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Chiquitano and the State Negotiating Identities and Indigenous Territories in Bolivia Thesis submitted in accordance with the requirements of the University of Liverpool for the degree of Doctor in Philosophy by Katinka Weber December 2010 Abstract Chiquitano and the State: Negotiating Identities and Indigenous Territories in Bolivia 2010 by Katinka Weber This thesis analyses how Chiquitano people engage with the state and to what effect, based on ethnographic fieldwork carried out between September 2006 and August 2007 in the Bolivian Concepción, San Javier and Lomerío municipalities, in the eastern Bolivian lowlands. It focuses on the most contentious areas of Chiquitano- state relations, namely the emergence of the Chiquitano social movement, the struggle for territory and territorial autonomy and participation in the local state bureaucracy. While Chiquitano interact with the state in order to protect their socio- cultural communal reproduction, this thesis finds that in many ways the Chiquitano organisation acts as part of the state and replicates its neo-liberal multicultural rhetoric. The state remains the main shaper of forms of political engagement and collective identification (such as indigeneity), resonating with Fried’s (1967) and Scott’s (1998) notions that the state implies some sort of process, one of ‘restructuring’ and ‘making legible’. Consequently, this thesis argues that from the Chiquitano perspective, the election of Bolivia’s first indigenous president in 2005 and his radical state reform project through the 2006-2007 Constituent Assembly, has not fundamentally transformed previous patterns of indigenous-state engagement. It posits that the more successful resistance continues to reside, perhaps more subtly, in comunidades ’ socio-cultural relations. ii Table of Contents Abstract ii Table of Contents ii List of Maps, Figures and Photos v Acronyms and Abbreviations vii Glossary of Frequently Used Spanish Terms xi Acknowledgements xiv I Introduction 16 II Chiquitano and the State: Conceptualising the State and Citizenship 48 Theories of the State 49 Citizenship Practices & the Citizenship ‘Tool’ 62 Bolivia’s Neo-liberal Multicultural Citizenship Regimes 67 Conclusion 84 Interlude: The State for the Chiquitano 87 III Methodology: Of Multi-Sitedness, Shifting Positionalities and the Politics of Research 109 What I Set out to Research, Why and How 110 Researching the Chiquitano ‘Governance’ System: A so-called Multi-Sited Ethnography 114 Two further Sites: Research with the CGTI-MV and CEJIS Teams 123 Positionality/ Positioning in a Multi-Sited Context 147 The Politics of Fieldwork and Writing about it 160 Conclusion 163 IV History of the Chiquitano: Ethnogenesis, Land Loss and Citizenship 165 Pre-Jesuit Contact: The Early Conquest 168 The Jesuit Period (1692-1767) 172 The Post-Jesuit Period 186 Independence and the Rise of the Republic 191 The Rubber Boom, Chaco War and the Santa Cruz – Corumbá Railway 199 The 1952 Revolution and Agrarian Reform 203 Conclusion 211 V Ethnic Politics and the Multiple Meanings of ‘Indigenous’ in Bolivia 214 The Challenge of Contemporary Bolivian Ethnic Movements 217 Chiquitano Modes of Group and Self-Identification 234 Conclusion 262 iii VI Monte Verde: The Long Struggle and Meanings of Territory 264 Constructing ‘Indigenous Territories’: Laws and Legal Discourses 265 The Chiquitano Land Struggle 1973 – 2007 270 Territorial Management and Planning 283 Chiquitano Constructions of Territory and Monte Verde 295 Conclusion 300 VII Chiquitano in the Municipal Sphere 302 Political Manoeuvrings: the 1995, 1999 and 2004 Municipal Elections 304 Chiquitano Comunidades and the LPP 329 Conclusion 341 VIII Conclusion: Chiquitano, the State and Prospects for Future Engagement 344 Appendix 1 List of Workshops, Focus Groups and Interviews 354 CGTI-MV Project Workshops 354 CEJIS Project: Workshops, Focus Groups, Interviews 354 Semi-and unstructured interviews outside projects (Formal and Informal) 359 Appendix 2 Methodological Matrix for Workshops in Chiquitano Comunidades 362 Bibliography 368 iv List of Maps, Figures and Photos List of Maps Map 1: Bolivia ........................................................................................................ 25 Map 2: Santa Cruz Department, Chiquitanía and Ñuflo de Chávez Province ....... 27 Map 3: Drawn Map of Palestina, TCO Monte Verde ........................................... 242 Map 4: The TCO Monte Verde and Chiquitano Comunidades ............................ 275 List of Photos Photo 1: Zebus Crossing the Road ....................................................................... 26 Photo 2: Concepción Mission Church .................................................................. 87 Photo 3: Southern Side of Concepción Main Square ........................................... 88 Photo 4: A Street in the ‘Chiquitano Area’ of Town ............................................ 89 Photo 5: Hugo Banzer Suárez Statue .................................................................... 92 Photo 6: Side View of Concepción Mission Church ............................................ 93 Photo 7: The CICC Headquarter ( Central )......................................................... 105 Photo 8: The Massaí Families’ Kitchen ............................................................. 120 Photo 9: Part of the Massaí Families’ Housing Complex, Comunidad Palestina .... .............................................................................................................. 121 Photo 10: Path to Chacos of Comunidad Palestina .............................................. 121 Photo 11: Plantain Grove in the Comunidad Palestina ......................................... 122 Photo 12: VIth March of Indigenous People of the Lowland, Santa Cruz ........... 123 Photo 13: The Constituent Assembly Autonomy Commission, Sucre ................. 123 Photo 14: CGTI-MV Research Workshop in Palestina, TCO Monte Verde ........ 128 Photo 15: CGTI-MV Workshop in Puerto San Pedro, TCO Monte Verde .......... 128 Photo 16: Reflexive Team Meeting, CEJIS Office Concepción .......................... 132 Photo 17: Women-Only Focus Group, Comunidad Palmira ................................ 135 Photo 18: Co-Facilitating a Workshop in Las Abras ............................................ 138 Photo 19: Comunarios in Plenary in Makanaté .................................................... 138 Photo 20: Sociodrama in the Comunidad Las Abras ............................................ 140 Photo 21: Interviewing Key Informants ............................................................... 141 Photo 22: CGTI-MV Team Clearing the Path to Monte Verde ........................... 143 Photo 23: The Mission Church of San Ignacio de Velasco .................................. 175 v Photo 24: Evo Morales Being Dressed as Yaritú ................................................. 183 Photo 25: Evo Morales as Yaritú .......................................................................... 183 Photo 26: Don Adriano’s Family, Palmira ........................................................... 240 Photo 27: Houses in Candelaria ............................................................................ 243 Photo 28: School Building in Candelaria ............................................................. 243 Photo 29: Church in Palmira, Lomerío ................................................................. 244 Photo 30: Chiquitano Band .................................................................................. 252 Photo 31: Brewing Chicha ................................................................................... 253 Photo 32: Wearing a Tipoy ................................................................................... 254 Photo 33: Cattle Ranch, San Javier ...................................................................... 257 Photo 34: Comunidad Palestina, TCO Monte Verde ........................................... 257 Photo 35: Esteban Massai ..................................................................................... 273 Photo 36: Evo Morales at TCO Monte Verde Ceremony .................................... 283 Photo 37: Mayor Justo Seoane ............................................................................. 313 Photo 38: Workshop in El Carmen ....................................................................... 320 Photo 39: Orchids in El Carmen ........................................................................... 321 Please note that all photos in this thesis are by the author unless specified. All photos by the author are licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial-NoDerivs 3.0 Unported License. Exceptions are picture 24 and 25 of Evo Morales by Katinka Weber, which are licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution 3.0 Unported License. To view a copy of this license, visit http://creativecommons.org; or, send a letter to Creative Commons, 444 Castro Street, Suite 900, Mountain View, California 94140, USA. vi Acronyms and Abbreviations ADN Acción Democrática Nacionalista (National Democratic Action) ALAS Asesoría Legal y Asistencia Social (Legal Consultancy and Social Assistance) APCOB Apoyo para el Campesino-Indígena del Oriente Boliviano (Support for the Indigenous Peasant of the Bolivian East) APG Asamblea del Pueblo Guaraní (Assembly of the Guarani People) BOLFOR Programa de Manejo Forestal Sostenible (Program for Sustainable Forestry Management) CABI Capitanía del Alto y Bajo Izozog (Captaincy of the
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