Music in the World of Islam A Socio-cultural study

Arnnon Shiloah

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British Library Cataloguing in Pııblication Data

Shiloah, Arnnon Music in the world of Islam: a socio-cultural study I. Title 306.4840917671

ISBN O 85967 961 6

Typeset in Sabon by Raven Typesetters, Chester and printed in Great Britain by Biddles Ltd, Guildford 12 Folk Musical Traditions

This chapter primarily refers to those forms of music-making that address broad segments of the population inhabiting the vast area we have been dis­ cussing. In the main, therefore, we are excluding the more eclectic, sophisti­ cated traditions of 'art music', as well as certain forms of religious practice and ciance already treated in previous chapters. Sameone attempting to acquire an overview of the folk traditions prac­ tised in these lands, stretching from Central Asia in the east to North Africa in the west, finds himself confronted with a bewildering multiplicity of musical idiorns and poetic-musical genres. These in turn reflect a wide range of human respanses to varying ecological conditions, and enormous ethnic, linguistic, religious, and economic diversity. Indeed, this intricate mosaic involves peoples belonging to many different ethnic groups and sub-groups who adlıere to diverse deneminations and sects, ranging from Muslim, Sunni, Shı7 and Druze to important religious minorities that include Armenian and Assyrian Christians, Jews, Zoroastrians, Baha'is and Gypsies, They speak and sing in numerous languages, idioms and dialects and live in conditions ranging from desola te arid zorres to flourishing urban centres. Repertories practised by amateurs and professional or semi­ professional specialists, whose activities extend from cities to villages to nomad encampments, have developed countless forms and genres with texts that span a wide gamut of tongues, from colloquial vernaculars to elegant classical forms. As a result of a long process of interaction among peoples who have shared languages such as Arabic, Turkish, Iranian, Kurdish, Berber, individual repertories manifest an overall kinship expressed in lin­ guistic and musical affinities that cut across political boundaries. Taday, therefore, hardly any country has a homogenous folklore. The effect of interaction between certain high folk musical genres and neighbouring urban art-music must also be taken into consideration. In view of the vast arena indicated above, it is clearly impossible for this survey to attempt a full exposition of the almost endless store of folk musi­ cal traditions involved. At best, only salient comman traits and distinctive

154 Fo lk Musical Traditions 15 5 particularities can be singled out. The great importance of poetry and a pre­ dominantly vocal canception of music, closely associated with the memeriz­ ing and declaiming of texts that is characteristic of both namadie and sedentary people of all sociallevels, should nevertheless be stressed; in large measure this alsa pertains to ciance genres that are usually accompanied by singing and clapping (see Chapter 11). The poetry referred to here is less a form of literary expressian than an accompaniment to ceremonial and other events; de facto, however, it is based on consistent forms and methods of composition. Many, many forms and genres of fo lk poetry are sung; in both quantity and fecundity, folk songs surpass classical songs. This prolific rich­ ness finds expressian in the plethora of categories and terminology applied by the folk themselves. The types of music-making include several forms of religious recitation and singing, work songs, narrative, didactic and lyric songs, songs and dances that provide entertainment at weddings and other musical gatherings. In songs and dances of a com.munal nature, responsarial forms are fre­ quently used, which indicates the im portance attributed to audience partici­ pation. Social and group folk songs usually comprise the oldest category and throughout the region they are characterized by relative simplicity and alısence of embellishment, in contrast to later melismatic and variegated treatment. Also, a general distinction is often drawn between long, serious, heavy genres and lighter, more diverting ones.

Worksongs

Among the collective functional songs are work songs that ariginared in an agricultural and rurallife. Songs of cattleherders and shepherds are charac· teristic of the Kazakhs and Kirgiz. Songs mark the ploughing, reaping, threshing and grinciing of grain; among the predominantly agricultural peo­ ples of Tajikistan, Uzbekistan and Turkey, those songs are sametimes antiphonal. The Yemenite mahdjal is primarily a harvest song but it also relates to other collective work such as that of masons; it consists of impro­ vised verses sung by a soloist to which the group repeats an identical refrain after each verse. The musical rhythm, corresponding to the rhythm of the work, has a stimulating effect. The Yemenite women's work song ~Cidi is linked to stripping off the Sorgho foliage; it is a melismatic song performed by a solaisı and group (Lambert 418: 74-80). A remarkable work song is the ifdjeri of the pearl-fishers along the coast of the Persian Gulf, namely in Bahrain, Kuwait and Qatar. The ifdjeri include songs to accompany partic­ ular tasks abcard ship; one of them, the khriib, sung as the anehor is weighed, is of particnlar musical interest because the crew sings the chorus in preternaturally deep voices, akin to Tibetan Lamaİst chanting. The 156 Music in the World of Islam soloist sings on a high pitch while the crew intones a background chant two octaves lower. According to H. Touma, 'an ifdjerf song consists of a series of sections ... each seetion is characterised by the rhythmic structure which accompanies the vocal part, and is named accordingly ... only percussion instruments are used: double-skin drums (tabi and 'mirwas), frame-drum (tiir), little metal cymbals (tııs) and water-ja~s (ghalah)' (Touma 451). This e'nsemble, and the clapping that accompanies it, perforrus highly sophisti­ cated rhythmic patterns.

The performers

In the realm of performing practice, the folk poet-musician specialist has a uniquely important position: both narrator and spokesman, he articulates the moods and aspirations of his fellow men. Without in any way minimiz­ ing the role of non-specialists in cultivating specific song genres, it is arguable that the transmission and constant revitalization of all repertories depend largely on the presence and activities of gifted bards fo und in tribal encampments, villages and towns from Central Asia to North Africa. Whether itinerant or permanently settled inhabitants, in verse and music they interpret the memorable events, customs and manners of their sur­ roundings, enhancing joyous or sorrowful public and private occasions. Among them are professionals, semi-professionals or specialists in one genre or another; they either provide their own poems or paraphrase and present traditional heroic and didactic narratives as well as other song forms. Such a bard is endowed with an exceptionally fine memory, has a good- or at least pleasant- voice, a measure of poetic, dramatic talent, and when singing epic and lyric songs he usually accompanies himselfon a fid­ dle, lute or drum. The bards are known by appellations that usually allude to the type of activity or particnlar genre in which they distinguish themselves. The terms maddiih or meddiih (panegyrist), the naqqiil and the Yemenite nashshiid (singer ·af nashtd) ~nd the like, designare professional performers of reli­ gious poetic genres such as the qa~fdas, nashtds, and tasiib'i~, as well as a wide range of doctrinal verses. The term sh ilir (poet) or s(iz .ş,airler- as he is known in Turkish-speaking areas- meaning poet-musician, who accompa­ nies himselfon the long-necked lu te saz, obviously refers to the poetic talent of the performer. It alsa, however, indicates the predominance of the text over the musical component, as does the term qawwa/ or gawwiil (one who says, for example poetizer), or the Kurdish beytbig (singer of verses) and f?adday (singer of f?ida'- a fo lk poetic genre). Folk Musical Traditions 157

Narrative and didactic songs

The itinerant poet-musician 'iishik (lover), a name that came into being in the sixteenth. century, probably under the influence of Şiifism, is a bard found in the northern highlands of Iran, Anatolia, Afghanistan and Azarbayjan. After having spent a number of years with teachers, whom he serves with utmost respect, he begins to perform in urban coffee houses and private homes. His repertory encompasses short lyric poems with amorous, moral, patriotic or religious content.; it al so includes long narratives (hikaye) in which spoken prose alternates wiith sung verse. He accompanies his songs on the saz and may be joined by other men playing the daff(drum) and/or balahan (double-reed pipes). The 'ashiq, who receives cash from his patrons and listeners, is expected to conduct long sessions: an epic may sametimes last langer than ten consecutive ses:Sions. He must alsa be capable of adapt­ ing and improvising his texts to suit: his audience (Blum 173; Reinhard 445). Other professional and semi-professional performers such as the Balushi dam and /ari, the Kurdish beytbidi and the Khorasani bakhshi play a promi­ nent role in the transmission of narrative songs celebrating the origins and heroic deeds of an outstanding heıro or tribe. In Kurdestan the cantext of epic song is mixed rural and urban, rather than 'tribal'. The Kurdish bard exercised his art in the home of the lllpper classes, in urban tea houses, and in vUlages. Both 'heroic' and 'romantic' narratives included in his repertory serve a didactic purpose. The lranian qesse-khwan and the Turkish hikayeler (story-teller) recount realistic stories in verse or prose, often singing and using extensive vocal mimicry. It should be noted in this respect that the story-teller's art in Turkey and Iran has im portant affinities with the dramatic forms known as pahlavan-kachal (Iranian marionette theatre), orta oyunu (Turkish folk theatre), which include instrumental pieces, and the Turkish karagöz (shadow plays), which contain interpolated songs (Menzel 425; Ritter 349; And 357). In Egypt and elsewhere one finds a singer of narratives known as abü ;~aydfyyah (specialist in relating the story of the life and adventures of Abii :Z:ayd al-Hilali). This romance about the famous Ara b hero is usually performed in the evenings during Ramada n. Most of the above designations refer to poetic forms and indicate the poetic talent of the performer. 'Creativeness', however, often implies skill in adapting or rearranging existing material from the traditional store of poetic and musical motifs and formulae. This in no way detracts from the performer's interrelated talents as poet, composer, singer, instrumentalist, improviser and sametimes actor. 15 8 Music in the World of Islam

Lyric song

Whereas narratives and didactic songs fall largely within the orbit of profes­ sicnal and semi-professional specialists, the intimate, individual singing of 90n-professionals- men and women in all walks of life- is characterized by several types of 'lyric' songs. The caravan song hujayni or djammiilibelongs to the oldest strata of the Bedouin repertory and corresponds to the pre­ Islamic ~udil. This simple caravan and camel song which we have discussed in anather cantext in Chapter 1, with its narrative, nostalgic melody, is said to help break the infinite· desert silence and encourage the lonely traveller and his mount. Among the forrus sung by non-professionals individually or for smail groups of friends are love songs. Lovers are acidressed in the sec­ ond person in the form of a monologue or dialogue, or there may be an actual dialogue between a man and woman as in the Moroccan 'rübi. The Yemenite homayniis both lyric and elegiac; it exalts genteel love, juxtapos­ ing platonic themes with sensuat features. Privately sung love songs belong to the realm of women.

Female musicians

The phenomenon of women singing for other women on various occasions was undoubtedly a way of circumventing restrictions engendered by reli­ gious and social bias that limited their public musical activities. Women's performances encouraged the emergence and crystallization of songs in which the women could express their world of experiences and the female values they upheld. The songs of women, like those of the men, reflect themes of everyday life, including public and political events, individual per­ sonal experiences and various comınıınal happenings. Among the latter, wedding ceremonies are the most important. Many of the wedding songs indicate an attempt to offer the frightened girl, who in traditional societies marries very young, a measure Of psychological preparation and assistance at this crucial turning-point in her life. During the relatively long period prior to the drastic change, a variety of rituals and, above all, songs help to fortify the girl's spirit. There are many types of songs for weddings and other occasions, some of which have specific eelevance and some general­ ized content; they include lyric, humorous and dance songs. The songs are sung in public on occasions of a folk nature and at semi­ private gatherings of women, by either a group or one individual with a good voice. There are also professional performances by female musicians who are specialists in specific genres; particularly notable is the performance of funeral laments and dirges which are considered the province of women who excel as keeners. The Hebrew scriptural text of the Mishna contains a statement setting forth the bond between marriage and death: 'The pipe is Fo lk Musical Traditions 159

for the bride and death'. Interestingly, a suggestion of this bond symbolizing the continuance of a person's existence may be found in the affinity between the Kirghiz kiz uzatuu (a bridallament) and the koshok (funerallament) which is similar to it. Professional performances are given by one or two specialists - the main singer and her 'assistant'. They usually accompany themselves on the region's most characteristically feminine instrument, the frame drum: doira, tiir, bendir or daff. In the Persian Gulf, larger all-female ensembles are knmıı;n as 'adid. White singing at weddings and other family celebrations, they beat out complex rhythms on tiirs (frame drums). Another larger group is the Baghdadian daqqiiqiit (drummers), which at one time was a Jewish ensemble comprising four to five women beating various drums (frame drum, kettle drum and a two-headed drum). The leader of such a little band was noted for her fine voice and, being a talented per­ former, she was the soloist. While :singing she accompanied herselfon smail kettle drums. Besides the drum, which in biblical times already appears as a feminine instrument, in Central Asia and Afghanistan the Jew's or jaw's harp is widely considered an instrument for women and children. In Central Asia, Turkey, Kurdistan, among the Berbers in North Africa and elsewhere, songs and dances are performed by alternating groups of women and men. A few such instances are deseribed in Chapter 11. An im portant aspect stili awaiting thorough and systematic investigation is the extent to which, from the musical standpoint, women's songs differ from those of men. In this respect Bartok's view of the unique and archaic nature of women's music should be noted, as it may well apply to the singing of women in the Arabic amd Islarnic culture. The great composer, who studied the folk songs of Hungary, Romania, Turkey and Biskra in Algeria, was of the opinion that they preserved an ancient strata of song becaı.ise in traditional societies the women who sing are bound to the home: their opportunities for contact with the external world are far fewer than those of the men (Bartok 448: 18).

Strophic forms

In all folk traditions text and music are inseparably linked; the texts are of many types, differing from one arıother in prosodic form, mode of perfor­ mance, and social or musical function. Strophic forrns, particularly qua­ trains with or without refrains, are usually predominant; the number of syllables per line varies, as does the rhyme scheme. The quatrain- known in different places under different names: murabba', rubiYi, muthamman (double quatrain), mubayyat, dubeiti, charbeiti, 'rübi or 'riibi zii'id (aug­ mented)- may be a simple communal song with a limited number of melody types or an ornarnented lyrical sol o song; the rhyrne scheme may be simple, 160 Music in the World of Islam such as AAAB, or ABAB, or AABA, AABB, or may comprise a variety of more complex forms. Certain specific types of quatrain are used by both men and women, alone or alternately, in 'dialogue', 'disputation' and 'com~ petition' songs known as ~iwiir, mu caraefa (Near East), 'rUHi (North Africa), mani (Turkey) and aitis (Central Asia) (Emsheimer 163). In this largely improvisational genre, which also includes certain Turkish and Kurdish dance~songs, two soloists- men or women, sametimes aman and a woman as in the Moroccan 'rübi- professional and semi~professional poet~musi­ cians compete, exehanging improvised verses bound by strict rhythmic and melodic conventions. In the folk poetry ofTajiks, Iranians, Turks, and other peoples, the 'dialogue' is sametimes performed by a single person; certain romances are sung by only one singer who represents the two lovers execut~ ing an exchange of quatrains. Strophic types can include a varied number of lines in a stanza, accom~ modating a varying number of syllables. Cömpared with the Tunisian 'rübi, the Moroccan 'rUhi is more flexible, sametimes having six to seven lines per stanza, similar to the Baghcladi mawwal which has a rhyme scheme of AAABBBA. The Egyptian mawwiil has only five lines, while the Moroccan ranges between three and six. Other than textnal structure and prosody, the smail poetic forms are characterized primarily by the recurrence of certain vowels and consonants, repetition of part or all of a line, interpolation of meaningless syllables, vocatives and expletives, as well as the refrain. The meaningless syllables can be added at the beginning, middle, or end of a line. In some cases, vocables such as the Turkish 'hey' and 'aman', the Arabic 'of', or the Kurdish 'le /ei' or 'lo/o' are used to extend the melodic line; in other Cases, as in same Kurdish songs, the extra vocables may be of langer duration than the text proper. In Hadramant (Yemen) there isa cate­ gory of songs called dana dana; a refrain of meaningless vocables: dana dana ya dani! ya dani dana dana is sung by the audience after each of the soloist's improvised stanzas (Sergeant 427).

Non-strophic forms

Non~strophic forms comprise simple exhortatory or exelamatery single~line or independent-line songs that accompany marches, processions, political manifestations and other special genres such as the Yemenite work songs mahdjal and had ı, or the tansura, hanhunniit and zaghiırıd sung by women on joyful occ~sions. They co~sist of irnprovised verses which start with the interjection ayha or iyha on a high pitch, followed by verses sung in a fast parlanda style, interrupted by the traditional yuyu (ululation or shrill trills). This category includes mo re developed genres such as the qasida or nashıd that reflect the highly regarded classkal poetic form, as well ~s some narra- Folk Musical Traditions 161 tive and epic songs that are popnlar throughout the area and among all dasses of people. They are performed by special bards in nomad encamp­ ments, villages, market-places and urban coffee or tea houses; the perform­ ers often accompany themselves on either fiddle or lute (Hoerburger 428; Alexandru 433; Chadwik 435; Blum 442). In their narratives and epics they celebrate heroic deeds, past events that often carry current political overtones, customs and moral values of their respective groups.

Relation of text to melody

For the folk-singer, text and melody form an integral unit, a cohesion imply­ ing that in most cases they are conceived simultaneously by the same per­ former. Nevertheless, there is a category of skilful musicians who perform verses composed by others. Length of line is often determined by melodic or rhythmic texture; in same instances the text may determine the nature of the melody and rhythm. As a rule, in the different traditions one finds inten­ tional differentiatiori between cruder, simpler, syllabic songs of narrow range, and those that are melismatic and of a more complex texture. The former are usually communal, pedormed at social and group functions; the latter are soloistic, lyrical, and to a large extent fulfil individual and psycho­ logical functions. This category indudes songs in which the melodic compo­ nent seems to prevail (Blum 446). When discussing Maghreban folk music, J. Rouanet claims that vocalizing is the passian of the Maghreban singer and that his pronounced taste for ornamentation leads him to pay little attention to the union of poetry and music; he favours melody at the expense of words. But, he adds, this tendeney is restricted to urban folksingers and does not apply to rural or Berber singing (Rouanet 93: 2902-2906). K. Reinhard stresses the important place occupied in Turkish fo lk music by the class of uzun hava ('lOng melodies') which su persed es the class of kirik hava ('broken melodies') including syllabic and ciance songs. The 'long melodies' are rhythmi.cally free, ornamented, and stress the importance of the melody. Reinhard views the uzun hava as a synthesis of 'Central Asian' and 'Near Eastern' practices (Reinhard 171: 210-212).

Instrumental music and musical in:struments

Most instrumental music is closely linked to singing and dancing. However, same forms of independent folk instrumental music can be found, mainly in Turkey, Iran and Central Asia. The players, incidentally, are usually profes­ sionals who are remunerated for their services. An instrumental ensemble in 162 Music in the World of Islam Iran, for instance, might be composed of tar (a longMnecked fretted lute with five or six strings turred in pairs, i ts double belly covered with two sheepskin membranes), kemenche (a long-necked spike fiddle with three or four strings) or violin, and zarb (goblet-shaped drum). Another combination mighı include sorna (double-reed pipes), qushma (double-clarinet) and kemenche. The Egyptian instrumental enserob le tab! baladı comprises three shawms (ıwo large and one small), a pair of keııİedrums and the cylindrical drum tab! ha/adı, which gives the enserob le its name. Stri.ng instruments include a variety of long-necked lutes. In Iran, Turkey and Central Asia, where they are often used to accompany singing, one finds the dambura or seüir that generally has three strings and a pearMshaped belly; two forms of diitclr with two strings; and, in particular, the halfMpearM shaped siiz (lit. instrument) that has many sizes and a varied number of strings; the smallest, cura, is portable and used by itinerant musicians. A plucked lute called genibrı or gunbrı with a rectangular, skin-covered body and ro und neck is comman in the Maghreb. The spike fiddle exists in many different forms; it is known as rabab in the Near East and North Africa, amzad in Mauritania, kemenche and kopuz in Iran and Turkey and geishek or sarinda in Baluchestan; the larter is a short-necked fiddle with from one to three bowed strings and several resanating drone strings. The fiddle is usually played by singerMpoets to accompany performances of narrative and epic songs. A five-stringed lyre known as simsimiyya or tambura is found araund the Red Sea and the Persian gulf area. Accordinğ to K. Reinhard, Turkish peoples started using string instruments fairly early (Reinhard 171: 125). The aerophones or wind instruments constitute a rich class that includes double-reed pipes with tu bes of conical and cylindrical shape; they are known as sorna or zurna, balaban, ghayta and zukra. The comman combination of this abaeMiike instrument and dohol, dawul or tabi (a barrel drum with two membranes) provides music for dancing, proc~ssions, wed­ dings and other outdoor festive gatherings; in same places it alsa announces the beginning of the Ramadan fast. Simple and double clarinets are known as duzele or zimare, zummiira, qushma, çifte, arghül, mudjwiz, maqriina and 'affiita. There is a variety of flutes named nei or nily, kaval, qassaba, shabbiiba and duduk; as a rule the flute is deemed the appropriate i~·stru­ ment for shepherds and lovers, yet it often accompanies dances and the singing of quatrains. A bagpipe with a double chanter known as nei-arbün, zummara bi-soan, and djirba can stili be found in scattered places, as can long trumpets such as the na(ir and karna. The membranophones or drums are by far the most varied in type and function. They include a variety of frame drums, plain or with metal discs, metal rings, or snares, sııch as the daff, bendtr, daira or doira; barrel drum such as the tabi, mirwas, dohol or dawul; kettledrums naqqiiriit, and goblet drum s darbukka and zarb. The most comman idiophones are struck against one another to accom- Folk Musical Traditions 163 pany dancing. They include the zeng or ~unüdj and tüs (smail copper or bronze cymbals), the chahar pare (four pieces of bone, two held in each hand) which are attached to the thumb and middle finger, one or two pairs of spoons and the iren clappers or c:astanets kariikeb used by the Gniiwa in North Africa. Şa~n is a copper plate: on which female and male singers beat the rhythm with a ring. Jingles (kha/kha/) may be attached to the feet or arms; in South Yemen as we mentioned in Chapter 11 the women attach tiny jingles to their braids so that as they toss their heads, they produce soft metallic sounds. In the Persian Gulf the dancer sews the mangUr (goats' hooves) to a kind of short skirt covering his hips and they strike each other as the performer sways. The great variety of instruments referred to above only partially reflects the bewildering multiplicity of musical idioms, poetic-musical genres, per­ forming practices and ethnic diversi.ty we have attempted to portray in this final chapter. These traditions, which existed well before the advent of Islam, alsa included the musical heritage that evolved in the Arabian Peninsula; it is with them that we embarked on our story. Fallawing the Muslim armies' conquests the folk traditions pursued an independent exis­ tence in the overwhelming shadow of the Great Musical Tradition and its offshoots, in some cases interacting with it or absorbing its influence, and in other cases evading it and mo re or less devotedly elaborating the tradition's arigirral traits. However, while art music has been extensively deseribed and its theory discussed in a multitude of scientific and literary writings, this type of literature has almost entirely ignored folk musical traditions. Viewed against their histarical background these mo re or less old musical strata can supplement and enrich the more general information treated in the earlier chapters of this work.