A historical study of the violoncello

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Authors Kalman, Tibor, 1913-

Publisher The University of Arizona.

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Link to Item http://hdl.handle.net/10150/319736 .A HISTORICAL STUDY O F .THE VIOLOHCELLO

■ ■ ■ . , . Tibby KaIrian- ■ ■■■■>■;■ - • - .

A Thesis Submitted to "bbe Faculty

. DEPARTMENT OP MUSIC ;

: . , ’ . ’ • COLLEGE OF FINE' a RTS

In Partial Fulfillment of the Requireraents . ' For the Degree of ■' :: MASTER OF ARTS - - ' ' In the G-raduate College ■ UNIVERSITY OF ARIZQim A : -E;

1959

... STATEMENT BY AUTHOR

Tills thesis has been submitted in partial ftilfill? ment of requirements for an advanced degree at the University of Arizoha and is:: deposited' irivtiiev University Library to be' ' made available, to borrowers under rules of the Library» . , v ;.v'-y'''.£|risf'; quotations from this thesis are .allowables ■ without special.p@rmissions prbtlded that accurate acknowl= edgement of source is madeo Requests for permission for ex­ tended quotation from or reproduction of this manuscript in : whole‘ or in part may be granted by the Head of the Major De­ partment or the Dean of the Graduate College when'in their ; judgment the proposed Use of the. material is in the interests of scholarship^-: In all other instances'^1 however, . permission ;: musf‘ be pbfained:fhom' the 'authordh-'-h . i':,; \ :

h:Sl(HEDi;i:;

APPROVAL BY THESIS - DIRECTOR

. This thesis has been approved on the date shown below:' - v - . ;:y- y'- I-' 'y,G;v-v' :v:;-.-y-y- - v:y - yy.-.-.; y^ ..

J o Ro Anthoiiy Pro fessor ofhMusi c ACKN OlliEDGEMEN TS

The author wishes to.express his grateful appreei" : ation to Dr® 0® M® Harts ell and Dr® G-® W®. Lofczenhiser of the . School of Music who helped to lay the foundation for this ■'work® ;; ; - ' ^ . /-■ \ V,;-. / v. :: '■ / He^ also feels especially indebted to Professor J® R® Anthony, the thesis directora. who gave so generously .bf :.:his fline® His many suggestions and constant guidance in the development of this thesis, made this work possible ® He is grateful to Professor Anthony for helping him oyer come his linguistic difficulties® The author would also like to add that through the hospitality of Mrs ® Hubert H® d ?Autremont during the past two years, it was pbssibie to study at the University of Arizona and complete this thesis®

iil TABLE OF COfTENTS c h a p t e r

IKTRODTJCTIOM ; BtSlt -of t L. Q Ob 3:, ©Tl3. O o O OOOOOOOOOQOOOOOOO 1 Justification of the Problem^», 0*0 0 0 o «*« © o *»» 1 Limitation of the Pnoblextc © 0-0,00 o o 0 0 0 © 0 0 © © © © © 2 ' PneTieM of■the Organization of the Thesis © © © 2 II, THE ORIGIH OP THE BOWED INSTRUMENTS . The Bowed Instrument in Asia© © © © © © ,© © © © © © © © © © The' Bowed Instrument in Europe ©,© © © © © © © © © © © © © I III, THE IMMEDIATE PREDECESSORS OF THE VIOLOIOELLO The Development of Instrumental Music © ©©©©©© 20 The Viols © ©oooo ooo© © o'6 0 0 © © ©■© ©©©oo-oo © © © © © © © © © 21 The , V10 la da Camb a © © © © © © © © © © .© © © © © © © © © © © © © © © © 25 IV. THE DISCOVERT AID DEVELOPMEHT OF THE VIOLOI- CELLO - ' ' ' ' ... Circumstances^ pertinent to the Discovery of tihe V1 oloncello © © © © © o © © © o © © © © © © ©■ © © © © © © © © © © Instrument^zsahers © © © © © © © © © © © © © © © © © © .© © © © © © © © © . Violoncellists and Composers in Italy<000 -0 000 61 Violonceilists and Composers in France,U O 4D OOO 68 Violoncellists and Composers in Germany© 73

V. :C0HCLTJS10H O O o o o o o o o o o o o o 000 o. o o o o o o o o o 0000 0 0 OOO 83 APPEIDIX . V A©An Annotation of Sources in English© © ^ © © © © © © Bolllustratio&i © © © © © © ©00 ,0 0000 o o o o 0 0 OOO o 0 0 O O OOO u CoMusical Examples © © © ©OOOOOOOOOQOOOOOOO 0000 000 94 BIBDIOGmPEY : jfk o B 00lC3 o o o oo-oooo. do o o .0; o 0 o o O o o d o 00 ■&. 000 00 0 o o O

B.O !Ml3LSX0 0000 O o ' o o o o o o O 0 o o o o p o 0 0 o 0. 0 o 0 o 0 0 000 00

iv GH4,F$ER lo

INTBOSUeflOI ' '

Statement, of the Problem* '

\ . The purpose ©f this study is te fcrae® the.develops ■meat of the violoh©©!!© from its embryonic stage in ancient times and its gradual.Improvement in the Middle Ages through 1 its inception in the 16 th century 'to its final fora in the lifeh'centuryo The contribution of famous violoncello makers as well as the perfection of the bow mill be thoroughly dis=- emssedo '

Justification ©f the Probleiio

Whenever the amsie lover and the professional musician wish to obtain more complete information about the violoncello3 they are ■often faced with the problem ©f find” ing adequate sourceso Accurate sources concerning the historical development of the instrument are. rather limited and not commensurate with the importance of the violoncello as a sole and ensemble instrument» There are many reasons why the older sources in some instances do not satisfy t©« 1 ' :■ ' • .. ' ; day8 s readero Among these are the progress in mmsicel@gl»

Jo - See Appsndix Aofor a further discussion ©f sources ' 2

eal techniques which.s at their bestP demand scientific scruti^

The scope of the study is limited to the history of those precursors ef the violoncello.that had a direct effect on its development 0 The change and influence ©f musical forms and tastesthe development of notation^ and the effect of so©i©^eeonomie factors will he considered only t© the d®= gr@@ to which they contributed to the development of the la« strumento Only those composers who introduced and extended

the violoncello technique will be eoasid®r®40 Therefore£, al^ though the reader will find mention of Beecher ini p there will be a© detailed discussion of Saydn and Mosarto

4s a point of departure9 an attempt'will be mad® to determine in which nation the first b©w@d=imstmments origin™

'atedo 4 study of the dispersion and gradual development ©f the primitive bow®d=lm#trumemt will followo Speeial attention will be given t© those decisive forces which interpenetrated Western world culture during the late Middle .Ages and strong- ly effected the development of bewed-instramentso With the mew ifieas earn© new masleal forms and new Instruments» Baring the fifteenth ©entmr^r different .types of viols, were ©reated, •

. representimg. the ranges of the toman voiee0 It is one pmr= pose of this study to prove that the discovery of the vi©lom<= cell© was se well prepared that it was not a fortuitous ae<= - el dent of w a l e history hat rather a reasonable eonseqmemoe o, The change of ausieal style in the'late'sixteenth eemtmry that resmlted in the @0 =0ailed Baroqwe periods with '. its .emphasis on vocal displays . demanded instrmBents. that . .

eralated the qmality .of the human voice0 The. newly discovered. Instruments of the violin family,-,, the violoncello and violin '

among others9 represented this quality0 ■ Baring this;period the, violoncello received Its. final fora from the hands of the great Italian makers => About the time of the appearance ©f the perfected form of the violoncellog there appeared the first soloists who revealed the potential qualities ©f the violoncello as;a sol© instrumento ' ^ CH&PfER H o

THE:0R1<1I1 OF B©WED IlSfRWMElfS .

The Bowed Instgiiaentg im Asiao

Regarding, the history of honed instruments p It is natural to turn for initial information to. the Greeks and. Romans whose oiviliaation was the basis of Western eulture0 We have documentary evidence, of the existence, of their hlgh=- ly developed musical system as well as popular, instruments P. but there is no evidence of the existence of any bowed in» ' 1 : . ; - ' * ■' ; ■ ' ; ■ ' • ■■■.-■ ' ■. ' ■ , strumen10 lor do Egyptian ©r Chaldean records show any' existence of bowed- instruments 0.2 ■■

The Indian ravanastren Hbbo.Bllo Turning towards the Easts a primitive instrument called the ravamaatreB is

■ found in India o As regards the ravanas tr on 9 C-rov@" s Diction ary makes the following statements E$It is known that In India -am instrument called the ravanastron has been in us© during the whole of the Christian/era and for a thousand or : " ; v';"-/:'' ' ./: ' ' : ' 1 '.0 " ■■■.'■ ' ' : ' ' more years before ita , At the present time this instrument

** ’ —TT Carl Engels Researches into the Early History of the Violin Family (Londonslovellos Ewer & Go»P 1853) pol2 2o Paul Stoevingp The Story of the Violin (London The Walter Scott Publishing Coc,.9 L-tdoa nodTT”Pfiddle~bow is mentioned in Sanskrit eharacters which eanhot be less than two thousand years old, we must believe implicitly^ 4nd then agaihs we are told that the description of India8s musical instruments .found in Sanskrit .treatises, reveal that the forms pf the instrU=. ments there mentioned, have scarcely altered, dur^ ing the last thousand years» Here is another point An favour of the ravanastron9 s Indian ori- , gino'^ fhis is a controversial point in the history of the bowed Instrumentso Curt Sachs denies the Indian origin of the ravanastron in stating, t?ln ancient India, as in Egypt, there, is no Instrument for which we. can trace a native ©ri“ / ■ ginoli On the other hand, Carl Engel supports if with .the

remark: n o . t 0 it is not improbable that the fiddle-bow originated in India and thence came to us through Persia and J ' ' ' ' ' . ' ' ■ ' '' ' ", " '' ' ; 'v ' ' ' - A.rabiaolil Paul Stoeving agrees with Carl Engel in this re- gardo Aeeofding to Paul Stoeving, tradition in Eastern countries, especially in India, acts as a factor in keeping alive such an instrument as the ravanastron in its original

■primitive identity0 Because of the lack of class different!-

. Ij-o” Carl Engel, opo cit0, po 10 5o Olga Racster, Chats on Violoncellos (Philadel- phiasJo B e Edppineott Company, 1907% pp. 20-21 6 o Curt Sachs, History of Musical Instruments (Hew YbrksWo Wo Horton and Coc, Inco 194-0) P° 161 7 = Carl Engel, opt, cite, po 12 : at ion' in-' the use of musical instruments 9 the musle was.never confined to one class o - The bowed instrument is an instrument of the dreamers, -the. mystic^ :the. poet9 and the'Buddhist monkg who express the highly sensitive and naturally poetical dis= ; ' a position of the. peopl®Q - — ■ ‘ ‘ y . \ The ravanastron is an extremely primitive invention^ and .as a musical instrument would hardly deserve any atten» tion except for the existence, of a bowe Its primitive .quali"

ties ineited F o . Fetis to the following conclusion2. • ■ “If we would trace a how«instrument to its souries we must assume the most simple form in which it could appears, and. such as: required mo ' assistance from ah art brought to perfection* Q Such a form we shall find in the Havanastron..» The primitive: gtringed instruments played .with, a ■ - bow had a low pitch because they were, not of a sufficiently strong construction to bear the pressure of a high pitched ", . , stringo Another significant fact for giving the deeper in= strument precedence, is. to be found, in the tuning of India*#

fiddle^ the sarange9 whose highest string does not exceed -middl© Jga , is. held vertically ' similar to the violom» 1 0 ' • ' : - ■1 - / celloo ■ .- , India was involved in many wars« Assyrian^ Per™ , siamsg and Greeks conquered her and certainly these nations had kn owl edge of her: bowed Instruments g yet for some reason ■,

, ' .: ticT” Paul Stoevingg op* eitog p» 11 .. . . . 9o , F® Jo' FetiSg lotiee of Anthony Stradivari (itendongWilliam Reeves» 185 Fleet Street, E »0»9 ib6h) ppl2-3 1 0 o 0 o'..Hacster, opo cito, po 30 ■ they did net absorb these instrw&emts and aetmalXy rejected them* As Stoeving explains -it^ 8iIt is first and, last- th© idiosyncrasies & £ a people, amrtnred by emstom and tradition^ which, will give the direction to its musical activities

The Arabian Rabab I'AvVoBZ) o , The ravanastron with other primitive bowed«=instrdments began their dissemination . and eveatually foimd their way through Persia and 'Arabia In­ to Southwestern Europe■ When the 4habs conquered .Persia , in the seventh century^ they accepted the.Persian smsioal instruments and also those of India and Egypt <> &t this time they possessed fourteen -different types of string instruments played with the bow0 At present only two exists the Persian kemangeh a* gouse and the Arabian rabab9: which was possibly

- ... 13 derived from the Indian ravanastron through the kemangeh. If we compare the Arabian- rabab with' the ravan&° ' strong the affinity is obvious q The rabab is an improved form of the ravanastroni the meek-is shortened and more at­ tention is given to the sound equipment as Eaoster states

- The crwth i(lppo5 3) is not considered as.a prede­ cessor of the bowed,-instrumentss yet it is appropriate to . -mention ito Some authorities such as Sandys and Forsters and Straeten include it among the forerunners -qf the violin

11a P. Stoevingg ©p. citeg P® 17 - : -lao:. ■ibidog:.po. .2h . . ' ; ' 13= Oo Eaesterp bp; ©it<,; pp0 31-32 ': . Ih* .lbido-g:p-.::303/<:i ■ , 8

familyc. Sandys and Forster asserts-: "It was found after a time (and after the in- - production of the bow) that the hand was embar­ rassed In its. movements by the shape of the In- .. strument, as the bow must necessarily have struck several strings together» To obtain greater facility/ the external parts surrounding the neck which had been introduced, were removeds and the shape became gradually something like the bass- viol, and played In the same way, between the legs, or on the'kneeo^h ; Straeten maintains that the erwth possesses the three essential parts of the violin: a back and a belly held together by the ribso- 16 As a consequence of this conviction, Straeten rejects the rebec and gigue as being predecessors of the violin family because of their pear-shaped body that is covered by a flat sound-board and asserts, "They had, there­ fore, no separate ribs like th e :erwth, the fiedel and its descendants, and cannot be enumerated among the ancestors of 17 the violin*"• , Engel states that the erwth was not originally played with a bow, but its strings were twanged* Hesupports this statement by the fact that neither the shallowness of the bridge nor the. shape of the body that lacked incurva­ tures were constructed to apply the bow to a single string© The remarkable resemblance suggests that the -old erwth was the Imported oriental lyre»^

"==r==' 15* Sandys and Forster, ’ Historyof the Violin (London:John Russell Smith, 1861}.) p* 22 l6 o E = SoJo van der Straeten, opo-eito, p 0 3 . . 17°- Ibldo.,.. p* j/ ; : l8 0 Go Engel, op* cite, p© 2? 9

This fclieory is now generally aeeepted and Grove8 s . Dictionary states that on the oldest illustration the instru­ ment has no fingerboard and there is no evidence that it was bowed before the close of the twelfth century^ when the bow ' '■19 20 ■ of the rebab was adopted to the erwtho The crwth is now regarded as a type of lyre^to which the bow* as an effective tool of music making was employed and as Baester states s

o effectually" east but " " of " ■'the fiddle family8 s ances = 2:2 try » o8i

The Bowed Instruments in

The Rebec k)^ In the eightb. century> the Arabs enlarged their dominions still further by the conquest of Spain» Soon after thiss bowed instruments appeared for the first time in the Iberian Peninsula and Southern Europe 0 Musicologists have concluded from this that the fiddle-bow ■v ' ' ' ' . ' ' - 23 came to Europe from its Eastern home on the wings of war0 The oldest representation of such a transplanted instrument is found in a manuscript (Utrecht Psalter) dating from the 2k 25 beginning of the ninth centuryo If we compare it with

19 o Grove11 s Dictionary, The Music and Musicians (LondonsMaemillah & Go<,, Ltd0, 1955T ”Vo IIs po 550 / 20o C0 Engels Opo citok P*. 32 21 o G o Sachs 9 History of Musical Instruments;:. (Hew York:Wo Wo Horton & Go»s Inc») p 0 265 22o 0o Racster, op0 clto,■p 0 kk 23 o Po Stoevings op o cito® p® 30 2ko Ibido® p0 32 V: /' 25o Sandys and Forster, opo eito, p 0 5l 10 the Arabian rababg. there is some evidence for a common origins although Martin G-erbert in his work: De Cantu et Musica Sacra

(pubo 1774) called it lira0 From the first extant record of the rabab or rebae and through the Middle Ages the bow ap­ pears as a part of the instruments During the following centuries9 the Asiatic fiedel gradually extended through the whole of Europe9 although it soon underwent an essential structural transformation <> The method of holding the instrument 9 however9 remained that shown in the Utrecht Psalterj the performer held it in front . ■ ' ■ ' ; ' A-.' . '■ ' " 26 ■ ■ 'v ' ■ < of hims supporting it on his knee or thighs

The Vielle (AnP.«»B 5) ° During the 10th century there appeared another smaller type of ins trument s called the vielleo This was not held in front of the body but sup­ ported on the shouldero It was pear-shaped and the body was carved out of a single piece of wood in the form of a bowlo It had four strings which were fastened to the tail piece of the later violoncelloso There were two round sound holes but no appearance of bridge or fingerboard0 The tuning pegs were vertical to the top similar to larger instru- memts.27: Towards the end of the eleventh eenturys another kind of bowed-instrument appears on a bas-relief at the Ab-

^ 26o Karl Delringer9 Musical Instruments (lew York: Oxford University Press 9 1945 27= Sandys and Forster9 opo Cit 0 s ppo 5l“52 11

2 8 bey of St o Georges de Bosehervllle in Noraandyo 6 ) There is no doubt that this is the predecessor of the viol beeause its elliptical body eoBsists of a back and a belly connected by sideCj,'the so^ealled ribs0 It had curvatures at the sides which made it easier to hold between the knees, ifike the rebec it sometimes had the oriental shape of the sound=holes==a G or a half-mooh--which indicated a possible

Eastern origin9 or at least a temporary Oriental influence0 The fact that there are no records of the instrument prior to the eleventh century does not necessarily Indicate that it did not exist in Europe long before that time» In Germ­ any this new instrument was called the.fiedel or vedelo. From the eleventh century on, both kinds of bowed=instru­ ment ss the fiedel (vielle) and the rebec, appeared in the i - pQ company; of wandering musician, the minstrelc 7 .

The Improvement of Vlelles. In the twelfth century the small vielle which was held on the shoulder

adopted the division of body and neck0 During the same period the large type— held in front of the body— was nar­ rowed at the waist in order to make it possible to perform on each string independentlyo Before these inward curva­ tures were introduced, the rounded sides of the instrument interferred with the execution, and checked the free

Paul Stoeving, opa eito, ppQ 2 9 o ibido, !'p^'39”4iC! - : 12 action of the bowo It struck several strings together and re­ sulted in a monotonous droning sound effect» The smaller$, shouldered type vielles which assumed the leadership In the twelfth and thirteenth eentures9 re™ placed the primitive vaulted body c 0 1300 by a trim sounding box which had three sides similar to the larger type0 This new sound arrangement had the advantage of greater lightnesss handiness» and most important—=a superior tone to the prev­ ious type 0 jk further important improvement in the small vielie was the adoption of the incurved Waisty which was previously used by the larger types o:- This essential develop­ ment was initiated in the fourteenth century and became the ' ■ : ' 29 ' ' ■ ■.'■■ ■■■ rule during the fifteenth centuryo , ; Another essential improvement was the manner of fastening the upper ends of the strings o The vielie through­ out the Middle Ages generally was furnished with five pegs „ which were perpendicular to the tableo Occasionally^ how- ever9 the pegs were parallel to the table--similar to our modern violoncellos This was the result of the influence of the rebeco In this case the peg-box was usually slightly fecurvedo The advantages of this arrangement were the greater resistance to the pull of the stringss and the in­ creased. handiness of the pegs 0 The frets were, introduced to guide the fingers»

' 29 o Ko Geiringeri op o eit 0 13

- The Manned of Playing the Viols« . Siramltaneotislj with the change of position in the playing of the small vielle (the shouldering of the instrument like the modern violin) the how-holding was also changedo Previously the how was held with the palm upwards the thumb was above and the fingers beneath» But in Europe ^almost from the begin­ ning, this oriental type of. position was changed and when the instrument was shouldered the bow was held with the palm downward^ the fingers above and the thumb belowo Curt Sachs gives an interesting explanation and a scientific supporting opinion discussing this sudden changes think it is not possible to explain this rather sudden change by a different way of . fingeringo I rather believe that it was con­ nected with a general contrast between doing work in the two ' civilizationso In a paper on 8Rotary Motion8 Ho To Horovitz makes the follow­ ing important statements 8In certain actionss as sawing, planing, filing, the power stroke . ' in Europe is pushing that is, away from the body, while the return stroke is pulling= The reverse is true in most regions of &sia; the power stroke is pulling, toward the body, and the returning.stroke is pushing, away from the . . . bodyo"30 ' - • 1 . , 21 The Popularity and Limitations of the Rebec0 As mentioned before, the primitive rebecs or gigues were found in the Southwest of Europe from the beginning of the ninth centuryo Owing to its commodious size, and eonse-

30o Co Sachs, History of Musical Instruments (Hew York:Wo Wo Horton & Coo, Inc„, 19^0) po 277 ■ . ' ' . . -31b Thesis;, T>i> 9 ; qtaent latilltyp' t M s little instrument was rapidly diffused throughout Eurape o It was the favourite instrument of the rainstrelo In the Middle Ages the players were already be­ ginning to hold the instrument not in front of the bodys but

on the shoulder6 But in this position the straight peg-box attaehed to the neck at a right angle was In the wayp and : was superseded by the mandola slightly reflexed' peg=box0 The rebec with its three or four strings clung obstinately to the unity of the neck and body, thus making any technical improteraent impossible o ' $tThe rebec gradually deteriorated until, in the seventeenth century, it was reduced to a small, narrow kit or pochette to be carried in; the flap pockets of dancing, masterSo,s^ ■ " ■ ' '

: \ , Tromba marina Tlo There is to be found . among the -Asiatic instruments a mongrel species of bass in­ strument played with a bow0 This is the tromba marina or trumraelseheit In German o The trdmba marina was from three to seyen feet in height: and had three or four slender boards which tapered toward the t©p0^ The longest string was taken over a shoeshaped unsymetrieal bridge with two dissimilar legs o One was a short, vertical supporting leg leading the vibrations to the souad^boardj the other was a free leg, which ran diagonally to the sound-board, druming

. :3 2 o . ' G o Sachs, op0 eitp0 278 ^ 33° Ko Geiringer, op.b. cito, 'pa 73 15 tin it and producing a grating somidU ' The. method of holding the manina was 'as curious as its. eonstruetiono The. upper end of the smaller type was pressed to the performer8 s chest and the lower end was free * The bow was drawn not under bmt above the player8 s left hands The large type of instrument was plabed on the ground before the standing player and similar to the small tromba marina his right bowing hand was held above the left one <, The fingOrs of,the left hand did not stop but only slightly touehed the strings in order to produce artificial nodes« In this way harmonics were pro due ed which gave the instrument a similar series of overtones to those produced on a trumpet0 This fact and perhaps the unusual rattling effeet resulted in its curious name which involved a comparison with the truffi-

. • « > : kcnording to 0. Racster the tromba marina ful­ filled an important task in the creation and. development of low-pitched instrument9 and' she states the-following as i ts• origin: ; ' ; " : ' -y. ' ' nIn ancient times it was nothing more nor less than the monochorda an .instrumentj, as we . knowj, . invented by Pythagoras of Samos-p for measuring musical souhdsg Bo Go 5 3 0 o Ifhen he departed this life9 this learned G-reek ex- . : horted his disciples to “strike the monochord“ and thereby rather inform their understandings than trust to their ears In the measurement of z intervalso "• His followers and pupils not only . - hearkened5, but performed^ and thus from century

Ito ;G©iringer:s op o c l t o 9 p 0 73 16

to century the monochord was preserved* It acted as a bass to the rebecs of. the Middle Ages; it replaced the horn in the German con= vents j it originated the thumb movementg and eventually suggested the big "Geiges*8 which came into vogue in Germany in the first half of the 16th centuryol*35

The Contribution of the Minstrels to the Develop^ ment of Viols? Those vital wandering poets and musicians of the Middle Agesg the Qoliards and later the minstrels ^col- leetedg carried, played and sang-the secular songs of the period and thus were active in the dissemination of this musico The contribution of Goliardsis expressed by Helen Waddell: . : ' " , ,sWhatever the gollard life was s the song;s that were his repertoire would challenge most Elizabethan or 17th century anthologies either for melody or for romantic passion^ and for comedy£, go far beyond them *> * « * They kept the imagination of Europe alivei held wn= touched by their rags and poverty and squalor the beauty that made beautiful old r h y m e * **36 However$, it was the fiddler who created a demand for instruments which resulted in some improvements in them* The fiddler of the eleventh and twelfth centuries was the father to the later bow@d~instruments s among them the modern violoncello* In the thirteenth and fourteenth centuries the . better fiddlers gradually abandoned their wayfaring methods of life because they found **a precarious life on the ins©~

35°^ 0° Racsterj. op* cItos> pp* 63-6%. 36*' Helen Waddell s The Wandering Scolars (Hew XorksHenry Holt and Gompany9. 1926) pp* 208; 238 ”” . 17

cmre poads less and less to their tastej, and for the most plausible of reasons sey^ife, the towns and settled down" as Stoewing remarksHe praetieed more diligently| his ■ : technique in consequence improved and with this his desire

for a better instrument made itself felt 0 This fact in= fluenced the instrument maker to create better instruments, \ among them better viols 0

Tuningo During the Middle Ages there were doubt= less ho hard rules, for tuningc . The minstrel adapted the pitch of his instrument according to whim or the compass of his yoiceo Even Martin Agricola in his famotis book (16th

Co)."Muslca Instrumentalis Deudsch^ instructs the executant . the following ways "Draw up your fifth string as high as you may that it may not be broken when on it to play.o" This confusing method was practlced evem in the seventeenth 1 eentury<,:^':' ■ - -

The Gontribution of the "Ars Nova" to the Develop­ ment of Independent Instrumental. Musie o "Ars. nova" was the name given to early .fourteenth century music in contrast to MArs antique"s the gothic motet" style of the previous cen­

tury 0 It added the principle of duple time to the already existing triple time and in breaking the tyranny of the rhytmic modes it brought about considerable refinement in

37 o Paul Stoeving, op0 cito9 Po £ ! 380 0» Eaesterg op<> eitoS. Po 06 18 masieal notation = Pierre De La Croix of iiaiens made an at­ tempt to establish a new system of notation by the invention of smaller note values around 13 0 0 o This evolved into a con­ sistent and applicable system with the theorbtieal works of Philipp de Vltrio^^ Alfred Einstein maintainss ■ “o '.o o o the development of an abstract theory of time-measurementp which finally freed polyphony from dependehce bn a text j, and hence on the singing voice5 and gave it wings of its own® With the !Ars nova5 arrived the possibil­ ity of an independent polyphonic instrumental . art 0 e8l}.0 There is some evidence of a slowly growing Interest in employment of instruments 0 The reader is referred to an early instrumental motet in ^historical Anthology of Music and to another motet in 6iGes chi elite der MusS-k in Beisplie- len58^ written for three instruments during the .thirteenth centuryo ■ ' However in general the Instrumental music of the •13th> lij.th and 15th centuries failed to keep pace with vocal polyphony o A glance at the 13 th century 1 st ample in the Parrish 8e Ohl anthology^ or even the lljth century Italian

.. 39o Oliver Strunks Source Readings in Music His­ tory (Hew YorksWo Wo Horton & Go0 9 Inc o, 195OTpp0168 ; 173 %.0o Alfred Einsteins A Short History of .Music , (Hew YorksAlfred Ao IDaopf s 19lj.7) P » 39 ' , ij-lo Archibald T 0 Davidson & Willi Apels Histori­ cal Anthology of Music (CambridgesHarvard University Press9 W 9 ) Po 3R • lj.2 o Arnold Scheringj, Oesehichte der Muslk in Beisplielen (LeipzigsDruck und Verlag von Breitkopf und Hartel, 1931) p« 13 " ' " ' " ' : 43= Carl Parrish and John F 0 0hl9 Masterpieces Of Music Before 1730 (Hew YorksWo Wo Horton & Goop/ Inc°s 1 9 5 T T PPo 34=35 19 dances in Davidson and 4pel anthology^- show a remarkably primitive structure if one compares them to a motet or a se­ cular (vocal) composition of the same periodo . The first practical exponent of the 4rs noya is S» de Haehaut (1300 -1 3 7 7 )=He often made use of instruments in his accompaniments o :'In addition there are extant, compos" itions of his written for viols such as the ^Drei Tange fur dr el Viola” in Gesehichte der Music in Beispi elen In an= other composition by Machaut, a Ballada ?8De toutes flours81 the tenor part was believed to have been played by tenor violsIn Machant's compositions the instrumental parts are more intricate showing extraordinary rhythmic subtle­ ty in the use of syncopationp

i{4o Archibald To Davidson & Willi Apels op0 cltos PPo 63 =64. 45o Arnold Scherings op= cit 9$, pp0 20-21 4 6° 4= Binsteing op0 eit05 ppo 267=271 .CHAPTER. IXI>

THE IMMEDIATE PREDECESSORS OF THE VIOLOMCELLO :

The Development of Instrumental Musie.

The mos t bmts tandlng development in the M s tor j of music between XLj.00 and l600 is the emancipation of instra= mental mnsic from vocal music o Before II4.OO instrumentalists generally accompanied singing „ As they became more independ­ ent <, they took over the dance songs and adapted them to the particular technique of their instruments <, Yets as was stated earlierfor centuries these dances remained relative- , _ ' . ; ■ M ' ■. ' ■ ■ . . ly primitive eompared to the contemporary vocal mmsie0 Gradually instruments took over all kinds of vocal formss motets as well as madrigals 0 During the 17 th century printed collections had. the subtitle "to be sung or played11 indicat­ ing the interchangeable quality of compositions» Along with the vocal style9 however9 an idiomatic instrumental style began to develop.i Curt Sachs states: ; "The final stage in the emancipation of instrumental music began in the second half of the sixteenth Century when orchestration was first consideredo Chroniclers began to @- numerate in detail which instruments were used in playing certain compositions at c@r= - tain occasions & \ o = orchestration which at first was at the discretion of the perform­ ers s at last became important enough to be in­ dicated by the composer! about 1 60 0 , Giovanni

lo Thesis9 ppo 17=19 21

Sabrielll in Yenlee first'fixed the lnstrtt= ment required fdr each part in writing M s scores-0|ts'2 1 Just as Renaissance painting attempted an illusion of the third dimension through accurate perspective and ehiaroseurOg there is in the music of this period a deepen­ ing harmonic sense0 Even instruments with only a single voice were used for the realization of harmonic effect o Sachs explains t" ' ■ - 16Harmony9 then, appears to he depths the third dimension in music» 0 o o Trues the chords follow the melodyo But just for this reason each individual note of melody find it­ self not only in a linear way tied to those . which precede and follow hut also to the march of harmonys which complieates its funetion and: gives it stronger intensity » = , » And this is exactly what perspective doesf it relates the parts of. a painting not only . . with its neighbors hut also with a space thatp enveloping all of them9 gives them a new in- tensity^ significance® and unityott3 ;

The Viols

Towards the end of the fourteenth century$, poly­ phonic writing received .a great stimulus in the interaetion between Dunstable and the Burgundian composerss Dufay and BincholSo This Influenced instrumental music and instru­ mentalists of the day and challenged their ability to de­ liver a fair performance of this highly developed musico

20 Curt Sachs® op0 cito®po 298 ' 3 o. Curt Sachs, The Commonwealth of Art (Hew YorksWo ¥0 Horton & CooS Inc«® 1946) P» 273 3%ie instrumentalists .were drawn into the music making in the ehurehtes and they had to learn how to read the notes in order to play their independent instrumental parts or to double the voice partso This practice gave birth to the construc­ tion of different sized viols» in this way whole groups of the same type ..of instrumentsa so-called families or consorts* were, created between I4.OO and 1600 and sometimes as many as six or seven sizes were constructedo: The same kinds of in­ struments were kept together in one ease and therefore formed a chest0 In the fifteenth century* three sizes suf­ ficed* as many compositions had only three parts« During the sixteenth century the number of parts were greatly in- , creasedo The lower limit of medieval music* 0 * did not al­ low a sufficient range* therefore* the instrument makers faced the difficult problem of constructing basses and eon- trabasses0 By the introduction of corner blocks this prob­ lem was solved and was an important step in the development of instrument making» They made possible an increase of tension of the resonant box and therefore the freer trans- mission of the vibration of. the. strings»■ | | ' \ A new delight in timbre acted as a strong stimulus in making Instruments o It was a concept of a single sonor­ ity in a multi-voiced composition for the single voices were required not to contrast sharply with each other but as far

fo Btoeving* opo cito* ppb 63-6ij. 23

■ • ■ 5 ' " ' - . as possible to blend together^ Regarding the construction of musical instrumentss Gurt Sachs states the followings *!The Renaissance in its natural disposi- tion to visual enjoyment, took a fancy to ln= struments as obj eets in themselves o . A viol was more than ah acoustical machine to the men of that epoeho Without hearing its sound, they were delighted, by the elegance of its curves, by the harmony of its proportions, by the , bright transparence of its varnishj they would have been disgusted to listen'to a voice of perfect beauty produced by an ugly piece of wood c o o o At that time the violin and most other instruments were given their classical shapeso Moreover, many instruments of that time were carefully joined, turned, carved , ■ and inlaid| precious material was used-- ' ; exotie,woods, ivory, tortoise shell, nacre, : gemSot$6 V ;■ - instruments of this time were again and again de­ picted in paintings o lint or ett b 8 s ^Women flaying!r {1 $ $ 0 ) shows a woman with a decorated viola da gamba in an en­ semble o Domenico gamperi represents Balnt Geeelia play­ ing a seven-stringed bass viola da gamba (do 16 2 0 ) and gives an idea of the manner of handling the gamba at this time; Jan Brueghel8s ^Hearingi$ {1620) shows a large number of in­ struments in use in the early. 17 th century = Among the in­ struments the gamba as well as the viol da bratehios : ' v ■■ . 7 ■ ■■ ■; : ■ . . ■ • {violins) are represented.) BFor chamber music, then in high favour, viols were especially preferred, and wind in-

5 o Ko Geiringer, op0 cito, po 8 I4. . ; 60 Gurt Sachs, op* eito, R* 302 7o George Kinsky, A History of Music in Pictures (Zew York:Dover Pmblications,°=’lnc =, 193TT PP 0 113|l)}5|151 sfcrrniients were generally considered £nappro= priate o o o » Chamber music was by mo means restricted to court performances^ people visited each other purposely to make music together o , . o88® During the l^th century the termvielle seems to be - superseded by the name of viol. The former term was applied to an instrument similar to the hurdy-gurdy0 The viols of this time are represented with four or five strings and fre= quently have inward curvatures thus rendering the old oval shape obsoleteo The frets are shown in some of the pictures,

The sound holess with occasional exceptions a became much like those of todays The viols of the 16th century belonged to two dis­ tinct families: leg viols and arm viols0 The leg viols of instruments were composed of those that the musicians at present call viols or gambas; the arm viols were composed . of those' bowed-instruments which are still used today and are called'the violin9 violas violoncellos and double bass o The fact that the violoncello and the double bass were called arm viols is surprising because they are not held in that mannero The family name refers to the playing position of the older members of both families and the names were retained for all members regardless of their playing position or their size ® '; \ ' Curt Sachs describes the distinctive characterise

bo Gustave•Reeses Music in the Renaissance (lew YorksWo ¥o Morton & 06»9 Inc o 5 195^T"po Sk-l 25 ties and differences.of the two types of instruments in the • 9 following ways ¥iple da Q-amba • Viole da Braecio - flat back bulging back back sloped off at the upper back not sloped off end deep ribs , shallow ribs sloping shoulders round shoulders edges of soundboard and back projecting edges not projecting reinforcing crossbars inside,. a reinforcing': longitudinal bassbar inside G or flame holes f holes , broad neck narrow neck gut frets no frets six or seven thin strings four thick strings sound pale and flat Sound round and full

The Viola da Q-amba

(SjPWB 8) The viola da gamba became a distinct type during the fifteenth Centuryg earlier than the viola da braecio (arm viol) when musical evolution made large fid-= dies hecessaryo In large fiddles the stops on the finger board were much farther apart than those to which the artists were accustomedo The natural way was to simplify the action of the fingers by shortening the tonal distances be­ tween the stringso This led to the adaption of the tuning of the lutes that is fourth distances with a major third in the middle instead of fifths„ In order to avoid the reduc­ ing of the range of the viola da gambas the number of .strings were increased to six and in the seventeenth cen=

9 = Co SaehSy o p . o cito^, p 0 3 4 ? 26 tury to seireno In a short period we find the whole family modeled after the original bass .viol. During the sixteenth century the shallow waisting of the viola da garaba was no longer suffieiento A far more pronounced waist was neces­ sary to be able to play on each string individually when the instrument was held between the kneeso This resulted in the semicircular form of the middle ribs with distinct corners which separated clearly the upper and lower parts of the instrument o The string frets were adopted from the lute in order to give an assurance to the left hando The flat back of the sounding box sloped off at the top thus making the instrument easier to holdo The shoulders sloped toward the neck at an acute angle9 and the table was pierced by the G-shaped sound holes of the vielleo The 10 " ' ' peg-box ended in a human or animal head0 Although this was the general trend in the develop- ment of the outer shape of the viol da gambas throughout the Ijpth and 16th century there were many Variations o At times the waist was almost indistinguishable$, occasionally it was so deep that it touched the fingerboardo The soundholes were in some instanees cut besideg in others below or above the bridgeo Every instrument-maker created his own special shapes9 even the artists had their own designs» The defin­ itive form of the viola da garaba was achieved during the

10o K 6 Seiringer3 op0 cite9 pp0 86-87 2?

Ifth eeQtury and was not surpassed in design even by the vioioneelloo The popularity and general aeceptanee of the gamba Instruments is expressed in the following statement by Go Reese:' ' "Viols of the gamba type were used for chamber musics viols of the braecio Variety being considered sbeet instruments0 This differentiation expressed by Zaeeoni in his Prattiea di musiea was maintained through™ out and well beyond the sixteenth century» Likewise excluded from intimate ensemble was'the violino

The position of the viola da gamba playing 9)« A H gambas,even the small treble were played in vertical posi= tion or between the kneeso The bow was held palm upward with the thumb above and the middle finger on the hair approxi™ mately two inches from the nut» The accents were given by pushing the bow upward, beginning with. the uppermost point $ not pulling the bow downward as in the case of. the violon­ cello 0 The brief description and picture of viola da gamba playing is given in 0o Raesterrs work®^

Viol Makers® The earliest viol makers whose names are preserved are Sans Frey and Jean Ott8 who worked in

Euremberg in the first half of the 15 >th centuryJoan (John) Kerlino is the first maker of viols about whom there can be no doubt0 One of his viols was exhibited in Paris

H o Go Reese,, op® citos p® hlj.? 12o Oo Racster, op® cito9 p 0 80 13 o Ibid, p 0: 65 ' 28 in the early part of the 19th century and included an in- sorlption»,. ”JoaneKerlino, anno 1^49” » fhis maker is eon= , sidered to have been the founder of the school of Bresciao

G-asparo Duiffopromgcart was born at Freisings, in upper Bavaria in 1B14 and probably learned the art of lutherie at one of the South German centre#. His name was originally Tieffenbruckero He came to Lyons about 1553» where he appears under his accepted name and was a well known and appreciated instrument-maker= He took out his naturalization papers in 1559* and died in Lyons in 1570 or l57io As regards the workmanship and different instruments made by this maker, there is an interesting portrait, in the Bibllotheque Hationale in Paris which shows the master surrounded by different instruments.o In the portrait there is no evidence of his interest in the viola da gamba, in spite of the fact that there are extant viola da gambas made by Buiffoprougeario One of the existing instruments has small propor­ tions suggesting an exceptionally large knee, viol or an in­ strument especially for use in church processions *, The peg- box is surmounted by a curved horse's head, while the finger- board and the back have inlaid designso There is another existing viola da gamba by this master in the museum of the

14.0 Fo ar9;FetiSg 'op» city, p 0 46 15o Ed So J„ van der Straeten* opo c i t . ; p 6 13 I60 0 o Raester, opo cit«, pp0 72-73 Conservatoire at Brusselsa.^"- BoSo j0 van der Straeten char­ acterises" 'this maker's works by statings "The viols of Buiffoprogcart were distinguished by their perfect propor­

tions 9 symmetry of outline s and the inventive genius in -a D their decorative treatment0M

The use of instruments in compositions0 There are several examples of the use of instruments by the most im­ portant composers of the l^th century= In Dunstable0 s ac- ' . ’ ' 19 companied motet "Quam pulcra esst the vole© line "is obvious­ ly in the upper parto The two lower parts are without text : and are instrumentai In character although no specific instru­ ment is designated, Also Sobering in his transcriptions of several e©mp©sitl©n:s .of the Burgundian Sehbol has indicated that instruments should be used in the lower parts» The reader is referred to Dufay0s chansons !!Le Jour s0endort"^, to his Hymn$ "Aures ad nostras deitatisM21s to the Kyrie from his "Missa Sancti Jacoby"^ and to Binchois1 Bondeam ,8De Plus en Plusw2^o The lack of a single designated in­ strument is characteristic of this periodo Although the range of the instrumental parts in the above pieces seldom extend beyond the octave9 the intricate rhythmj, the vivid

17° Paul Stoevingp op0 cit as p 0 7-6 . 180 E 0S 0J 0 van der Straeten9 op=> elt o;# pv llj. 19 o Ac Scheringp op0 cit»9 pp0 29-30 20c Ibid., p, 35 2 1 . Ibido, p. 33 2 2. Ibid., pp. 33-3% 2 3 = Ibido, po 36 melody 13.ne==w3aich constantly crosses the other parts— the alternate solo between the vocal and instrumental parts, prove the increasing importance and developing technique of the instrumentSo Compositions such as a dance by Jo Barbireau

(do lij.9i) "Der pfoben swanz11 for four instruments and In= strumentalsatz "Das yeger horn" for three instruments 2k ' (ap, lk80) and a German song HWach auff myn hortn by Oswald Vo WoIkenstein which call for the accompaniment of a viol^ (in the manuscript) is further documentation of the importance and rapid development of an independent treat: mpnt of instrumentso In the latter (work) the viol part , with 'its complicated rhythm, boid melody line which moves . occasisnS^'in parallel, oecasfcnal^r in contrary motion with the vocal part indicates the instrumentalists of that period were no longer necessarily inferior to the vocalists In a frottole byiSShele Present! (printed 15Ok) the accom­ paniment tp the vocal part was entrusted to three viols, although these instruments were interchangeable0 In such matters liberty of,execution was toleratedo

The effect o f .printing &n the violso The intro= duction of printing produced a revolution in the history of music» The decisive step--the printing of the notation of

. .. 2ko Scheriny op* citk, p 0 k3 2 5» -Ibido, p0 kl : ' 26o• 4= Einstein, op. citofl pp* 272-275 measured music from type--was made by Ottaviano del Petruoci of Fossonbrones wMo worked at Venice 0 Venice became a center for the printing and publishing of polyphonic musico The printing made possible the sudden emergence of several treatises on musical instruments« The earliest known book in which the.picture of a viola da gamba is represented was made by Oarmine S,ngurellig 27 : published in Vienna in 14.9 I 0 woodcut of a seven-stringed viol is oh its title pageo This particular viol was con­ siderably ahead of its time o This book was followed in lf>ll with a small publication by Sebastian Virdung with the title t$Musiea getutscht und ausgezoge11 (Music G-ermanized and Ab­ stract). This work concerned itself with the bowed instru­ ments of its timeo Hans Judenskunig's manuscript t$Ain schone kunst- liche Vnderwaisung" was published in 1523 in Vienna0 It con­ sists of a number of short piecess songs and dances, with the lute and viol pieces written in tablature0 In addition in 1 this book is found the earliest attempt to combine instru­ ments in a methodical, concerted manner and on the title page is for the first time in print the name "GeigenV. There is a woodcut, representation in Judenkunig"s publication which is reproduced in Wo Jo von Wasielewski1 s work0^ On this

. 2?o 0. Eacster," op0 cit09 pv 67 '■ - ' 28o JoSo.voh Wasielewskl; The Violoncello and Its History (LondonrHovello & Company9 Limited, 1894) 4- picture a man stands erect and plays a large viol* which he holds vertically before himo The instrument does not touch the ground* and doubtless* It is attached round the player8s neck by a chord or ribbono Similar woodcuts of the period show that this manner of playing the bass viol was not un­ common during the 16th century = This custom may be traced back to the minstrels who could not be burdened with many accessories = Another reason for playing the bass viol in this manner was because of its use in religious processions= Qo Hacster describes the use of bass viols in churchs • "To facilitate the use of viols in the re­ ligious processions* the bass viol was attached round the peek of the performer» J, small hole was made in the upper part of the back of the instrument so employed and a peg inserted* A, cord or chain was attached to this peg* and passed round the player’s neck; an arrangement which allowed him to play with some degree of ease* Bass viols so employed gained the title of "viola da Spala"* or shoulder voils* in Italy* from the position in which they were : - heldo 29 V ; ^

In. 1529 Martin Agricola’s work "Musiea Instrument- . alls'Beutsch" vl^C^rmah'iIn,strwehtallr:Mhsle^ } was pub­ lished which included a method on the playing of viols and string instruments according to the correct tablature * In this book he mentions the following viols as existing at his ’ timeg^P ' ; ■ : . . : .

29= 0* Racster* op* cit * * p * 85 30*. P* Stoeving* op* cit** p* 301 . yv'■ ■' : . -' ' ' " ':33 ^V.; : : Discantus ;■';/■ | - : V H lo G-roase Geigen (Large viols) mit Alt us , with 5$ and v "' - Bunden (with frets) Tenor - w . 6 strings 0 ■ • V ; :: ^ ;%:','.: . , Baa-S-KS , -; \ , 2o Kleine Geigen (small viols) mit ; ^ jBwden 1 ■ . %'': • do = . ■■ . with' 4 strings 0; 'AV: ; ;V:v;z.:g/: ::,Bise:an : ' V ; 3= Kleine Geigen (small glgues or Situs.' .with 3 strings.o ' reheos) dhnd Bunden (with- .■ . Tenor ' x:" out frets) , . • : Bass us (or r-eplaeedhy the

x ^a n s : Gerleg in. Ms Musick Teutehs in .1533 s makes a ;; similar distinet ion he tween Grosse Geigen with fret Sj, and . . "Eleine Geigen without - v v; - : 1 . ; %-;g';'lnV:Venie;© in 1542 a book was published on the art of playing viols entitled fEegola: Subertinass by Silvestro ; • Ganassi del Fontego<> It was exelusively. devoted'to the. art

. . 32 ■ of fingering and tuning treble and bass violso 1 g : ; ■

'1 ; In 1553 the- Spaniard Diego Ortiz wrote a method for the gamba playing in order to foster the, instrumental . • styleo The book’s title i s !lTratado de .Glbsas Bobre . ;

: Glausulas i, » » 0 en la Musica de Violones18» ; : ■ i'g.i,,' '

That such't ext s. were written at all in the 16 th e en=*.

tury, certainly implies cbnsiderable interest in.musical in­

struments and should help to combat the peculiar opinion '

still voiced inimany popular mdsle textSr, that the 16th cen­ tury was exclusi vely an age of vocal polyphony *

“ 31» ' Bb 1 Bt#evlngp2op» cit os p 0 302 CHAPTER IVo

THE DISCOVERY AID DEVELOPMENT OF VIOLONCELLO

Circumstances of the Violoncello

The birth of the violoncello is shrouded in mystery* According to Straetens . ' . ' : n* o o o fiedels and viols of a low (tenor or bass) compass always preceded those of a high­ er compass, as our ancestors preferred soft and low notes to high and piercing sounds * There is no reason to Suppose that the order , of development should have been suddenly re- verSed with regard to the violin family^ and the violone and violoncello (8violon-celloV diminutive of violone) appeared no doubt be­ fore the viola and the vi olin *18i Racster states that the transition from the gamba to the early form of violoncello too^: place in the second half of the 16th century Three questions may be asked regarding the dis- covery of the violoncello I* Why did the skilled instrument-maker seek im® provements in the existing instruments? 2o Who constructed the first violoncello? 3o Who contributed to its gradual improvement? In answering the first questions it is important

lo EoSoJo van der Straeten, listdrv of the Violon- cello (London;WilliamU-Uti: « W JU J!. JL J. evtu Reevess v Vti 5 -i.191%) / I jrP v 2o Oo Racsters op* citoj, p* 115 35

to 'Recall that during the 15>th and 16th centuries more and more instrtmehtalists were drawn into'the Church in order to support the singers1 delivery of the Complicated polyphonic lines o Families of instruments were created in different ■ sizes corresponding to the various pitches of the human "■ 3 • : ■ ■' " ' ' ■ ■ i.- ' . voice o Instruments. not suited to the requirements of the period; such as rebec9 tromba marina, were discarded<, Such suitable instruments as the different kinds of viols were retainedo During the loth and 17th centuries instrument making 'became a highly developed art and musical instru» ments were created that remain to this day models of per- feetlono The excellent musical qualities of these, (viols) instruments are proven by the fact that for three hundred years, between 1^00=1700; their hegemony was uncohtestedo In the history of art it is often true that even as one form or style reaches its greatest climax, another contrasting style emerges carrying itself the germs of destruction of the former style» Thus we observe that while Bach was carrying the Baroque to its greatest peak in the north, in Italy the Baroque had already crumbled before the advancing Rococoo Similarly; during the 16th century, at the height of the viols and viola da gamba1s popularity there appeared a new type of bowed=instrument g the violoncello 0 The Constant employment of the viol in-

' : - . ' - 3 q Thesis, Po 22 ';f'. . ; ' ' , ho. Ko G-elringer, op0 cito,. p 0 91 36

stnaments revealed their limitations« Their limitations are

as follows 2 ; 1 0 Lack' of power '/% ' .2» Ineqmality of strings in power , 3« Unfavorable tone quality 4.0 Restrle.ted teclmique The discovery of these limitations was the com- . sequence of the following factors s , ; „ lo Development of instrumental music 2o Desire to express excessive human emotions 3 o Hew social'forces. . ■ In connection with the development of instrument- ■ al musics Ferguson remarks:

o 0 o o the viols entered the precincts of learned music through their usefulness as supporting instrumehts for choral voices 0: Gompositlons were soon written for either voices or violsj and when these were played , ' by the instruments alonea not only was the , interest of purely instrumental music made manifestg but the failure of purely vocal part-writing to call forth all the capaci- ■ . ties of the instruments was also striking­ ly revealed* This led, in turns to a dis- ' covery that the viols themselves were by no means ideal in brilliancy of tone or in volume o Avery ingenious but not highly . successful attempt was then made to improve the sonority of the viol by the addition of more strings9 both on. the fingerboard . and under it*' * 0' * • ' . ’

The viol9 therefore9 had to be cor- . reetedi and the instrument in which these . corrections were perfected was the violin . o o « :■ ■ .V ' @n the other hand in the arts the representation

. 5* Donald H» Ferguson9 A History of Musical Thought (Hew .YorkgAppleton-Gentmry-CroftSs Imc<, 9 1933 ) PP o ' 212-213 i-A :'',;.' . • :■/ . : 37 of excessive human emotions came forth as Sachs explains 2 ®With dramatic and emotional trends of . rappresentativo music s with Caravaggio8 s pitiless naturalismj, with the Bolognese de­ light in 8 deeds of horror or convulsive suf­ ferings, malefactors or fanatics8s the door . was wide open tp the naturalistic, ecstatic, passionate, and cruel trends <,- = 0 0to6 ■ ■ . The refined, sweet, feminine tone quality of the gamba was no longer satisfactory to express the music of the new period, which quality of tone according to Straeten

Ho o 0 0 was particularly sympathetic to the manners and tastes of the educated classes of the seventeenth and early eighteenth centures1*®^ ... . In all probability new social forces also contri­ buted to the creation and acceptance of the violoncello« Bang remarks: . "The stylistic changes caused by the . baroque had their corollary in the new align­ ment of social forceso The increasing com­ mercial and Industrial activity of individuals and nations provided the middle-class mer­ chants with handsome incomes, and their eage'r- ness to have a culture of their own, already manifest in Renaissance times, now reached a point where they impressed their own accent oh' the art that'came"within their compass0 Artistic life in this period, especially in poetry and music, was characterized by an * occasional! quality to an extent that we can hardly realize » ■« > 0 The musical life of the middle classes was greatly strengthened by the collegia musica,

' : 60^ Curt'Sachs, The Gommonweaith of Art (lew York: Wo Wo Horton & COo, Inc 0, 1 % 6 T P ° lij-O 7» EoSoJo van der Straeten, opocito, 3^1o convivia musica, choral societies$, and other informal amateur organizations which ap= peared toward the. end of the sixteenth cen­ tury o In the beginning these societies were devoted mainly to sacred vocal musics the instrumental dilettanti joining them in the seventeenth century Another limitation of the vibla da gamba was that the bass 'strings were the weakest which made it necessary 9 to restrict melody line to the upper strings only® She technical limitations on the gamba are ex­ plained by Straeten: 15The fretting of the viols $, the number of strings and manner of their tunings leads to x, polyphone playings while it hampers the free movement of the left hand in running passages with freguent and rapid interchanges of posi- tionso!816 These limitations motivated the instrument-maker to attempt to improve the existing instruments, The ex­ perimentations resulted in the discovery of the violoncello which is superior to the viola da gamba in three respectss lo Well balanced power of tone 2o Desirable tone quality :3o Greater technical possibilities The power in tone of the.violoncello which 18a well balanced, was recognized by many musicians = Therefore it was employed as a bass instrument during the first cen­ tury of its existence®

- ' ti® Paul Henry Langs Music in Western Civiliza­ tion (New York:Wo ¥= Horton & Co®# Inc09 191+1) pp® lj.07-i+GQ 9o BoSoJo van der Straeten, op* cite, p® 22 10= Ibido9 p, 378 39

■ With the development of the orchestra, it was found that the violoncelloss tone was favorable as a bass to a body of violins/ flutes and sometimes elarinetse The technical possibilities of the instruments of the violoncello, were not realized for many yearso The development of a regular system of fingering by the addition­ al use of the thumb made the realization of a. highly effec­ tive technique on the instrument0 Although the violoncello was constantly improved during the 16th and 17th centuriess and in the early l8th -. century it reached its present form$, the viola da gamba had many votaries who bitterly attacked the violoncelloA , In 174.0 Hubert Le Blanc9 a doctor of laws published in Amster­ dam a little books "Defense de la Basse deYiole Oontre les Batreprises du Violdn Et les Pretensions du Violoncel$t (A Defense of the Viola da Gamba Against the the Violin and'the Pretensions of the Violoncello)= The author states: . ' . H 0 o o oThe violoncello which hitherto found itself, a miserable crabg penitential garment • .(?8.haire8 ) .'and poor devilg whose condition bordered on starvation^ mo feasting, flatters . itself now that it will be carressed in place , of the bass violg it builds -up visions, of h p happiness which make it weep with emotion of But this appears to have been the criticism of a minority because at this time not only in Italy was the

• ' 11= E o S, el Q van der »Stra'et.'en s p = 22 .. ' 12=. Thid'op, op'o cit'o9 ipp^W3"3^3 .. pi, p'Av-AIS' . 40 viola da gamba superseded entirely by the violoncello but in Pranee the best gambist/Bertaeu9 in • exchanging the gamba for the violoncello# aeknowle&ged the Cello9s superiority0 The partisanship of Hubert le Blanc and others could not arrest the progress of the violoncello= The violoncello survived the first century of its existence because its tone quality was not found in any other instruments ieSo# a quality which eould (both} emulate and.substitute for the human voiceo Doubtless# its future development was* inherent in the tone quality of the instrument and it is n o t :an aeeident that it was discovered# developed# and accepted In that country which took over the leadership of the musical world in the second half of the l6th century— Italy* That the'first players of the violoncello turned to the gamba as a model for fingering# bowing# and the style Of their music# is but natural and therefore we find attempts at fretting the neck of the violoncello or adding a fifth string tuned to d# like the first string on the gamba „ The technical development of the cello was held back to the de­ gree that composers followed the traditional lines of gamba musico The; passages which were most effective on the gamba were awkward on the violoncelloj therefore their adaptation retarded the development of the cell©6s technique0 Although the influence of the viola da gamba upon the violoncello retarded its progress to some extent# it . benefited it in more than one way® The compass of the in== 7 . .

st2?mnents are comparable and there is an almost Identical distance between tones and semitones on their fingerboards„ Because of the similarity between the two instrumentss players were induced to turn from the older to the newer in- . s.trmaeht and adapted as much as was possible from the tech­ nique of the gambao The rapid progress in violin playing had its ef­ fect on. the violoncelloo Corelli was one of the earliest players and composers who understood how ineffectual the gamba was when combined with the violinQ In his trio sona- tasg he employed together with two violinsa one violoncello which fulfilled a double task— it either played the bass part or participated In the delivery of the theme in an :H~ imitative manner = For example $, in the first movement of his VII Sonata ©p<> 3? the violoncello first plays the figured . bass but In the, third and fourth measures it serves as an TO equal partner in the i anil Sat ive scheme e (App0 01) The effect on the violoncello of the-more highly developed violin technique is unmistakeables especially after the end of the seventeenth century0 This influence will be discussed in some detail in connection with the . ' '' ' lh . ' ' • ' ' . " . • contribution of Corelli = Racster describes how the problem of balance was

13 o A= CorelliOeuvres Book II» opo 3 and k (LondonsAugener Ltd., l890TppTT60^TEl'" ™ 14o Thesis, p. 64”6^ ' ij-2

solved In ensembles befop© the use of the violoncellos **The old violists could think of no other way of balancing the incongruity of sound which existed between the “shrieking violin8 and its ' :: duller companions than by the use of double the number of bass-viols to prevent its 8out-= crying8 the lower parts o = o A thorough ' musleians and an artists jmsque au fondp : - Corelli was one of the earliest composers to realize the ineffectual use of the bass■=■ viol with the violin; and did hot scruple to dls- " ;■ card its;' services for that of the violbncello h r'- -■: Besides M s employment of it in his numerous sonatas for due violin! e violoncellI$ etCo.^ he also adopted the custom of an, accompanying violoncello for'-his.:solo ■performaheeao,!,h5' . ■ In Italy around 1700 the first soloists on the . Violoncello appeared» Among them Franeissehello was the 1 greatest, who played the violoncello obligato part with 41essandro Scarlatti in 1713o Franeissehello eharmed his. listeners to such an extent that Scarlatti exclaimed?

• T 6 Only angels in humah shape can play like thato!S Franeissehello^ technique as well as the beauty of his tone may have contributed to the early disappearance of the viol da gamba in Italy around 1730 and influenced the work of the contemporary Stradivari,:who modified the violoncello : proportions in Order to make possible virtuoso effects on the instruments.. v : - : The greater interest in violoncello playing is

shown by the fact that in 17hl the first Instruction book

15° 0° Racster, opt cito, ppo’172-173' • 16o EoSoJo van der Straeten, op0 cit09 po 155 17« Orove8 s Dietiohary, opo eito, v 0 VIII, p 0 111 ; k 3 by Michel Gorette was pmblishedo His explanation In connec­ tion with. the finger and thumb positions throws some light on the level of violoncello playing at this timeo

In the first and second positions the 15 2 S and Ij. fingers were' usedQ In the third position the 19 2> 3$; and - 4 were used; and in the fourth position the 1, 2, and 3 fingers were used0 The fourth finger in the. fourth and high­ er position was no longer needed^ because of its shortness o Wasielewsky adds to Corette8s explanation the following: “AS to the exclusion of the fourth finger$, when playing with the thumb positions, no proof is needed to show the reason • .: -■ • • . . 18 was that it gave an awkward manner of holding the left hand=11 This point of view is not acceptable today and the use of the fourth finger does not influence the position of the arm in an awkward manner»' The almost total exclusion of the fourth finger caused a great restriction in playing with the thumb posi­ tion 9 although this limitation in Corette8s time was scarce­ ly felt as the higher part of the fingerboard was used by cellists and composers only in exceptional caseso As early as the end of the. seventeenth centuryj, the violin manner of fingering was adapted to the violoncello except for the use of the third fingero Howevera it had been overlooked . that the violoncello demanded an entirely different method

. Ibo Wo Jo von Wasielewskis The Violoncello and Its History, Translated by Isabella S0 E 0 Stigand (Londons Movello and Company Ltdoj, l89l4-) po $ 7 of fingering on account of its much larger dimensions To a certain extent5, the handling of the how pre­ sented difficulties to those who exchanged the gamba for the Violoncello because the latter demanded more energy for the creation of a more powerful tone = In addition* the gamba player had to accustom himself to other strokes of the bow On- the violoncelloo What was played on the violoncello with a down stroke was played with an upward stroke on the gambao Gorette gives three different ways of holding the bows lo Placing the second* third* fourth* and fifth fingers upon the rod and the thumb beneath it* so that the bow was held about a hand's breadth from the nuto ■ , 2» The four fingers placed upon the rod as above* the thumb placed upon the hair o ■3o' The four fingers laid upon that part of the rod to which the nut is attached* while the thumb had its place b eneath the nut * Gorette does not.give preference to any of these ways of holding the bowo He was of the opinion that they were all good* but left it to each one to choose the manner . in which the most power could be attained* It seems that . Gorette ruled that the middle of the bow should be used in playing* whereby its use was limited to a third of its ' lengtho 20 It is remarkable as regards the level of cello .

: -19o' Koilo$ vpm Wasielewski* p 0 £ 8 - ' . 20* ^ Tbidtt* vppo^bit'ki-p^'fSo. ° P » £ 4 -' * > .. ’ playimg in Gorette8 s time that he still advocated the system of marking the position of the fingers by lines on the finger^ board to assure purity of intonation0 It was not until the second part of the eighteenth century that the . superiority of the violoncello ’as regards its teclinieal possibilities was demonstrated by those artists and composers who revealed the true nature of the solo instru­ ment 0 In the ’’Handbuch der Musikwissenschaft’1 the bitter, fight, which occurred during the eighteenth century between the vM-oncell© and viola da gamba is describedg "Bis in die zwelte Half.te des 18» Jahrhunderts hinein fuhrte das Violoncello gegen seine un~ laittelbare Eonkurrenting die Tenor-viola da gamba, einen erbitterten Earnpf urn die musikalische ¥ormaehtst©Hung 0 Branch u n d . CJewonheit. wollten . sieh nur sehwer trennen voh der solistischen . Berufhelt der Gambe = Bern violoncello wies man bestenfalls die Continmoverstarkung im OrChester ■ und in deir Kammerausig: zu6 ; Sb.er naeh 'wd naeh . ■ ©rwies sieh doch die irberlegenheit des Jungeren instruments seine Grifftechnik war nichts wie auf ,der Gambeg durch Bund© beengts der mehr gerundete Steg gestattete eine starker© Tonentwieklung auf ^ den einzelnen Saitens ohne die Gefahrs die benachbarten Saiten ufigewollt zu b©ruhreno tt21 (Until the Second part of the eighteenth cen- turys the violoncello led against the ' tenor viola dab gambag its Immediate competi- tor, in an exasperated fight for leadership» Usage and custom, made it difficult to s.©p=- arat© the gamba from its solo competencyo 4t best, the vM-oncello was given the rein­ forcement of the continue in the orchestra and in the chamber mWLc, , Gradually the

, 21o Dre Wilhelm Heinifcz, Handbuch Der Musikwissen­ schaft 9 Instrumentankunde (WIldpark^FotsdamsAkademisehe . Verlagagesellschaft Athenaion, 1929) v ° I, p& 125 superiority of the younger Instrument was. • prove&j its left hand technique was not limited, by the use of f rets $ and the use of a rounder bridge made possible a more power­ ful- tone on the single strihgs5 wit|iout the dahger of touching the neighboring strings involuntarily*) - In the history of the violoncello^ it is .a.surpris­ ing fact that no viola da gamba by one of the greatest violon­ cello makers g Giovanni Paulo Magginip is-extant* Yet violon=

; cello S's violins s violas 9 and double-basses made by him. are in existence* It is 0* Racsteres opinion that he made no gambas at alls' ^ ..' : ' v- ' -" ' . -' - ■ V ; : . ' ■ :'

' m4s regards the lack of Maggini violas da gambaj .circumstanfiai evidepee may be; right after all* The man was a genius s and9 true to his-1 instinctsj,; sought aftef, new method# father than persdhal gaino - He threw aside the .:useless and picked out the goodp and this being S0 s: it is pbt surprising that he should prefer to turn his attention to the.budding violoncellos rather than the pristine viola da gamba 9 ^2 2. . 1 ^ - '

. - Instrument-makers * .

In answering the questions. t8¥ho constructed the first violoncello** it is necessary to take into account the makers of the violoncello and to consider those artists who revealed the potential of the instrument through their,

- virtdoioJ perforiEances: (4ppo . BIO.)t . - v ' ■ -' 'Tlier© is no basic agreement on who created the

first violoncello 0 The contenders for the honour are Andrea

Amatl in Cremona3 Gasparo da Salo in Brescia and Gasparo

220 : Oo Racsters opo clto, p B 130 IlBiffoprougeart in Lyon0 In all probability ail of them, con­ tributed along with innumerable other and less important and forgotten makers o , Ehaiffoprougeart: reduced the size of the huge viols whieh sometimes had smeh dimensions that a young page could be • shut: within one. to sing the treble part, while i ' . :v. : : • . . ' 2 3 - the bass was played upon the self-same instrumento . Al­ though there is no extant violoncello made by huffoprougcart it is possible that this master created that instrument toos or at least had knowledge of the new trends in instrument makingo One existing violoncello by G-asparo da Salo is the subject of controversyo Perhaps it was originally another instrument and later on altered to a violoncello o^" Indrea Imati made a further step in the right direction by making small-sized bass instruments, in the same form as the violin» He is the first maker^ who can be accepted with all certain-, ty :as, the creator.of the violoncellos because of .the exist­ ing instrument mad© by him» ..■"v . The creation of new instruments as- the result of ■ the efforts of several makers is expressed by Po H 0 Bang when he asserts 9. in connection with the discovery of the violins • 88The violin'was» of courses not invented ' ' by one persono It was the result of a slow metamorphosis from the older viol into its present form which took place approximately :

23 o Oo RaCsters ©p0 cit oS pp<, 11^-116 2l|o Thesis, po. Ig . •■ ■■ between 1%80 mmd l $ 2 0 . o n ^ ' It can be definitely ascertained^ however9 that &ndrea &mati made the earliest extant violoncellos and this : instrument was apparently included in a set of Gremona stringed instruments which were sent by Pope Pius T as' a , present to Charles IXo2^ A o Amati was born around 1520 in Gremona and died in approximately 1580= He probably began his career as a maker of viols and luteso But he may have been at first a fine wdod-carver employed by the Ghurch and later turned his attention toward musical instruments <, Andrea Amati more than any other maker deserves the credit for the design, of the modern violoncello j, and this fact is remarkable because he had to bridge the entire gulf between the viol and the violin type of:instrument o In his violon­ cello,, there appears the cello of our day9. and only small .improvements were made, later by: other makers, until,. ' . Stradivari introduced the present form of the violoncello* Stoeving'describes Ao Amati11 s contribution in the1 follow^ 27 ■ " ' - : ' m g manners t8But the adoption of a small or medium ; foms with its relatives decreased1 proportions in the thickness of the wood, and a higher arch­ ing of belly and baekf.towards the centre9 brought with itp quite independent of other de­ tails of workmanships a different varnishs ete0 — a different, a new tone-phenomenon which one

25o Paul Henry hang^ opo cito s p 0 26o 0o Racsterj, op0 cit0 9 p 0 lOo ■ ::: 27 o Grove8 s Dictionary9 op» cit 0 s v= '• Ia ■ pp 0 131 V " , . '.;-v ' ' • 4-9

might not incorrectly call 8Jmati violin tone8o It is, a tone

Gaspare da Salo ne dl Bertolotti (153^?^1609) was ' another great Instrument maker of the 16th centuryc. - His grandfather was lute-maker and hi s.,father a painter Q : Gasparo. was born at .Salos a small town on the hake Garda9 not many miles from Brescia d It is presumed that he learned his art from his. grandfather and continued his study with a Breseian viol-maker„ Gerolamo VIrchi0 He established him^ self in Brescia and made excellent double-basses and grand tenors = S 0 ;So J = van der Straeten states that Gasparo da. ■ Salo. Vo .o d ole the first to whom we can point with absolute . ‘ ' . Vi" ' •• ■ \ ■■ ; 29 ■ /■•■■■■ eertainty as a maker of violoncellos o ' o' » o$l • . On the . : other ..hands' 0 o Racster mentions a small-sized violoncello by Salos but admits that it might have been a cut-down,bass- viols, or ah exceptionally large tenorAlthough Go da ' Salo in all probability was not concerned with making violon­ cellos s he did not neglect other bass■instrumentso. There are basses of different sizes9 and a small double-bass of ■■■■■■■■■.■ -■ - ' •. . .: ■: ; : v 3 1 :: ' • < ■da Salo was considered the best of Its kind0 There -are viola da, gambas extant by Salo* His workmanship is des­ cribed in Grove8 s Dictionary in the following way:

2BTT p o Stoeving 9 op0 cit e 3) p 0 88 ^ 29o EoSdJo van der Straetens op0 citos p 0 125 . 30o Oo Racster, opo. citd9- po 106 : . 31 o Ibitio^, 'Opr,cit09i p. niB, ‘'f ; ■ . ' 50

• 89 H3.'s worles are of a ■.primitive pattemg, more ■" advanced than that ofZanetto and other old Breselan makers^ but totally different from that ; . of the contempora.ry Amafci familyq The model yarleSg being eometlmes hlghs sometimes flat| ■ the middle curves are shallow and the sound holes , .straight, and angular» The wood is generally well chosens. and the thicknesses are correctj the tone . of the instruments. when of the flat model and in good preservations, is particularly deep and pen- etratingo He made many instrumentss espeeially • bassesg of pear wood as well as sycamore woods * His;selection of timber was more careful; in- deedj the remarkable regularity of .the grain in the table of his instruments bears evidence to this particular trait of the Breseian mastero ‘ His varnish is principally deep yellow and rich in tone9 though some of M s instruments are . ' much darker in colour| in fact1some are almost blacks an effect doubtless due to ageo The sound holes are longs parallel and pointed in form and in the gambas and viols still retain ' the more simple G shapef, yet in spite of their length they are in perfect harmony with the form of the instrumentq The purfling is usual- - ly single9 and the general appearance of his • work is boldp but not highly finishedo » o o : The pattern of Gasparo da Salo. was, partly re­ vived in the 18 th century9 owing no doubt9 to its great tone-produeimg capacityr, by Giuseppe Guarneri and$, to a less extent^ by some of the 1 .French.makerso,532 . - -

Giovanni Paolo Maggxni (l$8l-c.l632)o ifter da Salons deaths his talented pupil Go Po Maggini took over the

workshop9 where he had worked as an apprentice for eight yearso. ^Maggini8 s instruments, resemble those of .Ms master ^ ‘ in their large proportions9 but. show a great advance in point of. view of appearance as well as tone o One of M s cel­ los is'described as; followss

. 32o Grove8s Dictionary, opo cit05 Vo VII9 p 0 382 51

■ 88It lias two lines of purf lings but no ornamental deTiceo The bottom of the circle of the sound holes is smaller than the topo There is.the same under“beveling of the inside edge of the sound holes a and in Maggini8s other instruments the same arching of the model o. The wood Of the back and the sides is / cut on the slab, (Parallel with the growth . of the tree-^a favourite practice with the old viol-makers) The back is Joined, also the belly, the latter having the wood the ordinary way . of the grain,. t h e .coarse grain :' being outside oI833 Doubtless Maggini was the first maker who employed the new method of cutting the pine wood used for the bellies of the violoncello, that is, cutting it wedge-ways out of the tree from the bark inwards to the core, The fact that he cut the back in the old fashion and the. belly in the new manner proves that he, although a great innovator, was eyidently in a state of uncertaintyo He was perhaps the ■ first maker who used the corner blocks and linings as they are now employed and in the modulation of thicknesses h© succeeded far more in accuracy than any of his predeees-

sorso% ' - \ ' V . .'

. Antonio imati (1550=1638) and Girolamo Amati (l55l«l635)o After the death of Anrea Amati, his two sons, Antonio and Girolamo. Ama.ti, carried, on the high traditions of eraftmanship established by their father. They have been generally known as 18the brothers Amati -' o . They made a large I number of violoncellos, which mark a distinct progress on

33° O o Raester, op, bit,, pp, 131-132 3k-° Grove's Dictionary, op, eit,, p, 503 52 those of their father^ in both the outer form as well as beauty of toneo

lioolo Araati (Cremona 1596=1681}.) the son of Giro= lam6. is regarded as the greatest among the SmatiSo At first he followed the model of his father and his uncle in the adaptation of small form but around 1625 he created a larg= .er model and adhered to it to the end of his life* Fetis gives a precise description regarding his contribution to the art of instrument"makings : ,$He made but little change in the forms and proportions adopted by his familyg but gave a higher finish to/detailsg with greater perfection in the design of the curvesg and produced a varnish more subtle and mellow, and possessing a superior appearancee ■ The proportions of the arching and of the thick­ ness of his instruments are better calculated than those of either Andrews Anthonyg or ' Jerpmep Hencey it:follows'that9 while pre= . servihg their distinctive sweetness of tone9 they have greater power and briliancep.M35

Antonio Stradivari (i6iiii°i?37) by laborious and conscientious work gradually discovered all the elements of instrument making, which resulted in the final form of the VioloncellOo He was born at Cremona in 16AA and descended from an old patridan family« He probably entered the. Hicolo Amati workshop at the age of ten or eleven^ where he made his first violin at the age of 13. Stradivari re- mained in Amati8 a workshop until he was 23 or 21}. years oldo .

35° F. J o Fetis9 op* cit^pho 54-55 53

I’rom I67 O he began to sign his instruments with M s . name0 . levertheless he followed closely M s master'8 s style and up . to 1690 he had produced only a few instruments 0 Petis;re= marks: ' , . - . ; -v- ' " " : ■' V

n¥ e are inclined to think that the artist ; was then more occupied in meditations and ©X“ ' ■ periments on his art than on labours in a com- merieal point of view<, In the disposition of . the . woods out on the . layers (sur oouche), in / the pattern9 in the arching and in the varnish9 the instruments then made by Stradivari are but . : little different from those of licholas imatiol83o •. Around 1690 there is a marked period of transition in the work of Stradivari<, Po Stoeving describes this period in the.-following way" ' . .; ■ ' ■ ; MSome of the Amati traditions are still preservedg • but the form broadens out s the areh= ing improvesj, it becomes flatter9 the degrees ' of thickness in the wood are carefully deter­ mined^ the f holes appear straighter and nob- ' ' ler in design^ the varnish is more highly coloured and fiery; in short the whole instru- . ment approaching the stage of perfeetion whieh ' : ' it reaches with the next decade 0,637 Stradivari;8s works before ,170© belong; to M s first ; . period and are designated by specialists as Stradivari“AmatiSo . The second period In Stradivari6s life extended from ITOO-I725« He gave his. instruments$ during this periods a bmaier waist and created the characteristic flat models These years mark the produetioh of his most superior violon­ cellos 9 such as the wDuport$8s 1711s the !SBatta®% 171lj.s and

36o J#j,FetisA op0 cit0's p. 63 37v: Fo ■ Stoevlngs op0 cit OS) p 0 lit}. m

the 18Platti18 in 1720o &XI these' eelloa are of smaller pro™ portionss their length is approximately 29& incheso The length of the older instruments made before 1700 was approx­ imately 3 llr incheso The reason that Stradivari did not ex­ periment with the proportions of the violoncello sooner, as he did with the violin,- show's that the qualities of the instrument were not understood in the 17th century<, It was not until such an artist as Franeiseello revealed the eap= , aeities of the violoncello in •perf ormance that the instru­ ment makers realized the possibilities of the violoncello and Stradivari with his great sensitivity gradually modi­ fied the proportions of the violoncello from about 31^ to about 29& inches in order to make easier the execution of the contemporary virtuoso-.^ceso Fetis gives, an explana­ tion regarding the superior quality of Stradivarius violon­ cellos belonging to the second periods 6?The violoncellos Of Stradivarius are im­ measurably superior to all other instruments of this kinds their powerful tone possesses a fullnesss a distinctive character and a bril- lance which Cannot be equalled. These admirable .qualities result, on the one hand, from the choice of wood, on the other, from the degrees of thickness| and, in short, from the exact relations of all parts of the instrument, which are.set in equilibrium, in order that . the vibrations may be free, energetic, and prolonged. The superiority of these instru­ ments is insured, as In the case of the violins, by the constant application of the laws of acousticsom38 .

3d, F 0 Jo Fetis, opo cito, po. 6? 55

During M s third period^, from 1725=1737 Stradivari produced fine instruments^ but the workmanship no longer displayed the same perfection0 The delicacy and finish of his work gradually decreased and the Tarnish is browns After 1730 he signed many instruments as having been made under his directiono Contemporary with Stradivarius9 Italy had many instrument ^makers <, In fact ^ there were makers in almost every Italian town o The Bergonzi family$, Andreas Guarnerius r, the Amatlsg Praneeseo Ruggieris and Storioni all lived and worked during Stradivari8s lifetime within the boundary of CremonaA

Francesco Ruggieri (l6kO?=172C)° He was the old= Vest member of a large family of luthiers and a worthy rival of Stradivario The works of this, master bear a general re­ semblance to .those of the Amati family^ although he was not , a direct imitatoro Delicacy^ finished workmanships a graceful sound hoi6$, transparent varnish well laid on are the chief characteristics of Ruggieri8s instruments0 Like" Stradivarip he made at first large violoncellos$ 31-5/6 inches in length. However^ be realized this error and be= fore 170G he began to construct small instruments a little over 28 inches in lengtho"^ ' ' ■■ . V V'v: V :: : V 'V;' VV:-'-: . v Pietro Giacomo Ruggieri worked at Brescia at the

39 o do Racsters opo cit os po 165 . v v • : 56

same- time as Franc eseo in Cremona o He was another member of the family and made violoncellos in the modified (smaller) dimensions o There are so many similarities between his and Johan Babtiste Ruggieri instruments;, who also worked at

Cremona and Brescia,, that probably they worked together0 The vi o lone e lie a of Giacomo are distinguished by beautiful varnish and elegant sound holes2 but the scrolls lack breadth and boldness

Andrea Guarneri (b?^d0Cremona 1698) is the head and founder of a famous fiddle maker family and was one of the first pupils of Nicolaus Jmatio He was strongly under the influence of his master$, and never developed an original style o He made several violoncellos although they do hot represent the,qualities of either his master or his great contemporarys Stradivari o, .

Peter Guarnerius 9 another member of the familys. also worked in Cremona during the latter years of Stradiva- - - iif@o ... ‘ ' ’ ; v \ '' ,!He made some especially good violomcel™ los s large and broad in modelP with original9 well-cut scrolls, and excellent ptirfling and vamisho He got hold of some grand timber9 which he used for the bellies of many of his violoncellos 1 wood wide in grain9 but beauti­ fully even 0 n l \ l

Paulo Granclni was a pupil of Nicolo Ahati and

: hOo O o Raesterp opo ieit o 9 p o, 167 - / ' ; - ' '- i. ■ 4.1 o Ibidop p » l6h made excellent violoncellos in Milan9 where he .established himselfo His instruments are reminiscent of IMo imati9 but the intensity of tone is limited0 His sons G-iovanhi Grameinis was.a better craftsman who also practiced his art /in Milan in 1703 o His violoncellos are usually of a large$, flat pat­ tern and show a development of the Jjnati model similar to x : ' v'-'. ' v- h.2 : Y":' ' the Stradiv&ri instruments o"*"

Domenico Montagnana was Stradivari8s pupil and worked between 170G-17l}.Go He first established a Workshop in Oremona but later, because of the strong eompetitions he settled in Venice= He sObn attained a great popularity there5 and during the latter part of M s mamter8 s life made excellent basses and violoncellos 0 , ^Eia knowledge of thicknesses^ material^ and varnish$, which he brought with him from the great Gremona schools placed him head and shoulders above his Venetian contemporaries» fhe gentle curves of his models the grandly cut sCroll--wMeh even surpassed the beauty of M s master’s worfc=-and9 .above all9 the rich tones are the qualities which combine in making Montagnana’s violoncellos perfect in­ strument s o $8 lj.3

Alessandro G-agliano worked from c0 1693 to e0 1730 in Haplesp.. His son9 NxcolOp made some remarkable :vM.oneellos similar to those of Stradivario

David Tecchier was a contemporary of Stradivari who

i}.2 9 Grove * s Dictionary^ op o cit e s v 0 111 9 pp 0 756=757 ijjlo Oo Eaester9 ©po eit o9 ppo 169=170 worked in Rome for about fifty years» He beeame famous by making superior violoncellos mostly in large■size and fine . basses <,

: . Seleefion of ¥oodo The proper sel-ection of timber' was held to be a matter of great importance by the instru™ ; : ment makers o - The maple used by the Italian makers was- im=, - ported from Groatieg Dalmatia and Turkey in the shape of galley: oars 0 The deal was, selected from the southern side of the mountains of Italian Switzerland and the Tyrol« Gaspare da Sal© preferred the use of pear-wood as well as, sycamore s which he cut slab wise, as was the custom in his :v days o Stradivari : - was partial to maple but later on he employed poplar, lime and grained pine as did his contempt

vorarieSd A special kind of red pine, common to the Tyrol, . the so-called $tAzaroleR was favoured with the Cremona mak­ ers o They used only the south side of the tree, the side that was exposed to the drying rays of the suno The timber had to be faultless, free from knots or blemishes and at least ten years old0 It was very important to cut the trees in the proper time when the sap had ceased to flow® Bxperienee. determined that the month of December was the best time for cutting the, tree as the wood which,was cut, during this month was found superior to any cut during other months o The wood had to be cut from between the . bark and heart of the tree o Afterwards it was sawed into, planks and dried in the air and sun for at least six 5>9 years before the Instrument maker could use It with the best resultsa , Due to the problem of finding proper' wood$ instru­ ment makers occasionally made use of old material® 0 ® Raester describes the manner of some makers in solving- the wood problems

18 o = => o it has been found that it is not ab= solutely necessary to range the Alps or the Capathians in search of suitable wood, for many a fine violin and violoneellb have, been made from the wainsCdte or beam of an old-­ time cottage or • mansion 0 «T0 B<, Vuillaume used to roam over Italy arid Switzerland fr@= quently for the sole purpose of picking mp choice bits of pine which had probably formed a part of beam or support in some residence for hundreds of years0 Out of these purchases he undoubtedly made some of his finest instrumentsof8ijli.

: Evolution of the Bow® fhe bow is of oriental 'ori­ gin and retained in its rudimentary state in India to. this day9 as a part of the ravanastronAn improvement came with.the Arabs$ who gave their bows a point where the hair was fastened® In the sixteenth centuryP the bow began to develop further| the sticks sometimes rounds sometimes • pentagonal had become smaller in approaching the head which later was elorigatedo In the seventeenth centurys the art of playing bow-instruments had improved and it was neces­ sary to produce a bow on which it was possible to modify the

Oo Racsters op® eitop p® 12i{. k £ ° Thesis n pp= ll-i . : • .v :V;-' tension of ttte Main by the invention of the or email erne o The. enemalierne was a band of metal divided into notches with a. moveable loop of iron serving; to ©ateh. the nut to one of the • notcheso &t this period the stick was always more or less bent and the head very elongated and ended in a point which was somewhat turned.baeko This type pf bow was used by Corelli and. Vivaldio These two masters lived at the begin­ ning of the eighteenth century and they apparently did not feel the necessity of a flexible stick that would give to their performance'more varied shades of expressiono' They were undoubtedly dominated by -the typical terraced dynamics of the Baroque periodo^(ippo C2) " Tart ini s about 173©s made some improvements in the bow that related to the production of the tone* He made the ■bow from ■lighter wood* adopted the straight sticks shortened the heads and made small longitudinal grooves in that part ■' of the stick which is held in the hand in order to prevent: it from turning between the fingerso

- Francois Tourte (17^-7=1835) gave the bow. its final shape0 ..He discovered that only the fernambuc wood combined . stiffness with lightness 0 Until 1775? neither.the length -nor the weight of bows, nor their conditions of equilibrium , in the hand had been determinedo With the help of perform^ ing artists, ToUrte. fixed the length of the stick of the

' ij,^° Corelli, Oeuvres0 Book IV, opo 6 Part I (Lon° donsAugener Btdoj, 1890) Coneero I » Largo, pp« 2=3 yioipne©!!© at 280.3W or 28 0 7^0 inches o ' &t the same time he : % determined the di.stanee of the. hair from the stick by the. heights of the head and nut 0 He obtained by these propor­ tions a requisite angle to the hair for the strings being touched by the stick0 In these bows the head Mas more ©!©<= ' vated and heavier and cohsequemtly the, weight of. the lower part increased in order to bring the hand near the center of gravity and to put the bow in perfect equilibrium<, in violoncello bows which possess the best equilibrium^ the length of the hair is from 2 3 o^22 to 2hol}.10 inehes and. the center of gravity Is from 6089 to 7=Go7 inches from the nutc . One of his many improvements on. the bow was the employment, of the ferruleo Tourte observed that the hairs of • the bow ; always clustered together in a round mass which detracted from the quality of the s©toads = Tourte conceived the pos= sibility of compelling the hairs to preserve the appear- . > anee of a flat plate by leading them through a ferrule at the hut o He determined the number of hairs- varying be = ■ tween 175 and 2^0 according to the size of the hairso It appears that Tourte8 s bow is the definitive bow0

: . Violoncellists and Composers in Italy. : - .

In answering the third quest ion 9 who :lcontribut ed to the gradual 1 development of ‘ the viol once,lie 9- ;it. i-sr necessary to consider those^dellistsugnd;;,cqmposeps who realized the potential- of the instruments ; v'v' .. i-''; ' - " ■ %7° Fo Jo Pet is s op o cit»$, ppc 116=118 62

Bomeaico Gabrieli! (16^0=1690?) is generally eon” . sidered to be the first performer and eomposer for the riolon= eellOo His .surname was 1 Mingh.eeIn del Viulunzelc In Mbdema the manusGript of some of his soloa for the. violoncello has been preserved * The title is 8fRicercari e Sonate per violoncello di Gabrieli! Domenico chlamato Mingheein del Vinlimzel (Seeolo 3CVII) s 15 gennaros 168968 <> &ecording to S* So Jo van der Straetens ra$he name ricerCe.ri really applies to pieces of imitative counterpoint0. Rieercares French^ rechercher-^meaning to seareh and research for the . ' subjecto During.the seventeenth century it was applied to all sorts of compositions which might with the same amount of reason have been called fantasia or sonata= There are ten ricereari and one canonj none of the pieces bear the supers scription sonatas although that name occurs in 1 ' the title of the boohs and several of the ricereari show distinctly the form of the son- ata in Correlli8 s time0 The compass used in these pieces is: 0=5 but the. a occurs only one® and even the g .and the f are very sparingly usedo The construction of- the pieces seem to • prove that they were written for a flve= stringed instrument 0, o 0 n k B This hypothesis is supported by the fact that at 'this time the neck of both the violoncello and the violin was very shorto This can only mean that position shifting was very rare on both instruments o On the other hands pas= sages and cords frequently occurred in these compositions which made necessary shifts that were quite unusual for that time although ;on a five stringed instrument with a tuning * . C=G=d=g they can be played easily» With a violoncello

l|8o E 0S0J o van der Straeten$ op> eit<> 5 pp 133=13%. 63

tuned this way, the before zaentioned highest note, a could be .played in the seeond position ©n the upper stringc E 0 So Jo van der Straeten gives an example of the rioeroare, mentioned before, for two violoncellos» The constant employment of 16th notes, which occasionally is interrupted by eight, dot­ ted eight and 32nd notes and the character of the melody gives such vitality to the movement 0 The frequent change of , strings, use of chords and skipping bows show not only the influence of the viola da gamba technique, but also that at this time the technique of the violoncelio was in an ex­ perimental stageo However some characteristic cello features can be obs erved in thls rlc ercare e og o,such - as sustained : .: notes, a typical line of melodyo This composition indicates ■ that not a little facility was. required both in handling the bow and controlling the left hand techniqueo^

Domenico Gal11 was a contemporary of Gabrlelli. . He lived in Modena, during the latter part of the seventeenth centuryo He was a man of universal talent and besides being a violoncellist 9 composer, instrument-maker, he was. a sculp­ tor and painter too 0 .. During the 19th century his sonatas •* were discovered in manuscripts, and have the title '’Tratteni- mento Musieale Sopra 11- Violoncello a Solo, Conseerata all * Altezaa Ser ma di I’rancesco II duca di Modona, Reggio,/etc0n (Musical entertainment on the violoncello solo dedicated to

1+9o EoSoJo van der Straeten, opo eito, 'p» 136 61}.

His Serene Highness Francis IT, Duke of Modena, Reggios etCp)„ This work consists of twelve sonatas of a very primitive nature 0 One aria from the fifth sonata is represented in E S® Jo van der Straeten8 s work®^® In this composition it is easy to observe besides the developing violoncello style the effect of the gamba technique in the form of unreasonable skips in the melody line» There are again hints of the de­ veloping cello style, such as the employment of the eantabile which is so natural-for the instrument0

violinist and composer, laid down a firm foundation for the development of violin techniqueo He had the foresight to employ the violoncello in his composition® Because he included a violoncellist on his travels, he certainly contributed to the dissemination of information about the instrument, In his compositions was established the basic principle for the aforementioned imitation of the violin technique, which was acceptable in most respects for the violoncello® The effect of the violin technique on the cello may be observed in Corelli8 s first trio sonatas® For example, in the last movement of his sonata op® 1 Ho® 1, the cello partly gives a sustained note support, partly participates in the delivery of thematic material by pas= sages more natural to its character and therefore more idio-.

Ibid®, po ll}.0 ' . \ . ' ■. 65 matic than the cello solos of his contemporary9 Domenico Gabrieli! la Corelli8 s Concertl Gross! the v&lonoello became a member of the solo concertinoo In the A.llemande ilp0 6 of the Concerto IX, there is no substantial difference be­ tween the technical display of the solo violin and violon­ cello, thus recognizing it as a full-fledged member.of the concertino and paving its way as a solo instrument> The ' limited range of the cello part is remarkable, for it moves within the bass and tenor register and never exceeds the one lined a * ^

Francisschello0 undoubtedly the greatest violon- eelllst of his time, was born about the end of the 17 th - centuryo He did for the violoncello to some extent what Corelli did for the violin and through his extraordinary . performances the instrument was Soon so generally accepted in Italy, that the viola da gamba around 1730 entirely dis­ appeared from the Italian orchestra,, One of the greatest achievements in the technique of violoncello playing was the use of the thumb in finger­ ing, the so-ealled thumb position= The thumb position has been attributed to Francisschello o He also composed for his

51 o A= Corelli,. Oeuvres Book I, opv, 1 & 2 (Don- don:Augener Ltdo.1 8 9 0 ) pp* 7 -1 0 52o Ao Corelli, Oeuvres Book V, opo 6 Part II • (LondontAugener:.I.tdo, 1 8 90 } ppo 173-176^ 5 3 o EoSoJo van der Straeten, op, cit0, p 0 155 66 instrument and acquaintanceship with, a solo of his was one of the reasons why the French artist, Berteau, who established the famous French school, exchanged the gamba for the violon­ cello,, Unfortunately Francissehello8S compositions seem to have disappeared entirelyo

Luigi Boccherini (17^j=l80^) was one of the great= est cello virtuosi of his time =>. In addition, he was a gifted and prolific composer= In Paris the compositions of Bhccherini had such a success s that the Parisian music pub­ lishers undertook the expense of printing all the works al- 5ij. rea^y heardc ■' At the persuasion of the Spanish ambassador in Paris, Boccherini went to Madrid in 176% where he became the chamber virtuoso and composer of the Infanta Bon Luis = When this prince died in 178% Boccherini was appointed Court Kappellmel ster of King Charles 111 of .-Spain, a post which he also filled, under the succeeding king, Charles IV. With the death of the king in 1797 Boccherini lost his posi­ tion and he and his family lived in great need until his deaths . ' . - " ■ ' The total number of his instrumental works is h&7° His published compositions consist of 102 string quartets,

125 string quintets, and 113 of their number with 2 violon­ cellos, h8: trios with'2 violins and violoncello, 12 ■ trios for violin, viola and violoncello, lj.2 pianoforte trios,

.. W. J® van Wasielewski, op. eito, p® 65 •67

12 pianoforte qulsitets, 18 quintets with flute and oboeg 16 sextets* 2 octetss violin works.* 20 symphonies* an opera* 4 cello concertos* 6 sonatas for cello* etc* As a violoncellist he hid more for the development of the cello’s technique than any of the previous cellists 0 He was one of.the first of the Italian school* who empha- 'siz@d the expressive as well as the virtuoso aspect of the violoncelloo He employed long staccato runs and whole pas­ sages in double stopping as well as passages which run a= cross several strings in the higher thumb positions<, This latter feature was taken entirely from the violin» Among his compositions there remain only a few heard in performances todayo The 6 violoncello sonatas have been re-edited by Hiatti* drutsmaeher and his violoncello concertos have also been republished0 The most popular work among these compositions is the B-flat ma.jor Gonc.ertOo. Stra-eten gives the following somewhat snbjeetive reason for the neg­

lect of Boccherini % t$H@ was a simple gaiety of heart* ever flowing melody* elegance of form and a humour which often bordered on frivolity. He was distinctly original in thought* yet it was here where he lacked that "' . deeper, undercurrent and power which are requisite , - to place a work beyong the influence of fashion* and enable it to defy the crushing tooth pf time. Boceherini always wears the powdered firig* the spotless frills and knee-breeches of the times of -V minuets of scrapes and bows abd artificial woes . • and sentimentality. Yet for all that* his geni- ous breaks through these fetters every now and then* producing works of such delightful fresh- ness that they fully deserve to become more generally known o Had it not been for the mighty ; 68

giants who crushed and overshadowed the lighter muse of Boeeherini during the early part of last century9 he would never have fallen into such utter heglect'o"^^ ' ; , : ■ For Italy it was a loss that Boeeherini spent the greater part of his life abroado Had he remained in Italy, he would have probably become the founder of a school of violoncello and do for that instrument what Gore111 and Tart ini had. done •.for the 'vlcliuo

The Violoncellists and Gomposers in Franceo

' Although the violoncello. was probably introduced into France shortly after its appearance, it was used as a simple bass to accompany voices or other instrumentso At the same time the "bass® de' viole" (viola da gamba) was the fashionable instrument during the 17th century, and its techniQue had been greatly developed by such virtuosos as larais s Forqueray, Be Calx and others»

Jean Barriere was one of the first notable French violoncellists who flourished between 173®“1750° - He probably studied under one of the Saint Sains who were the first French solo cellists o In 1736 he visited Rome, where h® studied for three years under Francisschello = Straeten re­ marks Concerning his compositions s "They show a deeided advance on his predecessorss and contain passages which

' BoSo Jo van der Straeten9 opt. bit a, ppo 173=17% might even now be practiced with advantage by.violoncello students » «, «*' . ■ ■ V ' : ' ' ' ' ' ■ . ' ' ■. ‘ Barrier®' and his contemperaryg B@rteaus are looked upon as the founders of the French school of violoncello playingo The use of thumb position was introduced in France about this period,' which originated with Francisschello and ' 57 ' ' :■ ' was suggested by the tremba marina<> In Barriere's com­ positions the thumb position is employed,, while Berteau em­ ployed it more frequently^

Martin Berteau who was born around the beginning of the eighteenth century (d^ 1756) was more important to the establishment of French violoncello school than Barrier© o He began his career as a gambist but upon hearing a cello solo, composed by Francisschello, he exchanged the gamba for the violoncello0 He developed the use of harmon­ ies o Beauty of tone,.sensitivity of phrasing, coupled With attractive personal qualities mad© hini a favourite in the fashionable musical circles of Paris * He wrote four con­ cert os s three sonatas with bass accompaniment 0 He counted among his pupils the most important French violoncellists of the latter part of the 18th century, viz*, Gupis, Janson, Tilliere and the elder Jean Pierre Duporto

Jean Pierre Dunort (17if.lal8l8) was the foremost

58o :EoSoJo van der Btraeten, p0 262 57 q Thesis, pp, 1%-16 70

among Bei?teaia8s; pupilso . He was usually ealled the .elder. Duport (Duport l/aine) to distinguish him from his still more famous brother^ Jean Louis* Their father was a daneing Master in Paris* At age twenty he played with great success at the nConcert Spirituelt$ which led to his appointment in the private band of Prince Conti* He gave up this post in 1769 in order to travel* He visited England and Spain* It was probably on this journey/ as Straeten describes, that the memorable visit took place to the famous FrancissehellOo This meeting is important in that it made Duports the elder, .a connecting link between the old Italian school and the masters of the 19th centuryIn 17 7 3 he went to Berlin, where Frederick the Great engaged him as. his chamber ■ musi =• elan and solo cellist for the opera* He was at the same time the teacher to the future King Frederick William II * In 1786 Duport became the director of the royal chamber music and played, only at Court * Duport composed a Concerto in A=major for the . violoncello, a double Goncerti. for violin and cello, several violoncello sonatas, and three duets for two violoncello* He was praised for his strong, full tone, and .his powerful bowing

Jean Louis Duport (17h9-1819) was the pupil of

' ; , 58c E 0S 0J 0 van der Straeten,- op* cito, ppo27l|-“275 . \: 59o Wo I, von Wasielewskl, op* citog p* 90 71

Ms elder brother<, He had at first chosen the violin as M s instrument,- but his brother’s success ©n the violoncello ap­ parently made M m change from the violin to the violoncello o He made such rapid progress that he soon surpassed his brother<» He made his debut at the Concert Spiritual in - ' ' ' . -i ■ i t - ' ■ : . 1768o He was engaged by Prince G-uemenee for his private band and also by Baron Bagge 0 In 1783 he visited Londons and dur- ing the eighties played in Geneva0 The outbreak of the French Revolution caused Mm- to fly from Paris = He joined his brother in Berlin, where he soon found employment in the

Royal orchestrao In I806 he returned to Paris after seven­ teen years, where he gave a concert with great success« In 1812 he joined the private band of the ex-king, Charles IF of Spain8 who was then living at Marseilles. But when the latter went to Rome, he returned to,Pariso He appeared at several concerts, and had such a great success that he was appointed solo cellist to the Emperor and teacher at the Conservatoire^ He lost the latter post in 1816 but re­ mained in his position at Court of Louis XFI118 s orchestra. Boubtless, Duport was one of the greatest violon­ cellists of all timeo He was aware of the technical development of the violin and transferred to the cello cer­ tain features from the sister instrument. When Viotti. visited Paris in 1782, and Buport heard him, he took this famous artist's characteristic style of playing as M s modelo E. S. J. van der Straeten gives .a short description 72

, of Dmport' 8 art: ' , ‘ •:,, . n¥hat Duper-t possessed in a prominent de= . gr©e was expression.0 411 the days of M s life k@ spent,in trying to overcome the greatest • difficulties and intrieacies of M s instrument in order to produce the simplest pieces in ab= :; ’ solnte perfectiono Like Vlottlg he strove to give dramatic emphasis to qmick and brilliant movement Si, in order, to give a fmll and strong' relief to the sweetness Of the eantllenao w6:0 . > Among his works are four books of sonatas for e@l= lo with bass accompaniment9 three duets for two violoncellos and eight R&irs Varies" with orchestra or quartet aceompani= . menfc 0 He wrote a number of concertos 9 but they are only of historical interest and for the purpose of study= His most important; work is his'l’Bssai sur le doigter du violoncelle et la condiute de 1 8archet9av@e une suite d 8 ©xercise88 (Es­ say on the fingering and bowing of the violoncello with ae~ •compamying exercises)0 It was published during his fesl- denee in Berlin and Potsdam» Wasielewski quotes a part of Duport’s prefaces ; : "I have treated with minute detail the sub- ^ect of double stopsp and this I have done for two reasons s the first is that until now nothing concerning them has been written*, and they are so important for a good player| the secondp be­ cause they have so often served me as an afgu- - mentp for without an established mode of finger­ ings double notes are impossible» In the course of this work things will be met with of w M c h the performance is difficulty but nothing will be presented which is really impracticable e, I am not writing a useless theoryo 1 have put down no scales*,: no figures9 no passages*, no exereisesp without having repeatedly tried them myself i, I caused them to, be repeatedly played '

60o EoSoJo van der Straetenp ©p-o cites p* 278 73

by. my brother9 who was formerly my master, and will ever remain sos as well as by the best of my pmplls In Berlin and Potsdam® I dm therefore thoroughly convlneed that the work contains nothing that may not with ease be clearly and distinctly carried out3 and what at first appears impracticable will : be practicable- for those who will give them­ selves continuous trouble, and make a point of practising a regular course of .fingering0n ■ Ph® .121 exercises at the end of the book are in use todayo One of Duport6s greatest merits was that he estab­ lished a sound system of fingeringo He is very explicit a- bout double stopping, which had never been extensively treat edo • •

; ■ ’ Violoneellists and Comnosers In Germany0 . . - : - . • ’•

The violoncello was introduced into Germany at the beginning of the 17th century0 Robert Haas states the fol= .

.lowing? - : ; / / ' . . ' W ' \ , - , ' ,

■ • ‘ ' -p> l,In der deutschen Instrumentalsuitellasst sich der iijbergang vom^Holzblaser— sum Streicherorehester fruher verfolgen0 In der . : Regel 1st .die;'Wahl der Besetzung wdhl noch den ' Susfuhrenden uberlassen, doch heisst. es dabeis /sonderlich auf Violen zu gebranchen* (Haus- mann l60lp, Prahk 1608, Schein 1617)»-die ; • . ... . ' Streicher sind bereits von Peuerl (1611, 1620, •?auf alien .musikalischen Saitenspielen zu gebrauchen8) und von Posch (1618,1622) ausdruck- ■ .lich.als eigener Spielapparat verlangt o ;4U® ■ inneren GrundeU schilesst man, dass es sich dabei schon um einen Bratachenchor (Violinen, , Bratschen, Celli) und nicht um Gamb en.,.:. handeltee

61 o Wo Jo von Wasielewskl,t op0 citpp o 91=92 62o Dro Robert Haas, Auffuhrungspraxi a der Musik, Handbuch der Muslkwissenschaft (Wildpark-Potsdamslkademische : Verlagsgesellschaft Athenaion MoBoHo 1931) 168 (In the German Instrtmental-suit© o.ecur- zed at an early date the transition from the woodwinds to the string=orchestrao As a rule* the choice of the instruments is still left to the performerss however* thkre is a request moreover5 ^specially to employ viols- (Hausmann l60lj.» Frank 1608* Schein 1617)i the strings are already explicitly demanded,as the particular musical instruments to he used hy Peuerl (1611 * 1620 * !tevery musical string-instruments to em­ ployed^) and hy Posch (I6l8*l622)» On the .basis:of, this one may conclude that it is al­ ready a choice of violins* violas* violoncel­ los rather than of gambas0) In Vienna the cello was introduced about l68o and in the Dresden Royal orchestra in 1709= fhe first soloists on the instrument appear before 1700 * and during'the first half of the l8 th century numerous violoncellists are to be found in Germanyo

*■ Jo' So Bach (168^-1750) during his Oothen period (1717=1723) composed five suites for violoncello» These compositions do not exceed the usual range of the violon­ cello of the periodo The dances are written in the bass and tenor register and are playable mostly in the first positiono The suites were probably composed with the abil­ ity of Co Fo Abel in mindo He was a violoncellist and gam- bist in the Goshen orohesfra* and the father of Carl Friedrich Abel* the last gamba virtuoso during the second half of the 18th centuryo It is possible to assume that . in the choice of tonalities Bach considered the nature of the celloo The two lowest strings (C and G) serve as tonics for three of the suites* and the tonics of the two 75

other smites are in the interval of a second and diminished third (B and E flat) from the lowest note (C) of the instru-. men to . , " - The experimentalism of this period is revealed by Baches fifth smite, in which he required the cellist to tune the fourth string to g instead of a o ^ This : devia-= tion from the normal tuning was not unusual in the first part

of the 18 th century and occasionally a fifth string was added. ' : : ; : Included in the Bach Cello^Suites is a sixth suite, which was originally written for viola pomposa, an instra- ment of his own invention0 He devised this instrument to facilitate the playing of quick passages on the violoncello which went beyond the neck positions$, and consequently be­ yond the technique of the average orchestral player. To

eliminate the necessity of the employment of high positions9 he added a fifth string above the a stringy and at the same.

time reduced the si|© of the instrument to about 78 to 80 centimetres. \ • ' . - . ' V; Even for today’s cello virtuoso this suite presents a problem due to left and right hand technical difficulties = For the left hand it is important to achieve clarity in the running 16 th note passages and the wide interval skips that occur in several cases on different strings. This offers a

' ' ' . 1 : ; 63> l.o So Bach, Solo-Sulten (Leipzig?Edition' Peters, herausgeben von Hugo.Becker),pp. 28=37 ' : 76 challenge for the right hand as wello (App0 03) • In the third Brandenburg Concertos Baeh employed three cellos that alternate between doubling the bass part ' and achieving a fluid independence of their owne Indeed the independent parts may be said to represent a cello chorus0 From a technical standpoints the cello iss for the most partp playable in the first positiono Therefore there are no special,problems regarding left hand technique 0 But there are problems in the execution of the bow technique in passages where the lowest string is followed by the. highest„ (APPo Ci^) This was familiar and inherent in the gamba tech­ nique, but was strange and remote from the nature of the violoncello ■ Bach wrote the sixth' 'Brandenburg' Concerto for two violas j, two viola da gamba9 one violoncello and a double bass and cembalo The absence of violins gives the work a curiously archaic quality» It is significant to compare Bach8 s treatment of the vioioneello with the gamba in this composition o \ In the entire second movement the viola da gamba. does not participate in the ensemble = .In the third movement Bach again seems to favour the cello above the gambao It is used as the basic accompanying instrument9 but also It shares In the treatment of the thematic mater- lalo Obviously Bach8S sensitivity to orehestral color .

6bo J a S » Bacho Concert iro3in G-"dur (heipzig, Bach @eselsehaft9 1871) Vo 19» P» 72 77 motivated him tp use the violoncello more frequently than the viola da gamba with its limited dynamic range and different tone quality*^ , ,

George Friedrich Handel8s (1685=1759) employment of instruments - was probably dictated by the use of those instru­ ments in England where he lived from 1712-1759» He was one of the most practical of composers and an abstract interest in the cello9 for example^ would have had little interest for himo, During the first half of the l8 th century in England the violoncello was exclusively the domain of Italian per­ formers o Burney mentions the name of the elder Cervettos who arrived in England around 1739s

"ooo o and this worthy professor9 who remained in England till the time of M s death* at above a hundreds with i,baoos Lanzetti* Pasqualini* and Gaporales about this times brought the violoncello into favours and made us nice jud­ ges of that instrumento^66 In his nElf Sonaten fur PisteHahdel left It en­ tirely to the performer as to whether he employed cello or gambao In a recent recording of a "cello" sonata by Handel^® the usually reliable. James Lyons perpetuates this mi sconeep-

65o Jo So Bachs Concert Nra 6.in B-dur (Leipzig: Bach Geselschaft* 1 8 7 1 ) Vo 19* ppo 167=192 6 6 0 Charles Burney*. M, General History of Music (New York: Bar court * Brace & CoV* nod0) y(0 2* p 0 1003 67o Handel* Elf Sonaten fur Plote (Kassel and . BaselsBarenrelter Verlag BA~1|B037 Herausgeben von Hans Peter Schmitz* 1955) Serie. IV. 3 .* p. VI 68. Handels Sonata for Cello and Harpsichord (New York:Esoteric Record Inc.) Es-558* CellistSB. Greenwood tion when he states on the record jacket that • ,sHngo Beiehen= tritt in the Cyclopedia edited hy Oscar Thompson and pub­ lished by Dodd, Mead & Company, places the Sonata for harpsi­ chord and cello rather vaguely before 1707”= 'Mr.: Lyons un­ fortunately misquoted Lre Leiehentritt who in the above men­ tioned Cyclopedia states explicitly "Sonata for viola da gambas before 1707 "#

Joho Georg Schetky (17^0-182^) Violoncellist and composer? deserves special attentiono He traveled to Italy and France and at Darmstadt he was engaged in the court orchestra o He went to Hamburg where he appeared, several times on the concert platform and thence in 1770 to Londons where he obtained the patronage, of Johan Christian Bacho He was offered the position of first cellist in Edinburgh? in 1 77 2 o v ■ \ ' His works consist of a number if violoncello con­ certos? duets for yioloncello and violins sonatas for

violoncello and bass 9 and ,s12 duets for violoncellos with some observations and rules for playing the-instrument,,s etCo On the basis of his compositions and contemporary -criticism? Wasielewsky and Straeten come to the conclusion that Schetky was a virtuoso of the first order? who as­ tounded his listeners by playing the first violin part of a string quartet from sight» On the cello he could play

69o Oscar Thompson? The International Cyclopedia of Music and Musicians (Hew York: Dodd? Mead & CoT?1195b) p ” ™ — — ■ ■ : 79

staccato passages with the down bow as well as the.up bow in spite of the fact that he held the bow in gamba fashion (that is9 with the thumb on the top of the nut and the fingers underneath)* This fact shows how strong the gamba influence remained even in 18.00» for Schetky was not the only violon­ cellist holding the bow in gamba fashion* During the second half of the 18th century German Violoncello playing found unusual opportunities for expan- sion as a consequence of the. demand on the part of various p?iheely households* That the violoncello had conclusively w won its battle against the gamba by the second half of the loth century is dramatically indicated by the use made of the instrument by the major composers of the classical period*

Joseph Haydn (1732-1807) wrote his violoncello con­ certo in D major during the eighties* The authorship of this work has recently been questioned and it has been suggested that Anton Kraft9 a' pupil of Haydn and cellist in the Eszterhazy Orchester/was its composero In connection with this 'controversial issues. Geiringer remarks: rto * , o there is nothing among Krafts known, and incidentally rather mediocre, composi­ tions to justify the attribution of a masterpiece like the D major concerto to him, while this work certainly finds a place among the compositiohs of the mature Haydn * o „ = * there is no reason to doubt. Haydn8 s authorship, particularly since the work is listed in the master8s own catalogue»n7© 767” Karl Geiringer2 Haydn a Creative life in Music (lew TorksWo1 ¥* Horton & COo, IncQs ± 9 b cb ) p* 2^6 80

It is perhaps appropriate to mention that Haydn wrote I63 pieces for the barytong a relative of the viola da gambay for Prince Eszterhazy was fond of this unusual string instrmnento Pizzicati and arco notes had to be played simultaneously^ which made the performance on the instrument difficult and awkward,. For these reasons the baryton never attained popularity except in Germany, and in Austria$, where it was cultivated from the latter part of the 17th century to the latter part of the 18th century»

Wo Ao Mozart (1756=1791) It is characteristic that Mozart although, in no way an innovator, did employ the cello in an imaginative way» His uncanny sense of instru­ mental color lead him to further free the cello from its role as a supporting instrumentd For example, in his C= major String Quintet (K0V 0 515) he uses the cello to deliver the theme and adequately divides it (the theme) between the cello and first violin— -the highest and lowest instrument of the ensembleo'^ (Appo 05) In Zerlina9 s aria !?Batti, Batti’1 from Act I of Don Giovanni, Mozart constantly, uses recurring 16th note passages in the violoncello to char- . 72 ' ' ■ ■ ' ■ ■ . aeterize the excitement of Zerlinao (Appo 06) . Ihus in such compositions the violoncello is no

71o Mozart, Strinp;-Quintet, 0-major ( ' & 0V 0 Sl5) (Leipzig?Breitkopf & H&rtel: Michigan: J'» ¥<» Edwards, Arn Arbor, 1955) Vo 28, p. 54- 72o Mozart, Don GiovannisZerlina8 s aria, Batti Batti (LeipzigsBrefekopf & M r t e l ; Michigan:J. Wo Edwards, Ann Arbor, 1955) v 0 15$ PP° 120-127 . longer the modest bass instruments but it has achieved its full potentials This came about as a result of the ground" work of such masters' as Corelli* Boccherinis Buportj, etc0 3 who discovered the innate capabilities of the violoncello»

Various names of the violoncello0 The word vioIon Cello is of comparatively recent origin« The oldest desig­ nation for the instrument appears to have been bass violin* which was still used during the l8th century<, In some of the earlier Corelli sonatas* the violoncello was sometimes designated as violone* although the name was generally ap­ plied to the double bass„ In some works during the 17th century the instrument is called violoncino» Both of the diminutive endings indicate that the instrument is a small violonei It was designated occasionally as violunzel in It fly and violunzen in Germany a in chamber music works of the 18th century and even early in the 19th century* the violoncello part is occasionally referred to as basso or :basse:0; : • ' - : V - .. ■ ' . .. ;;;

.. Various Forms of the Violoncello 0 The pattern of . the violin family has never altered essentially since its first appearance about the middle of the sixteenth century® Slight modifications such as the shape of the f holes a the form of bridge*.the scroll shape* and the proportions of the instrument* rarely deviated in essentials <> However * ' there were attempts to alter the violoncello but these were tmsuceessfui„ In connection with these effortsf Broadlej remarks: , !o o o o(Indeed the proportions of the ; violoncello are so correctj, that every at= tempt to alter the outline by one quarter of . an inch, other parts have to be slightly ad~ justecili" Indeedj, so correct are his proper® , tions that should modern makers attempt to alter the outline by one quarter of an inchj, other parts have to be slightly adjusted^ or the perfect ensemble of beautiful form* ad® ded to rich and lovely tone is bound to . ' - suffer 71,: > Some violoncellos, around 1.7:00,. had five or six strings in order to avoid the use of higher positions <>

The Violoncello Portatile0 The violoncello portat® lie was a variation of the violoncello to make It portable0 The neck with the fingerboard was detachable and could be placed inside the oblong shaped instrument, together with the bridge and tailrpin° The body was two feet long and nine inches wide» , • .

The harmonlcello was an instrument of the cello

type with five gut strings and ten metal strings0

Broadleja The violoncello. Its History, Selection and Adjustmentg lew IcFETSeHWeF'e Sons GB&PIER ¥ »

, GOICHJSIGlf

As is evident from the preceding chapterss the history of the violoncello was closely connected^ first, with that of the viola da gamba, and from approximately 1700 with that of the violino ihe violoncello offered to the playef three very important advantages over the viola da gamba: lo The player on the violoncello•eomld obtain more tone than was possible on the viola da gamba by drawing the bow over a single string0 The upper edge of the bridge of the gambas over which the strings pass9 was so flatly out for chord playings that it was necessary to avoid a strong tone in order to keep from touching the neighboring strings* The bridge on the violoncellos on the contrarys had a more convex form which made possible the part playing with full dynamic range*. In addition to thiss the violoncello was intentionally construeted to produce a more powerful and well balanced tone by using special woods which were cut in layers I and by the pattern and arching o n . the instrument | also by the use of special varnisho : 2, The violoneellois tone quality was better suited to the other members of the changing orchestra o 3 o There was little restriction In the develop^ 8% raent of finger teelmiqu© on the violoncellos beeause the. fingerboard had no frets which had caused a substantial hindrance to the viola da gamba player in cadences9 passage worh5 and position changeso During the 17th eenturya the violoncello occupied a subordinate position and was employed as a bass instrumentg -while the gamba held its place as a sol© instrument and re­ mained in the orchestra longer than any other member of the viol familyo The reasons for this weres : lo The gamba had the largest compass of any bowed instrument g combining both treble and bass in one instrument thus rendering both parts single as well as combined,' 2o The gamba8s tone surpassed in beauty and dy­ namic range all other violss although it was surpassed in volume by the violoncello= The gamba had a silveryg sweet - tone| qualities which were sympathetic to the tastes of the aristocracy during the.17th and 18th centurieso 3<> : The technique of the gamba reached a high de­ gree of perfection while the violoncello in its subordinate role had only rarely appeared as a solo instrument by the end of the 17th centuryo Because of the similarities between the violoncello and the gambas as regards the compass and almost identical distances on the fingerboardg the first players and composers for the cello tried to transfer the achievements of the more developed gamba music to the violoncello.* These experiments partly Mnderedj, partly aided the progress of the ViolomcellOo 4s early as the end of the 17th centuryr, the short­ comings of the viola da gaiaha began to reveal, themselves to performers and with the use of the violoncello as a solo in­ strument, the great struggle between the two instruments be- gamo 4t this time a considerable number of viola da gam- bists exchanged their instruments for the celloe Towards the end of the 17th century and during the early loth century, when the Italian chamber sonata, began to assert its paramount importance in instrumental music, the violoncello adapted the technique of the developed violino This led to a surer system of shifting and a firmer grip of the hand and resulted In a more sonorous tone> As regards the technique of the violoncello it must be admitted that at the beginning of the loth century it had not progressed, with a few exceptions, beyond the elementary stages® Baehus violoncello suites cannot be cited as.proof t© the contraryo In his suites, Bach advanced the technical pos­ sibilities of his time by decades, although they are composed for the neck position which could negate any use of the thumb» As soon as the violoncello was able to free itself . from the influence of the gamba and followed the line of development of the violin, its progress was very rapid, al­ though virtuosi performers appeared at a much later time than on the violin ® Boccherini was the first who directed the technique of the cello Into modern channels by the use of harmonics, arpeggios, and thumb passages up to the high- eat registerso- Duport farther" •developed the technique ef the violoncello and he is credited with having introduced a standard system of fingering which in its essential parts is followed to the present day0 ; Both performers and composers were experimenting in order to develop the resources of the instrumento Often this was accomplished at the expense of musical ideas» This is one reason that w© do not find in the violoncellists8 repertoire today, many original cello compositions from the Baroque period with the exception of the Bach suiteso W® must notg however, assume from that, that the Baroque period ' was unimportanto Batherp it was a time of preparation and ©xperimehtatlon for the violoncelloo As a result of this groundwork$ the nature and possibilities of the instrument were revealed in the following decadess and at the close of the l8 th century it was recognized in every respects as an important solo9 chamber and orchestral instruments,

APPENDIX

Ao An Annotation of Sources in English

Among the available violoncello historiess Wasielew” 8kl*s "The Violoncello and Its History65'' has man^ valuable qualitieso It covers the history of the viola da gamba mak­ ers and players9 and the characteristics of the gamba tech­ nique and literatureo The work gives a description of the development of violoncello technique and the history of the artists who contributed to its improvement and general ac“ ceptanc@0 Howevers this book gives no further information regarding the predecessors of violoncello and instrument- makers which limits its use0 Racster8 s nGhats on Violoncellost! offers more than one would expect from its modest title o Rathers it indi­ cates the style of the book which is enjoyable reading for both amateur and professional0 In spite of its facile tone the author has achieved a profound approach to the sub = Jecto The book covers the history of the precursors of the violoncello from the prehistoric ages through the 18th cen­ tury <> The most important yiblonc@11© makers and famous in­ struments are adequately described^ It should be added, how- ,,ever<, that the work does not contain those eminent cellists,

and composers whose, .contribution made it a respectable solo

instrument

■ 'Str>aeten8s M Hi story of the Vloloneello6Sis a large 9

' two-volume work0 After a short review of the predecessors

of the violone©llos. the author devotes many ehapt.©rs: to. the

history ofr the viola da gamba makers and players <, As a re­

sult much of the work is devoted to the history of e©llistss

and therefore It gives the Impresslpn that th@; work' is only

a biography of cellistso Only two violoncello^makers are

men t lone do . The strength of the book lies in the analysis of

the viola da gamba technique and style and its effect bn the

. violoncello« A' ' .' v l . ■ ' :: . ' ‘ ' Sandy8 s and Porate'r8 s.. “History of the Violin® may •' be used as a basic source because of its detailed descrips

: tioa of the forerunners of the violin« Some of its state- ments. are false in the light of n ew do eument at Ion % ands

therefore^ it must be read with reservations» i

V ■■ V •, ' F 0 J s - Fetis8 “Hotiee -of. Antony Stradivari® gives, more than one might expect from its title» . The work eon** tains a short but well organized description of the precur- sors of. the bqwed-instrmaents 0 The. violin ^makers of the

famous" Italian schools as well as Stradivari8s life and work are discussed in detail»■ ■ Valuable data may be found., regard^

ing the ■■■violoncello:', and the boWo The • nature of the material eovereds coupled with admirable organizations makes this book 89

a . \ -:: V.:v •. , Carl Eng el ^ a "Researches Into the Early History of Violin Family" considers the early period of the bowed in-

.struments s • Ms t o r y . whieh is; most neglected and obscure 0 In

spite of the 19th eentnry publication dates the thorough method of the author makes. this work an indispensable guide for research- workers in this field0 Henry Saint-Ceorgesa "The BowsIts History, Manu-

-faeture and Use" embraces in its entirety the story of the bowo Therefore, it can be used with benefits

Paul StoeMng Is "The Story of the Violin" offers well arranged materials on the precursors of the violin family and instrument “makers 0 ; Earl Geirlng©r?s "Musical Instruments" and Curt

Sachs8 "The History of Musical Instruments" do not offer too many specific detailss but give a logical continuity of the development of stringed instrumentsi

Broadleytg book mainly considers the adjustment and

repairs of violins and violoneelloSo Therefore its -use from '

an historical standpoint is limited* 90 M L L y i T M I I 0 N S

fig 2 A rabianT2a b a b F«g I. T^avanstroh

fig. 5 G r w t h F%6 4 'Re ^ e c

Fig. 1 C. Racster, op. cit., p. 21 Fig. 2 Ibid., p. 29 Fig. 3 E.S.J. van der Straeten, op. cit., p. 2 Fig. 4 0. Racster, op. cit., 44 91

r

Fie,. 5. Vevue

F ig. b VietLe

$

F ig..7 Large Tromba Marina

Fig. 5 Sandys and Forster, op. clt., p. 52 Fig. 6 0. Racster, op. clt., p. 49 Fig. 7 P. Stoevlng, op. clt., p. 46 92

GAM5A

FlO 9 'PlAVlNG. TtOfctTtoN oF TH6 V otA 3>E GAM 5 A

Fig. 8 0. Racster. op. cit., p. 74- Fig. 9 Ibid., p. 80. 93

Fig 10 V i o l o n c e l l o

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fo. MOZT^'RT:Dd>Tv(Lic»vfthni k.V. sa7 w f) : P) i B I B L I O G B 4 P E X

A o Books

■ l.o . Apelg WilliP Harvard .Pi©tionary of toisies Cajabrldges Mas= . ' / sachussetssHarvard University Presss 1 9 4 4 ■■ ’ 2o Baker»8 Bi.ograpMoal Dictionary of. Musicianss Revised and ■ ■ enlarged by Remy Alfred, 'MoAoS Hew York=Bostons G0 Sehirmer p 1919 ' 3o.' - Bauer & Peysers Music Through the Age^s Hew XorksGo Po Putnam8s Sons7 19^6 . /.; Broadley0 Arthura The Violoncello, Its Higtoryg Selection and AdjustmentB Hew YorksSorihner8s Sons , 5 0 Bukofzero Mabfredy Po o - Studieslin Medieval & Benaissance ■ Musicp Hew YorksWo' Wo Horton Company Ine*# 1950 ‘ .. 6o. Burney9 Charles, A General History of Muslo, Hew Yorks Ear courtBrace and Company, 1935"' . 7o Dentp Edwards I o p Handelg Hew YorksAo Ao Wynl Inc», n<>do 8o Einsteino Alfredo A Short History of Music0 translated • from the German, Hew Yorks Alfred 4° Knopf, 19ij-7 9= Engelp Carl, Researches Into the Early History of the ; • - ' ; • Violin Family fl Londg.HoveIlo 0 Ewer &• Go o s l8'83 10o Fergusons Donalds Hog A History of Musical Thought, Hew . YorksAppleton=Gentury-=Croftss Inc0, 19^8 ■ H o FetiSg Fo Jo.s Hot ice of Anthony Stradivari, translated hy John BisEopg~London:William Beeves, l86Ij. • 12o • Geiringer, Earl, Musical Instruments, translated by . : Bernard Miall, Hew York2 Oxford University Presss19li-5 13o Geiringer, Karl9 Haydn'a Creative Life in Musle, Hew York:W,- Wo. Horton & Company] Inc *, 19^6 . 14o Grove8 s Dictionary of Music and Musicians, Edited by Eric Bloomg Bondon:Macmillan & Co c LtdoS 1 9 5 4 - . ■ 97

I^g Handbuch der Musikwiss enschaft^ Instrumentenkunde„ r0 Ift ' v . •-'■■■ von Br « Wilhelm .Heinit zs Wild.park=PotsdarrisA,kademi sphe - ' . Verlagsgeselschaft Athenalon9 1929 ' - 16 a - - Handbuch der M'asikwiBsenso.haft a Anffuhr-un^spraxiSg v 0 8 ;■ von Phb lobert Haass WiXdpark~PotsdamsAkademxieh© : ■ ¥©rlagsgeselschaft i.thenaibng 1931 . 17 o. Handel s Go Poa Elf Sana ten fnr Plnte^ Kassel nnd Basel: Barenr©iter Verlag BA 4003? Heransgeben vqn Hans : . Peter Schmltzs 1955» Serie IV 3 l8.o Kinskjs Georgej, A History of Music in BietureSs Hew Yorks ' " . Dover '.PmbliGationSg Inc<,9 1951 , . .i;\ 19o Lanp?:0 Paulq Henry^ Music in Western Civilization, Hew • • YorklWo Wo Horton &. Company Incog 19%1 ; v . ; 20o Leichentri119 Hug03 Handel9 Stuttgart2 BerlinsDeutsche Verlags-Anstaltg'- 19W^ . v ; 21o Parkhurst and de Bekker0 The Encyclopedia of Music and , MusiciansP New Yorks Grown Publishers9 1937 220 Perdy Ao ScholesV Ihe Oxford Companion to Music g Londong ' ■ : ; Oxford Hniversity-Press j, 1935 ' 23o Racster-g. 01gas Ghats; on Violoncellos0 Philadelphia: J0 B c Bippincott Company9 1907 ■ 2I4-0 Reeaes Gustave s Music in : the Henna i s s anc e, Hew Yorks Wo ; W* Horton & Inco 19 ^ 25» Sachs9 Curt9 History. of Musical Instruments n Hew YorksWo Wo Horton & Company; Inc 09 194-0 . • 26o Sachs5 Curt „ The Commonwealth of Art0 Hew YorksH« Ho ■ Horton & Companys Ihe 0 $, 1 9 ! f ^ 2?o Saint =George r, Henryg The Bow0 Its History, Manufacture and Use,s London: 18The Strad'8 Office? J* Beng & Coo . : " 1909 . ;"■; ': : ■: - ^ - 'v■ y y . ■ : y; y 28o Sandys and Forsterg History of the Violin* LondonsJohn . yRussel Smlthg I8 SI4. ■ ■ ^ ^ i ' . y --. . : ' 29o Sto©vings Pauls- The Story of the Violins London:The . : ; . .. Waiter Scotty Publishing Coos Ltd09 n0de • 30o van der Straeteng Edmunds So Jos History of the Violon- cello9 LondonsWilllam Reeves„ 191k ■ . . 31 o Strunks Oliver s' Source Readings in Music History <, Hew y. . . YorkaWo Wo Horton & Company InGos 1950 ■ , • ■ 32o Thompsons, Oscars The International Cyclopedia ofMusic and Musicians9 New York2Dodd^ Mead and 33 o Waddell 0 Eel on 9 The Wandering; Scholars a low Yorks Henry Holt and GompanyP 1926 ' \ , .

3l|-° von Wasielewskls ¥= Jo s The Violoncello and Its History» translated/by Isobella So E 0 Stigandg LondonsNovello and Oompany Ltd o g 189%. ; /

Bo Music

lo Jo So Bachs Solo°Suiten9 LeipzigsEdition Peterss Heraus« gebeh;yon-Hugo/Becker9 n0do

2o Jo So Bachs Karamerinusika Leipzig9 Bach Geselschaft3 I871 Vo, 19 , ^ ' , ' ' 3= Corelli o Oeuvres Book I„ op=, l and 2„ LondonsAugener Ltdo

lie Corellis Oeuvres Book II3 op® 3 and £cfcrs hondonsAugener : . Ittdo: 1890 ■""/===,,~ ^ ^

5o Corelli s Oeuvres Book IV3 op o 6 Part 9 London s Augener : ■ Ltdo ; . , , , ; 60 Corellis Oeuvres Book Y s opo 6 Part I I London sAugemer

7o Davison Archibald To and Apel Willis Historical Antholo° gy of Music 9 CarnbridgesHarvard University Press s 1949

80 • Handel 5 Elf .Sonaten fur Flate g .Kassel nnd Bag el s Bar em- reiter Verlag BA ij.003 s Herausgeben von Hans Peter ■ Schmitza 1955s Serie IV» 3 9o Handels Sonata for ^Oello" .and Harpsichords Hew Yorks . • Esoteric/Record Ineos E i ° ^ 2 d s: CellistsB/ Greenwood

.Oo Mozarts String-Quintets Cmmajor, K 0 Y c 5l5s Leipzig! .Breitkopf & Hart el | Ml chigan s J <, W = Edwards 9 Ann / / ■ Arbors' 195 $s' Vo ' E S '/, ; ■ 7 ; 11o Mozarts Don Giovannis Ko V 0 527s .LeipzigsBreitkopf:and ' Hartel; Michigan:Jo Wo Edwardsg Ann Arbors 1955sVo ■ 15 . .; r • ■ ■ 12o Parrisjb. & Dills Masterpieces of Hmslo Before 1750a PTew York W 0 Wo .Iprton & Company, Inc®5, 1951 ' , . 13o Scherlng, Arnold, Geschlchte der Musifc In Beiapielen, Leipzig sDruck und Verlag von Breitkopf und Eartel, ; 1931