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Migration and Displacement : A Study of the Chakma Refugees in Suparna Nandy Kar Ph.D. Scholar, Diphu Campus, University, Assam Dr. K.C. Das Associate Professor, Diphu Campus, Assam University, Assam

Abstract: The Chakmas constitute one of the ethnic groups of the Hill Tracts (C H T’s), where 98 percent of the inhabitants of the hill region are the indigenous people of Mongoloid stock until the Muslim infiltrators swamped over the area. The Chakma ethnic groups are the most dominant and important tribe. They are Buddhist by faith. According to Encyclopaedia of South Asian Tribes Chakmas have descended from King Avirath of the dynasty. They belong to a tribal clan of the Tibe to - Burman race and came to the area when Burmans destroyed the Kingdom. Arakanese dissidents who were against the Burmese administration took shelter as refugees in the . After the partition of the country the C H T was annexed to Pakistan .Some of them stood against the policy of the Government of Pakistan because they were suppressed and many of them had to cross the border and enter into and Burma for the protection of their lives and family. Later on , Pakistan Government took the policy of setting up of a Hydro Electric Project over the river in the C H T. The high water level of Kaptai Hydro Electric Project inundated a vast Chakma inhabited area. So thousands of the Chakma families were uprooted and they had to take shelter by crossing the border and entered into India and Burma because many a times the Chakmas had to face the trouble torn situation in the C H T by a section of Muslim people and the Government there failed to protect them. The Chakmas started a movement for autonomy in the C H T areas of present . After a prolong movement of the Chakmas, they got an autonomy in the C H T. During the movement of the Chakmas for autonomy, the then Government of Pakistan (present Bangladesh) adopted suppressive and oppressive measures on the Chakmas. As a result of which many Chakma people left their original homeland and came to India, mainly in the North Eastern States like Assam , , Mizoram, , etc. A large number of Chakma people took shelter in the Refugee Camps in Arunachal Pradesh, Assam and Mizoram. They started refugee life here and many of them settled here.-They lived a long refugee life which ruined their identity and rich tradition. They are affected by poverty , illiteracy , unemployment and political Identity crisis in North East of India .The Government of India , the Government of Mizoram , The Human rights commission , Various social organisations, Supreme Court ,NGOs and various other organisations and Individuals should come forward to their help .They are still living a refugee life without any rights and facilities.

Keywords: C A D C (Chakma Autonomous District Council) C H T (Chittagong Hill Tracts) N E F A (North East Frontier Agency) N G O (Non Governmental Organization) K H E P (Kaptai Hydro Electric Project)

1. Introduction The Chakmas constitute one of the ethnic groups of the Chittagong Hill Tracts(CHT’s), where 98 percent of the inhabitants of the hill region are the indigenous people of Mongoloid stock until the Muslim infiltrators swamped over the area. The Chakma ethnic groups are the most dominant and important tribe. They are Buddhist by faith. The homelands of the Chakmas cover the surface area of 5093 square miles. The hill tracts constitute 10 percent of the total area of Bangladesh. The Chittagong Hill Tracts is divided into three Districts with Headquarters of , Bandarban and Kharagchari. They have been granted Autonomous District Councils with limited autonomy. The Chakmas live mainly in the Kassalong and upper and middle Karnaphuli river valley. Origin of the name: -According to Encyclopaedia of South Asian Tribes Chakmas have descended from King Avirath of the Sakya dynasty. But another view is that they have been migrated from east to Tripura, Mizoram, ArunachalPradesh, Meghalaya and Assam. The word ‘Chakma’ or ‘Chukma’ was spelt by the British scholars is a generic term to a predominant hill tribe of the CHT dwelling in the corridor link of Aracans. In British census records these ethnic groups have been grouped together under a common name. It was known as ‘CHAKMATSAK’. The word ‘CHAWNGMA’ or ‘SWANGMA’ or ‘CHAKMA’ means people of Tsak or Thek clan originated from Burmese race. They belong to a tribal clan of the Tibeto - Burman race and came to the area when Burmans destroyed the Arakan Kingdom. Arakanese dissidents who were against the Burmese administration took shelter as refugees in the Chittagong Hill Tracts. After the partition of the country the CHT was annexed to Pakistan.Some of them stood against the policy of the Government of Pakistan because they were suppressed and many of them had to cross the border and enter into India and Burma for the protection of their lives and family. Later on, Pakistan Government took the policy of setting up of a Hydro Electric Project over the river 1 Vol 6 Issue 9 September, 2018

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Karnaphuli in the CHT. It was completed in 1960. The high water level of Kaptai Hydro Electric Project inundated a vast Chakma inhabited area. So, thousands of the Chakma families were uprooted and they had to take shelter by crossing the border and entered into India and Burma because many a times the Chakmas had to face the trouble torn situation in the CHT by a section of Muslim people and the Government there failed to protect them. The Chakmas started a movement for autonomy in the CHT areas of present Bangladesh. After a prolong movement of the Chakmas, they got an autonomy in the CHT. During the movement of the Chakmas for autonomy, the then Government of Pakistan (presentBangladesh) adopted suppressive and oppressive measures on the Chakmas. As a result of which many Chakma people left their original homeland and came to India, mainly in the North Eastern States like Assam,ArunachalPradesh, Mizoram, Tripura, Meghalaya etc. A large number of Chakma people took shelter in the Refugee Camps in Arunachal Pradesh, Assam and Mizoram. They started refugee life here and many of them settled here. Settlement in Mizoram: -In Mizoram, a large number of the Chakmas settled there as a permanent resident when the Mizoram Government accorded settlement as permanent residents. They have been given citizenship there in Mizoram. The Government granted them Scheduled Tribe Status. Mass infiltration of the Chakmas into Mizoram resulted to their claim for social status and political autonomy in Mizoram which has created socio-economic and political tension between the two communities (Mizos and Chakmas). In recent years, the issue of Chakma ethnic tribe in the 21st Century has earned name in the national and international arena. This ethnic group is one of the most dominant and important tribes. They are Buddhist by faith. This work is an exploration of the political activities of the Chakma ethnic tribes in Mizoram of India. It is believed the CHT- Chittagong Hill Tracts was the homeland of the Chakmas before living in the state of Mizoram and elsewhere in India. In India, they mostly inhabit in the North Eastern parts including Mizoram, Tripura, ArunachalPradesh, West , Assam and Meghalaya. India being a federal state all these states witness problem of the Chakmas in the way or another. It is believed that the belief of the Chakma Community has become a problem in many regions. After Partition the CHT was annexed to Pakistan. Some of them stood against Government policy but they were suppressed and many of them had to cross the Border and enter into India. Later on, Pakistan Government took the policy of setting up a Hydro-Electric Project on the river Karnaphuli in the CHT. High water level of Kaptai Hydro-Electric Project inundated a vast Chakma inhabited areas. So, thousands of the Chakmas were uprooted and they had to take shelter by crossing the border and entering India. However, the condition of the Chakmas after crossing the border remain the same when theylanded in the (now Mizoram). The Chakma ethnic tribe are hated much by the Mizos because they are adherent to Buddhism. As the Mizos were converted to long back, they developed hatred towards other religions. The Mizos always try to convince people to embrace Christianity. It has become difficult for them to digest a non-Christian community in an overwhelming Christian state. The ChristianMizos tried to convert the Chakmas into Christianity. Huge amount of money is spending by Baptist Missionaries to convert the Buddhist Chakmas into Christianity. The Chakmas are hated in Mizoram only because they are Buddhis.

2. Refugee

2.1. Meaning of the Term The term refugee is earmarked for those who have left their country of origin. It is important to mention that between 1922 to 1926 under the auspices of the League of Nations, several treaties created certain obligations on the contracting states, making it necessary to define the term “refugee”. But even before that the League of Nations Treaties initially defined the term refugee as a category or group of persons who were, a) without their country of origin and b) without the protection of the government of their home state. The period of 1920 s and 1930 s was the period of mass movement of refugees across Europe.

2.2. Resettlement The resettlement of refugees is regarded as the important means to reduce the number of refugees. It is not accepted that refugees spent years of their lives in confined spaces. At the same time, a number of refugees cannot go home or reluctant to do so because they will face constant . In such a state of affairs, the Higher Commissioner for Refugees (U N H C R) assist to relocate refugees in a third country. Voluntary repartition, integration and settlement are three durable pursued by the (U N H C R). According to the UN Higher Commissioner for Refugees Sadako Ogata, “Resettlements can no longer be seen as the least pressured durable solution in many cases it is the only solution for refugees.

2.3. Identity Originally, the concept of Identity is used as a piece of sociological imagination and at present an offshoot of the politics of multiculturalism. In fact, the idea of Identity is born out of the crisis of belonging to and out of their efforts, it triggers to bridge the gap between the “out” and the “is” and to lift reality to the standard set by the idea to make the reality in the likeness of the idea. In the analytical framework of EmileDurkheim, Identity is to be considered as an objective, an aim rather than pre-defined factor. It refers to a set of separate and unique selfhood, but it also acknowledges that how people themselves are shaped by a web of social and other social relationships that distinguish the other people. Identity, thus, implies difference an awareness of difference sharpens or clarifies our sense of identity.

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The Chakmas are one of the numerically small ethnic tribe in the Indian Sub –Continent. They arespread out across North – East India and Bangladesh. Hutchinson, thinks that they are undoubtedly of Arakanese origin and Risely assigns them to Mongoloid derivations. They are the original inhabitants of the Chittagong Hill Tracts (C H T) of Bangladesh. The DengawadiAredf ung history of the Arakan kings mentioned the Chakmas for the first time in about A D 1118. The real history of the Chakmas began with their first chief Bijayagiriwho made terms with the Arakanese Kings and settled down in their neighbourhood to the Southof . Afgan rulers ruled them for a considerable period of time up to 1666. When British occupied Chittagong, the Chakmas entered into a new stage of history. The Chakmas are believed to have descended from King Abhirath of the Sakya dynasty. According to another view, they have migrated from the east Bengal to Tripura, Mizoram, Meghalaya, ArunachalPradesh andAssam. Talukdar (19 88)refers tothe Chakmas as “Chawngma” who belong to the Tsak or Thek clan and are considered to be the progenitors of the Burmese race.The adjoining areas where the Chakmas live are the ChinProvince and Aracan Province of Burma () The Chakmas were the largest ethnic group to be displaced, the Chakmas were the largest indigenous ethnic group who subsequently came to be known as “Kaptai Oustees” or “Developemental Refugees”.

3. Various Causes of Migration of the Chakma People to India Large scale migration of people from one place to another is determined not by a single factor but by a combination of factors such as economic ,demographic, cultural , geographical , political , social , religious , social insecurity etc. Besides, pressure of population growth, employment facilities, educational facilities, political crisis and upheaval leading to suppression of the fundamental rights, torture and killing of people either by the government or dominant section of the local people, unfavourable topographical or climatic conditions, natural calamities etc compel the people to move from one place to another. On this basis we can generalize some of the important causes ofmigration of Chakmas in to Mizoram. Economic factor is one of the leading factors to migration of the Chakmas from erstwhile (present Bangladesh) to Mizoram. In search of a fertile land for Jhumming they entered into Mizoram. : Partition of India on the basis of religion, in the year 1947, was responsible for the pathetic condition of the Chakmas. They thought they will be a part of India but instead they were made a part of the Pakistan. The partition was actually a division of hearts. It was due to the atrisities of the Pakistan Government that the Chakmas were bound to migrate to India and become refugees. : After partition it was a tough time for the Chakmas to adjust with the Muslim infiltrators. Communal clashes caused massive migration of the Chakma people. Political factor: The Chakmas entered into Mizoram due to infringement of law and order in their homeland. They had to face torture. Muslims in Bangladesh had the single aim of reducing Chakma tribes to a minority in their own land. The Chakmas were unable to face the retaliatory forces of the Government and terror of Bengali Muslim settlers, thousands of Chakmas started migrating to Mizoram and Tripura for safety and security in the form of refugees. Social factor: Social restrictions and closed system of society which did not open much scope for the development of the Chakma people caused migration. Social conflict and discouragement of developmental schemes forced the Chakma people to migrate in search of peaceful settlement in other country. Insecurity: Because of the major threats, such political up heavals ,economic, social, ethnic crisis and religious persecution, the Chakmas are confronted with insecurity within their own land. Frequent havocs such as floods, landslides and violent storms also caused great problems to their life Demographic cause: Demography is one of the important factors of migration of Chakmas from the Chittagong hilly areas to neighbouring countries. Construction of KaptaiDam: The immediate cause of the migration of Chakma people from their homeland is construction of Kaptai Hydro Electric Dam in 1960 across the river Karnaphuli located in the scenic landscape of C H T. The dam flooded an area of some 655km2 , which included about 40 percent of best arable land most of which belonged to the Chakmas. The lake took away the homes of 18,000 families and displaced 100,000 tribal people, of which 70 percent were Chakmas. Many of the Chakmas did not receive any compensation at all. So many of the Chakma people migrated to India. So, construction of KaptaiDam was another important cause of migration of the Chakmas from Bangladesh to North Eastern part of India like Mizoram.

4. The Partition of India and flow of Chakma Refugees Following the partition of India in 1947, there had been a steady migration of Chakma refugees in to undivided Assam from the erstwhile east Pakistan in 1964, thousands of refugees arrived in India. Every day about 5000 to 6000 Hindus queued up in front of the Indian Embassy in to immigrate to India .But only 300 to 400 used to get the permit. According to a statement at the LokSabha by the then Deputy Foreign Minister about 1000 refugees from Mymensing, had been fired at by the East Pakistan rifles while they were crossing over to India. According to the Government of India estimates, by the middle of 1964, at least 1, 40 ,000 persons including the Chakmas and Hajongs, consisting of 2092 families had migrated to Assam. The then government of Assam expressed their inability to settle such a large number of migrants in the state and requested for their shifting to other places. This high rate of refugee influx caused resentment in different parts of North Eastern regions. Immediately the government of India decided that all refugees crossing Indo Pak border after 1.11.1964 should do so only with the permission of the Indian High Commissioner, Deputy Commissioner or Assistant High Commissioner, placed at Dacca and that India will not shoulder any responsibility, for rehabilitating the refugees who enter India without such permission.

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The Chakmas, are not the son of the soil, in Mizoram. They migrated to Mizoram (Lushai Hills), which was once a district of Assam,and was made into a Union Territory, in1972, it attained full Statehood on 20th February, 1987. The Chakmas who fled to India are refugees. A group of these refugees also settled down in Mizoram and subsequently were provided Indian citizenship. They are much sons of the soil as the Mizos are. There is much evidence also to prove that the Chakmas have been original inhabitants of western and southern parts of Mizoram bordering Bangladesh. The ancient trade centre Demagiri is still a Chakma dominated area and its surrounding areas were once part of the Chakma kingdom of the C H Ts in present day Bangladesh but were transferred under the Lushai Hills for administrative convenience by the British. (Provincial gazette of Indiavol.v page 413 states) The boundaries of C H Twere revised and a strip on the east including Demagiri was transferred to Lushai Hills in 1900. Lushai Hills later became Mizoram. Demagiri, a border town on the bank of river Karnaphuli, in Mizoram still retains the traces of the ancient history of the earlier settlers. The word Demagiri is an Indo Arakanese word, signifying abode of god Unfortunately, majority of the Mizos see the Chakmas as ‘aliens’ and ‘out siders’ (not belong to the state.)The Chakmas are a distinct tribe having nothing in similar to the Mizos., except their physical attributes. They are Buddhist in strong contrast to Christian dominated Mizoram. They have their own distinct language, culture, script, dress, norms and ethnicity.

4.1. The Chakmas are Minorities in Mizoram The Chakmas are a minority in Mizoram acutely impoverished disadvantaged, discriminated and marginalized in Mizoram. They had to face the tragic fate during partition of India in 1947. Mizoram is the third and most significant state in which the Chakmas resides and in which they are the Census recognised second largest community after the Lushais, the Chakmas are considered as migrants and Lushais are unhappy about the political autonomy granted to them in the form of an Autonomous District Council without the knowledge of the Lushais. The Chakmas have Autonomous District Council in Mizoram which is to decide their own future .C A D C in Mizoram is the sole seat of political administration of the whole world of the Chakmas. These includes the political powers and identities, employment opportunities, daily livelihood and cultivating habits etc There are now more than 1,00,000, Chakma people living in Mizoram both inside and out -side the C A D C. A section of Chakma people have self rule within Mizoram in the form of Chakma Autonomous District Council. (C A D C) constituted in 1972 under the sixth schedule of the constitution of India. The Chakma people residing in side the C A D C in Mizoram are also facing the same problems and misfortunate situations which other Chakmas are facing in the outside world. As the Government of C A D C, cannot provide any help or support to them and the Government ofMizoram, has little role over them in the form of developmental scheme and aiding funds as they consider the Chakmas in Mizoram, have already been showered with blessings from Jesus Christ with Autonomous District Council (power) Since the Chakmas are Buddhist in religion, which is why it imparts a negative impression in this Christian, dominated state. The Chakmas are living in apathy and there are no sympathetic facilities for the Chakma people except antipathy from Mizoram Government. Thus, the Chakma people fend for themselves as there is no other ways. Political power of the Chakmas out -side C A D C inMizoram, canbe said as nil, with unknown identity having voting right only. Most of the Chakmas, earn their livelihood, as daily wage earners. Their employment opportunities depend on their hard work and toils. Other Chakmas earn through Jhum cultivation. They are very much dedicated towards their profession whatever it may be. They were granted Indian citizenship allotting huge reserved land by the government of India for their settlement in different parts of Assam. The Chakmas migrated from C H T of Bangladesh due to the construction of the , in connection with the Hydro electric power project, over the river Karnaphuli. They are amongst the first victims of development- induced displacement.

5. Conclusion They lived a long refugee life which ruined their identity and rich tradition. They are affected by poverty, illiteracy, unemployment and political Identity crisis. The tribe is neither represented politically to the Parliament nor the State Assemblies except Mizoram where they have their own Chakma Autonomous District Council. (C A D C) In Mizoram, though they have their own Autonomous District Council but still they are not able to enjoy all the rights and facilities. Their identity and rich folk cultures, customs and traditions are on the verge of ruin in many parts of India. Their system of marriage, food habits, dress habits, social customs and rituals have changed to a great extent. They are in crisis. The Government of India, the Government of Mizoram, the Human rights commission, Various social organisations, Supreme Court, NGOs and various other organisations and Individuals should come forward to their help. In North East of India, they are still living a refugee life without any rights and facilities. They should live like citizens. We should come forward and help them in getting their voting rights and so that the refugee tag is deleted from their name. They should no longer be known as stateless people. Their Identity should be protected.

6. References i. Paul Debasish and Biswas N. B . Chakmas in India : An Ethnographic Approach to human studies , Abhijeet Publications , New Delhi ,2014. ii. Singh. K. S 1990 , Indian Society and Social Institutions. Kumar , C 2009, iii. ‘Migration and Refugee Issue Between India and Bangladesh’, Scholar,s Voice : A New iv. Way of Thinking, vol-1 ,No-1 , January , Centre for Refugee studies , Research and development , New elhi ,p.64. Viewed 2 , December 1012.<http://www.ecdsrd. Org >Ajanta Prakashan , New Delhi .

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v. Talukdar .S.P. , The Chakmas life and struggle , Gyan Publishing House .1988. vi. Prasad. C 1997 , “Victims of Partition , Chakma and Hajong Refugees of Arunachal vii. Pradesh” “ Think India Quarterly” Vol -9 , No- 4 , December-4

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