Urban and Peri-urban Agriculture in Metro Manila:
Resources and Opportunities for Food Production
Mubarik Ali Asian Vegetable Research and Development Center, Shanhua, Tainan, Taiwan Fe Porciuncula Central Luzon State University, Muñoz, Nueva Ecija, Philippines
Funded by Bundesministerium fur wirtschaftliche Zusammenarbeit und Entwicklung (BMZ), Bonn, Germany © 2001 Asian Vegetable Research and Development Center P.O. Box 42, Shanhua, Tainan, Taiwan 741 http://www.avrdc.org.tw
Ali, M., and Porciuncula, F. 2001. Urban and Peri-urban Agricultural Production in Metro Manila: Resources and Opportunities for Vegetable Production. Technical Bulletin No. 26, 45 p.
AVRDC Publication 01-525 ISBN: 92-9058-121 -2 Urban and Peri-urban Agriculture in Metro Manila i
TABLE OF CONTENTS
Foreword ...... iv
Acknowledgements ...... v
Abstract ...... vi
Introduction ...... 1
Geopolitical and Economic Situation ...... 2 Location and geographical zones ...... 2 Political division ...... 3 Climate ...... 4 Occupational structure ...... Poverty ......
Resources ...... 8 Land use ...... 8 Water and its sources ...... 11 Urban agriculture institutions ...... 11
Infrastructure...... 11 Port of Manila ...... 12 Airport ...... 13 Land transport ...... 13
Agriculture Markets and Marketing ...... 14 Types of markets ...... 14 ...... 14 Retail markets ...... 17 ...... 17 Hotels and resta
...... 19
Pollution and Environment ...... 19 Gas pollutants ...... 19 Solid waste ...... 19 ii Table of Contents
Food Demand. Health and Urban Agriculture ...... 22 Food demand ...... 22 Food supply and urban agriculture ...... 25 Seasonality in food supply ...... 29
Characterization of Urban Vegetable Farmers...... 31 Socioeconomic characteristics ...... 31 Migration pattern ...... 31 Household income ...... 31 General farm-related characteristi ...... 32 Farm implements owned ...... 32 Sources of credit ...... 32 Sources of information ...... 32 Living conditions ...... 33 Crops grown ...... 33 .. Soil conditions ...... 34 Cultural management practices ...... 34 Marketing ...... 35 Gender role ...... 35 Constraints ...... 35
Approaches to Improve Urban Agriculture ...... 35 Demand-side approach ...... 36 Supply-side approach ...... 36 Increasing off-season vegetable production ...... 37 Reducing pesticide use ...... 37 Managing crop nutrition ...... 38 Improving agrisupport services ...... 39
Summary and Conclusions ...... 39
References ...... 42
List of Tables
Table 1. Number of squatter households in relation to total households in Metro Manila by city ...... 7 Table 2 . Land use pattern (%)of Metro Manila, 1995 ...... 10 Table 3 . Agricultural commodities shipped (t x 1000) at Manila Harbor (South and North). 1993-97 ...... 13 ... Urban and Peri-urban Agriculture in Metro Manila iii
Table 4. Local sources of fruits and vegetables supplied (% of an individual commodity) to Metro Manila, 1994 ...... 15 Table 5. Terminal, wholesale, and retail markets in Metro Manila ...... 16 Table 6. Mean per capita food consumption in Metro Manila, 1993...... 23 Table 7. Mean daily per capita nutrient intake and percent adequacy in Metro Manila, 1993 ...... 23 Table 8. Daily food and nutrient consumption by professional group in Metro Manila,1993 ...... 24 Table 9. Health indicators for children in Metro Manila,1996 ...... 25 Table 10. Fish production by sector in Metro Manila, 1997-98 ...... 26 Table 11. Vegetable production by crop in Metro Manila, Jan.-Dec. 1997 ...... 27 Table 12. Production and area harvested of leafy vegetables in 1997 from provinces near Metro Manila ...... 28 Table 13. Seasonality in vegetable prices in Metro Manila (average of 1965-97) ...... 30 Table 14. Crops grown and average area planted in three locations in Metro Manila during the dry season, 1999 ...... 33 Table 15. Cultural management practices of major vegetables grown in the study sites during dry season 1999 ...... 34
List of Figures
Fig. 1. Political distribution of Metro Manila, Philippines ...... 2 Fig. 2. Climate of Metro Manila ...... 4 Fig. 3. Population growth in Metro Manila, 1918-98 ...... 5 Fig. 4. Distribution of Metro Manila workers across industries, 1995 ...... 6 Fig. 5. Squatter areas in Metro Manila...... 8 Fig. 6. General land use map of Metro Manila using spot satellite imagery, 1995 ...... 9 Fig. 7. Waste stream in 1996, and projected for 2010 ...... 20 Fig. 8. Waste composition in Metro Manila ...... 21 Fig. 9. Seasonality in overall vegetable prices at the retail and wholesale level in Metro Manila (average of 1986-98) ...... 29 iv Foreword
Foreword
The global migration of people from rural to urban areas is occurring at an alarming rate. Currently about half of the world’s population of 6 billion lives in cities, but predictions are that by 2025 the world population will grow to 8 billion and two-thirds of these people will be living in urban areas. Meeting the needs of these urban residents has emerged as one of the major challenges of the 21st century.
In response, innovative strategies for food production in urban and peri-urban areas associated with large cities are being formulated. Often these production strategies are initiated without sufficient analyses of the resources and opportunities available for sustaining agricultural activities in a given urban area.
The type of analysis provided in this report on Metro Manila provides the essential information and general guidelines that are required when planning agricultural activities in and around a city. It is a complete summary of demography, climate, institutions, and physical resources available to produce food within Metro Manila. It includes an evaluation of implications of urban agriculture on food supply, income generation, job creation, and environmental pollution. This bulletin describes economically viable and.environmentally sound options for assisting urban poor through greater access to affordable food and productive jobs.
I hope that those engaged in urban and peri-urban agriculture production and those who make policies governing these areas enjoy reading this unique analysis of one of the most densely populated mega cities in the world. I encourage those addressing the potential of urban and peri-urban agriculture in other cities to conduct similar analyses prior to implementing production strategies. Such analyses will improve the chances of developing effective urban and peri-urban agriculture programs that will maximize the return on resources allocated to help the urban poor.
Lowell L. Black Director Program II Urban and Peri-urban Agriculture in Metro Manila V
Acknowledgements
Many researchers and organizations assisted in completing this report. The initiative was taken with the encouragement and financial support of Bundesministerium fur wirtschaftliche Zusammenarbeit und Entwicklung (BMZ).’ The authors specifically acknowledge the encouragement and support of Dr. Lowell Black, Director of Program II: Year-round Vegetable Production Systems, throughout this study. We also appreciate the logistical support provided by Dr. James Burleigh, the Philippine Site Coordinator for AVRDC’s Manila Peri-urban Vegetable Production Systems Project.
The authors are grateful to the entire group of economists working on this project, especially Rodolfo Antalan Jr. and Joseph Batac, for collecting data from numerous organizations and conducting a survey on urban farmers in Manila.
The authors also acknowledge the help of Wu Mei-huey for assisting in the analysis and Chen Mei-hong for typing and layout. We would like to thank Dr. Thomas Kalb, Liou Yung-chi, and Chen Ming-che for editing and artwork.
1 This publication is based on studies conducted as a part of a project entitled ‘Development of Peri-urban Vegetable Production Systems for Sustainable Year-round Supplies to Tropical Asian Cities’ funded by BMZ project no. 96.7860.8-001 .00, contract no. 8 10 14265 vi Abstract
Abstract
About one million unemployed or underemployed people in Metro Manila, Philippines, do not have enough money to purchase sufficient food and other necessities of life. As a result, the diets of these people are seriously deficient in major nutrients and essential micronutrients. Residents of Metro Manila are also exposed to many types of pollutants. Relevant urban and peri-urban agriculture activities can offer partial solutions to some of these problems.
For effective planning of these activities, however, the opportunities and resources available in a city for urban and peri-urban agriculture need to be explored. This study investigates the geography, climate, demographics, resources, infrastructure and marketing networks of Metro Manila. It reveals that not enough land and water are available in Metro Manila for crop production on a scale that would be of any real benefit to the urban poor. If, however, urban agriculture is considered in a broader sense, i.e., to include small-scale livestock and poultry production, indoor crop production, farm-product processing, and marketing activities, then it can generate gainful employment for the urban poor of Metro Manila. This approach has been adopted by the Department of Agriculture. The department plans to distribute broilers, ornamental and nutritive vegetable seedlings, and spawn for mushroom culture (all for indoor and backyard cultivation) to boost such activities. There is a need to investigate the environmental implications of these activities in the inner city.
Another way to help the urban poor is to reduce the cost of food through the introduction of new technologies into surrounding areas that supply food to Metro Manila. The Asian Vegetable Research and Development Center (AVRDC) has adopted this approach by initiating a vegetable development project in the province of Nueva Ecija, a nearby important vegetable production area for supplies of perishable vegetables to the Metro Manila market. The major goals of this project are to reduce seasonal fluctuations in vegetable supply, reduce pesticide inputs and residues, partly replace inorganic with organic fertilizers, and improve profitability. To accomplish these goals, various technologies are being tested at the site. These technologies are high yielding, inexpensive, stress-tolerant, environmentally friendly, and resource sustainable. Input-output marketing systems and efficiency are being studied, and system models are being formulated to simulate the environments for technology adoption and to enhance vegetable supplies to Metro Manila. Farmers are being trained to adapt new technologies to their own environments. This approach can make vegetables cheaper and safer for the urban poor, while providing a viable alternative to migration into the inner city.
The analysis in this study provides general guidelines that can be used as a model in any city’s plans for agricultural activities to assist its poor. Such analysis requires a thorough investigation of urban and peri-urban activities, trends in the availability of land and water resources of the city, geopolitical environment, and links of agriculture production centers around the city with the city markets. Before starting any such activity, economic viability including environmental costs need to be worked out. Urban and Peri-urban Agriculture in Metro Manila 1
In t rodu c t io n
Throughout developing countries, out-migration from rural areas has caused high rates of urban population growth. In 1995 about 2.8 billion people (almost one-half of the world’s population) lived in urban areas; by 2025 as many as 5.3 billion people (about two-thirds of the world’s projected population) will be living in urban areas (UNFPA 1996). In 1995, 43% of the world’s urban population (1.2 billion people) lived in Asia, and by 2025 Asian cities will be home to 2.7 billion people (51% of the world’s urban population).
People living in cities of South and Southeast Asia already face serious problems.. Employment opportunities are scarce, and migrants from rural communities are often poorly educated and ill-prepared for jobs that require modern skills and knowledge. Refuses from households, commerce and industries are becoming increasingly difficult to dispose of safely. The poor cannot afford to buy enough food to provide an adequate nutritional diet.
Climate change (such as the El Niño effect) has further threatened food security of the urban poor worldwide. This has led to reduced food production and higher prices of essential food products. The worsening economic situation, particularly in Asia, has further reduced employment opportunities for poor urban families.
Metropolitan Manila (Metro Manila) in the Philippines, one of the largest urban areas in Asia, is no exception. About 25% of Metro Manila families live as squatters in so-called “blight ,infested areas”, where living conditions are unacceptable (Joshi 1997; MMDA 1996). These people need special help to gain access to affordable food and job opportunities.
Most urban poor have agricultural skills because they migrated from rural communities, but they do not have enough capital to start their own economic activity. Urban and peri-urban agriculture, therefore, is perceived as a way of providing help by engaging them in productive activities, and supplying them low-cost food at least during the transitional period. Food is a major cost for the- urban poor, so reducing this cost by engaging them in urban and peri-urban agriculture can be a useful strategy to save their resources for additional human and capital development.
The degree to which urban and peri-urban agriculture can help the urban poor and supply the food needs of a city depends upon the geopolitical environment and resources of the city. These links were studied in Metro Manila, a densely populated city in the tropics. For this purpose, we reviewed the geopolitical environment, networks of resources, infrastructure, marketing types and channels, and the supply and demand of food of the city. In an attempt to identify constraints of its urban agriculture, the vegetable farmers in the city are characterized. Under the limitations and constraints identified, two approaches to help urban poor through urban and peri-urban agriculture are discussed. Mostly secondary data sources were used in this study, except for the characterization of urban vegetable farmers where we conducted our own survey. 2 Geopolitical and Economic Situation
Geopolitical and Economic Environment
Location and geographical zones
Metro Manila lies on Luzon Island at latitude 14°35’ and longitude 121°E. The flat alluvial and deltaic lands of Metro Manila extend from the mouth of the Pasig River in the west to rugged mountains in the east. The area is bounded by Manila Bay in the west, the larger and fertile plains of Central Luzon in the north, Laguna and Cavite provinces in the south, and Laguna Lake in the southeast (Fig. 1).
FIRST DISTRICT City of Manila
SECOND DISTRICT Mandaluyong City Marikina City Pasig City Quezon City San Juan
THIRD DISTRICT Upper Kalookan City Lower Kalookan City Malabon Navotas Valenzuela City
FOURTH DISTRICT Las Pinas City Makati City Muntinlupa City Paranaque City Pasay City Pateros Taguig
Fig. 1. Political division of Metro Manila, Philippines Urban and Peri-urban Agriculture in Metro Manila 3
Metro Manila can be subdivided into six geographic zones: Manila Bay, Coastal Margin (and reclaimed land), Marikina Valley, Guadalupe Plateau, Laguna Lowlands, and Laguna Lake. Three major river systems run through the metropolis: Pasig, the Tenejeros, and Malabon (MMDA 1996).
The Coastal Margin, located mainly along Manila Bay, possesses resources for offshore fisheries. North of the coastal margin is the fertile Pampanga estuary, which has resources for fishpond development. The scenic shoreline has potential for tourism and recreation, and the reclaimed land is suitable for urban development.
The Marikina Valley has fertile land suitable for crop cultivation. Its groundwater resources are plentiful, and there is little possibility of saltwater intrusion. The Marikina River provides adequate water for industrial uses and is also a source to discharge waste water. Several areas in the valley are flooded during the rainy season, which reduces their suitability for vegetable cultivation.
The Guadalupe Plateau is considered the most suitable zone for urban development. Most of Metro Manila rests on this plateau, which extends from Batangas and Laguna in the south to Central Luzon in the north.
The Laguna Lowlands is a fertile area south of Metro Manila, and was once considered a center of urban agriculture. Housing developments have turned the green fields into residential communities.
Laguna Lake is shallow, and serves as a natural reservoir for discharges from surrounding streams. The lake's only outlets are via the Napindan Channel and Pasig River.
Political division
Metropolitan Manila is divided into four districts, with 12 cities and five municipalities (Fig. 1). The cities and municipalities are further divided into 1713 smaller administrative units called barangays (NSO 1996).
Climate
The average monthly rainfall, maximum and minimum temperatures, and humidity are given in Fig. 2. Three distinct seasons can be described as follows: The early dry season from November to February has maximum temperatures of 30°C, with minimum night temperatures around 22°C, and less than 150 mm rainfall. The late dry season (March to May) is hotter with minimum and maximum temperatures about 2°C difference. The wet season from June to October has minimum and maximum temperatures similar to the early dry season, but with monthly mean rainfall of 225-450 mm. 4 Geopolitical and Economic Situation
500 90 450 80 400 70 350 Rainfall (mm)
- 40 Maximum (day) temperature ( Y - 150 t 30 - al 100 Minimum (night) temperature (°C) 20 E 50 - 10 0 I I I 10 Jan. Feb. Mar. Apr. May Jun. Jul. Aug. Sept Oct Nov. Dec. Month
Fig. 2. Climate of Metro Manila
Note: Average of three meteorological stations in Metro Manila during 1961-97 Source: Official files of the Philippine Atmospheric, Geophysical,and Astronomic Services Admin
Typhoons frequently occur in Metro Manila during the wet season. Because of the low- lying nature of much of the area, typhoons cause property losses averaging about US$25 million annually, directly affecting about 1.9 million people (MMDA 1996). Urban agriculture must, therefore, be able to tolerate drought in the early dry season, drought and high temperatures in the late dry season, and typhoons and flooding in the wet season.
Demographics
The population of Metro Manila in September 1995 was 9.454 million, which had increased at an annual rate of 3.3% during 1990-95 (NSCB 1998). Assuming this growth rate continued, population in 1998 was about 10.7 million. Fast population growth is not a new phenomenon for Metro Manila. The population in 1918 was 0.461 million, and it almost doubled successively in 1939, 1954, 1970 and 1990 (Fig. 3). This rapid growth puts enormous pressures on basic services such as water, electricity, waste disposal, health care, education. and recreation.
Metro Manila receives an increasingly higher number of migrants from the provinces, leading to a 1% higher rate of population growth in Metro Manila compared to the nation as a whole. The population density of about 16,800 people/km² in 1998 was 64 times the national average, and one of the highest on earth. Urban and Peri-urban Agriculture in Metro Manila 5
I I I I I 1910 1920 1930 1940 1950 1960 1970 1980 1990 2000 Year Fig. 3. Population growth in Metro Manila, 1918-98
Source: NSO (1996)
Metro Manila had 1.987 million households in 1995, up from 1.570 million in 1990 (NSO 1991, 1996). Over the same period, average family size decreased from 5.0 to 4.7 persons. The ratio of males to females in 1995 was 49:5 1. More than one-quarter of the population in 1995 was in the nonproductive group (age groups 1-9 years [23.4%] and above 60 years [4.4%]).
More than 100 local languages and dialects are spoken in Metro Manila, although 75% speak Tagalog; 2.4% Ilongo, while other languages are spoken by relatively few people. Between 80 and 85% of Filipinos speak English, which makes it easier for them to learn advanced technologies.
The literacy rate in Metro Manila is 95%, which is one of the highest in South and Southeast Asia. Over one-third of the population above 5 years old are either in high school, or have graduated from high school. About 12% are college graduates, and another 14% hold academic degrees (NCO 1995). This suggests the Metro Manila population is well prepared to take on technical jobs in agriculture and industry.
Occupational structure
During 1998, 4.355 million people were actively seeking work, or were engaged in productive activities. Only 85% (3.702 million) had jobs. About 0.341 million people were underemployed (NSCB 1999). Thus, the economic activities in Metro Manila failed to produce sufficient work for about 1 million people.
Urbanization, however, has assumed such a frenetic pace that more than 98% of the working population in Metro Manila now are engaged in nonagricultural occupations. Community services (including both formal and informal services) represent the largest single employment sector at 33.9% (Fig. 4).
Urban and Peri-urban Agriculture in Metro Manila 7
Table 1. Number of squatter households in relation to total households in Metro Manila by city Areallocation Squatter households Total households Percentage of total NORTH Kalookan1 83,638 21 5,122 38.9 Navotas 18,483 49,471 37.4 Valenzuela 16,551 94,377 17.5 Malabon 22.094 74.657 29.6 EAST Quezon City 19,849 415,788 4.8 Pasig 15,978 104,242 15.3 Marikina 2,044 73.617 2.8 WEST Manila 91,356 347,173 26.3 Mandaluyong 19,460 61,096 31.9 San Juan 1,343 25,694 5.2 Makati 15,906 100,922 15.8 SOUTH Pasay 21,915 86,253 25.4 Parañaque 23,666 82,692 28.6 Muntinlupa 35,132 83,341 42.2 Las Piñas 17,527 82,618 21.2 Pateros 2,100 1 1,377 18.5 Taguig 25,408 79,217 32.1
Grand total 432,450 1,998,970 21.8 Source: Squatter households from MMDA (1996) and total households from NSO (1996) 1 Kalookan includes both upper and lower Kalookan
About 15% of the squatters reside in the so-called dangerous zone (where living conditions are hazardous, e.g. on the bank of unfenced drainage canals), 40% in public areas (under bridges, in school buildings), 23% on government lands, and the remaining 22% on private property (MMDA 1996).
Per capita annual income of Metro Manila residents was about US$1000 in 1997 (Anon. 1999d). However, 9.6% of the residents (about 1 million people) were living below the poverty-line level of US$484, and about 110,000 were not earning enough to meet the subsistence food threshold income of US$300 (NSCB 1998). Most poor people lived in squatter communities and about 39% of this group were employed in the informal service sector (Joshi 1997). 8 Geopolitical and Economic Situation
Fig. 5. Squatter areas in Metro Manila
MANILA BAY
Urban area, 1948 Urban area, 1966 Urban area 1975 Squatter locations
Over 118,000 children (58% female) between 5 and 17 years of age were working in Metro Manila in 1995 (NSO 1995), and 78.5% of them were earning less than US$2 per day. About 27.5% of the male children and 45% of the female children were permanently employed. Working conditions for child Iaborers are poor and hazardous. Urban agriculture activity may improve not only their income level, but also their job. security and working conditions.
Resources
Land use
Land use in Metro Manila is shown in Fig. 6 and Table 2. Metro Manila has a total land area of approximately 636 km², with about 44 km² prone to flooding (MMDA 1996). More than 41% of the total land was used for residential buildings in 1995. Agriculture occupied only 3.9%, down from 14% in 1985. Another 2% was used for fish ponds. Small- and medium-scale industries are scattered throughout Metro Manila, occupying 7.3% of the land area. These industries are sources of fixed-point pollution. About 15% of the land is vacant (mainly concentrated in Quezon and Las Piñas). Provided that the property rights issues are properly handled, a part of this land could be brought under urban agriculture. a 0 3
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Water and its sources
Metro Manila’s water supply, historically, has depended mainly on groundwater. Another source is the Angat River dam in the province of Bulacan. Increases in water supply has not matched the increases in population, and daily per capita availability of water has declined sharply from 177 liters in 1984 to 135 liters in 1998 (Anon. 1999a). Moreover, the quality of the water has deteriorated and the cost of water has increased. The excessive pumping of groundwater has caused a widespread decline of water levels and pressures in artesian aquifers, resulting in salt water intrusion into aquifers in coastal areas and abandonment of tubewells. In 1991, for example, out of 258 deep wells managed by the Metropolitan Waterworks and Sewerage System (MWSS), 52 were abandoned and 72 were inactivated. Seeking fresh water in deeper aquifers is defeated by the intrusion of salt water (JAICA and MWSS 1992).
To compensate for losses from salt-intruded wells and to increase the water supply in areas covered by its central distribution system, the MWSS implemented the Angat Water Supply Optimization Project. For areas where no further surface-water supply plan exists, two projects - ‘Fringe Areas Water Supply Project’ and ‘Rizal Province Water Supply Improvement Project’ - using groundwater sources are currently implemented.
The current daily water supply of 135 liters per person is barely enough for normal household use. Unless sewage water can be treated to make it suitable for crop cultivation, water shortage may be a serious constraint for urban agriculture. Our discussions with the MWSS indicate that no such treatment project or plan is currently being considered.
Fisheries are not affected by this shortage of water, as they can make use of marine ponds.
Urban agriculture institutions
No specific department/ministry is responsible for the development of urban agriculture in Metro Manila. The Department of Agriculture handles projects related to urban agriculture along with its other projects and programs. The University of the Philippines at Los Baños (UPLB), one of the largest and best known agriculture universities in Asia, is only 60 km from Metro Manila. It is affiliated with the International Rice Research Institute, known for revolutionizing rice production throughout Asia.
Infrastructure
Metro Manila is the seat of the national government and the main hub for business and trade. Located in the metropolis are the nation’s biggest and busiest transportation terminals, including the Port of Manila, Manila International Airport, domestic airport and railway terminal, and several bus lines linking Metro Manila to many points around the country, including far provinces in Mindanao. The communication and transportation system, although presently inadequate, connects all corners of Metro Manila and provinces nationwide. The regional and international telephone system in Metro Manila is extensive, 12 Infrastructure and is hooked up to local telephone systems. Central offices of print media and broadcast stations also link Metro Manila to provinces nationwide, but few if any of the broadcast programs or print media are related to urban agriculture. Recently, however, newspapers have highlighted some of AVRDC’s modern technologies being introduced in the peri- urban vegetable production system of Metro Manila (Anon. 1999b, 1999c). In January 1999, TV programs on grafted tomato technologies generated interest among vegetable farmers throughout the Philippines.
Port of Manila
The Port of Manila is the biggest and busiest in the country. The port has three units: South Harbor and Pasig River Pier, North Harbor, and Manila International Container Terminal (MICT) (Caddarao et al. 1993).
South Harbor occupies an area of 85 ha, excluding the wharf zone. Storage areas include transit sheds (36,000 m²) and warehouses (35,000 m²). The Pasig River cuts across commercial districts and factories in Manila, and serves as a channel for the movement of agricultural and nonagricultural commodities. The Pasig River has some bridges with low vertical clearance, and some narrow stretches, so its use is limited to small vessels and barges. The presence of privately owned grain silos along the Pasig River makes it an important channel for the movement of grains from the North and South Harbors.
The North Harbor is located along the shoreline of Manila city (called Tondo) on a 30-ha area with a quay length of 4000 m. It is a major harbor for the transport of agricultural commodities coming from, or going to, provinces in Visayas and Mindanao. The MICT is for international containerized cargo, 20-, 40-, or 45-foot containers. Containerized cargoes shipped from North Harbor and MICT include fertilizer, chemicals, personal effects, and auto parts.
In all three units of the Port of Manila, the shipment of grains, fruits, and vegetables is reduced during typhoon months. Shippers shoulder the risk of fruit and vegetable spoilage when inclement weather prolongs shipping time. The lack of appropriate post-harvest and handling facilities often hampers efforts to reduce spoilage. Except for Solid Lines, containers of all shipping companies do not provide aeration.
A wide range of fruits, including banana, pomelo, durian, mango, lanzone, calamansi, watermelon, guava and pineapple from provinces in Visayas and Mindanao enter Metro Manila through the port. Vegetables that can withstand long travel times are normally shipped to and from Manila in large quantities. Most vegetables are shipped in containers.
In 1997, 1.8 million t of agricultural commodities were loadedunloaded at the South and North Harbors. Shipments of agricultural commodities are increasing (Table 3), especially fruits and vegetables to and from foreign destinations. Shipment facilities may be modern in Metro Manila, but they are primitive in the provinces. Consequently, shipment costs from provinces increase dramatically. It is sometimes cheaper to import an agricultural commodity from abroad rather than from the provinces. Urban and Peri-urban Agriculture in Metro Manila 13
Table 3. Agricultural commodities shipped (t x 1000) at Manila Harbor (South and North), 1993-97 Year Fruits and vegetables Cereals¹ Grand total Domestic Foreign Total Domestic Foreign Total Domestic Foreign Total 1993 302 77 379 420 409 562 722 486 942 1994 394 158 552 392 204 396 786 362 948 1995 314 137 450 398 448 659 71 1 584 1109 1996 480 328 809 51 2 659 1368 992 987 2177 1997 574 383 957 399 555 852 972 938 1809 Cereals include corn (unmilled) and rice (in husk or husked) Source: Official files of Philippines Port Authority
Airport
The main airports in Metro Manila are the Manila Domestic Airport and the Ninoy Aquino International Airport. The domestic airport has passenger and domestic cargo terminals. The four domestic carriers operating in Metro Manila are Philippine Airlines (PAL), Aboitiz Air, Pacific Air and Cebu Pacific. These carriers have a total of 150 daily flights linking Metro Manila to 43 cities and towns throughout the country, and carry about 90% of the fruits and vegetables shipped by air. When PAL is unable to accommodate additional shipments of fruits and vegetables, shippers opt for Aboitiz Air, but at 20% higher cost. Pacific Air, another privately owned airline, specializes in the shipment of perishable marine products such as prawn and fish. It also provides seeding services to large plantations such as the Del Monte pineapple plantation in Bukidnon (Caddarao et al. 1993).
Movement of agricultural commodities by air contributes substantially to the Metro Manila economy. Its importance lies in reducing spoilage by providing fast transport of highly perishable fruits and vegetables; and in being the only mode of transportation during the typhoon season when shipment by sea becomes irregular.
The major sources of fruits and vegetables airlifted to Metro Manila are Davao, Cebu, Cagayan de Oro, and Iloilo. Internal movement of fruits and vegetables from provinces to Metro Manila through this means is restricted because of poor storage facilities at airports in the provinces. The monopoly of PAL also limits such movements.
Exports of fruits and vegetables, mainly to Japan, Singapore, and Hong Kong, are airlifted. There is no restriction on such exports, but the quality usually does not meet high international hygienic requirements. Exports are, therefore, limited.
Land transport
In general, only small volumes of fruits and vegetables are transported by railway, except bananas and oranges (Singkon variety). Most agricultural commodities from provinces in Luzon are transported by truck, jeepney (modified jeep), and bus. Within Metro Manila, agricultural commodities are transported mainly by jeepney and car. 14 Agriculture Markets and Marketing
Agriculture Markets and Marketing
Agricultural commodities flow into Metro Manila through various means from many provinces. The major transshipment points are Cebu, Cagayan de Oro City, Davao City, and Iloilo. Nueva Ecija is the closest province and is the major source of vegetables to Metro Manila, providing 17% of the total supply (Table 4).
Metro Manila has more than 200 markets, ranging from small local ones (called Talipapa markets) to huge wholesale wet markets. The metropolis has one terminal market, eight wholesale markets, and 19 large retail markets each trading partially or wholly in agriculture and livestock commodities. These markets are well distributed throughout the city (Table 5). In addition, there are numerous supermarkets, about 124 hotels, and 107 restaurants accredited by the Department of Tourism.
Types of markets
Terminal market
Manila’s terminal market is the Divisoria Market, strategically located near the North Harbor and also highly accessible to road/land vehicles from southern and northern Luzon. Its proximity to transport/exit points makes it an ideal landing site for agricultural commodities and a terminal market for bulk trading.
Wholesale markets
Trading in wholesale markets, especially of temperate fruits and vegetables, is normally done between 1 and 6 a.m. Tropical fruits and vegetables may be sold immediately upon arrival. They normally come from the low-lying neighboring provinces. Temperate types come from as far as Mindanao and Baguio, and can be stored for couple of days before sale. Traders usually buy unripe green fruits, especially banana and papaya, to minimize spoilage and damage, and apply calcium carbide to hasten ripening. Commodities brought to wholesale markets are generally graded according to buyers’ specifications before they are packed and delivered. Traders sometimes do minor sorting, cleaning, repacking, and grading for uniformity.
The Valenzuela wholesale market is exclusively for cooperative farmers. It was created to enhance marketing management skills among cooperative farmers using modern trading, postharvesting equipment, good packaging material, and government subsidized transportation.
Separate segments usually exist in each market for fruits, vegetables, livestock products, and grains, when they are all traded in the same markets. Such areas are also identified by the provincial origin of traders because traders from the same province usually trade common agricultural commodities (for example, tropical vegetables from Laguna and temperate from Baguio). Ti-
' ObTi-000 # # 16 Agriculture Markets and Marketing
Table 5. Terminal, wholesale, and retail markets in Metro Manila A. Divisoria Terminal Market In Manila city near the North Harbor B. Wholesale Markets Northwest sector Valenzuela Wholesale Market (vegetables) Northeast sector Pasig Market Marikina Public Market Central sector Pasay Market Balintawak Market (fruits and vegetables) Nepa Q-Market (fruits and vegetables) Blue Mentrit Market (fruits and vegetables) Paco Market (both wholesale and retail of fruits, vegetables, grains, meat, and fish) South sector New Muntinlupa Market (fruits and vegetables) C. Retail markets Northwest sector Marulas Public market Navotas (Agora) Public Market Malabon Central Public Market Novaliches Market Tandang Sora Pamilihang Market Fairview Market Northeast sector Guadalupe Market Farmers Market Central sector San Francisco or Frisco Market Dagonoy Public Market Mandaluyong Public Market Galas Public Market Sta. Ana Public Market Obrero Public Market Quinta Public Market San Juan Agora Market Trabajo Public Market South sector Las Piñas Public Market Parañaque Public Market
Traders establish marketing ties with suppliers in the provinces, and pick up commodities directly from farmers or at agreed trading posts on an agreed schedule. Such ties are established by offering agriculture loans to farmers, and by trading fairly with them over a long period of time. Wholesalers occasionally serve as assemblers in the provinces. In urban agricultural areas, wholesalers collect produce directly from farmers or through their financed agents.
Jeepneys and trucks carrying fruits and vegetables go directly to “bodega”, which refers to the big assemblers-distributors, or large distributors. The bodega is the first choice of Urban and Peri-urban Agriculture in Metro Manila 17 suppliers outside Metro Manila, either because the provincial suppliers are financed (contracted) or the provincial suppliers prefer cash. Medium distributors in Metro Manila procure from the freelance provincial traders (“viajeros”) or bodega. The bodega reserves the supply for their regular buyers, so supplies are disposed of within a few minutes of their arrival.
The bodega sets the buying price for fruits and vegetables received from traders outside Metro Manila. His decision on price is based upon the buying price quoted by non-bodega buyers, or buyers from other markets. The system of price setting is referred to as “open buying”. For output coming from contracted or financed provincial traders and farmers, the wholesale buying price offered is the “floating” or prevailing price in the market. In any case, the bodega charges a fixed commission for the risk they assume for paying cash without assurance that goods can be sold, at the same time acting as guarantors. Any output unsold must be paid in cash by the bodega. Moreover, if a buyer claims that vegetables are of poor quality, the bodega gives a discount to maintain their business relationship.
Retail markets
Retailers buy vegetables from the wholesale market in the early morning, and sell them during daytime. When retailing and wholesaling are done in the same market, retailers benefit by saving transportation costs, and sometimes by deferring payments to the end of the day. For rice, delaying payment up to 14 days is a common practice.
Retailers also do additional sorting and grading, according to general appearance or degree of ripeness. Some vegetables are sliced and mixed with others to meet a growing demand for this ready-to-cook mixture. A common practice in garlic and onion retailing is peeling. Restaurant operators and some households prefer to buy these vegetables in this way. Most vegetables, grains, and selected fruits are sold by weight. String beans and leafy vegetables are commonly sold in small bundles, cabbage and squash in halves, onion and tomatoes in “tumpok” (a bunch of 5-10 onions or tomatoes), and oranges, apples, and bananas by number. In retailing, negotiating a price reduction up to 20% is common. Agricultural commodities sold at retail markets are packed in plastic bags.
Supermarkets
Supermarkets are self-service retail markets, generally privately owned and under cooperative ownership. They are usually located within or near major shopping centers. Parking and security are essential services of supermarkets, so commodities are more expensive than are those sold in wet markets. Agricultural commodities in these markets are sourced from 1 to 5 concessionaires, each allotted a space for display. Some supermarkets maintain a concessionaire who performs marketing functions such as assembling, transporting, grading, packaging, and displaying on retail shelves, and who also underwrites the spoilage losses. The supermarket provides the space, facilities, and labor to display the commodities, and charges a percentage of the sales receipts. 18 Agriculture Markets and Marketing
Some supermarkets do both buying and selling. Purchases from regular suppliers within and outside Metro Manila are all based on supermarket specifications. In agreement with suppliers, there is a provision for replacement of unsold stock and return of spoiled stock. Supermarkets occasionally buy supplies directly from the Divisoria Market. Sorting, grading, cleaning, and repacking are done in the preparation room of the supermarkets.
The trend toward supermarket retailing is affecting small retailers, and replacing unskilled labor with educated sales managers and salespersons.
Hotels and restaurants
Hotels and large restaurants buy temperate vegetables directly from Baguio, and tropical vegetables from different Metro Manila markets. Some vegetables and fruits are imported. They normally pay more than the prevailing prices, but demand high quality as well. The price, mode of payment, and quantity delivered are negotiated in advance.
Processing
Processing of agricultural commodities is mainly done outside Metro Manila, and is not discussed here.
Marketing channels
Agricultural commodities pass through the hands of various marketing agents before they reach the consumer’s table in Metro Manila. Assemblers first collect output from farmers. These assemblers may be farmers themselves, agents of the large and medium wholesalers in Metro Manila, small provincial traders, or agents of the large provincial traders. Some of these marketing agents buy standing crops from farmers and arrange for harvesting. Others have contracts with farmers, and pay them in advance or lend them money for agricultural inputs. Still others negotiate prices with farmers on the spot, and offer cash. Large-scale vegetable and fruit farmers send their output to traders in Metro Manila, or bring it to farmers’ markets, such as the Valenzuela Wholesale Market.
The outside traders/assemblers/farmers sell their output to small-, medium-, and large-scale (bodega) traders, depending upon their earlier commitments to them, and/or the price offered. Output is then distributed to wholesalers or other markets and retailers through an open auction. Institutional and supermarket buyers occasionally take part in the auction, or they contract-buy from outside traders/assemblers/farmers. Retailers buy from the bodega, medium- or small-wholesalers in terminal markets, or from wholesaler markets where they have their retail shops. Consumers buy from retailers, supermarkets, or eat in restaurants.
For rice and corn, the channels are simpler. Provincial traders/assemblers/farmers give their output to processors, who then distribute to large or small distributors in Metro Manila. From here the commodity flows to small distributors or retailers, then to consumers. Corn goes to poultry or hog farmers from small traders or retailers. Urban and Peri-urban Agriculture in Metro Manila 19
Transporta tion
Agricultural commodities are transported by trucks or jeepneys, and other consignments are collected during the journey if space is available. Transportation is usually arranged so that consignments reach Metro Manila before midnight, to be auctioned after midnight, and to avoid peak traffic periods.
Pollution and Environment Gas pollutants
In 1996 there were approximately 1.2 million motor vehicles in Metro Manila and another 0.6 million in the surrounding provinces. About one-third of the vehicles use .diesel fuel. There are about 2700 industries located in areas that require permits relating to air emission standards. TSP1 is a major pollutant from diesel engines. A high proportion of pollutants consists of suspended particulate matter of less than 10 microns (PM10) from carbon particles or soot that may be carcinogenic (ADB 1998).
The ADB estimated in 1991 that annual levels of major air pollutants in Metro Manila were about 116,000 t of PM10, 39,000 t of sulfur oxides, and 140 t of lead. Concentrations of other pollutants such as carbon monoxide, ozone, nitrogen oxides, hydrocarbons, and volatile organic compounds are not well documented, but are expected to increase to even higher levels than at present with economic development. The study showed that in 1991, TSP1 frequently exceeded the standard levels established by the World Health Organization (WHO) by five times, PM10 by about three times, and lead by about two times. More importantly, almost 80% of the population in Metro Manila are regularly exposed to pollution levels exceeding WHO standards. Indeed, ambient air quality data indicate that Metro Manila has one of the most polluted air environments in Asia.
Annual losses from PM10, SO, and lead pollution in 1996 prices amounted to about 3.6, 0.95, and 0.44 billion pesos, respectively. The poor are among those most adversely affected by air pollution, as they are exposed continually. Therefore, any indoor economic- activity under hygienic conditions (such as hydroponic vegetable production) that can improve income opportunities for the poor will also have a positive impact on their health. Growing crops such as leafy vegetables near roads in Metro Manila should be carefully considered from a health point of view, because unsanitary sewer water is used in some cases for irrigation. A residue analysis carried out by AVRDC in 1999 on leafy vegetables grown in Metro Manila showed high lead levels. Landscaping roadsides with plants and trees has been suggested, and this may be helpful in removing some air pollutants.
Solid waste
Total waste generation in Metro Manila in 1997 was estimated at 5,345 t/day, 74% of which was household waste. Quantities are estimated to increase to 10,3 12 t/day by 2010. In 1997, 6% of generated waste, or 327 t/day, was recycled (Fig. 7). 20 Pollution and Environment
Payatas [1159/22%]
Generation [5345/ 100%] [4804 189.9%] [3496 [65.4%] (9278190%) (8332180.8%)
Recycling [1037/19%] (56715.5%) Recycling [56 1 1%] Recycling
Fig. 7. Waste stream in 1996, and projected for 2010
Note: Figures in boxes represent the values for 1997, and figures in parentheses are projected values for 2010. All waste quantities are in tons. Source: JAICA and MMDA (1998)
Accumulated waste from Metro Manila will probably reach 30 million t by 2010, and 60 million t by 2020. A large tract of land is required to dispose of such large amounts of waste. Assuming the landfill height is 20 m, a large portion of the Metro Manila land will be occupied by the disposal area, that is 135 ha by 2010 and 300 ha by 2020 (JAICA and MMDA 1998).
The high-income group generates more waste than the low-income group (500 and 344 g/person/day, respectively, with a weighted average of 419 g/person/day). About 25% of the discharged amount are dumped illegally by 3.1 million people, mostly from squatter areas (JAICA and MMDA 1998). Most households do not sort or segregate their waste, but most large commercial establishments do. Kitchen waste was the major component of solid waste in Metro Manila in 1997, followed by paper and plastics (Fig. 8).
The major waste items recycled from Metro Manila are glass bottles, cullet (chipped bottles), paper, plastics, and organic matter. Currently, there is no decomposition facility for organic waste. The moisture and combustible contents of household waste are about 46% each; the remaining 8% are ash.
Waste collection in Metro Manila is incomplete, and the service level is uneven, exacerbating environmental pollution, land degradation, and flood problems. It also endangers human health, especially among urban poor, scavengers, and residents in surrounding areas.
22 Pollution and Environment with the AVRDC’s Manila peri-urban vegetable-production project for use of compost as a fertilizer in vegetables. The efficacy of compost derived from household vegetable waste and used as organic fertilizer is being assessed in farmers’ fields. The effectiveness of the compost was also compared with that of the commercially available agricultural waste (chicken manure plus carabao manure compost) and inorganic fertilizer.
In on-farm trials with pak-choi conducted at San Leonardo, Nueva Ecija, and with tomato trials conducted at Central Luzon State University, one-half of the recommended inorganic NPK could be replaced with an equivalent amount of the composted household waste without yield reduction. The same is true for chicken manure mixture where one-half of the recommended inorganic NPK can be replaced without yield loss.
Food Demand, Health, and Urban Agriculture
Food demand
During 1993, average daily per capita consumption of all foods in Metro Manila was 828 g (Table 6). About 25% of the total food budget was for cereals, another 40% for meat and fish, and milk, while fruits and vegetables each claim 6%. The unpublished food consumption survey data from the Food and Nutritional Research Institute (FNRI) suggest that the total per capita daily food consumption in Metro Manila has declined from 930 g in 1982 to 828 g in 1993. Over the same period, vegetable consumption declined from 120 to 87 g, and fruit consumption from 100 to 78 g. Although consumption data by income group over the period are not available, it is probable that the poor are affected most by this decline in food consumption in Metro Manila.
The existing consumption pattern does not provide enough major nutrients and micronutrients to Metro Manila residents (Table 7). Energy consumption is deficient by about 14%, calcium by 29%, and iron by 37%, compared to the levels recommended for good health. Levels of several other important micronutrients are also considerably lower than recommended. Deficiencies are worse for the low-income groups.
In general, the quantity of food consumed and nutrient uptake are positively related to education of meal planners and negatively related to household size. Among professional groups in Metro Manila, food producers (farmers and fishermen) have the lowest food consumption levels (Table 8). Urban and Peri-urban Agriculture in Metro Manila 23
Table 6. Mean per capita food consumption in Metro Manila, 1993¹ Food group/subgroup kg/year Budget share (%) Cereals and cereal products 107 293 23.87 Rice and products 92 252 14.39 Corn and products n 1 0.12 Other cereals and products 15 40 9.36 Starchy roots and tubers 4 12 0.96 Sugars and syrups 8 23 4.85 Fats and oils 5 14 1.96 Fish, meat and poultry 66 181 40.38 Fish and products 35 95 15.64 Meat and products 23 63 18.68 Poultry 8 23 6.06 Eggs 6 16 2.84 Milk and milk products 31 86 6.04 Whole milk 24 66 5.33 Milk products 7 20 0.71 Dried beans, nuts and seeds 4 10 1.49 Vegetables 32 87 6.62 Green leafy and yellow vegetables 7 18 1.25 Other vegetables 25 69 5.37 Fruits 28 18 6.14 Vitamin C-rich fruits 12 34 3.34 Other fruits 16 44 2.80 Miscellaneous 10 28 4.85 Beverages 7 18 2.45 Condiments and others 4 10 1.76 Total 302 828 100.00 ¹As available in the kitchen including inedible and edible wastage; n = negligible (less than 0.5 g) Source: Official tile data from the Food and Nutritional Research Institute (FNRI)
Table 7. Mean daily per capita nutrient intake and percent adequacy in Metro Manila, 1993 Nutrient Unit Recommended Income group (pesos¹ year) Overall level <5000 5000-10000 10000-20000 20000-30000 >30000 adequacy (%) Energy cal 1900 1543 1569 1765 1925 2112 85.7 Protein g 47 44 49 57 60 69 110.6 Calcium mg 580 370 360 450 430 570 70.7 Iron mg 16 9.5 9.6 12.0 11.1 12.8 63.0 Vitamin A µg retinol equiv. 800 400 469 47 1 520 621 62.0 Thiamin mg 0.98 0.66 0.70 0.81 0.88 0.93 75.5 Riboflavin mg 0.99 0.50 0.66 0.83 0.74 0.96 70.7 Niacin mg 18.4 14.3 15.3 17.9 18.8 21.5 91.3 Vitamin C mg 50 27.8 36.2 49.8 53.0 62.4 65.7 Source: Official file data from the Food and Nutritional Research Institute (FNRI) 1 June 1,2001: 55 pesos = US$1 24 Food Demand, Health and Urban Agriculture
Table 8. Daily food and nutrient consumption by professional group in Metro Manila, 1993 Food item Units Farmers Fishermen Professional Non-professional Transporter Housekeeper Others services services Food Total 641.9 633.2 955.9 854.8 838.6 824.7 915.1 Cereal and cereal 205.3 335.8 314.1 295.2 299.5 256.6 320.2 products Rice and products 183.8 297.1 265.7 264.4 258.8 206.0 269.5 Corn and products 2.0 0.0 0.5 0.4 1.7 2.1 0.1 Other cereal products 19.5 38.7 47.9 30.4 39.0 48.5 50.6 Starch roots and tubers 6.8 0.0 11.4 16.6 12.5 10.5 12.9 Sugars and syrups 30.5 18.3 27.6 26.9 21.2 23.4 25.3 Dry beans, nuts 4.2 0.0 9.5 13.9 11.8 7.5 10.9 Vegetables 32.5 117.9 89.9 70.9 102.8 77.5 98.2 Leafy/yellow 0.0 0.0 20.1 13.9 22.6 6.1 16.5 Other vegetables 32.5 117.9 69.8 57.0 80.2 71.4 81.7
Fruits 67.0 21.6 102.7 91.0 71.6 47.9 128.3 Vitamin C-rich fruits 0.0 0.0 42.9 26.6 34.5 0.0 49.5 Other fruits 67.0 21.6 59.8 64.4 37.1 47.9 78.8
Fish, /Meat, /Poultry 205.0 77.0 229.6 164.8 177.4 169.3 190.0 Fish and products 182.5 77.0 109.4 92.7 96.6 60.4 88.8 Meat and products 22.5 0.0 90.0 51.7 62.5 91 .1 73.1 Poultry 0.0 0.0 30.2 20.4 18.3 17.8 28.1 Eggs 0.0 33.8 19.0 16.9 18.5 19.7 14.4 Milk & milk products 16.5 0.0 99.7 93.5 87.2 185.4 64.9 Whole milk 11.0 0.0 80.2 82.6 68.2 134.9 51 .0 Milk products 5.5 0.0 19.5 10.9 19.0 50.5 13.9
Fats and oils 3.3 24.7 15.3 16.7 14.5 15.4 12.2 Miscellaneous 70.8 4.1 37.1 48.4 21.6 11.5 37.8 Beverages 67.5 0.9 25.7 35.2 11.0 5.0 24.0 Condiments 3.3 3.2 11.4 13.2 10.6 6.5 13.8 Nutrients Energy 1146.9 1779.2 1848.7 1659.2 1678.0 1771.2 1746.3 Protein 38.4 43.3 62.3 52.2 51.5 52.2 52.6 Calcium 0.2 0.4 0.5 0.4 0.4 0.4 0.4 Iron 6.1 9.2 12.1 9.5 10.7 10.6 11.2 Thiamin 0.6 0.6 0.9 0.7 0.8 0.9 0.8 Riboflavin 0.6 0.5 0.9 0.7 0.7 0.7 0.7 Niacin 14.3 13.3 19.2 15.9 16.4 16.3 17.3 Vitamin C mg 20.5 10.0 51.8 33.7 44.5 36.5 46.7 Source: Official file data from the Food and Nutrition Research Institute (FNRI) Urban and Peri-urban Agriculture in Metro Manila 25
Given these nutrient deficiencies, it is no wonder that 44% of urban poor in Metro Manila suffer from malnutrition. Many children, especially those aged 6-1 0 are underweight or stunted for their age, and below normal weight for their height (Table 9). Health problems are most serious among the poor of Metro Manila, especially farmers and fishermen.
With existing average consumption levels, the population of 10.7 million in Metro ,Manila annually requires about 1.1 million t of rice, 375,000 t of fish, 246,000 t of red meat, 86,000 t of poultry meat, 396,000 t of milk and eggs, 75,000 t of leafy vegetables, 268,000 t of other vegetables and 300,000 t of fruit. However, if consumption rises to recommended dietary intake levels, the need for these food items, especially of fruit and vegetables, will increase dramatically.
Table 9. Health indicators for children in Metro Manila. 1996 Area Children, 0-5 years (%) Children, 6-10 years (%) Underweight1 Stunted2 Wasted3 Underweight Stunted Wasted Overall Metro Manila 5.6 2.8 4.8 7.0 2.9 11.4 Manila City 4.6 2.3 2.7 3.7 0.6 13.9 Quezon City 5.0 1.3 3.8 8.1 3.1 10.0 Pasay City 2.8 1.4 2.7 4.7 3.7 1.9 Kalookan City 7.5 5.8 3.3 7.2 2.8 10.6 Makati City 1.4 1.4 1.4 5.6 0.0 12.0 San Juan, Mandaluyong City 1.4 1.4 1.4 5.6 2.8 8.3 Malabon, Navotas, Valenzuela 5.8 5.8 5.8 6.2 2.8 10.6 Marikina, Pateros, Taguig 6.3 3.1 8.4 7.6 6.3 16.0 Pasig City, Muntinlupa 7.3 2.1 6.2 11.1 2.8 11.1 Las Piñas, Parañaque 12.5 3.1 11.5 11.8 7.6 13.2 Low weight for age, low height for age, and low weight for height, respectively Source: Official file data from the Food and Nutritional Research Institute (FNRI)
Food supply and urban agriculture
About 3.9% of the Metro Manila land is allocated for agriculture, which is concentrated along the outer edge of the city in Muntinlupa, Valenzuela, and Taguig. Additionally, 2% is used for fishponds in Navotas, Malabon, and Valenzuela surrounding Manila Bay.
Urban agriculture could be continued at the current limited level if cultivated land in Muntinlupa, Valenzuela, and Taguig is reserved for agriculture. Some expansion may be possible if urban development is restricted to the 14.6% vacant lands, most of which cannot be cultivated. It is difficult to stop such development, however, because the trend in land use in Metro Manila has largely been a response to demands from a growing population. In line with these trends, data from official files of the Metro Manila Development Authority suggest that there are plans to reduce agricultural land in Muntinlupa and Valenzuela to zero, and in Taguig by 70%. The file data also indicate plans to reduce drastically the areas currently used as open spaces, parks, and vacant lots. 26 Food Demand, Health and Urban Agriculture
The total fish production from within the city and from the offshore catch brought into Metro Manila was 226,000 t in 1998, which is about two-thirds of the total fish demand of Metro Manila. Most of this supply is commercial, which might be all offshore catch, because Manila Bay borders the city in the west, with Laguna Lake in the southeast. Within the city, about 2% of the area is used for fishponds, which may provide only a small portion of the total supply. Exact figures for fish production within the metropolis are not available, but municipal fish supplies and supplies from freshwater fish cages and pens may be considered as fully coming from within the city. This is 1.3% of total demand in Metro Manila. A small portion, .mainly from Laguna Lake, also comes from brackish water fishponds (Table 10).
Table 10. Fish production by sector in Metro Manila. 1997-98 Sector Fish production (t) 1997 1998 Commercial 207,337 216,461 Municipal 3,529 4,605 Aquaculture 4,248 5,080 a. Brackish water fishpond 3,908 4,680 b. Freshwater fish cage 162 157 c. Freshwater fish pen 177 243 d. Mussel 1 Total 215,114 226,146 Source: Official file data of the Bureau of Agricultural Statistics
There is some broiler production in Metro Manila that is concentrated in Valenzuela, Taguig, and Muntinlupa. The total number of broilers commercially produced in Metro Manila in 1998 was 13 1,000. Assuming average meat weight gain of 2 kg of each broiler in one year (upper limit), 262 t of poultry meat is produced annually. This provides only less than 1% of the total poultry meat demand. A smaller amount of broiler meat may be supplied from backyard poultry production, however, data are not available.
There were about 52,000 hogs in Metro Manila in 1998. Assuming an annual gain in carcass weight of 100 kg (upper limit), total meat supply obtained would be about 5200 t, which is 2.1% of the total red meat demand of the city.
Urban agriculture therefore meets only a small portion of the plant-based food demand of Metro Manila. A recent survey of vegetable production in Metro Manila by the Bureau of Agricultural Statistics reports that 167.7 ha of land is under vegetable cultivation, producing about 1784 t of all types of vegetables annually. This implies that the city is producing 0.52% of its total vegetable needs.
Estimates of labor requirements for the leafy vegetables in Metro Manila also suggest that, on average, four labor years per hectare are required. Vegetable cultivation in Metro Manila therefore generates jobs for 671 people. The leafy mono-harvest type is the main group of vegetables produced (Table 11). About 60% of total production comes from Las Piñas and Quezon cities, with both cities planning to reduce their agriculture land to zero in the near future. Urban and Peri-urban Agriculture in Metro Manila 27
Table 11. Vegetable production by crop in Metro Manila, Jan.-Dec. 1997 Vegetables Production (t) Area harvested (ha) Yield Q1¹ Q2 Q3 - Q4 Total Q1 Q2 Q3 Q4 Total (t/ha) Mono-harvest Carnote 1.0 1.0 0.05 0.05 18.5 Ginger 0.1 0.1 - 0.01 0.01 21.9 Kinchay 21.7 29.6 42.5 60.9 154.7 1.44 1.77 3.17 3.30 9.68 16.0 Lettuce 7.6 7.7 6.1 14.5 35.9 0.61 0.58 0.50 1.33 3.02 11.9 Mustard 47.8 21.0 1.9 99.8 170.5 2.75 1.15 0.09 5.93 9.92 17.2 Onions, spring/leeks 50.9 46.5 48.3 86.7 232.4 3.05 3.36 4.16 5.40 15.97 14.6 Pechay, Chinese 1.1 0.4 0.1 2.1 3.7 0.07 0.02 0.01 0.18 0.28 12.6 Pechay, native 271.6 147.2 25.0 383.1 826.9 18.04 9.51 3.69 23.93 55.17 15.0 Pechay, singkang - 0.5 0.5 1.0 0.06 0.02 0.08 13.3 Radish 0.1 0.8 - 0.8 1.7 0.01 1.00 - 1.01 2.02 0.8 Spinach 4.4 3.9 4.9 12.3 25.5 0.44 0.44 0.46 1.06 2.40 10.6 Wansoy 0.1 1.0 1.1 0.01 0.12 0.13 7.6 Su b-total 406.2 257.1 129.4 661.8 1454.5 26.46 17.83 12.15 42.29 98.73 14.7 Multi-harvest Alugbati 2.7 4.5 10.5 12.0 29.7 0.26 1.33 0.36 2.36 4.31 6.9 Ampalaya 0.3 0.5 0.4 2.6 3.8 1.37 0.07 0.72 - 2.16 1.8 Ampalaya, fruit 0.6 2.4 2.8 4.9 10.7 0.93 3.80 0.26 0.68 5.67 1.9 Bato/Kentucky beans - 0.0 0.0 - 0.05 0.05 1.0 Carnote tops 15.1 27.5 30.0 40.0 112.6 4.73 2.85 3.90 2.09 13.57 8.3 Eggplant 2.6 14.2 7.1 9.0 32.9 3.72 3.36 0.10 1.71 8.89 3.7 Gabi leaves 0.1 0.1 0.2 0.2 0.6 0.00 0.01 0.06 0.01 0.08 8.5 Kangkong, Chinese 2.0 1.9 2.9 2.7 9.5 0.06 0.06 0.08 0.07 0.27 36.4 Kangkong, native 2.6 10.1 20.7 14.4 47.8 1.22 3.74 3.71 0.53 9.20 5.2 Kina (broccoli tops) 1.0 1.1 0.1 2.2 4.4 0.19 0.06 0.01 0.07 0.33 13.5 Kutsay 0.2 0.2 0.02 0.00 0.02 7.6 Okra 0.2 3.7 2.1 6.0 0.03 5.09 0.01 0.07 5.20 1.1 Patola 0.1 0.6 0.2 1.2 2.1 0.19 0.00 2.61 1.10 3.90 0.5 Pepper, bell 0.0 0.1 0.1 0.10 0.03 - 0.13 0.6 Pepper, chili 0.3 1.5 0.5 1.5 3.8 0.18 1.16 0.59 1.9'3 2.0 Pepper, chili leaves 10.3 5.5 0.5 10.0 26.3 0.37 0.06 0.14 0.72 1.29 20.4 Saluyot 1.3 2.4 5.8 7.3 16.8 0.79 0.12 0.32 0.15 1.38 12.3 Sitao/stringbeans 0.1 0.4 0.0 0.7 1.2 0.71 0.00 0.16 0.87 1.4 Squash fruits 0.4 3.2 0.1 0.1 3.8 1.02 0.03 1.64 2.69 1.4 Squash tops 0.0 0.1 0.1 0.5 0.7 0.02 0.05 0.41 0.48 1.5 Tomato 4.1 1.3 0.4 3.2 9.0 0.64 0.03 2.15 2.82 3.2 Upo/gourd 0.1 2.1 0.5 5.3 8.0 2.97 0.10 0.20 0.51 3.78 2.1 Subtotal 43.7 79.6 86.5 120.2 330.0 19.40 20.75 13.80 15.07 69.02 4.8 Grand total 449.9 336.7 215.9 782.0 1784.5 45.86 38.58 25.95 57.36 167.75 10.6 Q1-Q4 represent the first-fourth quarters of the year. Source: Official file data of the Bureau of Agricultural Statistics 28 Food Demand, Health and Urban Agriculture
Assuming all leafy vegetable production from adjoining provinces is supplied to Metro Manila, only 2678 t will be available from these sources (Table 12). This is only 3.6% of total leafy vegetable demand or 0.78% of all vegetable demand. To meet the leafy vegetable demand from the city, virtually all vacant land in Metro Manila, including land not now suitable for cultivation, must be brought under leafy vegetable cultivation, leaving no land within the city to produce other vegetables, fruit, and cereals.
Land-use statistics show that about 2480 ha of land in Metro Manila is under agriculture. A complete record of this land use by crop is not available, but given the negligible area used for vegetables, and the low-lying nature of agriculture land, it can be assumed that most of the remaining land (after deducting the recorded vegetable area of 167.7 ha) is under rice cultivation. With an average yield of clean rice of 2 t/ha in the Philippines, this can produce about 4600 t of rice, which is only 0.47% of Metro Manila demand. Assuming a labor requirement for rice production in the Philippines of 120 days/ha (or half a person-year (IRRI 1995), this provides jobs for only about 1200 people.
Table 12. Production and area harvested of leafy vegetables in 1997 from provinces near Metro Manila Province/ Production Area Crops (t) (ha) Bulacan Kangkong 31 .00 16 Mustard 25.00 9 Pechay, native 241.99 39 Sweet potato tops 22.50 14 Cavite Kangkong 13.98 27 Lettuce 43.88 9 Mustard 7.36 9 Pechay, native 241.66 40 Sweet potato tops 11.85 NA Laguna Gabi leaves/stem 2.13 1 Kangkong 2.21 NA Mustard 215.06 33 Paco (edible fern) 2.54 NA Pechay, native 750.00 60 Onion/leeks 4.50 11 Sweet potato tops 112.82 NA Rizal Gabi leaves/stem 87.28 20 Mustard 123.00 15 Pechay, native 739.50 125 Total 2,678.25 428 Source: Official file data of the Bureau of Agricultural Statistics NA Data not available Urban and Peri-urban Agriculture in Metro Manila 29
Given these supply-demand gaps and the limited availability of land, traditional urban agriculture, such as farming, cannot meet food demands of Metro Manila, or be used to generate additional employment. Only land-efficient or non-land use approaches, such as raising broilers, indoor vegetable and flower cultivation, and agriculture processing, should be encouraged. For plant-based food, Metro Manila must depend heavily on supplies from outside its borders. The only way to increase such food supply for urban poor is to introduce technological innovation in areas that are major food suppliers to Metro Manila.
Seasonality in food supply
The problems of food availability and low consumption rates are exacerbated because fruits and vegetables, which are relatively cheap sources of micronutrients, are highly seasonal. Vegetable prices are highest in December, and lowest during February-April (Fig. 9). Seasonality (defined as the difference in the highest and lowest monthly prices expressed in terms of percentage of the lowest price) for all vegetables was 105% at the wholesale level, and 63% at the retail level during 1986-98 (Table 13). The lower seasonality at the retail level than at the wholesale level for most individual vegetables suggests that retailers absorb some of the seasonal shock in prices. The greatest seasonality was observed in the prices of tomato, eggplant, and native pechay.
140 I 130 Wholesale 120 8 110 8 100
90
80 I I I I I I I I I Jan Feb Mar Apr May June July Aug Sep Oct Nov Dec Month
Fig. 9. Seasonality in overall vegetable prices at the retail and wholesale level in Metro Manila (average of 1986-98)
Source: Official files of Agricultural Marketing Statistics Analysis, Bureau of Agricultural Statistics, Quezon City 30 Food Demand, Health and Urban Agriculture
Table 13. Seasonality in vegetable prices in Metro Manila (average of 1965-97) Price Index JAN FEB MAR APR MAY JUN JUL AUG SEP OCT NOV DEC Seasonality' Wholesale prices Ampalaya 100 91 88 83 91 122 109 106 108 143 155 126 87 Banana, heart 100 125 123 117 110 148 116 132 118 104 116 129 48 Cabbage 100 85 103 106 134 157 113 126 154 139 133 133 85 Chayote 100 110 123 117 141 146 132 156 133 114 157 143 57 Cucumber 100 92. 91 80 95 98 81 113 95 113 122 117 52 Eggplant 100 70 54 47 56 78 89 103 99 125 177 130 274 Gourd 100 89 86 76 91 98 102 116 118 116 130 123 72 Jackfruit, green 100 106 92 85 81 88 89 94 103 104 110 100 36 Okra 100 91 68 61 67 70 57 67 74 99 111 100 96 Papaya, green 100 92 107 115 121 131 134 136 128 121 125 130 47 Patola, baguio 100 75 71 79 85 94 68 87 76 79 92 107 56 Patola, native 100 106 120 94 100 112 109 102 87 84 96 153 82 Pechay, native 100 101 91 111 137 172 156 190 198 233 199 159 155 Squash 100 109 101 102 113 108 112 132 129 110 122 168 68 Tomato 100 54 54 63 96 138 170 136 152 163 196 253 368 Overall vegetables 100 93 92 89 101 117 109 120 118 123 136 138 105 Retail prices Ampalaya 100 93 90 87 95 122 112 108 112 139 160 128 84 Banana, heart 100 102 100 106 106 123 125 130 121 102 99 108 31 Cabbage 100 88 101 105 122 141 118 126 152 144 135 137 73 Chayote 100 103 114 112 123 130 130 138 130 117 141 127 41 Cucumber 100 96 95 92 98 104 98 115 114 124 139 122 51 Eggplant 100 79 71 64 69 87 98 109 103 125 156 133 142 Gourd 100 90 83 83 89 96 108 123 112 109 127 128 54 Jackfruit, green 100 94 83 88 84 88 93 100 123 138 127 93 66 Kangkong 100 98 96 96 99 100 98 99 100 106 111 114 18 Okra 100 98 92 86 85 92 88 94 91 105 122 114 42 Papaya, green 100 94 96 101 107 115 127 121 118 111 108 107 36 Patola, baguio 100 89 86 86 89 88 97 95 93 93 111 107 30 Patola, native 100 95 95 102 94 99 108 105 97 104 107 113 20 Pechay, native 100 93 87 94 116 147 141 159 169 186 172 142 114 Squash 100 91 89 94 108 107 109 95 96 95 98 107 22 Sweet potato tops 100 100 97 97 100 100 98 98 102 104 111 111 14 Tomato 100 62 62 69 93 126 146 126 132 146 170 209 240 Overall vegetables 100 92 90 92 99 110 111 114 116 121 129 124 63 To measure seasonality, each monthly price was converted to an index based on the January price. Monthly averages of the index prices were then taken over the period 1965-97. Seasonality was estimated as the maximum index minus the minimum index, divided by the minimum index, expressed in percentage. Source: Official files of Agricultural Marketing Statistical Analysis, Bureau of Agricultural Statistics, Quezon City
Seasonal availability of vegetables is one of the major food supply problems in Metro Manila, because of the lack of stress tolerant technologies used to produce vegetables. The introduction of AVRDC technologies that are designed to overcome stress, especially for Urban and Peri-urban Agriculture in Metro Manila 31 flood and heat tolerance, has the potential to reduce seasonality in supplies, improve overall food consumption of urban poor, and enhance the income of farmers. These technologies include the grafting of tomato onto eggplant rootstock, growing crops under protective shelters and netting, using raised beds, and sowing heat and flood-tolerant varieties.
Characterization of Urban Vegetable Farmers
A field survey was conducted during the 1999 dry season among farmers engaged in vegetable production in Metro Manila. Of the 84 farmers interviewed, 31 were from the Fairview subdivision in Quezon City, 30 from Muntinlupa, and 23 from Taguig.
Socioeconomic characteristics
Thirty-two percent of respondents had at least reached (and some had completed) secondary education; about 5% have college degrees; the remaining 63% of respondents had only primary education. The average length of education for adult family members was 7 years.
The average farm household size in the sample area was 4.23, whereas the average family in Metro Manila was 4.74. Adult labor availability per family was only 1.17. Only young and unemployed, usually female, family members are available for farm work.
About 74% of farmers are members of organizations/associations.Squatter farmers in the Fairview housing subdivision formed the Fairview Farmers’ Association, whose main concern is to protect members from claimants of pseudo-owners, and to prevent the conversion of land they are farming to industrial use. The associations in Taguig and Muntinlupa receive some support from government agencies; for example, the Bureau of Plant Industry of the Department of Agriculture provides technical assistance and some inputs such as hybrid seeds.
Migration pattern
Sixty-one percent of all respondent farmers were migrants from other provinces, and 49% had migrated during the 1990s. Poverty was the reason for the migration. Almost one-half (43%) of the migrants came from Samar province in the Visayas. The migrants were previously either farmers or fishermen, and only a few were laborers. In Muntilupa, 16% of the farmers are migrants. In Fairview, all farmers are recent migrants. In Taguig, 78% are migrants.
Household income
The average annual household income from all sources is US$2405; per capita annual income was US$569. This provides most farmers with an income above the 1997 annual per 32 Characterization of Urban Vegetable Farmers
capita poverty threshold - US$484 - in Metro Manila. However, there were variations across sites. The annual earnings of farm households in Fairview were quite low at US$672 (or only US$178 per capita), which is less than the subsistence food threshold of US$300. The annual earnings of the other two farming communities were far higher than the subsistence food threshold. One of the reasons for extreme poverty among Fairview farmers is that they are recent migrants to the city, and have difficulty in understanding the income and employment situation there. More than half of the gross income of the urban farmers, even in Fairview, comes from farming. The off-farm income of most respondents comes from wages as construction and factory workers, from vending, or tricycle operations.
General farm-related characteristics
The average size of urban agriculture farms in Metro Manila was 1966 m². Only 3% of the respondents own the land they till, while most tilling lands are encroached. Cultivated lands in both Muntinlupa and Taguig are located along Laguna Lake, and are prone to flooding in the rainy season. In Fairview, cultivated land is located within a residential subdivision where farmers are allowed to till the land to maintain a green area. Farmers in Fairview have on average only five years of farming experience, whereas farmers in Muntinlupa and Taguig have 2 1 and 16 years of farming experience, respectively.
Farm implements owned
Vegetable growers from Fairview own only the basic and traditional implements for land preparation (rakes, hoes, sprayers, and bucket sprinklers). Some farmers in Muntinlupa and Taguig own plows, harrows, and water pumps. One farmer in Taguig also owns a hand tractor.
Sources of credit
A financier in Fairview provides inputs of seeds, fertilizers, and pesticides, while farmers provide labor and crop management. A 50-50 sharing arrangement is practiced. Few farmers in Muntinlupa and Taguig borrowed money. For those who borrowed, village lenders, parents, friends, and relatives were the important sources of credit. The male household head makes decisions on borrowing capital.
Sources of information
More than half of vegetable farmers obtained information from government technicians in the Department of Agriculture. These technicians are active in extending technical assistance to their clientele. They ensure the availability of advanced variety seeds, and give advice on input, timing, and market prices. Friends and relatives are also important sources of agriculture information. In 88.5% of households, the male household head, rather than female head, receives the information. More than half (62%) indicated that they receive the information frequently, 36% sometimes, and only 2% seldom. Urban and Peri-urban Agriculture in Metro Manila 33
Living conditions
Over 83% of all vegetable growers owned their houses, which are semipermanent and constructed mainly of wood, with little concrete. The remaining 17% had more permanent houses. The average residential lot area is 77 m². About 83% of the households have electricity, and the rest use kerosene for lighting. Sources of potable water are pipeline (74% of the respondents), artesian well (20%), and deep well (6%). Most households own the basic home appliances such as a cooking stove (98%), a television (75%), a radio (69%), and an electric fan (60%). Fewer own an iron (32%), a washing machine (23%), a refrigerator (2 1%), a bicycle (1 3%), a tricycle (1 0%), a jeep (4%), or a truck (1%).
Crops grown
During the 1999 dry season when the survey was conducted, the commonly grown crops were pechay, camote tops, onion, and kangkong. The average plot size ranged from 105 to 2000 m², the average being 706 m² (Table 14).
Table 14. Crops grown and average area planted in three locations in Metro Manila during the dry season, 1999 Crops Fairview N = 31¹,² Muntinlupa N 30 Taguig N 23 n Area n Area n Area Planted (m²) Planted (m²) Planted (m²) Alugbati 150 300 Amargoso 437 1250 Camote tops 655 940 Eggplant 1250 500 Jute 417 1250 Kangkong 557 2333 Kinchay 1 400 546 Kulitis 7 297 Lettuce 2 105 Mustard 4 31 0 2 300 Onion 17 326 1 1000 Patola 1050 1 1500 Pechay 17 386 13 1054 Pepper, sweet 400 2 1500 Radish 1 400 Stringbeans 300 1 1500 Tomato 1 2000 Wansuy 2 85 1 Fairview is a housing subdivision in Quezon City with vacant lots ²N number of farmers growing any crop; n = number of farmers growing the particular crop 34 Characterization of Urban Vegetable Farmers
Soil conditions
The soil texture in Fairview and Muntinlupa is light to medium. In Taguig it is a mixture of heavy (39%), medium (35%), and light (26%). The land in both Fairview (97%) and Taguig (78%) is prone to semisubmergence, and in Muntinlupa to complete submergence because it is located near Laguna Lake.
Cultural management practices
Hoes and rakes are used to prepare small areas for every crop. A hand tractor (usually borrowed or rented) is used to prepare larger areas. Some farmers in Fairview incorporate chicken manure, which they obtain from a nearby town in Rizal.
No farmer in the survey area developed or used compost because very little organic waste is generated from vegetable production. The president of the farmers’ association in Fairview supplied chicken manure on an irregular basis. Almost all farmers use inorganic fertilizer.
Most farmers use chemicals to control pests and diseases. The frequency of pesticide application is high (Table 15). No biological insect control is practiced. Sources of water for irrigation in Fairview are mainly rain and wastewater from households. At the two other sites, irrigation water comes from shallow tube wells and deep wells. Weeding and harvesting are done manually.
Table 15. Cultural management practices of major vegetables grown in the study sites during dry season 1999 Cultural practices Pechay Mustard Onion Amargoso Jute leaf Kangkong Kinchay Camote tops Amaranth n=30¹ n=6 n=18 n=6 n=10 n.19 n=9 n=27 n=7 Plantingmethod Trans- Trans- Trans- Drilling Broadcast/ Vine Trans- Vine Trans- planting planting planting Transplant planting planting planting planting No. of fertilizer applications Range 14 14 1-5 4-10 3-14 5-20 24 5-20 1-3 Average 2.4 2.7 2.7 6 7.9 11.5 2.9 11.9 2.5 No. of pesticide sprays Range 2-12 3-8 3-9 8-12 8-12 4-12 3-8 2-18 0-4 Average 4.2 4.4 5.3 9.2 9.1 9.2 4.4 11.1 3 Irrigationsources2 R/C/STW R/C/STW R/C/STW DP/STW DP/STW DP/STW R/C/STW DP/STW R/C No. of weedings Range 0-5 2-5 2-5 2-5 2-5 2-5 2-5 24 2-3 Average 2.5 2.4 2.6 3.6 3.3 3.3 2.4 3.0 2.4 No. of harvests Range 1-2 1-2 1-2 12-25 2-24 24-72 1-2 24-54 1 Average 1.4 1.6 1.3 17.6 12.7 40.1 1.8 41 1 Crop duration 3545 3845 85 58-75 38-70 38-90 85-90 39-90 40 (days) 1 n = number of farmers growing the crop 2 R = rainfed, C = canal, STW shallow tube well, and DP = deep well Urban and Peri-urban Agriculture in Metro Manila 35
Marketing
Sixty-one percent of farmers sell vegetables to wholesalers who buy direct at the field. Most of the others (36%) transport their vegetables by jeepney and sell by retail in the nearby market. Only 4% of farmers sell their produce on the road using a bicycle for transportation.
Gender role
Women play the largest role in vegetable production activities such as planting, harvesting, and marketing of produce. In Taguig and Muntinlupa, most husbands are employed as construction and factory workers. Most land preparation and crop care are done by women.
Constraints
Losses due to pests and diseases and excessive rains/flooding are cited as major problems in vegetable production. Problems of flooding are more prevalent in Muntinlupa where farms are located near Laguna Lake. Poor plant growth was listed as a constraint by 28% of the farmers. Dependence on insufficient household disposal water for irrigation was another constraint in Fairview. Only one farmer cited lack of seeds/planting materials, and only 5% cited high input costs as constraints.
Because of the rapid conversion of urban agriculture lands to residential use in Fairview, uncertainty of land availability is a major worry among farmers. Farmers are apprehensive that land owners could force them to leave at any time.
The major marketing problem (cited by 92% of the farmers) is price instability. Another major problem is poor transportation facilities to bring vegetables to the market (for 17% of the farmers).
Approaches to Improve Urban Agriculture
There are two possible urban agriculture-based approaches to tackle the issue of urban poor:
Generating income and employment opportunities by promoting urban agriculture activities suitable to the city environment. This improves purchasing power and generates additional demand for food and other basic necessities.
Reducing food costs through the introduction of technological innovations in food production in peri-urban areas that serve as major food suppliers to the city. This enhances the supply of affordable food to urban poor. 36 Approaches to Improve Urban Agriculture
Demand-side approach
The Department of Agriculture is preparing a program to cover 10,000 families in the urban poor community of Metro Manila, and densely populated cities of the National Capital Region (NCR). The program encourages small-scale, mainly indoor or backyard food production within Metro Manila. The main objectives are to engage family labor, mainly unemployed or underemployed women, and augment family income. The program encourages the following components of urban agriculture: Semipermanent and permanent nutritious crops, such as calamansi, papaya and malungay, used in backyard planting; Short-term meat production for families with adequate space for a simple pen; Small-scale ( 10-20 kg/harvest) backyard mushroom production; Small scale production of ornamental plants, such as dendrobium and sampaguita; and Vegetable gardening in backyards or vacant lots assigned to participants.
Inputs will be provided in the pilot areas by the Department of Agriculture, including seeds and planting materials, crop protection chemicals, amendments for crop health, broiler stock for meat production, and spawn for mushroom culture. Relevant technical and procedural information will be disseminated to the participants through the LGU executives.
The LGU executives and their representative agricultural officers down to barangay (or village) leaders will implement the program. The Department of Agriculture regional officials, technical personnel, and staff will undertake the technical supervision and coordinate overall monitoring. A Memorandum of Understanding between the Department of Region IV and the LGU will be signed. The collaborating agencies are as follows: Bureau of Plant Industry, Bureau of Soils and Water Management, Bureau of Fisheries and Aquatic Resources, National Nutrition Council, and Department of Education, Culture and Sports (DECS) in the National Capital Region.
Supply-side approach
Because land and water are becoming increasingly scarce and almost unavailable for land- based urban agriculture, it is necessary to target areas outside Metro Manila for enhanced food production. Such areas should be near but not necessarily adjacent to the city, and should be major suppliers of food to the city. This peri-urban concept is based on the possibility of reducing vegetable prices through technological innovations for the poor in large cities.
The AVRDC initiated a project in April 1998 to develop peri-urban vegetable production systems for sustainable year-round supplies to the Metro Manila market. The project involves collaboration among AVRDC, Central Luzon State University (CLSU), Bureau of Plant Industry (BPI), and Technical University of Munich (TUM). It is part of a project entitled ‘Development of Peri-urban Vegetable Production Systems for Sustainable Year- Urban and Peri-urban Agriculture in Metro Manila 37 round Supplies to Tropical Asian Cities’ and funded by a grant from Bundesministerium fur wirtschaftliche Zusammenarbeit und Entwicklung (BMZ). The site chosen for most of the project studies is a year-round intensive vegetable production area near San Leonardo, Nueva Ecija, which is a major vegetable supply source for Metro Manila (Table 4). The principal objectives of the projects are to: Reduce per unit cost and economic risks associated with vegetable production, in order to increase vegetable supplies, with special emphasis on wet season supplies; Expand areas planted to vegetables as a means to increase employment opportunities as well as farm revenues; Reduce reliance on external inputs, with special attention to minimizing use of pesticides and inorganic fertilizers; Strengthen agricultural support services necessary for vegetable production systems in the area; and Develop system models to simulate environments in which new technologies can be adopted in different peri-urban areas of Metro Manila and peri-urban systems of other cities.
The technologies/approaches used to achieve these objectives are outlined below. These technologies are being tested and evaluated by a multidisciplinary team from AVRDC, CLSU, BPI, and TUM.
Increasing off-season vegetable production
The potential to increase vegetable production in areas around Metro Manila is substantial. Technologies are available to increase wet-season production levels and to reduce production risks. Raised beds and crop scheduling help to reduce risk. Grafting is a specialized practice that imparts flood tolerance and root disease resistance to tomato. Where water is scarce during the dry season, drip irrigation may be used to increase planted area and productivity. Shading and mulching (with paper, plastic, composted waste, or fresh residues) are mature technologies in many vegetable-producing areas of the industrial world, and can be evaluated for suitability in the Metro Manila area. Many of these technologies have been described (AVRDC 1992-2001; Kleinhenz et al. 1995a,b; Chen and Chen 1991, Jaafar et al. 1992, Midmore et al. 1994, 1997; and Sjahri 1975).
Reducing pesticide use
Reduction of chemical use is possible through Integrated Pest Management, which employs technologies such as host-plant resistance, crop rotation, intercropping, soil amendments, biological control, sex pheromones, as well as the judicious use of pesticides. Although not all technologies are suitable for all vegetable diseases and insect pests on a particular site, there is potential to reduce chemical use. New management skills, however, will be required. A capacity to recognize common insect pests and diseases is one of the requisite skills. Cultivars with resistance to specific diseases are available, but require confirmation 38 Approaches to Improve Urban Agriculture under local conditions. Protected culture, insect traps, and intercropping may reduce or eliminate chemical use. Inoculum levels of soil-borne diseases can be reduced by flooding or by inserting nonhost crops into the cropping sequence.
Several technologies that reduce the use of pesticides are currently being developed at AVRDC. Most have been described in AVRDC 1992-2001; Srinivasan and Moorthy 1992; Srinivasan et al. 1994; Yang et al. 1994; and Talekar and Yang 1993. Sources of genetic resistance to some major diseases of tomato (tomato yellow leaf curl virus, cucumber mosaic virus, and late blight), pepper (phytophthora blight and anthracnose), and onion (stemphylium leaf blight, purple blotch, and anthracnose) have been identified at AVRDC, and these genes are being bred into advanced lines (AVRDC 1993-2001; Black et al. 1996). Many advanced AVRDC tomato lines carry resistance to fusarium wilt, bacterial wilt, gray leaf spot, tomato mosaic virus, and root knot nematode. Numerous cultural practices, including crop rotations and soil flooding, can be used for disease management (Palti, 1981).
Managing crop nutrition
Nutrient removal from soil by intensive vegetable cropping is substantial. A sequence of four 75-day crops that average 35 t/ha marketable product can remove 350-400 kg/ha each of nitrogen (N) and potassium (K). Because most (50-75%) of the nutrients accumulate in the produce of many vegetable crops, there is a need for high fertilization rates.
However, there is a danger of overfertilization. These wasteful practices reduce profits to growers and increase the likelihood of harmful concentrations of nitrates in consumed vegetables. Soil nutrient availability levels can be determined with portable laboratories, hand-held refractometers, and semiquantitative test strips (Malo and Gelderman 1984; Kleinhenz et al. 1996; Jemison and Fox 1988; Hartz, et al. 1993). Other prospective nutrient management technologies are described (AVRDC 1994-2001; Rosen et al. 1993; Gouin 1993; Pratt et al. 1976; and Castellanos and Pratt 1981).
When organic fertilizers are regularly applied, the need for inorganic forms of N can be reduced by 50%, and inorganic phosphorus (P) and perhaps K applications can be reduced even more. To achieve this reduction, the procedures for composting wastes, including how to organize and manage a composting system, require special attention both by researchers and farmers.
Applications of composted city wastes, however, may introduce heavy metals such as cadmium, lead, and mercury into crops. Animal wastes often contain copper and zinc at levels that exceed crop needs. A monitoring system is being established to determine the rates at which these contaminants accumulate in soils and are removed by vegetables when waste is applied many times every year. Urban and Peri-urban Agriculture in Metro Manila 39
Improving agrisupport services
If technical improvements in production practices lower the unit costs of vegetable production and reduce risks, the vegetable supply should increase, prices decrease, and purchases increase. Supplies will also increase if support services are tailored to the needs of small vegetable producers. The services can reduce credit constraints, improve market efficiency, dampen price risks, increase technology adoption rates, and reduce misdiagnosis of maladies. These services are being established with the help of an USAID revolving fund in the peri-urban areas of Metro Manila.
Moreover, integrated farm programming models are being developed to predict the effect of technological and institutional innovation on the supply of vegetables to Metro Manila. These models will be helpful to replicate the experience of this project on other peri-urban sites in Asia. Extension strategies to train farmers to use and adapt new technologies to their environments, and market development strategies that improve distribution efficiency are being evaluated.
Summary and Conclusions
Metro Manila suffers from overcrowding, unemployment, and underemployment. These conditions have led to traffic-congested streets; waste disposal problems; air, water, and soil pollution; insufficient municipal water supplies; deplorable housing conditions; child labor abuses; lack of affordable and safe food; and extensive malnutrition. Unfortunately, these problems are getting worse due to continuing population growth and accelerated rural migration into the metropolitan area.
If urban agriculture is taken in the broader sense to include not only farming or fisheries but also to include the marketing of agriculture commodities, it can be helpful in providing some relief to a substantial number of poor people in Metro Manila. For example, the informal wholesale and retail trading sector provides jobs to about half a million, or 14% of the employed labor force. Urban agricultural activities within this sector, such as roadside food venders and sari-sari stores, are widespread throughout the city.
However, evaluation of the existing urban and peri-urban agriculture production in Metro Manila suggests that the city currently is heavily dependent upon importing its food from surrounding production areas. Urban food production contributes only a small proportion: rice 0.47%, vegetables 0.52%, fish 1.3%, pork 2.1% of total red meat, and 0.3 1% of poultry. Land-use data for 1995 released by the Metro Manila Development Authority show that of the 63,600 ha of land that makes up Metro Manila, 2% is occupied by fishponds, 3.9% is under crop production, and 14.6% is vacant. Most of the vacant land is unavailable or unsuitable for farming. Assuming that all the vacant land was utilized for farming, production would still fall far short of the demands for any of the major food items. The suitability for urban food production in Metro Manila will be worsened in the near future with the fast declining of land and water resources for this purpose. Thus, if substantial progress is to be made in enhancing food supplies from land-based agricultural activities to 40 Summary and Conclusions
Metro Manila, efforts must be focused on major production sites supplying food from outside the metropolitan area.
The review of the resources of the city suggests that land-based farming in Metro Manila, although very limited in scope, did provide a substantial source of income and food to those urban poor who were engaged in it, especially to those who were temporarily unemployed. Because no land was left for urban agriculture in the original town planning, most of these farmers were operating on encroached land. Given the available vacant land, and future plans of most of the municipalities and cities in Metro Manila, only a few hundred people can be engaged in farming even if this activity is extended to all the vacant land. Moreover, land being reclaimed by its owners is always a fear among these farmers.
Space-intensive agricultural production (raising broilers, indoor hydroponics, backyard production of vegetables or flowers, and small-scale mushroom production) appear to have potential to engage large numbers of urban poor while providing much needed food supplies. These activities can provide productive employment, additional income and purchasing power, and job security to the urban, temporarily unemployed poor. Moreover, when they get a better paying job, switchover is relatively easy. The Department of Agriculture, in collaboration with other related institutes, has taken up this approach in launching the urban agriculture improvement program in Metro Manila. For the success of these technologies, training of housewives and establishment of marketing links are pre- requisites. Before expanding any of these activities in the city, however, a careful economic viability analysis is required which should include the cost of pollution generated by these activities in the middle of congested urban centers.
Another approach to tackle the food and nutrition problem of the urban poor is to stabilize year-round food supplies and reduce food costs in areas that are major food suppliers to Metro Manila. AVRDC has adopted this approach, recognizing the importance of vegetables in alleviating nutrient deficiencies, and as a source of income generation. Vegetable production technologies that are high yielding, inexpensive, and safe are being introduced to vegetable farmers in southern Nueva Ecija, a major area of vegetable production about 90 km north of Metro-Manila.
The major goal is to achieve a stable year-round vegetable supply to Metro Manila, while protecting the health of the farmers and consumers. Raised beds, protective shelters, crop scheduling, and grafting technologies are being evaluated under local conditions to reduce risk. Host-plant resistance, crop rotation, intercropping, soil amendments, biological control, insect sex pheromones, and cultural practices are being tested to improve pest management, reduce pesticide use, and produce safer vegetables. Partial replacement of inorganic fertilizer applications with organic fertilizers is being done to recycle plant nutrients in organic waste and to improve soil conditions while reducing the use of external inputs. A monitoring system is being established to determine the rates at which heavy metal contaminants accumulate in soils. Input-output marketing efficiency is being studied. Agricultural service systems are being strengthened, and farmers are being trained to use and adapt the introduced technologies according to their own environments. Moreover, integrated crop models are being developed to simulate the successful environments for the Urban and Peri-urban Agriculture in Metro Manila 41 adoption of new technologies, and to predict the effect of technological and institutional innovations on the supply of vegetables to Metro Manila.
In a broad context, some agricultural activities can always be found in and around a city. The relative contribution of urban and peri-urban agriculture production systems in providing food, income, and employment to urban poor depends upon the city resources, geopolitical environment, and infrastructure networks. Trends in the availability of land and water resources, and linkages of food-supplying locations around the city are key factors. These key factors must be thoroughly analyzed before planning activities that' focus on helping the urban poor. Special attention should be directed on the economic viability of these activities, including environmental cost in general, and environmental cost on the city, in particular. 42 References
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