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State Denial, Local Controversies and Everyday Resistance Among the Santal in Bangladesh

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State Denial, Local Controversies and Everyday Resistance Among the Santal in Bangladesh The Issue of Identity: State Denial, Local Controversies and Everyday Resistance among the Santal in Bangladesh PhD Dissertation to attain the title of Doctor of Philosophy (PhD) Submitted to the Faculty of Philosophische Fakultät I: Sozialwissenschaften und historische Kulturwissenschaften Institut für Ethnologie und Philosophie Seminar für Ethnologie Martin-Luther-University Halle-Wittenberg This thesis presented and defended in public on 21 January 2020 at 13.00 hours By Farhat Jahan February 2020 Supervisor: Prof. Dr. Burkhard Schnepel Reviewers: Prof. Dr. Burkhard Schnepel Prof. Dr. Carmen Brandt Assessment Committee: Prof. Dr. Carmen Brandt Prof. Dr. Kirsten Endres Prof. Dr. Rahul Peter Das To my parents Noor Afshan Khatoon and Ghulam Hossain Siddiqui Who transitioned from this earth but taught me to find treasure in the trivial matters of life. Abstract The aim of this thesis is to trace transformations among the Santal of Bangladesh. To scrutinize these transformations, the hegemonic power exercised over the Santal and their struggle to construct a Santal identity are comprehensively examined in this thesis. The research locations were multi-sited and employed qualitative methodology based on fifteen months of ethnographic research in 2014 and 2015 among the Santal, one of the indigenous groups living in the plains of north-west Bangladesh. To speculate over the transitions among the Santal, this thesis investigates the impact of external forces upon them, which includes the epochal events of colonization and decolonization, and profound correlated effects from evangelization or proselytization. The later emergence of the nationalist state of Bangladesh contained a legacy of hegemony allowing the Santal to continue to be dominated. All these periodic events and actors’ involvement have polarized the issues of the Santals’ identity and rights. To respond to these hegemonic power structures, the Santal demonstrate their underlying power in both periodic and everyday events. Thus, the central theme of this research is Santal identity and their struggles to construct this identity through the lens of rights. In scrutinizing their struggles, this thesis uncovers the subtle meaning of “everyday resistance,” which the Santal contextualize through ritual practices, behavioral acts, and traditions, propagating its rational meaning not only through practice but also through invention. From that point of view, the ethnographic exploration of this thesis uses a number of key concepts and issues. First, the thesis analyzes how the Santal produce power in their everyday lives and deploy forms of everyday resistance. Second, the thesis demonstrates the complexities and juxtaposition between being Santal and becoming indigenous Santal, or the tensions between Christian and traditional believers among the Santal. Third, this thesis speculates over the complexities through which controversies emerge concerning their identity, thus polarizing their struggle for rights. Fourth, this thesis explains the nationalistic construction of the state which denies indigenous identity, providing limited services and thus expanding the area of marginalization. In the same vein, this thesis argues that these processes how encourage evangelizers to intensify evangelized developmentalism. Fifth, the thesis examines how the Santal undermine all the hegemonic power that is exercised over them. Finally, the thesis explains how, by practicing and inventing, the Santal provide their traditions and ritual practices with political and rational meanings and invites us to rethink the power of subaltern. i Table of Contents List of Figures and Illustrations ......................................................................................... v Acknowledgements ............................................................................................................. vi Abbreviations ................................................................................................................... viii Chapter 1. Introduction ...................................................................................................... 1 1.1. Santal in the Field Area and Terms and Definitions .................................................... 6 1.2. Interaction with Bengalis and the Testimonies of Santal Social Subjugation ........ 12 1.3. “Being There”: Locating Myself as a Researcher ...................................................... 14 1.4. Relationships across Place and the Multi-Sited Field ............................................... 20 1.5. Methods of Observation and Sources .......................................................................... 22 1.6. Existing Literature, the Santal of Bangladesh, and the Continuity of Categorizations ..... 26 1.7. Chapter Outline ............................................................................................................... 33 Chapter 2. “There are no Indigenous People:” Conceptual Overview ......................... 36 2.1. The State’s Discourses Denying Indigenous People ................................................. 41 2.2. Evangelization: Controversies and the Continuity of Santalness ............................ 51 2.3. Everyday Resistance and the Production of Indigeneity ........................................... 60 2.4. Indigeneity, Controversies and Sticking Up For Rights ........................................... 66 2.5. Concluding Remarks ...................................................................................................... 71 Chapter 3. Horak Nagam: The History of the Santal ..................................................... 73 3.1. Mythological Origins and the History of Migration .................................................. 76 3.2. From Colonization to Decolonization: A Depiction of Domination ....................... 79 3.3. The History of Hul (resistance) .................................................................................... 87 3.4. From Repression to Resistance .................................................................................... 93 3.5. Concluding Remarks ...................................................................................................... 96 Chapter 4. The State’s Denial and Evangelized Developmentalism ............................. 97 4.1. The Socio-Cultural Setting of the Villages ............................................................... 101 4.2. Institutional Setting: from Local to National or Vice Versa ................................... 108 4.3. Affinity with the Land and the Distress of Land Eviction ...................................... 113 4.3.1. Case Study One: Graveyard Taken by Muslim Bengalis ............................. 114 4.4. Occupational Setting and Involvement in the Village Vicinity ............................. 118 ii 4.5. National Budgetary Allocation and Local Features of Application ...................... 121 4.6. Evangelized Developmentalism ................................................................................. 131 4.7. The Limits of the State and Space for Evangelized Developmentalism ............... 140 4.8. Concluding Remarks .................................................................................................... 142 Chapter 5. Santal Identity: Controversies and Continuity .......................................... 143 5.1. Bideen and Esoie: “Others” within the Self .............................................................. 147 5.2. Controversies in Adopting a Script: Religious Fission and the Politics of Identity ........ 152 5.3. Discord among the Santal and the Breakdown of the National Platform ............. 160 5.3.1. Case Study Two: The Suicide of Serafina Mardi ......................................... 161 5.3.2. Case Study Three: The Suspension of Benjamin Tudu ................................ 165 5.4. Rupturing and Retaining: Attempts to Revive Santal Identity ............................... 167 5.5. Concluding Remarks .................................................................................................... 169 Chapter 6. Manjhi Parishad (Village Council): Confronting and Creating Santal Identity ............................................................................................................................................ 170 6.1. Function and Structure of the Manjhi Parishad ........................................................ 174 6.2. The Manjhi Parishad’s Ability to Deal with Social Offenses ................................ 181 6.2.1. Case Study Four: A Marriage Ceremony and Tearing up a Tradition ....... 181 6.2.2. Case Study Five: A Theft and Maintaining Morality ................................... 183 6.2.3. Case Study Six: A Case of Clan Endogamy ................................................. 185 6.2.4. Case Study Seven: An Unwed Mother ............................................................... 188 6.3. NGOs: Intervention versus Encroachment ............................................................... 191 6.4. The Maintenance of Santal Identity ........................................................................... 198 6.5. Concluding Remarks .................................................................................................... 200 Chapter 7. Subtlety of Resistance Using Ritualized Practices: The Passage from Social Subjugation to Neoliberal Development ........................................................................ 202 7.1. The Subtlety of Resistance in
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