinglyȱ toȱ demandȱ politicalȱ andȱ Hills)ȱ theyȱ (Tiperas)ȱ wereȱ includedȱ amongȱ representativeȱ rightsȱ inȱ Mizoram;ȱ outsidersȱ whoȱ wereȱ deniedȱ settlementȱ inȱ administrativeȱ policiesȱ forȱ theȱ protectionȱ ofȱ Mizoramȱ underȱ theȱ innerȱ lineȱ regulationȱ ofȱ theirȱ uniqueȱ identityȱ wereȱ alsoȱ sought.ȱ Theȱ 1930…ȱ ȱ culminationȱofȱtheȱprocessȱofȱresistanceȱtoȱanȱ Brusȱoriginallyȱwereȱnotȱhomelessȱpeople,ȱbutȱ allegedȱ “Mizoisation”ȱ policyȱ wasȱinȱtheȱformȱ whoȱfailedȱtoȱprotectȱtheirȱhome.ȱWeȱshouldȱ ofȱ aȱ demand,ȱ oftenȱ backedȱ byȱ violentȱ insurȬ helpȱ theseȱ peopleȱ getȱ backȱ theirȱ homelandȱ gentȱactivities,ȱforȱaȱ“Bruȱland”,ȱcomprisingȱofȱ insteadȱofȱgivingȱthemȱaȱhomeȱhere.ȱ theȱareaȱtraditionallyȱinhabitedȱbyȱtheȱcommȬ ȱ unityȱ (forȱ detailsȱ seeȱ Chakravartiȱ 2002,ȱ TheȱPoliticsȱofȱEthnicȱHomelandsȱ Chakrabortyȱ2004).ȱȱȱ TheȱLocationȱofȱtheȱEthnicȱHomelandȱ TheȱantiȬforeignersȱagitationȱinȱMizoramȱ Butȱ theȱ questionȱ thatȱ arisesȱ hereȱ is:ȱ whereȱ isȱ inȱ1995ȱpromptedȱtheȱBruȱpoliticalȱleadershipȱ thatȱhomeland?ȱTheȱBru’sȱimaginationȱofȱtheirȱ toȱ urgeȱ theȱ peopleȱ ofȱ theȱ communityȱ spreadȱ homelandȱ overliesȱ theȱ placeȱ theȱ Mizoȱ callȱ outȱ overȱ otherȱ placesȱ toȱ migrateȱ toȱ areasȱ home.ȱ Thereȱ isȱ notȱ muchȱ possibilityȱ thatȱ inȱ withinȱ theȱ territoryȱ whereȱ theyȱ beganȱ toȱ AssamȱandȱTripuraȱasȱwell,ȱwhereȱtheyȱhaveȱaȱ demandȱanȱautonomousȱcouncil.ȱTheȱconfronȬ presence,ȱ aȱ demandȱ forȱ aȱ Bruȱ homelandȱ canȱ tationȱbetweenȱtheȱMizoȱgovernmentȱandȱtheȱ beȱ accommodated.ȱ Alreadyȱ thereȱ haveȱ beenȱ Bruȱ cameȱ toȱ aȱ headȱ whenȱ theȱ Dampaȱ forestȱ internecineȱwarsȱoverȱcontestedȱhomelandsȱinȱ area,ȱ largelyȱ inhabitedȱ byȱ theȱ Bru,ȱ wasȱ Assam—theȱ mostȱ recentȱ caseȱ beingȱ inȱ Karbiȱ declaredȱaȱTigerȱReserve.ȱLargeȱscaleȱdisplaceȬ Anglongȱinȱ2005ȱwhereȱKarbiȬDimasaȱclashesȱ mentȱ ofȱ theȱ Bruȱ wasȱ fearedȱ andȱ aȱ sectionȱ ofȱ leftȱ nearlyȱ 50,000ȱ peopleȱ displacedȱ (Internalȱ theȱ youthȱ apparentlyȱ tookȱ upȱ arms.ȱ Theyȱ Displacementȱ Monitoringȱ Centreȱ 2006).ȱ Theȱ allegedlyȱkilledȱaȱMizoȱforestȱofficerȱandȱinȱtheȱ clashȱ hadȱ begunȱ overȱ theȱ demandȱ ofȱ theȱ conflictȱ thatȱ followed,ȱ 30–35,000ȱ Bruȱ wereȱ Unitedȱ Peoples’ȱ Democraticȱ Solidarityȱ displacedȱandȱmostȱofȱthemȱenteredȱTripura— (UPDS),ȱ aȱ Karbiȱ militantȱ organizationȱ forȱ theȱ someȱ wentȱ toȱ Assam—lookingȱ forȱ sanctuaryȱ removalȱ ofȱ aȱ designatedȱ campȱ belongingȱ toȱ (forȱdetailsȱseeȱChakravartiȱ2002,ȱChakrabortyȱ theȱ Dimaȱ Halamȱ Daogoȱ (DHD),ȱ aȱ Dimasaȱ 2004).ȱ insurgentȱ outfitȱ fromȱ Karbiȱ Anglong;ȱ itȱ Aȱ peaceȱ treatyȱ wasȱ signedȱ inȱ 2005ȱ escalatedȱ intoȱ largeȱ scaleȱ ethnicȱ cleansingȱ ofȱ betweenȱ theȱ Mizoramȱ governmentȱ andȱ Bruȱ Dimasaȱ peopleȱ inȱ theȱ hillȱ district,ȱ mainlyȱ inȱ insurgentsȱ ofȱ theȱ Bruȱ Nationalȱ Liberationȱ areasȱwhichȱareȱsoughtȱtoȱbeȱincludedȱbyȱtheȱ Frontȱ(BNLF)ȱtoȱputȱandȱendȱtoȱviolenceȱandȱaȱ Dimasaȱ insurgentȱ groupȱ inȱ theirȱ proposedȱ repatriationȱ settlementȱ ofȱ Bruȱ IDPsȱ wasȱ alsoȱ homeland.ȱInterestingly,ȱpartsȱofȱtheȱproposedȱ reached.ȱButȱresentmentsȱcontinuedȱtoȱsimmerȱ Karbiȱ homelandȱ alsoȱ spillsȱ overȱ intoȱ theȱ NCȱ underȱ theȱ surfaceȱ onȱ bothȱ sides.ȱ Sporadicȱ Hills.ȱȱ violenceȱ byȱ anotherȱ Bruȱ militantȱ group—theȱ Bruȱ Liberationȱ Frontȱ ofȱ Mizoramȱ (BLFM)— Instancesȱofȱoverlappingȱcartographiesȱofȱ continues.ȱOnȱtheirȱpart,ȱtheȱMizoȱcontinueȱtoȱ imaginedȱ homelandsȱ areȱ many.ȱ Theȱ problemȱ airȱ theirȱ antipathy,ȱ asȱ theȱ statementȱ ofȱ aȱ arisesȱ becauseȱ theyȱ drawȱ mostlyȱ fromȱ newlyȬformedȱ organizationȱ calledȱ theȱ Zoramȱ legendary,ȱmythicalȱorȱpreȬcolonialȱmemories,ȱ Vengtuȱ(guardiansȱofȱMizoram)ȱdemonstratesȱ withȱlittleȱorȱnoȱreferenceȱtoȱtheȱpresent,ȱandȱ (Newslinkȱ2006c):ȱ toȱ addȱ toȱ thatȱ thereȱ isȱ noȱ guaranteeȱ thatȱ theȱ ȱ emotionalȱgeographiesȱofȱtwoȱrivalȱcontendersȱ TheȱBrus,ȱalsoȱcalledȱasȱReangs,ȱHalamsȱandȱ forȱtheȱsameȱpieceȱofȱlandȱwouldȱderiveȱfromȱ Deburman,ȱwereȱrecognisedȱbyȱtheȱBritishȱasȱ theȱ sameȱ periodȱ inȱ history.ȱ Forȱ example,ȱ theȱ Tiperas.ȱ Sinceȱ theȱ Britishȱ understoodȱ thatȱ ideaȱ ofȱ anȱ exclusiveȱ homelandȱ forȱ theȱ Bodoȱ theyȱdidȱnotȱbelongȱtoȱMizoramȱ(thenȱLushaiȱ whichȱspreadȱoverȱtheȱentireȱnorthȱbankȱofȱtheȱ

18 Internal Displacement, Migration, and Policy in Northeastern India

Brahmaputraȱ riverȱ inȱ Assam,ȱ wasȱ basedȱ onȱ customȱ butȱ graduallyȱ turnedȱ theȱ systemȱ mythicalȱ andȱ legendaryȱ reconstruction.ȱ aroundȱwhereinȱtheȱtribalȱchiefsȱhadȱtoȱcollectȱ Overlappingȱ withȱ thisȱ territory,ȱ isȱ theȱ Kochȱ itȱ fromȱ theȱ governmentȱ asȱ rewardsȱ forȱ theirȱ Rajbongshiȱ homeland,ȱ whichȱ spreadsȱ overȱ “goodȱbehavior”,ȱandȱallowanceȱofȱEuropeanȱ someȱpartsȱofȱwhatȱnowȱconstitutesȱtheȱBodoȱ plantationsȱ andȱ otherȱ commercialȱ pursuitsȱ inȱ TerritorialȱAutonomousȱDistrictȱ(BTAD)ȱarea,ȱ theȱhills.ȱThisȱisȱhowȱtheȱfrontierȱtribesȱslowlyȱ andȱextendsȱupȱtoȱNorthȱBengal.ȱTheȱoverlapȱ lostȱ controlȱ overȱ theirȱ landsȱ toȱ theȱ colonialȱ inȱtheȱimaginariesȱoccurredȱbecauseȱtheȱKochȱ entrepreneursȱandȱtoȱaȱgovernmentȱthatȱoftenȱ homelandȱ isȱ basedȱ substantiallyȱ onȱ aȱ moreȱ ledȱ punitiveȱ expeditionsȱ intoȱ theirȱ territory,ȱ recentȱ memory—thatȱ ofȱ theȱ preȬcolonialȱ suchȱwasȱtheirȱ“reconciliatory”ȱpolicy.ȱ Kamatapurȱkingdom.ȱȱ However,ȱ theȱ mythȱ behindȱ theseȱ Besides,ȱasȱhasȱbeenȱseenȱinȱcasesȱalreadyȱ instrumentsȱ ofȱ governanceȱ wasȱ soȱ stronglyȱ discussedȱ above,ȱ ethnicȱ boundariesȱ andȱ builtȱ upȱ thatȱ theȱ postcolonialȱ stateȱ retainedȱ definitionsȱareȱdynamic.ȱAndȱasȱsuch,ȱthereȱisȱ manyȱ ofȱ theseȱ colonialȱ provisionsȱ asȱ instruȬ everyȱ possibilityȱ ofȱ splinterȱ ethnicitiesȱ mentsȱ ofȱ protectiveȱ discrimination.ȱ Theȱ demandingȱ exclusiveȱ rightsȱ overȱ theȱ sameȱ differenceȱwasȱthatȱtheȱassumptionȱthatȱsomeȱ homeland.ȱ Whenȱ oneȱ goesȱ intoȱ theȱ manyȱ communitiesȱwereȱnotȱworthȱtheȱattemptȱtoȱbeȱ conflictingȱ spatialȱ andȱ temporalȱ historiesȱ broughtȱ withinȱ theȱ ambitȱ ofȱ modernȱ basedȱonȱwhichȱtheȱmanyȱethnicitiesȱdemandȱ administrationȱ hadȱ ledȱ theȱ Britishȱ toȱ labelȱ soȱ manyȱ homelands,ȱ mostȱ ofȱ themȱ overȬ certainȱareasȱofȱtheȱnortheastȱasȱ“excluded”ȱorȱ lapping,ȱtheȱideaȱofȱexclusivityȱbeginsȱtoȱseemȱ “backward”;ȱ butȱ theȱ postcolonialȱ state’sȱ moreȱ andȱ moreȱ absurd.ȱ Addȱ toȱ thatȱ theȱ declaredȱ intentȱ wasȱ thatȱ itȱ sawȱ protectiveȱ violenceȱ thatȱ eruptsȱ fromȱ theȱ demandȱ ofȱ discriminationȱ asȱ aȱ meansȱ ofȱ lettingȱ theȱ exclusiveȱ homelandsȱ andȱ killsȱ andȱ displacesȱ formerlyȱ ‘excluded’ȱ communitiesȱ developȱ soȱmany,ȱandȱtheȱideaȱbeginsȱtoȱseemȱnotȱjustȱ accordingȱ toȱ theirȱ ownȱ genius19ȱ whileȱ absurdȱbutȱalsoȱinhuman.ȱ graduallyȱ integratingȱ intoȱ theȱ mainstream.ȱ ȱ Thisȱ wasȱ theȱ “Philosophyȱ forȱ NEFA”ȱ (1959)ȱ TheȱIdeaȱofȱExclusivityȱ thatȱ Verrierȱ Elwin,ȱ whoseȱ scholarshipȱ andȱ Soȱ whereȱ doesȱ thisȱ notionȱ ofȱ exclusivityȱ experienceȱ ofȱ theȱ northeastȱ shapedȱ muchȱ ofȱ originate?ȱWhoȱthoughtȱthatȱinȱaȱmultiȬethnicȱ postcolonialȱ India’sȱ policiesȱ towardsȱ theȱ placeȱlikeȱtheȱnortheast,ȱanyȱethnicityȱcouldȱbeȱ region,ȱ propagated.ȱ Thusȱ theȱ frontierȱ tractsȱ givenȱ anȱ exclusiveȱ homeland?ȱ Theȱ troubleȱ remainedȱunderȱcentralȱgovernance—weȱhaveȱ beganȱ withȱ theȱ comingȱ ofȱ theȱ colonialȱ seenȱ howȱ Arunachalȱ Pradeshȱ becameȱ aȱ stateȱ administrationȱ whichȱ wasȱ removedȱ fromȱ theȱ onlyȱ inȱ 1987.ȱ Provisionsȱ likeȱ theȱ “innerȱ line”ȱ groundȱrealitiesȱofȱtheȱregion.ȱItȱintroducedȱaȱ whichȱprohibitsȱsettlementȱofȱoutsidersȱremainȱ rangeȱofȱpoliciesȱbasedȱonȱcursoryȱknowledgeȱ inȱ placeȱ tillȱ thisȱ day.ȱ Mostȱ ofȱ theȱ hillȱ areas— ofȱ theȱ peopleȱ forȱ whomȱ theȱ policiesȱ wereȱ likeȱ theȱ Lushaiȱ hillsȱ whichȱ wentȱ onȱ toȱ madeȱ andȱ followedȱ themȱ throughȱ fromȱ theirȱ constituteȱMizoram,ȱandȱtheȱUnitedȱKhasiȱandȱ ownȱperspectiveȱofȱcommercialȱgain.ȱConsiderȱ Jayantiaȱ Hillsȱ whichȱ becameȱ incorporatedȱ inȱ theȱ caseȱ ofȱ Arunachalȱ Pradeshȱ asȱ alreadyȱ Meghalaya—wereȱalsoȱtaggedȱlikeȱtheȱfrontierȱ discussedȱ whereȱ itȱ hasȱ beenȱ seenȱ thatȱ theȱ tractsȱasȱ“excluded”ȱandȱ“partiallyȱexcluded”,ȱ colonialȱpolicyȱofȱnonȬinterferenceȱtowardsȱtheȱ andȱ theyȱ cameȱ underȱ theȱ provisionsȱ ofȱ theȱ frontierȱ tribesȱ oftenȱ translatedȱ inȱ realityȱ intoȱ SixthȱScheduleȱasȱperȱtheȱrecommendationȱofȱ indirectȱ control.ȱ Toȱ elucidateȱ further,ȱ anȱ theȱ Gopinathȱ Bordoloiȱ SubȬcommitteeȱ onȱ attemptȱ atȱ reconciliationȱ withȱ theȱ raidingȱ Northȱ Eastȱ Frontierȱ (Assamȱ Tribalȱ andȱ tribesȱofȱArunachalȱhadȱledȱtheȱAhomȱkingsȱofȱ ExcludedȱAreas)ȱofȱtheȱConstituentȱAssembly.ȱ theȱplainsȱtoȱpayȱthemȱposa,ȱorȱservicesȱinȱcashȱ TheȱSixthȱScheduleȱhasȱoftenȱbeenȱseenȱasȱ orȱkind.ȱTheȱBritishȱbeganȱwithȱobservingȱthisȱ theȱ panaceaȱ forȱ allȱ disgruntledȱ demandsȱ forȱ

19 Uddipana Goswami autonomyȱ andȱ selfȬruleȱ byȱ theȱ resurgingȱ itȱ isȱ theȱ sameȱ centralizingȱ propensityȱ thatȱ isȱ ethnicities,ȱ bothȱ byȱ theȱ ethnicitiesȱ themselvesȱ replicatedȱatȱeveryȱlevel.ȱ asȱwellȱasȱbyȱtheȱstate.ȱHenceȱtheȱproliferationȱ Tokenismȱ isȱ alsoȱ theȱ spiritȱ inȱ whichȱ theȱ ofȱautonomousȱcouncilsȱinȱrecentȱyearsȱandȱofȱ variousȱ ethnicitiesȱ ofȱ Assamȱ areȱ beingȱ insurgentȱgroupsȱtoȱdemandȱtheȱsame.ȱWhereȱ conferredȱSixthȱScheduleȱstatusȱwithȱalarmingȱ theȱ demandȱ hasȱ beenȱ forȱ more—inȱ extremeȱ regularity.ȱ Afterȱ theȱ initialȱ reservationȱ ofȱ theȱ cases,ȱ forȱ secessionȱ andȱ sovereignty— governmentȱ towardsȱ grantingȱ autonomyȱ toȱ amendmentsȱ ofȱ theȱ Sixthȱ Scheduleȱ toȱ extendȱ theȱ Bodoȱ whoȱ inȱ aȱ way,ȱ beganȱ theȱ trendȱ forȱ theȱ powersȱ ofȱ theȱ councilsȱ formedȱ underȱ itȱ demandingȱautonomousȱcouncilsȱinȱAssam— haveȱ beenȱ effectedȱ andȱ offeredȱ asȱ anȱ alterȬ theȱ hillȱ districtsȱ hadȱ beenȱ putȱ underȱ theȱ nativeȱ arrangement.ȱ Asȱ recentlyȱ asȱ 2004,ȱ theȱ scheduleȱatȱtheȱtimeȱofȱconstitutionȱmaking— Arunachalȱ Pradeshȱ assemblyȱ adoptedȱ theȱ theȱ governmentȱ hasȱ sinceȱ beenȱ moreȱ thanȱ SixthȱSchedule:ȱȱ generousȱ withȱ disbursingȱ autonomousȱ counȬ ȱ cilsȱandȱconcomitantȱgrants.ȱAfterȱtheȱgrantȱofȱ soȱ asȱ toȱ enableȱ itȱ toȱ createȱ Autonomousȱ autonomyȱ toȱ theȱ Bodo,ȱ itȱ wasȱ soonȱ seenȱ thatȱ Districtȱ Councilsȱ (ADCs)ȱ inȱ militantȬ ethnicȱ aspirationsȱ canȱ beȱ appeased,ȱ atȱ leastȱ dominatedȱ Tirapȱ andȱ Chanlangȱ districts,ȱ provisionally,ȱbyȱdeclarationȱofȱSixthȱScheduleȱ besidesȱ Tawangȱ andȱ Westȱ Kamengȱ districtsȱ status,ȱandȱtheȱpassingȱonȱofȱsomeȱamountȱofȱ affectedȱ byȱ 1962ȱ Chineseȱ aggressionȱ (Pressȱ powerȱtoȱaȱsectionȱofȱtheȱethnicȱelites.ȱBesides,ȱ TrustȱofȱIndiaȱ2004).ȱȱ theȱhugeȱmonetaryȱgrantsȱthatȱaccompanyȱtheȱ Theȱ nearȬtalismanicȱ importanceȱ attachedȱ settingȱupȱofȱeachȱnewȱautonomousȱcouncilȱisȱ toȱautonomyȱunderȱtheȱsixthȱscheduleȱcanȱbeȱ enoughȱtoȱkeepȱtheȱleadershipȱquietȱatȱleastȱtillȱ gaugedȱ byȱ theȱ oppositionȱ generatedȱ toȱ theȱ theȱ financesȱ last.ȱ Possiblyȱ afterȱ theȱ Bodoȱ formationȱ ofȱ anȱ autonomousȱ councilȱ forȱ theȱ experience,ȱ andȱ theȱ positiveȱ resultsȱ ofȱ coȬ indigenousȱ peopleȱ ofȱ Tripuraȱ byȱ theȱ immiȬ optionȱofȱtheȱethnicȱelites,ȱotherȱcommunitiesȱ grantȱ populationȱ inȱ 1980.ȱ Theȱ riotsȱ thatȱ likeȱ theȱ Rabha,ȱ Misingȱ andȱ Tiwaȱ haveȱ alsoȱ followedȱ putȱ aboutȱ 18,9919ȱ people,ȱ bothȱ beenȱgrantedȱautonomousȱcouncils.ȱWithȱeachȱ indigenousȱ andȱ nonȬindigenous,ȱ inȱ reliefȱ newȱ memorandumȱ ofȱ understandingȱ thatȱ isȱ campsȱ(Chakravartiȱ2002).ȱAndȱyet,ȱtheȱnatureȱ signedȱwithȱeachȱnextȱcommunity,ȱtheȱprocessȱ ofȱautonomyȱthatȱtheȱformationȱofȱtheȱTripuraȱ isȱ simple—theȱ termsȱ remainȱ theȱ same,ȱ onlyȱ Tribalȱ Areasȱ Autonomousȱ Districtȱ Councilȱ theȱdatesȱandȱnamesȱofȱtheȱsignatoriesȱareȱtheȱ (TTAADC)ȱconferredȱcanȱbestȱbeȱdescribedȱasȱ same.ȱ Aȱ comparativeȱ scrutinyȱ ofȱ anyȱ twoȱ ofȱ token.ȱȱ theȱ memorandaȱ ofȱ settlementȱ signedȱ postȬ Theȱpowersȱconferredȱonȱtheȱcouncilȱareȱ BTADȱ willȱ proveȱ theȱ veracityȱ ofȱ this.ȱ Theȱ veryȱlimited,ȱespeciallyȱifȱoneȱcomparesȱthemȱ burlesqueȱthatȱautonomyȱhasȱbeenȱreducedȱtoȱ withȱ theȱ powersȱ vestedȱ inȱ theȱ BTADȱ byȱ anȱ wasȱ exposedȱ inȱ theȱ caseȱ ofȱ theȱ TKACȱ amendmentȱ ofȱ theȱ Sixthȱ Scheduleȱ inȱ 2003,ȱ discussedȱabove.ȱ whichȱ hasȱ controlȱ overȱ allȱ 40ȱ stateȱ subjects.ȱ ȱ Besides,ȱ financialȱ autonomyȱ isȱ almostȱ absent.ȱ FrontierȱReorganizationȱandȱEthnicȱStatesȱ Ofȱ course,ȱ oneȱ couldȱ alsoȱ turnȱ theȱ matterȱ OverȱandȱaboveȱtheȱSixthȱSchedule,ȱtheȱpolicyȱ aroundȱ andȱ questionȱ theȱ needȱ forȱ tokenismsȱ ofȱ reorganizingȱ theȱ Northeastȱ statesȱ alongȱ withinȱ tokenisms,ȱ sinceȱ evenȱ inȱ theȱ mostȱ ethnicȱlinesȱwhichȱstartedȱsinceȱtheȱ1960sȱhasȱ powerfulȱ autonomousȱ councils,ȱ theȱ ultimateȱ equallyȱ ledȱ toȱ internalȱ disintegration,ȱ powerȱ doesȱ notȱ vestȱ withȱ theȱ people.ȱ Inȱ theȱ proliferationȱ ofȱ ethnicȱ identityȱ movementsȱ centristȱmodelȱofȱtheȱIndianȱpolity,ȱtheȱcentreȱ andȱ demandsȱ forȱ exclusiveȱ homelands.ȱ Inȱ hasȱ remainedȱ theȱ soleȱ keeperȱ ofȱ allȱ power.ȱ 1960,ȱ Assamȱ wasȱaȱmuchȱbiggerȱgeoȬpoliticalȱ Andȱevenȱinȱtheȱlowerȱtiersȱofȱadministration,ȱ entityȱ thanȱ itȱ isȱ atȱ present.ȱ Fourȱ statesȱ (includingȱ whatȱ remainedȱ ofȱ Assam)ȱ wereȱ

20 Internal Displacement, Migration, and Policy in Northeastern India shapedȱ outȱ ofȱ thisȱ entity.ȱ Meghalayaȱ wasȱ andȱMizoram.ȱȱOnȱJanuaryȱ6,ȱ2006,ȱtheȱgeneralȱ madeȱanȱAutonomousȱStateȱinȱ1970ȱandȱaȱfullȬ secretaryȱ ofȱ theȱ Formerȱ Undergroundsȱ fledgedȱstateȱinȱ1972.ȱArunachalȱPradeshȱwasȱ WelfareȱAssociation,ȱVȱLaichhingaȱreiteratedȱaȱ madeȱaȱUnionȱTerritoryȱinȱ1972ȱandȱupgradedȱ longȱstandingȱdemand:ȱ toȱ aȱ stateȱ inȱ 1982.ȱ Mizoramȱ becameȱ aȱ Unionȱ ȱ Territoryȱinȱ1972ȱandȱaȱseparateȱstateȱinȱ1987.ȱ Weȱ hadȱ submittedȱ aȱ memorandumȱ toȱ theȱ AndȱexceptȱforȱArunachal,ȱallȱtheȱotherȱstatesȱ Presidentȱ ofȱ Indiaȱ inȱ Septemberȱ lastȱ yearȱ toȱ wereȱ formedȱ byȱ theȱ centralȱ governmentȱ inȱ constituteȱ aȱ threeȬmemberȱ borderȱ orderȱ toȱ appeaseȱ insurgentȱ andȱ secessionistȱ commission.ȱWeȱhadȱalsoȱurgedȱtheȱMizoramȱ ChiefȱMinisterȱtoȱinitiateȱaȱCMȬlevelȱtalkȱwithȱ activities.ȱȱ Assamȱ onȱ theȱ borderȱ dispute,ȱ butȱ noȱ actionȱ Inȱ theȱ aftermathȱ ofȱ theȱ 1962ȱ war,ȱ theȱ hasȱ beenȱ takenȱ tillȱ todayȱ (Southȱ Asiaȱ reorganizationȱ ofȱ Arunachal,ȱ leadingȱ evenȬ TerrorismȱPortalȱ2006).ȱ tuallyȱ toȱ stateȬformation,ȱ wasȱ seenȱ asȱ anȱ ȱ exerciseȱ inȱ integratingȱ aȱ frontierȱ regionȱ thatȱ Meanwhile,ȱ studentȱ bodiesȱ likeȱ theȱ Mizoȱ wasȱ situatedȱ dangerouslyȱ closeȱ toȱ powerfulȱ Zirlaiȱ Pawlȱ (MZP)ȱ andȱ theȱ Mizoȱ Studentsȱ China.ȱ Nagalandȱ hadȱ alreadyȱ beenȱ separatedȱ Unionȱ (MSU)ȱ haveȱ pledgedȱ toȱ safeguardȱ theȱ fromȱAssamȱinȱ1957ȱwhenȱitȱwasȱmadeȱintoȱaȱ ‘true’ȱterritoryȱofȱMizoramȱwhichȱextendsȱintoȱ Centralȱ Governmentȱ Administrativeȱ Area.ȱ Itsȱ theȱCacharȱplainsȱofȱAssamȱoverȱsomeȱpartsȱofȱ formationȱ asȱ aȱ stateȱ inȱ 1963ȱ hasȱ alsoȱ beenȱ whichȱMizoȱchiefsȱhadȱatȱoneȱpointȱinȱhistoryȱ consideredȱtoȱbeȱaȱreactionȱtoȱtheȱ1962ȱdebacleȱ heldȱ swayȱ (Unitedȱ Newsȱ ofȱ Indiaȱ 2006).ȱ andȱ anȱ effortȱ toȱ appeaseȱ Nagaȱ sentiments,ȱ IndeedȱthereȱisȱaȱsizeableȱMizoȱpopulationȱinȱ givenȱ theȱ continuedȱ refusalȱ ofȱ hardlinersȱ toȱ theȱ Cacharȱ plainsȱ evenȱ today,ȱ andȱ powerfulȱ considerȱ themselvesȱ aȱ partȱ ofȱ India.ȱ Byȱ 1987ȱ Mizoȱ organisationsȱ likeȱ theȱ Youngȱ Mizoȱ then,ȱ theȱ formationȱ ofȱ theȱ Northeastȱ asȱ weȱ Associationȱ(YMA)ȱhaveȱtheirȱlocalȱchaptersȱinȱ knowȱitȱnowȱwasȱmoreȱorȱlessȱcomplete—theȱ theȱCacharȱareaȱofȱAssam.ȱ erstwhileȱ princelyȱ statesȱ ofȱ Manipurȱ andȱ Barringȱisolatedȱincidentsȱthoughȱ(seeȱforȱ Tripuraȱ hadȱ beenȱ madeȱ intoȱ statesȱ ofȱ theȱ instance,ȱ Theȱ Telegraphȱ 2005)ȱ thereȱ haveȱ notȱ Indianȱunionȱinȱ1972.ȱȱ beenȱmanyȱmajorȱincidentsȱofȱviolenceȱonȱtheȱ Theȱfactȱthatȱethnicȱdissensionsȱincreasedȱ AssamȬMizoramȱ border.ȱ Theȱ sameȱ ofȱ course,ȱ ratherȱ thanȱ decreaseȱ afterȱ thisȱ reorganizationȱ cannotȱ beȱ saidȱ ofȱ theȱ moreȱ sporadicallyȱ ofȱtheȱnortheastȱpointsȱtowardsȱsomeȱfaultȱinȱ volatileȱ bordersȱ likeȱ theȱ AssamȬMeghalaya,ȱ suchȱaȱpolicyȱofȱappeasement,ȱorȱatȱleastȱinȱtheȱ AssamȬNagalandȱ andȱ NagalandȬManipurȱ handlingȱ ofȱ it.ȱ Onlyȱ inȱ oneȱ muchȬtoutedȱ borders.ȱ case—theȱcaseȱofȱMizoram—ethnicȱaspirationsȱ ȱ seemedȱ toȱ haveȱ beenȱ assuagedȱ toȱ theȱ extentȱ StateȱPoliciesȱandȱInternalȱDisplacementȱ thatȱ insurgentȱ activitiesȱ cameȱ officiallyȱ toȱ aȱ KeepingȱDisputesȱAliveȱ haltȱ withȱ theȱ insurgentsȱ turningȱ Inȱ Novemberȱ 2003,ȱ forȱ example,ȱ moreȱ thanȱ administrators.20ȱ However,ȱ inȱ theȱ processȱ ofȱ 4,000ȱ KhasiȬPnarȱ peopleȱ livingȱ inȱ Assam’sȱ reorganization,ȱ theȱ stateȱ boundariesȱ ofȱ Karbiȱ Anglongȱ districtȱ wereȱ displacedȱ Mizoramȱasȱwellȱasȱthatȱofȱtheȱotherȱnortheastȱ followingȱ violenceȱ perpetratedȱ byȱ Karbiȱ states,ȱ wereȱ notȱ definedȱ clearlyȱ enoughȱ toȱ insurgentȱ outfitsȱ (Theȱ Assamȱ Tribuneȱ 2005).ȱ preemptȱ theȱ possibilityȱ ofȱ interȬstateȱ borderȱ Theyȱ fledȱ toȱ Meghalayaȱ toȱ findȱ shelterȱ withȱ disputes.ȱ Thus,ȱ Mizoramȱ continuesȱ toȱ haveȱ aȱ theirȱ ethnicȱ kin.ȱ Theȱ displacedȱ KhasiȬPnarȱ borderȱdisputeȱwithȱAssamȱevenȱ20ȱyearsȱafterȱ peopleȱ belongedȱ toȱ Blocksȱ Iȱ &ȱ IIȱ ofȱ Karbiȱ itsȱformation,ȱaȱlegacyȱleftȱbehindȱbyȱcolonialȱ Anglongȱ whichȱ hasȱ beenȱ anȱ areaȱ ofȱ disputeȱ incursionȱ whichȱ acquiredȱ landȱ forȱ itsȱ betweenȱAssamȱandȱMeghalayaȱforȱmoreȱthanȱ plantationsȱ onȱ eitherȱ sideȱ ofȱ theȱ borderȱ 30ȱ yearsȱ now.ȱ Theȱ disputeȱ arisesȱ fromȱ theȱ betweenȱ whatȱ areȱ nowȱ theȱ statesȱ ofȱ Assamȱ

21 Uddipana Goswami contentionȱ thatȱ theseȱ blocksȱ wereȱ yokedȱ toȱ uninformedȱandȱinconclusiveȱpolicyȱdecisionsȱ Karbiȱ Anglongȱ inȱ 1951ȱ byȱ dissociatingȱ themȱ canȱ andȱ haveȱ perpetratedȱ onȱ entireȱ commȬ fromȱ whatȱ usedȱ toȱ beȱtheȱKhasiȱandȱJayantiaȱ unities.ȱȱ Hillsȱdistrict.ȱIndeed,ȱmostȱborderȱdisputesȱinȱ AmongȱtheȱindigenousȱArunachalese,ȱtheȱ theȱ northeast,ȱ asȱ theȱ caseȱ ofȱ theȱ MizoramȬ Puroikȱ haveȱ beenȱ victimsȱ ofȱ aȱ myopicȱ Assamȱ andȱ MeghalayaȬAssamȱ bordersȱ governmentȱ policyȱ ofȱ liberationȱ fromȱ slaveryȱ illustrate,ȱ springȱ fromȱ referencesȱ toȱ aȱ historyȱ thatȱ hasȱ ledȱ toȱ theirȱ displacement.ȱ Theȱ theȱlinearityȱofȱwhichȱwasȱdisruptedȱeitherȱbyȱ governmentȱtookȱaȱdecisionȱinȱ1964ȱtoȱfreeȱtheȱ colonialȱ orȱ postcolonialȱ (neoȬcolonial?)ȱ interȬ communityȱ thatȱ wasȱ traditionallyȱ usedȱ asȱ vention.ȱInȱtheȱcourseȱofȱcurrentȱconflicts,ȱtheȱ serfsȱ byȱ theȱ moreȱ powerfulȱ tribesȱ ofȱ inabilityȱ ofȱ theȱ postcolonialȱ stateȱ toȱ addressȱ Arunachal,ȱ likeȱ theȱ Nishi.ȱ Thereȱ wereȱ manyȱ and/orȱ redressȱ theseȱ disruptionsȱ hasȱ lacunaeȱinȱtheȱactionȱplan—aȱsumȱofȱINRȱ500ȱ prolongedȱtheseȱdisputes.ȱ (approx.ȱ 11ȱ USD)ȱ wasȱ paidȱ toȱ theȱ ownersȱ ȱ towardsȱliberatingȱtheȱslaves,ȱbutȱthereȱwasȱnoȱ UprootingȱPopulationsȱ mechanismȱtoȱfollowȱupȱonȱtheȱsuccess/failureȱ Theȱ resultȱ hasȱ beenȱ escalatedȱ violenceȱ andȱ ofȱ theȱ plan.ȱ Inȱ someȱ casesȱ theȱ moneyȱ wasȱ insurgentȱactivities,ȱtoȱcounterȱwhich,ȱtheȱstateȱ taken,ȱ butȱ theȱ slavesȱ wereȱ notȱ released.ȱ Inȱ undertakesȱcounterinsurgencyȱmeasures.ȱAndȱ mostȱ cases,ȱ theȱ Puroikȱ themselvesȱ wereȱ thoughȱtillȱdate,ȱtheseȱmeasuresȱhaveȱnotȱbeenȱ unawareȱofȱwhatȱtheȱpaymentȱwasȱtowardsȱsoȱ ableȱ toȱ containȱ insurgencyȱ inȱ theȱ Northeast,ȱ thatȱ theyȱ couldȱ notȱ demandȱ release.ȱ Theȱ manyȱ ofȱ themȱ haveȱ definitelyȱ succeededȱ inȱ moneyȱadvancedȱtowardsȱrehabilitationȱofȱtheȱ displacingȱcivilianȱpopulations.ȱAsȱpartȱofȱtheȱ serfsȱ wasȱ inȱ manyȱ casesȱ handedȱ overȱ toȱ theȱ state’sȱ counterinsurgencyȱ operations,ȱ grouȬ erstwhileȱ mastersȱ dueȱ toȱ lackȱ ofȱ information.ȱ pingȱ ofȱ villagesȱ involvingȱ 80ȱ percentȱ ofȱ theȱ 3,540ȱ bondedȱ laborsȱ wereȱ identified,ȱ allȱ ofȱ totalȱ populationȱ wasȱ undertakenȱ inȱ Mizoramȱ whomȱhadȱnoȱhomesteads.ȱThoseȱofȱthemȱwhoȱ inȱ 1966–69,ȱ purportedlyȱ toȱ isolateȱ militantsȱ wereȱ liberated,ȱ thusȱ joinedȱ theȱ ranksȱ ofȱ theȱ andȱdepriveȱthemȱofȱshelterȱ(Lianzelaȱ2002)— internallyȱ displacedȱ (forȱ detailsȱ seeȱ Duttaȱ justȱ asȱ theȱ Britishȱ hadȱ doneȱ inȱ theirȱ Malayaȱ 2002).ȱ colony.ȱAtȱleastȱ150,000ȱpeopleȱwereȱaffected.ȱ ȱ Theȱ sameȱ exerciseȱ isȱ repeatedȱ occasionallyȱ inȱ (Mis)handlingȱEthnicȱAspirationsȱ Manipur,ȱbutȱnotȱquiteȱpeaceably.ȱInȱaȱreplayȱ Forȱ theȱ mostȱ partȱ however,ȱ theȱ state’sȱ ofȱBritishȱsoldiersȱburningȱdownȱKukiȱvillagesȱ inaptitudeȱinȱhandlingȱethnicȱaspirationsȱleadsȱ inȱ 1917–19,ȱ Indianȱ securityȱ forcesȱ haveȱ alsoȱ toȱ violence,ȱ bloodshedȱ andȱ internalȱ displaceȬ beenȱ knownȱ toȱ destroyȱ bothȱ Nagaȱ andȱ Kukiȱ ment.ȱ Whenȱ theȱ Bodoȱ launchedȱ aȱ movementȱ villagesȱ underȱ theȱ pretextȱ ofȱ counterȬ inȱ 1987ȱ toȱ demandȱ anȱ ethnicȱ homeland,ȱ theȱ insurgencyȱoperations.ȱInȱ2001,ȱanȱentireȱKukiȱ stateȱ firstȱ usedȱ themȱ forȱ itsȱ ownȱ ends,ȱ andȱ villageȱwasȱburntȱdownȱandȱaboutȱ50ȱfamiliesȱ thenȱsetȱaȱnearȱimpossibleȱconditionȱinȱreturnȱ displacedȱ (Haokipȱ 2002).ȱ Thusȱ resentmentȱ inȱ forȱ autonomy,ȱ aȱ conditionȱ toȱ fulfillȱ whichȱ thisȱ regionȱ againstȱ theȱ stateȱ andȱ theȱ securityȱ violenceȱwasȱindispensable.ȱ forcesȱitȱoftenȱfailsȱtoȱreinȱinȱisȱquiteȱnatural.ȱȱ Itȱ isȱ trueȱ ofȱ theȱ Bodoȱ movementȱ thatȱ ȱ policiesȱofȱforcedȱassimilationȱonȱtheȱoneȱhandȱ HalfȬBakedȱPoliciesȱ andȱ ofȱ deliberateȱ alienationȱ onȱ theȱ otherȱ thatȱ Meanwhile,ȱevenȱtheȱapparentlyȱwellȬmeaningȱ wereȱ formulatedȱ byȱ theȱ AGPȱ governmentȱ policiesȱ ofȱ theȱ stateȱ towardsȱ thisȱ regionȱ haveȱ formedȱ afterȱ theȱ Assamȱ Movementȱ wereȱ beenȱ halfȬbaked,ȱ causingȱ moreȱ traumaȱ thanȱ responsibleȱ toȱ aȱ greatȱ extentȱ forȱ theȱ riseȱ ofȱ reliefȱtoȱtheȱtargetȱpopulations.ȱForȱinstance,ȱifȱ militancyȱ inȱ Bodoȱ society.ȱ Atȱ theȱ sameȱ timeȱ weȱ takeȱ theȱ caseȱ ofȱ theȱ Puroikȱ (Sulung)ȱ ofȱ thereȱ areȱ clearȱ indicationsȱ thatȱ theȱ centralȱ Arunachalȱ Pradesh,ȱ weȱ findȱ whatȱ damageȱ

22 Internal Displacement, Migration, and Policy in Northeastern India government,ȱwhichȱwasȱrunȱatȱtheȱtimeȱbyȱtheȱ andȱ theȱ boundariesȱ ofȱ theȱ promisedȱ Congressȱ (I),ȱ aȱ nationalȱ partyȱ asȱ opposedȱ toȱ “homeland”ȱwereȱleftȱunȬdemarcatedȱtillȱthenȱ theȱ regionalȱ AGPȱ inȱ powerȱ inȱ Assam,ȱ wasȱ inȱtheȱBodolandȱAutonomousȱCouncilȱMemorȬ providingȱarmsȱandȱtrainingȱtoȱBodoȱmilitantsȱ andumȱ ofȱ Settlementȱ ofȱ 1993.21ȱ Inevitably,ȱ (Bhaumikȱ 2004).ȱ Theȱ thenȱ chiefȱ minister,ȱ violenceȱ brokeȱ outȱ inȱ Westernȱ Assamȱ andȱ PrafullaȱMahantaȱclaimed:ȱ continuedȱ intermittentlyȱ duringȱ 1993–1998ȱ ȱ withȱtheȱaimȱofȱdrivingȱoutȱtheȱsettlerȱcommȬ Theȱ wholeȱ exerciseȱ appearsȱ toȱ beȱ partȱ ofȱ aȱ unities.ȱ Sansumaȱ Khungurȱ Bwismutiary,ȱ MPȱ largerȱ conspiracyȱ toȱ destabiliseȱ theȱ AGPȱ andȱ formerlyȱ Presidentȱ ofȱ theȱ Allȱ Bodoȱ Governmentȱ(TheȱHinduȱ1989).ȱ Studentsȱ Unionȱ (ABSU)ȱ thatȱ ledȱ theȱ ȱ movement,ȱwentȱonȱrecordȱsayingȱ Andȱ theȱ Bodoȱ caseȱ isȱ notȱ anȱ isolatedȱ one.ȱ Aȱ ȱ whiteȱpaperȱonȱinsurgencyȱinȱNCȱHillsȱdistrictȱ …ȱ Thisȱ isȱ allȱ ourȱ landȱ andȱ nonȬBodosȱ haveȱ inȱ 2000ȱ allegedȱ thatȱ facedȱ withȱ aȱ “popularȱ comeȱ andȱ settledȱ hereȱ fromȱ timeȱ toȱ time.ȱ Soȱ democraticȱ movementȱ forȱ anȱ Autonomousȱ changedȱdemographyȱcannotȱbeȱusedȱagainstȱ State”,ȱtheȱCongressȱ(I)ȱ“hasȱbeenȱsponsoringȱ ourȱ aspirationȱ forȱ autonomy.ȱ Ifȱ thereforeȱ weȱ insurgentȱ activitiesȱ inȱ theȱ hillȱ district”ȱ doȱ notȱ haveȱ majority,ȱ weȱ mightȱ considerȱ (Orientalȱ Timesȱ 2000).ȱ Similarly,ȱ inȱ Nagaland,ȱ creatingȱ oneȱ (BBCȱ Worldȱ Serviceȱ Radio,ȱ theȱ IsakȬMuivahȱ factionȱ ofȱ theȱ Nationalȱ SouthȱAsiaȱReport,ȱMarchȱ12,ȱ1995).ȱ Socialistȱ Councilȱ ofȱ Nagalandȱ (NSCNȬIM)ȱ ȱ Aboutȱ 150ȱ peopleȱ wereȱ killedȱ inȱ theȱ BodoȬ haveȱalsoȱraisedȱallegationsȱfromȱtimeȱtoȱtimeȱ Adivasiȱ clashesȱ ofȱ 1996ȱ andȱ 1998.ȱ Anȱ thatȱ theȱ centreȱ wasȱ tryingȱ toȱ covertlyȱ derailȱ estimatedȱ202,684ȱindividuals,ȱmainlyȱAdivasi,ȱ theȱ peaceȱ processȱ theyȱ wereȱ overtlyȱ wereȱ displacedȱ inȱ Kokrajharȱ districtȱ aloneȱ inȱ participatingȱ inȱ withȱ theȱ insurgentȱ group,ȱ byȱ 1996.ȱ Whenȱ violenceȱ renewedȱ inȱ 1998,ȱ itȱ armingȱrivalȱfactionȱNSCKȱ(Khaplang)ȱandȱtheȱ continuedȱ sporadicallyȱ tillȱ theȱ followingȱ yearȱ NagaȱNationalȱCouncilȱ(NNC)ȱ(TheȱNewȱIndianȱ andȱ displacedȱ aboutȱ 314,342ȱ individualsȱ Expressȱ2004).ȱ (Deputyȱ Commissionerȱ Kokrajharȱ 2000).ȱ Ofȱ Allȱ inȱ all,ȱ thereȱ areȱ clearȱ indicationsȱ ofȱ theseȱaȱsmallȱproportionȱbelongedȱtoȱtheȱindiȬ effortsȱ toȱ destabilizeȱ interȬethnicȱ harmonyȱ byȱ genousȱBodoȱandȱRabhaȱcommunities;ȱtheȱrestȱ bothȱ theȱ centralȱ andȱ stateȱ governments.ȱ wereȱ allȱ Adivasiȱ people.ȱ Inȱ Decemberȱ 2005,ȱ Indeed,ȱ destabilizationȱ isȱ oftenȱ attemptedȱ thereȱwereȱstillȱnearlyȱ110,000ȱpeopleȱlivingȱinȱ becauseȱ thereȱ areȱ theseȱ twoȱ tiersȱ ofȱ reliefȱcampsȱinȱtheȱKokrajharȱandȱGossaigaonȱ governanceȱthatȱareȱoftenȱatȱloggerheadsȱoverȱ subȬdivisionsȱ (Internalȱ Displacementȱ powerȬsharing,ȱ especiallyȱ ifȱ thereȱ areȱ twoȱ MonitoringȱCentreȱ2006).ȱȱ differentȱrulingȱpartiesȱatȱtheȱtwoȱlevels.ȱAddȱ ȱ toȱthatȱtheȱtierȱofȱautonomousȱcouncilsȱandȱtheȱ InterȬEthnicȱClashesȱandȱInternalȱ ideaȱofȱaȱstateȱapparatusȱthatȱcan—orȱwould— Displacementȱ consensuallyȱ workȱ towardsȱ meetingȱ ethnicȱ EthnicȱcleansingȱbyȱtheȱBodoȱunfortunatelyȱisȱ aspirationsȱentirelyȱbreaksȱdown.ȱ notȱ anȱ isolatedȱ incidenceȱ inȱ theȱ Northeast.ȱ Indeed,ȱ ratherȱ thanȱ workȱ towardsȱ Settlerȱ communitiesȱ haveȱ oftenȱ borneȱ theȱ meetingȱtheȱaspirationsȱofȱpeoples,ȱtheȱstateȱisȱ bruntȱ ofȱ insurgentȱ activitiesȱ byȱ indigenousȱ oftenȱseenȱinstigatingȱthemȱtoȱviolence.ȱȱWhenȱ communitiesȱwhoȱlookȱatȱthemȱasȱusurpersȱinȱ theȱ Bodoȱ demandȱ forȱ aȱ separateȱ stateȱ theirȱland.ȱWhatȱisȱinterestingȱinȱtheȱcontextȱofȱ intensified,ȱtheȱstateȱleviedȱBodoȱmajorityȱasȱaȱ theȱ Northeastȱ ethnicȱ politicsȱ howeverȱ isȱ thatȱ preȬrequisiteȱ forȱ grantingȱ theȱ communityȱ anȱ evenȱ indigenousnessȱ isȱ aȱ contestedȱ category,ȱ autonomousȱ councilȱ area—aȱ muchȱ wateredȱ andȱ forȱ everyȱ claimȱ aȱ communityȱ makesȱ toȱ downȱ versionȱ ofȱ theȱ separateȱ stateȱ theȱ Bodoȱ hadȱ begunȱ theȱ movementȱ byȱ demanding—

23 Uddipana Goswami indigenousness,ȱthereȱareȱlabelsȱproclaimingȱitȱ rightsȱ inȱ theirȱ ownȱ land.ȱ Theȱ dominantȱ asȱaȱsettlerȱcommunity.ȱȱ society,ȱtheȱ“other”ȱsector,ȱinȱtheirȱcaseȱisȱtheȱ ȱ Indianȱ mainland.ȱ Theȱ Assamȱ Movementȱ inȱ TheȱIndigenousȱCategoryȱinȱtheȱNortheastȱ factȱhadȱitsȱgenesisȱinȱsuchȱaȱbelief,ȱandȱevenȱ Theȱtermȱ“indigenous”ȱisȱusedȱveryȱlooselyȱinȱ today,ȱ theȱ propensityȱ amongȱ representativesȱ theȱeverydayȱpoliticalȱandȱsocialȱdiscourseȱofȱ ofȱthisȱcommunityȱisȱtoȱreferȱtoȱthemselvesȱasȱ theȱ Northeast.ȱ Althoughȱ itȱ isȱ trueȱ thatȱ “indigenous”.ȱ Thus,ȱ whenȱ theȱ AASUȱ whichȱ “indigenous”ȱ isȱ anȱ essentiallyȱ contestedȱ termȱ hadȱ alsoȱ givenȱ leadershipȱ toȱ theȱ Assamȱ evenȱinȱinternationalȱlaw,ȱtheȱusuallyȱacceptedȱ Movementȱ formedȱ theȱ “Asomȱ Sena”ȱ (Assamȱ definitionȱ isȱ theȱ oneȱ usedȱ byȱ theȱ Unitedȱ Army),ȱitȱdeclaredȱitsȱaimȱtoȱbeȱtoȱ“safeguardȱ Nations,ȱ accordingȱ toȱ whichȱ indigenousȱ theȱ socioȬpoliticalȱ rightsȱ ofȱ theȱ indigenousȱ communitiesȱare:ȱ peopleȱ ofȱ Assam”ȱ (Thakuriaȱ 2006)ȱ (authorȱ ȱ emphasis).ȱȱ …thoseȱ which,ȱ havingȱ aȱ historicalȱ continuityȱ Indeed,ȱsuchȱaȱfeelingȱofȱbeingȱaȱdeprivedȱ withȱ preȬinvasionȱ andȱ preȬcolonialȱ societiesȱ thatȱ communityȱ runsȱ deepȱ andȱ wasȱ evidentȱ evenȱ developedȱ onȱ theirȱ territories,ȱ considerȱ inȱ theȱ Constituentȱ Assemblyȱ debatesȱ whenȱ themselvesȱ distinctȱ fromȱ otherȱ sectorsȱ ofȱ theȱ powerȱsharingȱbetweenȱtheȱfederatingȱunitsȱofȱ societiesȱnowȱprevailingȱinȱthoseȱterritoriesȱorȱ theȱIndianȱUnionȱwasȱbeingȱdiscussed.ȱWhatȱJ.ȱ partsȱ ofȱ them.ȱ Theyȱ formȱ atȱ presentȱ nonȬ dominantȱsectorsȱofȱsocietyȱandȱareȱdeterminedȱtoȱ J.ȱ M.ȱ Nicholsȱ Royȱ saidȱ onȱ Augustȱ 8,ȱ 1949,ȱ isȱ preserve,ȱ develop,ȱ andȱ transmitȱ toȱ futureȱ oftenȱechoedȱevenȱtoday:ȱȱ generationsȱ theirȱ ancestralȱ territoriesȱ andȱ theirȱ ȱ ethnicȱ identity,ȱ theȱ basisȱ ofȱ theirȱ continuedȱ Now,ȱsurelyȱweȱfeelȱthatȱthereȱhasȱnotȱbeenȱaȱ existenceȱasȱpeoples,ȱinȱaccordanceȱwithȱtheirȱ justȱ treatmentȱ ofȱ theȱ provinceȱ ofȱ Assamȱ byȱ culturalȱpatterns,ȱsocialȱinstitutionsȱandȱlegalȱ theȱ Centreȱ upȱ toȱ theȱ presentȱ time.ȱ systemsȱ(Coboȱ1986)ȱ(authorȱemphasis).ȱ (ConstituentȱAssemblyȱDebateȱ1949).ȱ ȱ ȱ Almostȱ allȱ preȬcolonialȱ nonȬsettlerȱ commȬ DespiteȱthisȱselfȬrepresentation,ȱhowever,ȱ unitiesȱ ofȱ theȱ northeastȱ wouldȱ ideallyȱ comeȱ theyȱ areȱ notȱ includedȱ withinȱ theȱ indigenousȱ underȱ thisȱ definition,ȱ includingȱ theȱ Meiteiȱ ofȱ category,ȱ mainlyȱ becauseȱ inȱ theȱ postcolonialȱ Manipurȱ andȱ theȱ Axamiy¬Ȭspeakingȱ Hinduȱ period,ȱ theyȱ haveȱ beenȱ politically,ȱ econoȬ populationȱ ofȱ Assam.ȱ Almostȱ everyȱ micallyȱ andȱ sociallyȱ dominantȱ amongȱ allȱ theȱ communityȱ hasȱ “preȬinvasion”ȱ rootsȱ inȱ thisȱ communitiesȱinȱtheȱnortheast,ȱwithȱallegationsȱ regionȱ andȱ isȱ consciousȱ ofȱ itsȱ selfȬidentity.ȱ ofȱneoȬcolonizingȱdesignsȱbeingȱraisedȱagainstȱ Andȱalmostȱallȱfeelȱdeprivedȱofȱpowerȱinȱtheirȱ themȱ byȱ almostȱ allȱ theȱ otherȱ communities.ȱ ownȱterritories.ȱȱ SuchȱallegationsȱdoȱnotȱseemȱfarȬfetchedȱwhenȱ TheȱMeiteiȱofȱManipurȱreferȱtoȱthemselvesȱ policyȱ decisionsȱ likeȱ theȱ 1960ȱ Officialȱ asȱ indigenousȱ andȱ alsoȱ useȱ indigenousȱ asȱ aȱ Languageȱ Actȱ ofȱ Assamȱ whichȱ soughtȱ toȱ prefixȱ toȱ theirȱ religion,ȱ Sanamahi,ȱ andȱ imposeȱ theȱ Axamiy¬ȱlanguageȱ onȱ allȱ peoplesȱ language,ȱ Meteilon.ȱ Andȱ yet,ȱ allegationsȱ ofȱ ofȱ theȱ state,ȱ areȱ considered.ȱ Thisȱ actȱ andȱ theȱ dominatingȱ andȱ repressiveȱ policiesȱ areȱ oftenȱ eventsȱitȱunfoldedȱactedȱasȱaȱcatalystȱtoȱspeedȱ raisedȱ againstȱ themȱ byȱ theȱ hillȱ tribesȱ ofȱ upȱ theȱ processȱ ofȱ ethnicȱ identityȱ formationȱ Manipur.ȱ Interestingly,ȱ theȱ Manipurȱ valleyȱ amongȱ theȱ nonȬAxamiy¬Ȭspeakingȱ commȬ whichȱ theȱ Meiteiȱ shareȱ withȱ otherȱ commȬ unitiesȱ ofȱ theȱ region.ȱ Theyȱ areȱ nowȱ theȱ unitiesȱ likeȱ theȱ Pangalȱ constitutesȱ onlyȱ 11.14ȱ indigenousȱ populationsȱ academicȱ andȱ policyȱ percentȱofȱtheȱtotalȱareaȱofȱtheȱstate.ȱ makingȱ circlesȱ concernȱ themselvesȱ with.ȱ Inȱ Assam,ȱ theȱ Axamiy¬Ȭspeakingȱ peopleȱ Followingȱ theȱ Act,ȱ thereȱ wereȱ riotsȱ inȱ manyȱ feelȱthatȱtheyȱareȱtheȱsonsȬofȬtheȬsoilȱwhoȱhaveȱ placesȱ ofȱ Assamȱ leadingȱ toȱ displacement,ȱ beenȱdeprivedȱofȱtheirȱpoliticalȱandȱeconomicȱ

24 Internal Displacement, Migration, and Policy in Northeastern India especiallyȱ inȱ theȱ Barakȱ valley,ȱ whichȱ hasȱ aȱ IȱwasȱsurprisedȱtoȱfindȱthatȱinȱAssamȱvillages,ȱ predominantlyȱBengaliȱpopulation.ȱ Bihariȱportersȱwereȱworking;ȱtheȱcartersȱwereȱ ȱ alsoȱ Biharis.ȱ Iȱ hadȱ myȱ bathȱ inȱ theȱ BrahmaȬ IndigenousȬSettlerȱClashesȱandȱInternalȱ putraȱ river.ȱ Incidentallyȱ Iȱ sawȱ aȱ fewȱ boatsȱ there.ȱFromȱtheirȱtalksȱwhichȱwereȱinȱChapraȱ Displacementȱ dialect,ȱIȱlearntȱtheyȱwereȱmenȱfromȱBihar.ȱOnȱ InȱTripura,ȱwhereȱtheȱindigenousȱ“tribals”ȱareȱ inquiryȱIȱknewȱtheyȱhailedȱfromȱtheȱdistrictȱofȱ nowȱ aȱ minority,ȱ theȱ majorityȱ Bengalisȱ haveȱ Chapraȱ andȱ wereȱ professionalȱ boatmen.ȱ Theȱ hadȱtoȱfaceȱfrequentȱviolence.ȱAccordingȱtoȱanȱ sweetmeatȱvendorsȱinȱaȱsteamerȱnearbyȱwereȱ estimate,ȱ nearlyȱ 120,000ȱ Bengalisȱ haveȱ beenȱ alsoȱpersonsȱfromȱBiharȱ(Kakatiȱ1954).ȱ displacedȱ sinceȱ theȱ 1980ȱ massacresȱ inȱ theȱ ȱ courseȱ ofȱ violentȱ confrontationsȱ withȱ Tripuraȱ Hisȱautobiographyȱalsoȱnotes:ȱ “tribals”ȱ(Bhaumikȱ2004).ȱȱ ȱ InȱAssamȱinȱ1993,ȱ3,658ȱfamiliesȱorȱaboutȱ Theyȱ(theȱlocalȱpeople)ȱlikedȱtheȱBiharis.ȱTheȱ 18,000ȱ individualsȱ fromȱ theȱ Eastȱ Bengaliȱ peopleȱ fromȱ Mymensinghȱ wereȱ notȱ Muslimȱ communityȱ hadȱ beenȱ displacedȱ welcome…ȱ Someȱ preferredȱ Hinduȱ labourersȱ (Deputyȱ Commissionerȱ Kokrajharȱ 2000).ȱ Ofȱ toȱthoseȱfromȱMymensingh.ȱTheȱlocalȱpeopleȱ feltȱ itȱ wasȱ goodȱ forȱ themȱ ifȱ theȱ Muslimȱ course,ȱ thisȱ wasȱ notȱ theȱ firstȱ timeȱ thisȱ populationȱ wasȱ notȱ onȱ theȱ increaseȱ (Kakatiȱ community,ȱ whichȱ hasȱ beenȱ theȱ beteȱ noirȱ ofȱ 1954).ȱ almostȱallȱindigenousȱandȱnativeȱcommunitiesȱ ȱ ofȱ theȱ northeast,ȱ hadȱ beenȱ targeted.ȱ Toleranceȱ forȱ allȱ settlersȱ wasȱ erodedȱ byȱ theȱ Communalȱ violenceȱ inȱ postȬPartitionȱ Assamȱ frenzyȱ generatedȱ byȱ theȱ Assamȱ Movementȱ hadȱ causedȱ someȱ ofȱ themȱ toȱ beȱ displacedȱ inȱ andȱ itȱ reachedȱ itsȱ pinnacleȱ inȱ theȱ wideȬscaleȱ Lowerȱ Assam.ȱ Asȱ recentlyȱ asȱ Aprilȱ 2005,ȱ aȱ mobȱ violenceȱ thatȱ brokeȱ outȱ inȱ Novemberȱ groupȱ ofȱ youthȱ underȱ theȱ bannerȱ ofȱ theȱ 2003ȱ followingȱ allegationsȱ ofȱ preferentialȱ ChiringȱChaporiȱYuvaȱManchaȱledȱaȱcampaignȱ recruitmentȱofȱBihariȱapplicantsȱtoȱjobsȱinȱtheȱ ofȱ economicȱ blockadeȱ againstȱ “illegalȱ Northeastȱ Frontierȱ Railwayȱ (NFR).ȱ MSȱ Bangladeshiȱ nationals”ȱ inȱ Upperȱ Assamȱ andȱ Prabhakaraȱ(2003)ȱbalancesȱtheȱtwoȱsides:ȱ accordingȱ toȱ someȱ estimatesȱ aboutȱ 10,000ȱ ȱ (Assamȱ Tribuneȱ 2005)ȱ peopleȱ leftȱ theȱ Upperȱ Althoughȱ aȱ majorȱ portionȱ ofȱ theȱ NFRȱ fallsȱ Assamȱ districts;ȱ officialȱ figuresȱ howeverȱ withinȱ Assamȱ withȱ mostlyȱ aȱ symbolicȱ placedȱ theirȱ numbersȱ atȱ aboutȱ 600–700ȱ presenceȱinȱorȱextensionsȱintoȱfiveȱofȱtheȱotherȱ (Internalȱ Displacementȱ Monitoringȱ Centreȱ sixȱStatesȱofȱtheȱregionȱ(Tripuraȱhasȱnearlyȱ45ȱ 2006).ȱ Inȱ theȱ frenzyȱ thatȱ wasȱ createdȱ inȱ theȱ routeȱ kilometresȱ andȱ theȱ railwayȱ linkȱ isȱ nameȱofȱfreeingȱAssamȱfromȱillegalȱmigrants,ȱ eventuallyȱ expectedȱ toȱ reachȱ Agartala,ȱwhileȱ theȱ questionȱ thatȱ veryȱ fewȱ quartersȱ raisedȱ Meghalayaȱhasȱnoȱrailwayȱonȱitsȱterritory),ȱaȱ substantialȱ portionȱ ofȱ theȱ NFRȱ stretchesȱ was:ȱhowȱmanyȱofȱthemȱwereȱactuallyȱillegalȱ westwardsȱ outsideȱ Assam…ȱ Theȱ aspirationȱ immigrants?ȱ forȱ peopleȱ fromȱ Biharȱ andȱ Westȱ Bengalȱ forȱ Likeȱ theȱ Bengaliȱ Muslims,ȱ theȱ Bihariȱ jobsȱ inȱ theȱ NFR,ȱ evenȱ withoutȱ theȱ settlersȱ haveȱ alsoȱ facedȱ persecutionȱ andȱ constitutionalȱprovisionsȱ(Articleȱ16)ȱandȱtheȱ violenceȱ resultingȱ inȱ displacement.ȱ Inȱ Supremeȱ Courtȇsȱ rulingȱ thereof,ȱ isȱ entirelyȱ Manipur,ȱforȱinstance,ȱfiveȱBihariȱpeopleȱwereȱ understandableȱ andȱ legitimate.ȱ Theȱ rub,ȱ killedȱ byȱ Meiteiȱ insurgentsȱ inȱ Manipurȱ inȱ however,ȱ isȱ theȱ widespreadȱ convictionȱ thatȱ 2001.ȱ Inȱ Assam,ȱ Bihariȱ peopleȱ haveȱ hadȱ aȱ successiveȱ Railwayȱ Ministersȱ haveȱ presenceȱ forȱ aȱ longȱ timeȱ now.ȱ Inȱ theȱ 1940s,ȱ manipulatedȱ andȱ misusedȱ theirȱ powersȱ toȱ provideȱ jobsȱ forȱ `theirȱ boysȇ,ȱ deprivingȱ duringȱ anȱ officialȱ Congressȱ Committeeȱ tour,ȱ legitimateȱ andȱ qualifiedȱ localȱ aspirants.ȱ Thisȱ Rajendraȱ Prasad,ȱ formerȱ Presidentȱ ofȱ India,ȱ perceptionȱ andȱ grievanceȱ isȱ heldȱ notȱ merelyȱ noted:ȱ byȱ agitatingȱ youthȱ organisations;ȱ evenȱ ȱ

25 Uddipana Goswami

governmentȱ leadersȱ inȱ theȱ Statesȱ thatȱ haveȱ determinationȱ (1987–2003),ȱ manyȱ Nepaliȱ notȱhadȱoneȱofȱitsȱMembersȱofȱParliamentȱasȱ familiesȱ wereȱ displacedȱ fromȱ mainlyȱ theȱ RailwayȱMinisterȱshareȱit.ȱȱ Kokrajharȱ andȱ Chirangȱ districts;ȱ inȱ theȱ ȱ PatgaonȱreliefȱcampȱinȱKokrajharȱalone,ȱthereȱ Henceȱ theȱ growingȱ consensusȱ inȱ Assam,ȱ theȱ wereȱaboutȱ581ȱNepaliȱIDPsȱ(Nathȱ2005).ȱ Stateȱ throughȱ whichȱ theȱ majorȱ partȱ ofȱ theȱ ȱ NFRȱ runs,ȱ thatȱ localȱ youth/ȱ “indigenous”ȱ youthȱ shouldȱ getȱ preferenceȱ forȱ jobsȱ inȱ theȱ InternecineȱWarsȱandȱInternalȱDisplacementȱ NFRȱ,ȱasȱindeedȱinȱotherȱCentralȱgovernmentȱ Conflictsȱ inȱ theȱ Northeastȱ areȱ notȱ uniȬ undertakingsȱsituated,ȱorȱhavingȱtheirȱofficesȱ dimensionalȱ andȱ itȱ hasȱ witnessedȱ allȱ inȱtheȱState.ȱ categoriesȱofȱclashes:ȱconflictsȱbetweenȱsettlerȱ ȱ andȱ indigenousȱ communities,ȱ betweenȱ settlerȱ Revengeȱ attacksȱ onȱ Assameseȱ andȱ otherȱ andȱ settlerȱ communitiesȱ andȱ betweenȱ northeasternȱtrainȱtravelersȱonȱBiharȱterritoryȱ indigenousȱ communities.ȱ Inȱ Julyȱ 2005,ȱ theȱ madeȱ retaliationȱ fiercer.ȱ Atȱ leastȱ 56ȱ peopleȱ Adivasiȱ andȱ theȱ Bihariȱ communitiesȱ inȱ Karbiȱ wereȱ killedȱ andȱ thousandsȱ displaced.ȱ Withȱ Anglongȱ districtȱ ofȱ Assamȱ cameȱ intoȱ oneȱ ofȱ theȱ strongestȱ insurgentȱ groupsȱ inȱ confrontation,ȱwhichȱrenderedȱaboutȱ13ȱBihariȱ Assam,ȱtheȱUnitedȱLiberationȱFrontȱofȱAssamȱ andȱ 25ȱ Adivasiȱ familiesȱ homelessȱ (Asianȱ (ULFA)ȱ servingȱ quitȱ noticeȱ toȱ theseȱ settlers,ȱ Centerȱ forȱ Humanȱ Rightsȱ 2005).ȱ Thisȱ wasȱ aȱ moreȱ thanȱ 17,000ȱ (BBCȱ Worldȱ 2003)ȱ ofȱ themȱ caseȱ ofȱ conflictȱ betweenȱ settlerȱ communities,ȱ fledȱAssam.ȱAnȱunknownȱnumberȱstayedȱbackȱ whichȱisȱaȱrareȱphenomenonȱbutȱnotȱoneȱthatȱ inȱAssam,ȱinternallyȱdisplaced.ȱ isȱ unheardȱ of.ȱ Butȱ byȱ farȱ theȱ mostȱ Theȱ caseȱ ofȱ theȱ Nepaliȱ settlersȱ isȱ alsoȱ complicated,ȱ becauseȱ highlyȱ nuanced,ȱ ofȱ allȱ similar,ȱ thoughȱ perhapsȱ notȱ asȱ severe.ȱ Orȱ conflictsȱinȱtheȱnortheastȱareȱtheȱonesȱbetweenȱ perhaps,ȱasȱLopitaȱNathȱ(2005)ȱsays:ȱ theȱvariousȱindigenousȱcommunities.ȱSomeȱofȱ ȱ theseȱ haveȱ alreadyȱ beenȱ touchedȱ uponȱ inȱ Theȱ issueȱ ofȱ theȱ Nepaliȱ IDPsȱ hasȱ failedȱ toȱ earlierȱsections.ȱȱ drawȱmuchȱattentionȱfirst,ȱdueȱtoȱtheirȱsmallȱ Majorȱinternecineȱwarsȱhaveȱbeenȱfoughtȱ numbersȱ andȱ second,ȱ dueȱ toȱ theȱ apparentlyȱ inȱ theȱ Northeastȱ eitherȱ encouragedȱ byȱ theȱ mobileȱnatureȱofȱtheȱcommunityȱthatȱmakesȱitȱ Indianȱ state’sȱ handlingȱ ofȱ theȱ complicatedȱ easyȱ toȱ ignoreȱ theȱ manyȱ complexitiesȱ thatȱ Nagaȱ issue,ȱ orȱ asȱ aȱ reactionȱ againstȱ it.ȱ Forȱ affectȱ thisȱ communityȱ inȱ recentȱ timesȱ inȱ NortheastȱIndia.ȱ instance,ȱ whenȱ theȱ stateȱ ofȱ Nagalandȱ wasȱ ȱ createdȱinȱ1963ȱinȱanȱeffortȱtoȱcurbȱmilitancy,ȱ Soonȱafterȱtheirȱadvent,ȱtheȱNepaliȱcameȱintoȱ theȱcentralȱgovernmentȱwasȱsettingȱinȱmotionȱ conflictȱ withȱ someȱ ofȱ theȱ hillȱ communitiesȱ ofȱ aȱ processȱ ofȱ disintegrationȱ ofȱ theȱ northeastȱ theȱ northeast.ȱ Inȱ Meghalaya,ȱ forȱ instance,ȱ andȱ spawningȱ ethnicȱ aspirationsȱ forȱ furtherȱ sinceȱtheȱ1930s,ȱtheȱNepaliȱhaveȱhadȱaȱstrainedȱ disintegrationȱ andȱ powerȱ distribution.ȱ relationshipȱ withȱ theȱ Khasiȱ community.ȱ InspiredȱbyȱtheȱbreakȱupȱofȱtheȱerstwhileȱgeoȬ Finallyȱinȱ1987,ȱlargeȱscaleȱviolenceȱbrokeȱoutȱ politicalȱterritoryȱofȱAssam,ȱinsurgencyȱbeganȱ betweenȱ theȱ twoȱ communitiesȱ andȱ aroundȱ andȱcontinuedȱforȱ20ȱyearsȱinȱtheȱLushaiȱHillsȱ 7,000–10,000ȱ Nepaliȱ wereȱ expelledȱ fromȱ tillȱtheȱstateȱofȱMizoramȱwasȱformed.ȱAndȱinȱ Meghalayaȱ(Nathȱ2005,ȱGurungȱ2002).ȱȱ anȱendlessȱchainȱreactionȱletȱlooseȱthroughȱtheȱ Inȱ Assam,ȱ violenceȱ againstȱ themȱ beganȱ initialȱ reorganizationȱ ofȱ states,ȱ evenȱ aȱ withȱ theȱ Assamȱ Movementȱ whenȱ Nepaliȱ asȱ comparativelyȱsmallȱethnicityȱlikeȱtheȱBodoȱofȱ muchȱ asȱ otherȱ settlerȱ communitiesȱ likeȱ theȱ Assamȱcitingȱtheȱexampleȱofȱtheȱformationȱofȱ Muslimsȱ andȱ Hindusȱ ofȱ Eastȱ Bengaliȱ originȱ smallerȱstatesȱlikeȱMizoramȱwhileȱdemandingȱ wereȱ termedȱ foreignersȱ andȱ askedȱ toȱ leave.ȱ aȱ stateȱ formationȱ ofȱ theirȱ ownȱ (Allȱ Bodoȱ Subsequently,ȱinȱtheȱBodoȱMovementȱforȱselfȬ StudentsȱUnionȱ1987,ȱ1987a).ȱ

26 Internal Displacement, Migration, and Policy in Northeastern India

Nagaȱ sentimentsȱ haveȱ notȱ beenȱ totallyȱ ȱ allayedȱ andȱinsurgencyȱcontinuesȱevenȱtodayȱ TheȱcycleȱofȱstateȱresponseȱtoȱconflictȬinducedȱ inȱ Nagaland,ȱ ledȱ primarilyȱ byȱ theȱ NSCN.ȱ displacementȱ inȱ Assamȱ usuallyȱ runsȱ alongȱ Thenȱ whenȱ theȱ Indianȱ governmentȱ signedȱ aȱ theȱ followingȱ pattern:ȱ immediatelyȱ afterȱ theȱ ceasefireȱagreementȱwithȱtheȱNSCNȱ(IM)ȱandȱ violence,ȱtemporaryȱreliefȱcampsȱareȱsetȱupȱinȱ localȱeducationalȱinstitutionsȱandȱgovernmentȱ extendedȱitȱtoȱcoverȱtheȱNagaȱinhabitedȱareasȱ officeȱ buildings.ȱ Subsequentlyȱ makeshiftȱ ofȱ Manipur,ȱ asȱ aȱ signatoryȱ toȱ theȱ agreement,ȱ crampedȱ sheltersȱ areȱ builtȱ onȱ governmentȱ inȱ aȱ wayȱ itȱ wasȱ tacitlyȱ gaveȱ itsȱ nodȱ toȱ theȱ land.ȱ Whileȱ thereȱ isȱ aȱ securityȱ outpostȱ nearȱ Greaterȱ Nagalimȱ blueprintȱ ofȱ theȱ insurgentsȱ theȱ campȱ toȱ provideȱ protectionȱ toȱ theȱ campȱ whichȱ includeȱ partsȱ ofȱ Manipurȱ besidesȱ inhabitants,ȱ fieldȱ interviewsȱ haveȱ revealedȱ Assam,ȱArunachalȱPradeshȱandȱBurma.ȱItȱwasȱ thatȱsecurityȱpersonnelȱalsoȱsometimesȱcauseȱ thusȱ effectivelyȱ deepeningȱ theȱ mistrustȱ insecurityȱinsideȱtheȱcamps.ȱTheȱgovernmentȱ betweenȱtheȱneighboringȱcommunities.ȱ providesȱ Gratuitousȱ Reliefȱ (GR)ȱ inȱ theȱ formȱ Toȱsomeȱmeasure,ȱtheȱKukiȬNagaȱconflictȱ ofȱrice,ȱlentilsȱandȱoilȱregularlyȱforȱaȱfewȱyearsȱ tillȱtheȱmakeshiftȱcampsȱtakeȱonȱtheȱnatureȱofȱ inȱManipurȱhasȱdeepenedȱasȱaȱresultȱofȱthis.ȱAȱ permanentȱ settlements.ȱ Whenȱ theȱ GRȱ stopsȱ longȱ standingȱ butȱ unfulfilledȱ demandȱ ofȱ theȱ andȱtheȱpeopleȱareȱforcedȱtoȱvacateȱtheȱcampsȱ Kukiȱhasȱbeenȱforȱtheȱformationȱofȱaȱdistrictȱinȱ andȱ toȱ lookȱ forȱ rehabilitation,ȱ theyȱ areȱ theȱ Sadarȱ Hillsȱ area.ȱ Thisȱ areaȱ alsoȱ hasȱ aȱ providedȱ onlyȱ withȱ aȱ smallȱ rehabilitationȱ sizeableȱ Nagaȱ populationȱ andȱ thereȱ hasȱ beenȱ grantȱ(RG)ȱ(Goswamiȱ2006).ȱ continuedȱresistanceȱbyȱthemȱtoȱtheȱcreationȱofȱ ȱ thisȱdistrict.ȱThusȱclashesȱtakeȱplace.ȱHowever,ȱ Often,ȱwhenȱ“rehabilitation”ȱisȱinȱprocess,ȱtheȱ theȱ NagaȬKukiȱ hostilityȱ goesȱ backȱ toȱ theȱ hostȱ administrationȱ isȱ seenȱ adoptingȱ variousȱ colonialȱ periodȱ whenȱ theȱ latterȱ wereȱ coerciveȱmeasuresȱtoȱgetȱridȱofȱtheȱIDPsȱfromȱ reportedlyȱ usedȱ byȱ theȱ Britishȱinȱtheirȱeffortsȱ stateȬsponsoredȱreliefȱcamps.ȱWhileȱtheȱKhasiȬ toȱ subjugateȱ theȱ fierceȱ Nagaȱ tribes.ȱ Ofȱ lateȱ PnarȱpeopleȱwhoȱhadȱfledȱtoȱMeghalayaȱfromȱ though,ȱcontrolȱoverȱtheȱlucrativeȱborderȱtradeȱ KarbiȱAnglongȱinȱNovemberȱ2003ȱwereȱinȱtheȱ ofȱ Morehȱ hasȱ alsoȱ beenȱ aȱ boneȱ ofȱ contentionȱ processȱ ofȱ beingȱ rehabilitated,ȱ freshȱ violenceȱ betweenȱKukiȱandȱNagaȱgroups.ȱOneȱestimateȱ brokeȱoutȱinȱKarbiȱAnglongȱbetweenȱtheȱKarbiȱ suggestsȱ thatȱ sinceȱ 1992,ȱ aboutȱ 1,000ȱ peopleȱ andȱ Kukiȱ communities,ȱ haltingȱ theȱ process.ȱ haveȱ diedȱ andȱ 130,000ȱ displacedȱ inȱ Manipurȱ Theȱ IDPsȱ refusedȱ toȱ returnȱ inȱ theȱ absenceȱ ofȱ asȱ aȱ resultȱ ofȱ NagaȬKukiȱ clashesȱ aloneȱ adequateȱ securityȱ deployment.ȱ Meanwhileȱ (Internalȱ Displacementȱ Monitoringȱ Centreȱ allegationsȱ aroseȱ thatȱ theȱ Meghalayaȱ adminȬ 2006).ȱ istrationȱ hadȱ cutȱ offȱ waterȱ supplyȱ andȱ ȱ electricityȱlinesȱtoȱtheȱmakeshiftȱcampsȱwhereȱ StateȱResponsesȱtoȱInternalȱ theȱ IDPsȱ wereȱ housed,ȱ soȱ asȱ toȱ forceȱ theȱ Displacementȱ peopleȱ toȱ returnȱ toȱ theirȱ villagesȱ (Theȱ Assamȱ Tribuneȱ 2005).ȱ Denialsȱ wereȱ issued,ȱ butȱ theȱ Despiteȱ theȱ recurringȱ incidencesȱ ofȱ internalȱ allegationsȱstrengthenedȱonceȱagainȱtheȱbeliefȱ displacementȱ inȱ theȱ Northeastȱ andȱ inspiteȱ ofȱ thatȱ suchȱ tacticsȱ ofȱ coercionȱ areȱ indeedȱ theȱseverityȱofȱtheȱphenomenon,ȱtheȱstateȱhasȱ practicedȱ inȱ theȱ northeastȱ regionȱ byȱ hostȱ beenȱ seenȱ doingȱ preciousȱ littleȱ toȱ eitherȱ administrationȱ orȱ byȱ governmentȱ agenciesȱ preventȱ itȱ recurrenceȱ orȱ tackleȱitsȱoccurrence.ȱ responsibleȱ forȱ providingȱ reliefȱ andȱ rehabȬ Inȱ fact,ȱ apathyȱ hasȱ beenȱ theȱ hallmarkȱ ofȱ theȱ ilitationȱtoȱgetȱridȱofȱIDPȱpopulations.ȱ state’sȱresponseȱtoȱinternalȱdisplacementȱinȱtheȱ Onceȱabandoned,ȱtheȱIDPsȱareȱleftȱtoȱfendȱ Northeast.ȱ Whileȱ discussingȱ apatheticȱ forȱ themselves.ȱ Withȱ allȱ assetsȱ andȱ propertyȱ administrativeȱ approachȱ towardsȱ IDPsȱ inȱ lost,ȱnoȱlivelihoodȱoptionsȱtoȱlookȱforwardȱto,ȱ Westernȱ Assam,ȱ theȱ authorȱ hasȱ writtenȱ inȱ constantȱ fearȱ ofȱ furtherȱ attacksȱ andȱ elsewhere:ȱ nowhereȱ toȱ go,ȱ mostȱ ofȱ theseȱ displacedȱ

27 Uddipana Goswami populationsȱ floatȱ around,ȱ sometimesȱ settlingȱ forthcoming),ȱ theȱ completeȱ chaosȱ thatȱ inȱ governmentȱ landȱ orȱ forestȱ areaȱ whereȱ theȱ surroundsȱtheȱlifeȱofȱanȱIDPȱfromȱtheȱtimeȱofȱ fearȱ ofȱ displacementȱ isȱ alwaysȱ alive.ȱ Orȱ theyȱ hisȱ displacementȱ hasȱ beenȱ detailed.ȱ Theȱ lackȱ liveȱatȱtheȱmercyȱofȱtoutsȱandȱmiddlemenȱwhoȱ ofȱ aȱ coherentȱ policyȱ forȱ IDPȱ reliefȱ andȱ giveȱthemȱaȱsemblanceȱofȱsettlementȱbutȱatȱanȱ rehabilitationȱandȱadȱhocȱmeasureȱtakenȱinȱtheȱ exorbitantȱprice.ȱInȱshort,ȱtheyȱareȱdoomedȱtoȱ aftermathȱ ofȱ violenceȱ andȱ displacementȱ haveȱ aȱ lifeȱ ofȱ impermanence.ȱ Theȱ worstȱ sufferersȱ oftenȱledȱinȱtheȱtwoȱextremesȱtoȱa)ȱeffectiveȱaidȱ areȱ thoseȱ who,ȱ beforeȱ displacement,ȱ hadȱ notȱ notȱreachingȱmostȱofȱtheȱIDPsȱb)ȱoverlappingȱ hadȱproperȱ“deeds”ȱorȱpattasȱforȱtheirȱland,ȱasȱ benefitsȱ beingȱ givenȱ toȱ someȱ IDPs.ȱ Inȱ bothȱ isȱtheȱcaseȱwithȱmanyȱsettlerȱcommunities.ȱ cases,ȱthereȱareȱnoȱlongȬtermȱsolutionsȱdevisedȱ ȱ toȱallayȱtheȱexperienceȱofȱcompleteȱuprootingȱ InȱtheȱcaseȱofȱtheȱimmigrantȱMuslimȱIDPs…ȱaȱ thatȱ theȱ peopleȱ areȱ subjectedȱ to.ȱ Thereȱ areȱ considerableȱ numberȱ ofȱ themȱ hadȱ noȱ suchȱ instancesȱofȱtwiceȱdisplacedȱpeopleȱtooȱinȱtheȱ deeds;ȱhavingȱsettledȱinȱtheȱareasȱfromȱwhichȱ northeast.ȱInȱmanyȱcases,ȱitȱisȱtheȱinabilityȱofȱ theyȱwereȱnowȱdisplacedȱasȱrecentlyȱasȱ25Ȭ30ȱ theȱ administrationȱ toȱ provideȱ adequateȱ yearsȱago.ȱPriorȱtoȱbeingȱuprootedȱfromȱtheirȱ securityȱ coverȱ toȱ theȱ vulnerableȱ IDPsȱ thatȱ villagesȱ inȱ 1993,ȱ theyȱ hadȱ officiallyȱ beenȱ encroachersȱ onȱ forestȱ land,ȱ theirȱ settlementsȱ causesȱ aȱ prolongationȱ ofȱ theirȱ displacedȱ havingȱbeenȱsetȱupȱsinceȱtheȱ1960sȱwhenȱtheyȱ condition.ȱ Theȱ insensitivityȱ ofȱ theȱ state’sȱ reportedlyȱ migratedȱ fromȱ neighboringȱ approachȱ toȱ IDPsȱ inȱ theȱ Northeastȱ findsȱ itsȱ districtsȱ ofȱ Assamȱ andȱ Westȱ Bengal.ȱ Asȱ aȱ extremeȱmanifestationȱinȱcasesȱwhereȱtheȱIDPȱ resultȱ ofȱ theirȱ statusȱ asȱ encroachers,ȱ theirȱ populationsȱ areȱ housedȱ inȱ areasȱ whereȱ theȱ rehabilitationȱ hasȱ beenȱ convenientlyȱdelayedȱ hostȱ populationȱ belongsȱ toȱ theȱ sameȱ ethnicȱ andȱresponsibilityȱofȱrehabilitationȱshiftedȱtoȱ groupȱ asȱ theȱ perpetratorsȱ ofȱ violence.ȱ Thus,ȱ theȱ districtȱ administrationsȱ inȱtheirȱplacesȱ ofȱ theȱ Adivasiȱ populationȱ ofȱ Assamȱ foundȱ origin.ȱ(Goswamiȱ2006)ȱ themselvesȱtwiceȱdisplacedȱinȱ1996ȱandȱ1998,ȱ ȱ andȱinmatesȱofȱsomeȱofȱtheȱreliefȱcampsȱwereȱ Thisȱisȱnotȱtoȱsayȱofȱcourse,ȱthatȱpattaȬholdersȱ gunnedȱ downȱ byȱ anȱ insurgentȱ groupȱ withinȱ fareȱmuchȱbetter:ȱ theȱ premisesȱ ofȱ theȱ governmentȱ sponsoredȱ ȱ camps,ȱsuchȱisȱtheȱlevelȱofȱsecurityȱprovided.ȱ Amongȱ theȱ Adivasiȱ IDPsȱ inȱ Kokrajharȱ district,ȱ 14,208ȱ outȱ ofȱ 38,925ȱ familiesȱ wereȱ Theȱ surroundingȱ populationȱ belongedȱ toȱ theȱ identifiedȱ asȱ pattaȱ holdersȱ andȱ theȱ restȱ asȱ majorityȱ Bodoȱ communityȱ (forȱ detailsȱ seeȱ forestȱ villagersȱ andȱ encroachersȱ (DCȱ Goswamiȱ2006,ȱforthcoming).ȱ Kokrajharȱ2000).ȱTheȱactionȱplanȱdrawnȱupȱinȱ Aȱ differentȱ kindȱ ofȱ pressureȱ tacticȱ hasȱ 2000ȱ envisagedȱ aȱ threeȬstepȱ rehabilitationȱ beenȱ noticedȱ inȱ Manipur’sȱ approachȱ towardsȱ process,ȱ involvingȱ rehabilitationȱ inȱ aȱ phasedȱ itsȱ Hmarȱ population,ȱ displacedȱ inȱ earlyȱ 2006ȱ mannerȱ ofȱ peopleȱ displacedȱ fromȱ revenueȱ andȱ shelteringȱ nowȱ inȱ Mizoram.ȱ Theȱ Hmarȱ villages,ȱ followedȱ byȱ thoseȱ comingȱ fromȱ haveȱ beenȱ displacedȱ fromȱ Manipurȱ whereȱ authorizedȱ forestȱ villagesȱ andȱ encroachers.ȱ insurgentȱ activityȱ andȱ counterȱ insurgencyȱ Officially,ȱ theȱ firstȱ twoȱ phasesȱ haveȱ alreadyȱ beenȱcompleted.ȱȱ operationsȱ createȱ IDPsȱ withȱ alarmingȱ ȱ frequency.ȱȱ InȱtheȱAdivasiȱIDPȱcamps,ȱhowever,ȱthereȱareȱ TheȱHmarȱareȱaȱsmallȱethnicityȱbelongingȱ asȱ yetȱ peopleȱ whoȱ haveȱ pattasȱ andȱ haveȱ notȱ toȱtheȱKukiȬChinȬMizoȱgroupȱandȱspreadȱoverȱ beenȱ rehabilitatedȱ –ȱ evenȱ thoughȱ theyȱ wereȱ theȱ northeasternȱ statesȱ ofȱ Assam,ȱ Manipur,ȱ officiallyȱ toȱ beȱcoveredȱunderȱtheȱfirstȱphaseȱ Meghalaya,ȱ Mizoramȱ andȱ Tripura.ȱ ofȱrehabilitation.ȱ(Goswamiȱ2006)ȱ Numberingȱaȱlittleȱoverȱ60,000ȱinȱpopulation,22ȱ ȱ theyȱ haveȱ beenȱ frequentȱ targetsȱ ofȱ ethnicȱ Inȱ aȱ studyȱ conductedȱ byȱ theȱ authorȱ onȱ violenceȱ andȱ henceȱ victimsȱ ofȱ internalȱ Muslimȱ IDPsȱ inȱ Westernȱ Assamȱ (Goswamiȱ displacementȱ inȱ almostȱ allȱ statesȱ ofȱ theȱ

28 Internal Displacement, Migration, and Policy in Northeastern India northeastȱ whereȱ theyȱ live.ȱ Inȱ Januaryȱ 2006,ȱ fledȱtheirȱhomesȱandȱvillagesȱdidȱnotȱhaveȱtheȱ HmarȱvillagersȱofȱParbungȱandȱTipaimukhȱonȱ chanceȱ toȱ initiateȱ anythingȱ towardsȱ jhumȱ theȱ ManipurȬMizoramȱ borderȱ wereȱ forcedȱ toȱ cultivation,ȱ whichȱ isȱ theirȱ mainstayȱ forȱ aȱ fleeȱ toȱ Mizoramȱ followingȱ increasedȱ violenceȱ living.ȱWithȱplantingȱseasonȱnowȱmuchȱover,ȱ theȱ reliefȱ packageȱ wouldȱ hardlyȱ seeȱ theseȱ byȱMeiteiȱinsurgentȱgroups.ȱThoughȱtheȱactualȱ familiesȱ throughȱ theȱ yearȱ (Newmaiȱ Newsȱ numbersȱ wouldȱ beȱ more,ȱ aȱ littleȱ overȱ 500ȱ ofȱ Networkȱ2006).ȱ themȱwereȱlivingȱinȱreliefȱcampsȱsetȱupȱbyȱtheȱ ȱ Mizoramȱgovernment.ȱȱ Inȱ oneȱ way,ȱ therefore,ȱ theȱ displacedȱ Hmarȱ Inȱ anȱ IDPȱ situationȱ likeȱ thisȱ whereȱ theȱ wereȱ beingȱ coercedȱ toȱ remainȱ displacedȱ andȱ displacedȱpeopleȱseekȱshelterȱwithȱethnicȱkin,ȱ notȱreturnȱtoȱManipur.ȱBecauseȱofȱtheirȱethnicȱ itȱ isȱ alwaysȱ difficultȱ toȱ assessȱ theȱ exactȱ kinshipȱ withȱ theȱ Mizo,ȱ theȱ Hmarȱ areȱ oftenȱ numbers.ȱThusȱofficialȱfiguresȱonlyȱreflectȱtheȱ taggedȱasȱoutsidersȱinȱManipurȱwhereȱtheyȱareȱ numberȱ ofȱ IDPsȱ inȱ stateȬsponsoredȱ reliefȱ perceivedȱ asȱ tooȱ “Mizoised”ȱ toȱ beȱ Manipuriȱ camps.ȱEvenȱwithinȱthoseȱnumbers,ȱMizoramȱ (Denaȱ2002).ȱ sources,ȱ includingȱ theȱ administration,ȱ wasȱ Meanwhile,ȱ withȱ theȱ Mizoramȱ governȬ seenȱ asȱ quotingȱ aȱ muchȱ higherȱ numberȱ thanȱ mentȱalsoȱdeclaringȱwillingnessȱtoȱhouseȱthemȱ theȱ Manipurȱ governmentȱ wasȱ willingȱ toȱ tillȱ Julyȱ 18,ȱ 2006ȱ only,ȱ theȱ IDPsȱ foundȱ accede.ȱ Theȱ costȱ ofȱ shelteringȱ theȱ IDPs,ȱ evenȱ themselvesȱ strandedȱ inȱ theȱ middleȱ ofȱ withinȱMizoram,ȱwasȱafterȱallȱtoȱbeȱborneȱbyȱ nowhere.ȱThoughȱaboutȱ42ȱfamiliesȱreturned,ȱ theȱManipurȱgovernment.ȱ aȱ majorityȱ refusedȱ toȱ faceȱ theȱ perilsȱ backȱ Asȱ reportsȱ beganȱ toȱ surfaceȱ thatȱ Mizoȱ home.ȱ Aȱ Mizoȱ dailyȱ quotedȱ L.ȱ Thuamluaia,ȱ villageȱ authoritiesȱ wereȱ determiningȱ toȱ evictȱ chairmanȱ ofȱ theȱ Manipurȱ Hmarȱ Refugeesȱ theȱ IDPsȱ followingȱ illegalȱ constructionȱ ofȱ AdvisoryȱBoard,ȱasȱsaying:ȱ housesȱ byȱ theȱ latter,ȱ inȱ May,ȱ theȱ Manipurȱ ȱ governmentȱ promisedȱ toȱ provideȱ themȱ withȱ Weȱ wereȱinformedȱthatȱeverythingȱhadȱbeenȱ securityȱ andȱ transportȱ facilitiesȱ asȱ wellȱ asȱ doneȱforȱourȱsafeȱreturnȱandȱourȱfutureȱsafetyȱ constructȱ housesȱ forȱ aboutȱ 300ȱ ofȱ themȱ andȱ butȱ theȱ reportsȱ thatȱ weȱ receiveȱ fromȱ backȱ feedȱ themȱ (Theȱ Sangaiȱ Expressȱ 2006).ȱ Aȱ homeȱ isȱ otherwise.ȱ Weȱ knowȱ forȱ certaintyȱ deadlineȱ wasȱ setȱforȱreturnȱbyȱAprilȱ15,ȱ2006ȱ thatȱ armedȱ forcesȱ haveȱ leftȱ theȱ areaȱ andȱ (Newmaiȱ Newsȱ Networkȱ 2006)ȱ thoughȱ notȱ exceptȱ forȱ occasionalȱ patrolling,ȱ noȱ armedȱ manyȱ IDPsȱ wereȱ awareȱ ofȱ it.ȱ Anotherȱ forcesȱareȱpresentȱpermanently.ȱOurȱareasȱareȱ alsoȱ infestedȱ withȱ buriedȱ landminesȱ andȱ weȱ announcementȱ wasȱ madeȱ inȱ June,ȱ thisȱ timeȱ preferȱthatȱmoreȱbeȱdoneȱbeforeȱweȱareȱforcedȱ th moreȱ publicizedȱ andȱ settingȱ Juneȱ 30 ȱ asȱ theȱ toȱgoȱhomeȱ(Newslinkȱ2006h).ȱ deadlineȱ forȱ entitlement,ȱ whereinȱ freeȱ rationȱ ȱ forȱaȱresettlementȱperiodȱofȱfourȱmonthsȱandȱaȱ AȱNoteȱofȱCautionȱ cashȱ offerȱ ofȱ Rsȱ 5,000ȱ toȱ eachȱ familyȱ wasȱ Suchȱ apathyȱ doesȱ notȱ bodeȱ wellȱ forȱ theȱ stateȱ promisedȱ (Theȱ Telegraphȱ 2006).ȱ Theȱ offer,ȱ asȱitȱcanȱonlyȱinviteȱfurtherȱdiscontentȱamongȱ however,ȱ wasȱ rejected.ȱ Johnȱ Pulamte,ȱ people,ȱ especiallyȱ theȱ IDPs.ȱ Suchȱ discontentȱ presidentȱ ofȱ theȱ ManipurȬbasedȱ Allȱ Tribalȱ needsȱtoȱbeȱtakenȱseriouslyȱbyȱtheȱstateȱinȱitsȱ Studentsȱ Union,ȱ Manipurȱ (ATSUM)ȱ wasȱ ownȱ interestȱ sinceȱ itȱ isȱ widelyȱ knownȱ thatȱ quotedȱasȱsaying:ȱ theseȱ campsȱ atȱ timesȱ becomeȱ theȱ breedingȱ ȱ groundȱ forȱ retaliatoryȱ insurgentȱ activities.ȱ Apartȱ fromȱ theȱ students,ȱ civilȱ societiesȱ feelȱ Thus,ȱtheȱsurrenderedȱpresidentȱofȱtheȱBNLF,ȱ theȱ reliefȱ packageȱ offeredȱ byȱ theȱ Manipurȱ Surjyamaniȱ Reang,ȱ inȱ hisȱ requestȱ toȱ theȱ governmentȱ towardsȱ theȱ rehabilitationȱ ofȱ Hmarȱ refugeesȱ nowȱ currentlyȱ lodgedȱ inȱ Mizoramȱ chiefȱ minister,ȱ Zoramthanga,ȱ toȱ Mizoramȱ isȱ inadequate.ȱ Whatȱ needsȱ toȱ beȱ implementȱ theȱ MizoȬBruȱ peaceȱ accord,ȱ couldȱ takenȱ intoȱ accountȱ isȱ thatȱ theseȱ peopleȱ whoȱ claimȱthatȱonlyȱtheȱrepatriationȱofȱtheȱIDPsȱinȱ

29 Uddipana Goswami

TripuraȱcanȱhelpȱeliminateȱtheȱBruȱLiberationȱ stand,ȱ dolingȱ outȱ adȱ hocȱ solutions.ȱ Violenceȱ FrontȱofȱMizoramȱ(BLFM)ȱsinceȱitȱhasȱitsȱbaseȱ onceȱagainȱescalates…ȱ inȱreliefȱcampsȱ(Newslinkȱ2006b).ȱȱ Unlessȱ theȱ stateȱ wantsȱ theȱ cycleȱ ofȱ Theȱ BLFMȱ hasȱ reportedlyȱ beenȱ holdingȱ bloodshedȱ andȱ mayhemȱ toȱ continueȱ adȱ theȱ peaceȱ processȱ betweenȱ theȱ surrenderedȱ infinitum,ȱitȱneedsȱtoȱdoȱaȱseriousȱrethinkȱofȱitsȱ BNLFȱandȱtheȱMizoȱgovernmentȱatȱransom.ȱItȱ ethnicȱ managementȱ policy.ȱȱWithȱ itsȱ hasȱ beenȱ involvedȱ ofȱ lateȱ inȱ variousȱ casesȱ ofȱ polices/warpedȱpolicies/nonȬpolicies,ȱtheȱstateȱ extortion,ȱ kidnappingȱ andȱ otherȱ formsȱ ofȱ hasȱbeenȱincreasinglyȱerodingȱtheȱimportanceȱ violenceȱ thatȱ hasȱ delayedȱ theȱ Mizoȱ governȬ ofȱtheȱessentialȱbasesȱofȱethnicȱformationsȱandȱ ment’sȱ repatriationȱ efforts.ȱ Ironically,ȱ theȱ instrumentalizingȱ ethnicȱ aspirationsȱ inȱ theȱ BLFMȱhadȱalsoȱparticipatedȱinȱtheȱpeaceȱtalksȱ Northeast.ȱByȱsettingȱoneȱethnicityȱagainstȱtheȱ andȱisȱaȱsplinterȱgroupȱofȱtheȱBNLF.ȱBetweenȱ other—orȱ atȱ leastȱ byȱ creatingȱ theȱ necessaryȱ theȱ BNLFȬBLFMȱ faceȬoffȱ andȱ theȱ Mizoȱ conditionsȱ forȱ theȱ same—itȱ hasȱ earnedȱ forȱ government’sȱ delayȱ inȱ implementingȱ theȱ itselfȱ aȱ dubiousȱ controlȱ overȱ theȱ region.ȱ Butȱ promisedȱ rehabilitationȱ package,ȱ theȱ IDPsȱ howȱdurableȱthisȱcontrolȱisȱwouldȱdependȱonȱ haveȱbeenȱmadeȱtheȱvictims.ȱ howȱsoonȱitȱcanȱlearnȱtoȱbringȱaȱsemblanceȱofȱ Suchȱ then,ȱ isȱ theȱ qualityȱ ofȱ peaceȱ inȱ empathyȱ intoȱ itsȱ dealingsȱ withȱ theȱ Mizoram,ȱtheȱstateȱthatȱhasȱbeenȱtoutedȱasȱtheȱ Northeasternȱ states.ȱ Afterȱ all,ȱ whenȱ “theȱ successfulȱcreationȱofȱtheȱIndianȱstate’sȱethnicȱ bloodȬdimmedȱ tideȱ isȱ loosed”,ȱ “thingsȱ fallȱ reconciliationȱ policy.ȱ Onȱ itsȱ borderȱ withȱ apart;ȱtheȱcentreȱcannotȱhold”ȱ(Yeatsȱ1921).ȱ Manipur,ȱ anotherȱ groupȱ ofȱ IDPsȱ areȱ gettingȱ ȱ impatient,ȱandȱtheyȱalsoȱhaveȱarmedȱinsurgentȱ ȱ outfitsȱtoȱbackȱthem.ȱAȱcommentatorȱinȱaȱdailyȱ ȱ newspaperȱreflectsȱtheȱgeneralȱmood:ȱ ȱ ȱ Itȱ isȱ imperativeȱ thatȱ theȱ governmentȱ ȱ reassessedȱ itsȱ approachȱ onȱ howȱ toȱ properlyȱ ȱ repatriateȱ theȱ Tipaimukhȱ Hmarȱ IDPs.ȱ Theȱ ȱ peopleȱ ofȱ theȱ regionȱ haveȱ sufferedȱ enough.ȱ ȱ Theȱ debtsȱ toȱ theȱ Tipaimukhȱ peopleȱ areȱ longȱ ȱ overȬdue.ȱTheȱfasterȱtheȱgovernmentȱdoesȱitsȱ homework,ȱ theȱ betterȱ itȱ isȱ forȱ theȱ displacedȱ ȱ peopleȱasȱwellȱasȱtheȱGovernmentȱofȱManipurȱ ȱ toȱsaveȱitsȱdirtyȱface.ȱIfȱnot,ȱtheȱpeopleȱshouldȱ ȱ beȱallowedȱtoȱdecideȱforȱtheirȱpoliticalȱfutureȱ ȱ thanȱ merelyȱ votingȱ forȱ anȱ irresponsibleȱ andȱ ȱ unrepresentableȱ (sic)ȱ governmentȱ (Hmarȱ ȱ 2006).ȱ ȱ Andȱ inȱ thisȱ way,ȱ theȱ cycleȱ ofȱ insurgencyȱ continues.ȱ Mishandlingȱ ofȱ ethnicȱ aspirationsȱ byȱ theȱ stateȱ makesȱ aȱ peopleȱ aggrieved.ȱ Theȱ aggrievedȱ peopleȱ decideȱ toȱ shapeȱ theirȱ ownȱ “politicalȱ destiny”.ȱ Theȱ decisionȱ moreȱ oftenȱ thanȱ notȱ takesȱ aȱ violentȱ form.ȱ Insurgentȱ activitiesȱ begin,ȱ ethnicȱ clashesȱ proliferate,ȱ internalȱdisplacementȱtakesȱplace.ȱTheȱgovernȬ mentȱ yetȱ againȱ takesȱ anȱ obviouslyȱ apatheticȱ

30 Internal Displacement, Migration, and Policy in Northeastern India

Endnotes

1 There is a distinction made in the paper between Assamese and Axamiyā. Assamese has been used in the sense of anything relating to and belonging in the state of Assam. Axamiyā, on the other hand, has been used to denote the language of “mainstream” Assam alone.

2 By “mainland” India, I mean the parts of India that fall on the other side of the “chicken neck” or Siliguri corridor—a slight piece of land, only about 21 km wide in parts, that connects the northeastern land mass with the rest of India. The use of the term “mainland” also connotes a perception of the northeast as a peripheral and frontier zone. It is a distinction commonly used by both the “mainlanders” and the people of the “periphery”. State policies towards the northeast have also often borne out this distinction.

3 The pargana area of the Goalpara district was the area under the Permanent Land Settlement system.

4 The tea-tribes of Assam were recruited from various provinces of central and eastern India. With them—and sometimes independent of them—came those who took primarily to cultivation. They now identify themselves as Adivasi, literally, “original inhabitant” as distinct from the tea- and ex-tea-tribes. Ex-tea tribes are the ones who have retired from their bondage in the tea estates and having chosen to stay back in Assam, have taken to other pursuits, mainly agriculture.

5 The term “frontierization” usually refers to the extension of administration to and exploitation of a new territory, a propensity mainly attributed to colonial expansionism.

6 Article 342 of the Indian Constitution defines tribe as “an endogamous group with an ethnic identity, who have retained their traditional cultural identity; they have a distinct language or dialect of their own; they are economically backward and live in seclusion governed by their own social norms and largely having a self- contained economy.” Under the Indian state system, a tribe is an administrative concept including communities scheduled as tribes by a majority vote in the parliament.

7 It is the peculiarity of most communities of Indian origin in Manipur—the Tamils for instance—that they have not migrated directly to the state, but via Burma.

8 The exact clauses of the Assam accord in relation to the foreigners’ issue are:

5.1. For purposes of detection and deletion of foreigners, 1.1.1966 shall be the base data and year.

5.2. All persons who come to Assam prior to 1.1.1966, including those amongst them whose names appeared on the electoral rolls used in 1967 elections shall be regularised.

5.3. Foreigners who came to Assam after 1.1.1966 (inclusive) and upto 24th March, 1971 shall be detected in accordance with the provisions of the Foreigners Act, 1946 and the Foreigners (Tribunals) Order 1964.

5.4. Names of foreigners so detected will be deleted from the electoral rolls in force. Such persons will be required to register themselves before the Registration Officers of the respective districts in accordance with the provisions of the Registration of Foreigners Act, 1939 and the Registration of Foreigners Rules, 1939.

5.5. For this purpose, Government of India will undertake suitable strengthening of the government machinery.

31 Uddipana Goswami

5.6. On the expiry of a period of ten years following the date of detection, the names of all such persons which have been deleted from the electoral rools shall be restored.

5.7. All persons who were expelled earlier, but have since reentered illegally into Assam shall be expelled.

5.8. Foreigners who came to Assam on or after March 25, 1971 shall continue to be detected, deleted and practical steps shall be taken to expel such foreigners.

5.9. The Government will give due consideration to certain difficulties expressed by the AASU/AAGSP regarding the implementation of the Illegal Migrants (Determination by Tribunals) Act, 1983.

Full text available at www.northeastvigil.in/facts/index.php?p=87. Last accessed July 8, 2006.

9 The Sangh Parivar is an association—“parivar” stands for “family”—of more than 10 organizations which are built around the Rashtriya Swayamsevak Sangh (RSS), a right wing “Hindu nationalist” organization.

10 The BJP-RSS equation is succinctly summed up in Noorani’s observations (2005) about BJP as a ruling party:

Well-established norms govern the relationship between a ruling party's parliamentary and organisational wings. The BJP's record of obeisance to a body outside and superior to both the wings, the RSS, violates these norms. An extra- constitutional body, fascist in its set-up and outlook and committed to the cult of hate, with a proven record of violence, calls the shots.

He also quotes Anderson and Damle (1987) in order to explicate the relationship between the two organizations within the Sangh Parivar:

The BJP for its part will try to develop into a national political force, but it is questionable whether it can do so with a cadre drawn largely from the RSS. Within the party's organisational structure, the cadre has been reluctant to share power with politically prominent figures from non-RSS backgrounds who could mobilise mass support for the party. The RSS training, emphasising the sacrifice of self for the larger good, and apolitical orientation of the RSS ideology, make it unlikely that politically charismatic figures will emerge from within its own ranks. On the other hand, it is questionable if the BJP could survive politically without the RSS cadre, and the cadre will not stay unless the leadership of the party stays firmly in the hands of the ‘brotherhood’.

11 A similar though less pronounced communal tint was evident in the observations made way back in his 1946 autobiography by Rajendra Prasad, former President of India, who belonged to the state of Bihar:

I saw extensive waste lands in the Nowgong district as I was touring in the villages there. Assam’s soil being very fertile, good fodder grow (sic) on the lands. I also saw hutments here and there with sparse population. No crops were grown nor any trace of cultivation could be seen. These fallow lands were available. Under the prevailing laws, it was easy for any person to settle there and acquire land with rights of occupancy. Some people from the neighbouring district (Mymensingh) in Bengal came there due to pressure of land and thick population and used to live in small huts. They used to reclaim those lands. Thus, they acquired rights over the lands. They were mostly Muslims. In this way the immigrant Muslims inflated the Muslim population of the province. On enquiry I knew that whosoever had migrated to Assam could obtain land, no matter which province they belonged to. I recalled to my mind then that the population in Bihar, especially in the district of Chapra, was increasing to such an extent and put such a pressure on land that lakhs of people had to go every year to work as labourers. A few thousands of those people should have come to Assam…I felt it was better for them to settle permanently, instead of coming periodically; because the railway fare that was necessary for a visit to Assam was sufficient for them to buy a plot of land (Kakati 1954).

12 Shakhdhar was quoted in Asom Jagriti 1980: 2–3. Cited in Hussain 1993.

32 Internal Displacement, Migration, and Policy in Northeastern India

13 Based on field interviews (January 2006) and information and evidence provided by Syed Sajjad Ali, a local journalist.

14 Full text available at www.satp.org/satporgtp/countries/india/states/assam/documents/actsandordinences/the_illegal_migrants_act.ht m. Last accessed December 10, 2006.

15 For instance, Tarun Gogoi, now Chief Minister of Assam, won the Jorhat parliamentary constituency election in 1983 on the strength of 5.44 percent of the total votes.

16 Udayon Misra (2000) has written:

Though reservations have been expressed by social analysts and scholars about the democratic content of the Assam movement, yet given the scale of people’s participation in it, it must be said that there was a great degree of national content in it. Had it not been for its wide popular base, the movement would not have been able to sustain itself against such severe state repression for five long years. The Assamese middle class no doubt played the leading role in the agitation; but its success was ensured because of the strong degree of support it received from the rural masses, both Assamese and tribal. The “civil disobedience” programmes, the “Janata curfews”, the oil blockade and finally, the boycott of the 1983 polls would not have been possible if the rural population of Assam had not overwhelmingly responded.

17 “Detribalisation involved, among other things, a renunciation of tribal forms of worship and the acceptance of traditional Hindu gods and goddesses.” (Lahiri 1990: 166).

18 ‘The Sinlung Hills Development Council was created after Hmars living in NE Mizoram took up arms and rebelled against the state government in demand of at least an autonomous council if not a union territory in 1988. Six years later, in 1994, the then Lalthanhawla government signed an understanding with the Hmar rebels according to which the Sinlung Hills Development Council was created in Hmar dominated area of NE Mizoram. However, factional fighting and state government policies had not allowed the smooth functioning of the council which resulted in frequent change of the council chairman by the state government. Duly elected council members are yet to serve out their full term in the council and the present council is also an interim council’ (Newslink 2006e).

19 When the then Prime Minister, Jawarharlal Nehru, outlined his Panch Shila (five principles) for ‘tribal development’, and said “People should develop along the lines of their own genius and we should avoid imposing anything on them” (Elwin 1960), he had introduced a rhetoric which was to be used by many an insurgent group in the Northeast to demand protective discrimination for themselves. (See for instance ABSU 1987, 1987a.)

20 Recently however, rumblings have been heard in the hill state to the effect that some ex-insurgents have already returned to their underground life. A local daily reported in June 2006:

Sources in the Peace Accord MNF Returnees Association (PAMRA) today confirmed reports that some six former MNF underground members have gone underground again and are currently said to ensconced in a former tactical headquarters of the then MNF underground in Bangladesh. (Newslink 2006f)

21 Full text available at www.neportal.org/northeastfiles/Assam/ActsOrdinances/index.asp. Last accessed July 6, 2006.

22 According to 1991 data on non-scheduled languages, Hmar speaking people number only as much as 65,204. Scheduled languages are those that are recognized by the Eighth Schedule of the Indian Constitution, thus officializing them. An amendment of the constitution can provide for the inclusion of a language in the Eighth schedule, which initially listed 14. The politics behind scheduling of languages in India becomes apparent when

33 Uddipana Goswami

one considers the recent objection against the inclusion of Mizo in the Eighth Schedule. As the Mizo Zirlai Pawl (MZP), the largest students’ body in Mizoram holds, "If our language is included in the 8th schedule, we would be regarded as one of the major tribes of India. In that case, there is a danger of the Centre removing the inner line protection and other reservations" (Newslink 2006g).

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41

ȱ InternalȱConflictsȱandȱStateȬBuildingȱȱ ChallengesȱinȱAsiaȱ ȱ ProjectȱInformationȱ

Internal Conflicts and State-Building Challenges in Asia Project Rationale, Purpose, and Outline

Project Director: Muthiah Alagappa Principal Researchers: Morten Pedersen (Burma/Myanmar) Saroja Dorairajoo (southern Thailand) Mahendra Lawoti (Nepal) Samir Kumar Das (northeast India) Neil DeVotta (Sri Lanka)

Rationale

Internal Conflicts and State-Building Challenges in Asia is part of a larger East-West Center project on state building and governance in Asia that investigates political legitimacy of governments, the relationship of the military to the state, the development of political and civil societies and their roles in democratic development, the role of military force in state formation, and the dynamics and management of internal conflicts arising from nation- and state-building processes. An earlier project investigating internal conflicts arising from nation- and state- building processes focused on conflicts arising from the political consciousness of minority communities in China (Tibet and Xinjiang), Indonesia (Aceh and Papua), and southern

Philippines (the Moro Muslims). Funded by the Carnegie Corporation of New York, that highly successful project was completed in March 2005. The present project, which began in July 2005, investigates the causes and consequences of internal conflicts arising from state- and nation- building processes in Burma/Myanmar, southern Thailand, Nepal, northeast India, and Sri

Lanka, and explores strategies and solutions for their peaceful management and eventual settlement.

Internal conflicts have been a prominent feature of the Asian political landscape since 1945. Asia has witnessed numerous civil wars, armed insurgencies, coups d'état, regional rebellions, and

45 revolutions. Many have been protracted; several have far-reaching domestic and international consequences. The civil war in Pakistan led to the break up of that country in 1971; separatist struggles challenge the political and territorial integrity of China, India, Indonesia, Burma, the

Philippines, Thailand, and Sri Lanka; political uprisings in Thailand (1973 and 1991), the

Philippines (1986), South Korea (1986), Taiwan (1991) Bangladesh (1991), and Indonesia

(1998) resulted in dramatic political change in those countries. Although the political uprisings in

Burma (1988) and China (1989) were suppressed, the political systems in those countries, as well as in Vietnam, continue to confront problems of legitimacy that could become acute; and radical

Islam poses serious challenges to stability in Pakistan, Bangladesh, and Indonesia. The Thai military ousted the democratically-elected government of Thaksin Shinawatra in 2006. In all, millions of people have been killed in the internal conflicts, and tens of millions have been displaced. Moreover, the involvement of external powers in a competitive manner (especially during the Cold War) in several of these conflicts had negative consequences for domestic and regional security.

Internal conflicts in Asia can be traced to contestations over political legitimacy (the title to rule), national identity, state building, and distributive justice––that are often interconnected. With the bankruptcy of the socialist model and transitions to democracy in several countries, the number of internal conflicts over political legitimacy has declined in Asia. However, the legitimacy of certain governments continues to be contested from time to time, and the remaining communist and authoritarian systems are likely to confront challenges to their legitimacy in due course.

Internal conflicts also arise from the process of constructing modern nation-states, and the unequal distribution of material and status benefits. Although many Asian states have made considerable progress in constructing national communities and viable states, several countries,

46 including some major ones, still confront serious problems that have degenerated into violent conflict. By affecting the political and territorial integrity of the state as well as the physical, cultural, economic, and political security of individuals and groups, these conflicts have great potential to affect domestic and international stability.

Purpose

Internal Conflicts and State-Building Challenges in Asia examines internal conflicts arising from the political consciousness of minority communities in Burma/Myanmar, southern Thailand, northeast India, Nepal, and Sri Lanka. Except for Nepal, these states are not in danger of collapse. However, they do face serious challenges at the regional and local levels which, if not addressed, can negatively affect the vitality of the national state in these countries. Specifically, the project has a threefold purpose: (1) to develop an in-depth understanding of the domestic, transnational, and international dynamics of internal conflicts in these countries in the context of nation- and state-building strategies; (2) to examine how such conflicts have affected the vitality of the state; and (3) to explore strategies and solutions for the peaceful management and eventual settlement of these conflicts.

Design

A study group has been organized for each of the five conflicts investigated in the study. With a principal researcher for each, the study groups comprise practitioners and scholars from the respective Asian countries, including the region or province that is the focus of the conflict, as well as from Australia, Britain, Belgium, Sweden, and the United States. The participants list that follows shows the composition of the study groups.

47 All five study groups met jointly for the first time in Washington, D.C., on October 30–

November 3, 2005. Over a period of five days, participants engaged in intensive discussion of a

wide range of issues pertaining to the conflicts investigated in the project. In addition to

identifying key issues for research and publication, the meeting facilitated the development of

cross-country perspectives and interaction among scholars who had not previously worked

together. Based on discussion at the meeting, twenty-five policy papers were commissioned.

The study groups met separately in the summer of 2006 for the second set of meetings, which

were organized in collaboration with respected policy-oriented think tanks in each host country.

The Burma and southern Thailand study group meetings were held in Bangkok July 10–11 and

July 12–13, respectively. These meetings were cosponsored by The Institute of Security and

International Studies, Chulalongkorn University. The Nepal study group was held in Kathmandu,

Nepal, July 17–19, and was cosponsored by the Social Science Baha. The northeast India study

group met in New Delhi, India, August 9–10. This meeting was cosponsored by the Centre for

Policy Research. The Sri Lanka meeting was held in Colombo, Sri Lanka, August 14–16, and

cosponsored by the Centre for Policy Alternatives. In each of these meetings, scholars and

practitioners reviewed and critiqued papers produced for the meetings and made suggestions for

revision.

Publications

This project will result in twenty to twenty-five policy papers providing a detailed examination

of particular aspects of each conflict. Subject to satisfactory peer review, these 18,000- to

24,000-word essays will be published in the East-West Center Washington Policy Studies series, and will be circulated widely to key personnel and institutions in the policy and intellectual

48 communities and the media in the respective Asian countries, the United States, and other relevant countries. Some studies will be published in the East-West Center Washington Working

Papers series.

Public Forums

To engage the informed public and to disseminate the findings of the project to a wide audience, public forums have been organized in conjunction with study group meetings.

Five public forums were organized in Washington, D.C., in conjunction with the first study group meeting. The first forum, cosponsored by The Johns Hopkins University’s School of

Advanced International Studies, discussed the conflict in southern Thailand. The second, cosponsored by The Sigur Center for Asian Studies of The George Washington University, discussed the conflict in Burma. The conflicts in Nepal were the focus of the third forum, which was cosponsored by the Asia Program at The Woodrow Wilson International Center for

Scholars. The fourth public meeting, cosponsored by the Foreign Policy Studies program at The

Brookings Institution, discussed the conflicts in northeastern India. The fifth forum, cosponsored by the South Asia Program of the Center for Strategic and International Studies, focused on the conflict in Sri Lanka.

Funding Support

The Carnegie Corporation of New York is once again providing generous funding support for the project.

49

Project Director Muthiah Alagappa, Ph.D. Director, East-West Center Washington (from February 2001 to January 2007) Distinguished Senior Fellow, East-West Center (from February 1, 2007) ______Burma/Myanmar Study Group

Morten Pedersen Zaw Oo United Nations University American University Principal Researcher Martin Smith Mary Callahan Independent Analyst, London University of Washington David I. Steinberg Christina Fink Georgetown University Chiang Mai University David Tegenfeldt Hope International Development Agency, Saboi Jum Shalom Foundation, Yangon Yangon

Kyi May Kaung Mya Than Freelance Writer/Analyst, Washington, D.C. Chulalongkorn University

Tom Kramer Tin Maung Maung Than Freelance Consultant, Amsterdam Institute of Southeast Asian Studies, Singapore

Curtis Lambrecht Ardeth Thawnghmung Yale University University of Massachusetts, Lowell

David Scott Mathieson Meredith Weiss Australian National University East-West Center Washington

Win Min Khin Zaw Win Chiang Mai University Independent Researcher, Yangon Harn Yawnghwe Euro-Burma Office, Brussels

______Southern Thailand Study Group Marc Askew Victoria University, Melbourne Saroja Dorairajoo National University of Singapore Suchit Bunbongkarn Principal Researcher Chulalongkorn University

Thanet Aphornsuvan Kavi Chongkittavorn Thammasat University Nation Multimedia Group, Bangkok

51 Neil John Funston Surin Pitsuwan Australian National University MP, Thai House of Representatives

Surat Horachaikul Thitinan Pongsudhirak Chulalongkorn University Chulalongkorn University

Srisompob Jitpiromsri Chaiwat Satha-Anand Prince of Songkla University, Pattani Campus Thammasat University

Joseph Chinyong Liow Vaipot Srinual Nanyang Technological University, Singapore Supreme Command Headquarters, Thailand

Chandra-nuj Mahakanjana Wattana Sugunnasil National Institute of Development Prince of Songkla University, Pattani Campus Administration, Bangkok Panitan Wattanayagorn Duncan McCargo Chulalongkorn University University of Leeds Imtiyaz Yusuf Celakhan (Don) Pathan Assumption University, Bangkok The Nation Newspaper, Bangkok

______

Nepal Study Group Sumitra Manandhar-Gurung Lumanthi and National Coalition Against Racial Discrimination, Kathmandu Mahendra Lawoti Western Michigan University Harka Gurung (deceased) Principal Researcher Transparency International, Nepal

Itty Abraham Dipak Gyawali East-West Center Washington Royal Nepal Academy of Science and Technology, Kathmandu Meena Acharya Tanka Prasad Acharya Memorial Foundation, Krishna Hacchethu Kathmandu Tribhuvan University

Lok Raj Baral Susan Hangen Nepal Center for Contemporary Studies, Ramapo College, New Jersey Kathmandu Lauren Leve Surendra Raj Bhandari University of North Carolina, Chapel Hill Law Associates Nepal, Kathmandu Prakash Chandra Lohani Chandra Dev Bhatta Former Finance Minister, Nepal London School of Economics Pancha Narayan Maharjan Krishna Bhattachan Tribhuvan University, Kirtipur Tribhuvan University

52 Sukh Deo Muni Hari Sharma Observer Research Foundation, New Delhi Social Science Baha, Kathmandu

Anup Pahari Sudhindra Sharma Foreign Service Institute, Arlington Interdisciplinary Analyst (IDA), Kathmandu

Rajendra Pradhan Dhruba Kumar Shrestha Social Science Baha, Kathmandu Tribhuvan University

Shree Govind Shah Seira Tamang Environmental Resources Planning and Centre for Social Research and Development, Monitoring/Academy of Social Justice & Human Kathmandu Rights, Kathmandu Bishnu Raj Upreti Saubhagya Shah National Centre of Competence in Research, Tribhuvan University Kathmandu

______Northeast India Study Group Uddipana Goswami Center for Studies in Social Science, Kolkata Samir Kumar Das University of Calcutta Bejoy Das Gupta Principal Researcher Institute of International Finance, Inc., Washington, D.C. Dipankar Banerjee Institute of Peace and Conflict Studies, New Partha S. Ghosh Delhi Jawaharlal Nehru University

Sanjay Barbora Sanjoy Hazarika North Eastern Social Research Centre, Assam Centre for North East Studies and Policy Research, New Delhi Kalyan Barooah Assam Tribune Anil Kamboj Institute for Defence Studies and Analyses, Sanjib Baruah New Delhi Center for Policy Research, New Delhi Bard College, New York Bengt Karlsson Uppsala University, Sweden M.P. Bezbaruah UN – WTO (World Tourism Organization), New Dolly Kikon Delhi Stanford University

Pinaki Bhattacharya Ved Marwah The Mathrubhumi, Kerala Centre for Policy Research, New Delhi

Subir Bhaumik Pratap Bhanu Mehta British Broadcasting Corporation, Kolkata Centre for Policy Research, New Delhi Sukh Deo Muni Observer Research Foundation, New Delhi

53 Bhagat Oinam E.N. Rammohan Jawaharlal Nehru University National Security Council, New Delhi

Pradip Phanjoubam Bibhu Prasad Routray Imphal Free Press, Manipur Institute for Conflict Management, New Delhi

V.R. Raghavan Ronojoy Sen Delhi Policy Group The Times of India, New Delhi

Rajesh Rajagopalan Prakash Singh Jawaharlal Nehru University Border Security Force (Ret’d.)

Swarna Rajagopalan George Verghese Chaitanya––The Policy Consultancy, Chennai Centre for Policy Research, New Delhi

______Sri Lanka Study Group Anberiya Hanifa Neil DeVotta Muslim Women’s Research and Action Forum, Hartwick College Colombo Principal Researcher Dayan Jayatilleka Ravinatha P. Aryasinha University of Colombo American University N. Kandasamy Sunanda Deshapriya Center for Human Rights and Development in Centre for Policy Alternatives, Colombo Colombo

Rohan Edrisinha S.I. Keethaponcalan Centre for Policy Alternatives, Colombo University of Colombo

Nimalka Fernando N. Manoharan International Movement Against All Forms of Institute of Peace and Conflict Studies, New Discrimination & Racism, Colombo Delhi

Bhavani Fonseka Dennis McGilvray Centre for Policy Alternatives, Colombo University of Colorado at Boulder

Mario Gomez Jehan Perera Berghof Foundation for Conflict Studies, National Peace Council of Sri Lanka, Colombo Colombo Gajendrakumar Ponnambalam Air Vice Marshall Harry Goonetileke MP, Sri Lanka Colombo Mirak Raheem Centre for Policy Alternatives, Colombo

54 Darini Rajasingham Muttukrishna Sarvananthan Centre for Poverty Analysis, Colombo Point Pedro Institute of Development, Sri Lanka John Richardson, Jr. American University Peter Schalk Uppsala University, Sweden Norbert Ropers Berghof Foundation for Conflict Studies, Asanga Tilakaratne Colombo University of Kelaniya

Kanchana N. Ruwanpura Jayadeva Uyangoda Hobart and William Smith Colleges, New York University of Colombo

P. Sahadevan Asanga Welikala Jawaharlal Nehru University Centre for Policy Alternatives, Colombo

Paikiasothy Saravanamuttu Jayampathy Wickramaratne Centre for Policy Alternatives, Colombo Ministry of Constitutional Affairs, Sri Lanka

Javid Yusuf Attorney-at-Law, Colombo

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Background of the Conflicts in Northeast India

Northeast India owes its geographical distinctiveness in relation to the Indian “mainland” to the partition of the subcontinent in 1947. But as an official Indian category it dates from 1971 following a radical reorganization of internal boundaries and creation of new states. The region is connected with the rest of India through a narrow corridor, which is approximate thirty-three kilometers wide on the eastern side and twenty-one kilometers wide on the western side. This constitutes barely one percent of the boundaries of the region, while the remaining 99 percent of its boundaries are international––with China’s Tibet region to the north, Bangladesh to the southwest, Bhutan to the northwest, and Burma/Myanmar to the east. The region comprises the seven Indian states of Assam, Arunachal Pradesh, Manipur, Meghalaya, Mizoram, Nagaland, and Tripura––also known as “Seven Sisters.” Since 2003, Sikkim has been included as the eighth member of the regional North Eastern Council. With the exception of Nagaland, which became a state in 1963, most of the states in the region were reorganized between 1971 and 1987. These cover a total area of over 254,645 square kilometers (about 8.7 percent of India’s territory) and, according to the 2001 Census of India, have a combined population of 38,495,089 people––roughly 3.73 per cent of the country’s population. The region accounts for one of the largest concentrations of “tribal” people in the country–– constituting about 30 percent of the total population––though with a skewed distribution of over 60 percent in Arunachal Pradesh, Manipur, Meghalaya, Mizoram, and Nagaland together. Three states––Nagaland, Mizoram and Meghalaya––contain an overwhelming majority of Christians (90, 87, and 70 percent respectively). The region is characterized by extraordinary ethnic, cultural, religious, and linguistic diversity, with more than 160 Scheduled Tribes and over 400 distinct tribal and subtribal groupings, and a large and diverse nontribal population concentrated mainly in Assam, Manipur, and Tripura. An estimated 220 languages belonging to the Indo- Aryan, Sino-Tibetan, and Austric language families are spoken in the region––the largest concentration of languages in the subcontinent. Although the Ahoms were successful in gradually consolidating the greater part of the region under a single political unit in the course of their rule (1228–1826), court chronicles of the Kacharis (1515–1818), the Jaintias (1500–1835), the Manipur Kings (1714–1949), and other local groups point out how they had historically retained varying degrees of independence into

57 the nineteenth century, when the British took over the region. Colonial rulers took nearly a century to finally annex the entire region and exercised their control over the hills primarily as a loosely administered “frontier” area, thereby separating it from the “subjects” of the thickly populated plains. Northeast India has been the theater of the earliest and longest-lasting insurgency in the country––in the Naga Hills––where violence centering on independentist demands commenced in 1952, followed by the Mizo rebellion in 1966 and a multiplicity of more recent conflicts that have proliferated especially since the late 1970s. Every state in the region excepting Sikkim is currently affected by some form of insurgent violence, and four of these (Assam, Manipur, Nagaland, and Tripura) have witnessed scales of conflict that could––at least between 1990 and 2000, be characterized as low intensity conflicts. The Government of India has entered into ceasefire agreements––renewed from time to time until today—with two of the leading factions of the National Socialist Council of Nagaland in 1997 and 2001. The Government of India and one of these factions, the National Socialist Council of Nagaland (Isak-Muivah), are now reportedly involved in discussing “substantive issues” while trying to reach a “permanent and honorable” solution to the long-standing problem. The Mizo National Front and the Government of India signed a Memorandum of Understanding in 1986 and their rebel leader, Laldenga, subsequently formed his own political party and became chief minister of Mizoram State. The United National Liberation Front (UNLF)––the armed opposition group active in the valley of Manipur, contests the “Merger Agreement” that the king of Manipur signed with the Government of India in 1949 on the grounds that the king signed it under duress. The United Liberation Front of Assam (ULFA) too questions Assam’s inclusion in the Indian Union. Attempts have been made to bring UNLF and ULFA to the negotiating table. The Government’s response to independentist demands so far has included enacting extraordinary legislation like the Armed Forces (Special Powers) Act of 1958, utilizing security forces to suppress rebellion, promoting economic development, and negotiating peace agreements with the insurgent organizations. Although landlocked on all sides, migration, whether from across the international borders or from other parts of India, continues unabated. A significant part of the immigration into the region is thought to be cross-border and illegal––especially of foreigners from Bangladesh. The region has frequently been rocked by violent tremors of anti-immigrant

58 sentiments. Although a major problem, the Government often finds it difficult to detect and disenfranchise—let alone deport the foreigners. Conflicts in Northeast India have not only focused on the Indian state, but also manifest intergroup and intragroup dimensions. Intergroup conflicts based on mutually rivaling “homeland” demands (say, between the Bodos and the non-Bodos, the Karbis and the Dimasas in Assam, the Nagas and the Kukis/Paites in the hills of Manipur, the Mizos and the Brus/Reangs in Mizoram, etc.) and struggle for power among competing groups have sparked conflicts and internal displacements. The multiple forms of resistance in the exceptionally diverse ethnic landscape have produced politics and struggles with multiple competing agendas.

59

MapȱofȱNortheastȱIndiaȱ

61 WorkingȱPapersȱ

PreviousȱPublicationsȱ

WorkingȱPaperȱNumberȱ1,ȱMayȱ2004ȱ DemographicsȱandȱDevelopmentȱinȱXinjiangȱafterȱ1949ȱ ȱ StanleyȱToopsȱ ȱ WorkingȱPaperȱNumberȱ2,ȱOctoberȱ2004ȱ China’sȱPolicyȱonȱTibetanȱAutonomyȱ ȱ WarrenȱW.ȱSmithȱ ȱ WorkingȱPaperȱNumberȱ3,ȱJanuaryȱ2005ȱ DelaysȱinȱtheȱPeaceȱNegotiationsȱbetweenȱtheȱPhilippineȱGovernmentȱandȱtheȱ MoroȱIslamicȱLiberationȱFront:ȱCausesȱandȱPrescriptionsȱ ȱ SolimanȱM.ȱSantos,ȱJr.ȱ ȱ WorkingȱPaperȱNumberȱ4,ȱJulyȱ2005ȱ HumanȱRightsȱinȱSoutheastȱAsia:ȱTheȱSearchȱforȱRegionalȱNormsȱ ȱ HermanȱJosephȱS.ȱKraftȱ ȱ WorkingȱPaperȱNumberȱ5,ȱAugustȱ2006ȱ Decentralization,ȱLocalȱGovernment,ȱandȱSocioȬpoliticalȱConflictȱinȱSouthernȱ Thailandȱ ȱ ChandraȬnujȱMahakanjanaȱ ȱ WorkingȱPaperȱNumberȱ6,ȱNovemberȱ2006ȱ CommittingȱSuicideȱforȱFearȱofȱDeath:ȱPowerȱShiftsȱandȱPreventiveȱWarȱ ȱ DongȱSunȱLeeȱ ȱ WorkingȱPaperȱNumberȱ7,ȱMarchȱ2007ȱ FacesȱofȱIslamȱinȱSouthernȱThailandȱ ȱ ImtiyazȱYusufȱ ȱ

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