Identity and Violence In India’s North East Towards a New Paradigm Sanjib Goswami Institute for Social Research Swinburne University of Technology Australia Thesis submitted in fulfilment of the requirements for the Degree of Doctor of Philosophy 2016 Ethics Clearance for this SUHREC Project 2013/111 is enclosed Abstract This thesis focuses on contemporary ethnic and social conflict in India’s North East. It concentrates on the consequences of indirect rule colonialism and emphasises the ways in which colonial constructions of ‘native’ and ‘non-native’ identity still inform social and ethnic strife. This thesis’ first part focuses on history and historiography and outlines the ways in which indirect rule colonialism was implemented in colonial Assam after a shift away from an emphasis on Britain’s ‘civilizing mission’ targeting indigenous elites. A homogenising project was then replaced by one focusing on the management of colonial populations that were perceived as inherently distinct from each other. Indirect rule drew the boundaries separating different colonised constituencies. These boundaries proved resilient and this thesis outlines the ways in which indirect rule was later incorporated into the constitution and political practice of postcolonial India. Eventually, the governmental paradigm associated with indirect rule gave rise to a differentiated citizenship, a dual administration, and a triangular system of social relations comprising ‘indigenous’ groups, non-indigenous Assamese, and ‘migrants’. Using settler colonial studies as an interpretative paradigm, and a number of semi-structured interviews with community spokespersons, this thesis’ second part focuses on the ways in which different constituencies in India’s North East perceive ethnic identity, ongoing violence, ‘homeland’, and construct different narratives pertaining to social and ethnic conflict. Recurring unrest in India’s North East is thus contextualised in its historical dimension. Scholarly discourse has traditionally analysed these conflicts by focusing on a number of binaries: colonial / postcolonial, development / underdevelopment, civilised / uncivilised. Emphasising a ii triangular system of relationships, this thesis presents an alternative interpretation of the ongoing social and ethnic conflict. iii Declaration: This is to certify that (i) this thesis comprises only my original work towards the PhD, (ii) due acknowledgement has been made in the text to all other material used, (iii) the thesis is less than 100,000 words in length, exclusive of tables, maps, bibliographies and appendices. (Sanjib Goswami) iv This thesis is dedicated to the countless victims of violence in North East India Their sacrifices and the voices of the loved ones they left behind form the core inspiration for this thesis v Contents Acknowledgements x Abbreviations xiii Glossary of Indian Terms xiv 1. Introduction 1 1.1 Overview of the Literature on North East India 6 1.2 Research Focus 21 1.2.1 Indirect Rule Colonialism 21 1.2.2 Settler Colonialism 25 1.2.3 Identity Formation 30 1.2.4 Violence 33 1.3 Research Questions 37 1.4 Research Approach and Methods 38 1.5 Limitations of the Research 47 1.6 Thesis Structure 48 Part A 2. The Constitution of Assam under Colonial Rule 52 2.1 1857 and the Development of Indirect Rule Colonialism 56 2.2 The Consequences of Indirect Rule in Assam 59 vi 2.3 Sites of Indirect Rule Colonialism 62 2.3.1 The Legal Framework 63 2.3.2 The Census in Assam during Colonial Times 67 2.3.3 Writing New Histories: Defining the “Assamese” 73 2.4 Indirect Rule Colonialism in Assam 79 2.4.1 A Divided Polity 79 2.4.2 A Religiously Divided Social Landscape 85 2.4.3 The Partition of Bengal 88 2.5. The Struggle for Independence and the Government of India Act, 1935 91 3. Breaks in Social Cohesion in Postcolonial Assam 98 3.1 The Reproduction of Indirect Rule in Postcolonial Assam 102 3.1.1 The Sixth Schedule 103 3.1.2 Census, Law and History 105 3.2 The Consequences of the Continuation of Colonial Policies 110 3.2.1 Indigenous Self-Determination Movements 110 3.2.2 The Assam Agitation, 1979-1985 113 3.2.3 The “Migration” Question 119 3.2.4 Regional Politics in Assam 130 3.2.5 Contemporary Violence and Terrorism 134 vii Part B 4. The Struggles of the Indigenous Peoples of India’s North East 145 4.1 On Violence 156 4.2 On Identity 165 4.3 On Non-Indigenous Peoples 172 4.4 On “Homelands” 177 4.5 Discussion 181 5. The Question of Assamese Hegemony in Assam 185 5.1 On Violence 191 5.2 On Identity 198 5.3 On Indigenous Peoples and on Migrants 203 5.4 On “Homelands” 210 5.5 Discussion 217 6: Being Migrant in India’s North East 221 6.1 On Violence 229 6.2 On Identity 233 6.3 On Indigenous Peoples and on the Assamese 237 6.4 On “Homelands” 241 6.5 Discussion 245 viii 7. Conclusion 248 Appendices 256 Bibliography 263 ix Acknowledgements This thesis has been possible due to the support of many individuals and organisations. I would like to first of all gratefully acknowledge the encouragement, assistance, and guidance provided by my supervisors and the Swinburne University of Technology. A/Prof Lorenzo Veracini, my principal supervisor, has painstakingly guided me all throughout the research journey, checking my writing, modifications, and mistakes. He has been always there to guide and put me on track when I floundered at various stages of the project. Without his encouragement and support, I would not have been able to complete this thesis. I also acknowledge the guidance provided by my two co- supervisors, A/Prof Ellie Rennie and Dr. Christine Agius. Prof Rennie has always encouraged me in many issues beyond my research and I have learnt a great deal from Dr. Agius who encouraged me to be involved in the Identity Research Network. This thesis has primarily been possible through the participation and cooperation of numerous individuals and organisations in India. First and foremost, the spokespersons and the civil society groups that welcomed me in their homes and their villages, gave their valuable time to participate in the study and answered my irritating and often uncomfortable questions. They not only tolerated my questions but also entertained me with their food and their warmth. While the primary spokespersons are named in the thesis, it is not possible to name each and every one of the people I met. Never the less, they remain the backbone of this study. The support of other individuals in North East India, especially in Assam, also cannot be forgotten. Dr. Alaka Sarma, Dean at the University of Science and Technology, x Meghalaya supported me during my visits to North East India and has now involved me in some of the activities on conflict analysis in her university. I would also especially like to mention my friends Ms. Meenakshi Goswami who took time off from her work and provided me with her personal car during my field visits and Mr. Bhabesh Chakravarty who often accompanied me on my field trips. I liberally used social media to discuss issues related to my thesis and many of my friends interacted positively on these platforms. Their willingness to discuss, cooperate and advise me has made this research possible. All the institutions I visited during my field trips welcomed me with warm hospitality and I have nothing but thanks to offer them. Special mention must be made of Mr. Bhaba Nath of Marigaon who helped me make contact with several people of the indigenous Tiwa community; of Mr. Sanjib Nath who likewise helped me in getting in touch with some people in Sonitpur; of Mr. Sailen Bhagawati who accompanied me to several sites of violence in interior Nalbari villages; and of Mr. Rajen Gohain who has been encouraging me in this research for many years. Last but not the least, I would like to thank the late Prof George Collins, who as Deputy Vice-Chancellor of Swinburne University sanctioned me a scholarship. For fieldwork and travel to India, I am grateful to Prof Veracini who initially assisted me with his project funds. Later, I also received financial assistance from the University to go to a conference to Assam University and to finalise my fieldwork. I also want to take this opportunity to thank Dr Salvatore Ramatte, Cardio-Surgeon, who operated on me in 2011 in the midst of my research journey; the medical team at Western Hospital, Melbourne; Dr B K Tee who has been my regular medical consultant; Dr James xi LaNauze my Ophthalmologist who has been taking care of my eyesight; Dr Sonia Zammit, Counsellor and several others of my medical support teams who took good care of my medical complications in the last few years. I am also thankful to my wife Ruma and daughter Rima for providing me continuous encouragement and motivation to stay on track and complete this thesis. Lastly, I am thankful to my mother and my brother Ranjit who has been a constant source of inspiration for me. I remain indebted to all of them. xii Abbreviations AASU All Assam Students Union AGP Asom Gana Parishad APCC Assam Pradesh Congress Committee ASS Assam Sahitya Sabha ATTSA Assam Tea Tribes Students Association BJP Bharatiya Janata Party BLT Bodoland Liberation Tigers BTAD Bodoland Territorial Autonomous Districts DONER Development of North Eastern Region IUML Indian Union Muslim League MOBC More Other Backward Castes NDFB National Democratic Front of Bodoland NSCN National Socialist Council of Nagaland OBC Other Backward Class SC Scheduled Castes ST Scheduled Tribes ULFA United Liberation Front of Assam UPDS United Peoples Democratic Struggle xiii Glossary of Indian