CHAPTER – I INTRODUCTION the Ultimate Goal of Any Philosophy Is to Know the Self and Related Facts of the Life

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CHAPTER – I INTRODUCTION The ultimate goal of any philosophy is to know the self and related facts of the life. Whenever we try to go deeper, in search of our existence on this Earth, lots of questions which are the basis of spiritual enquiry arise in the mind like: “Who am I?” “From where do I come?” “Where will I go after death?” “What is the significance of this universe?” “What do I know about myself and others?” “What is reality?” “Does God exist? If yes, then where is he?” And so on. The role of Philosophy is to analyse these questions critically to help us towards the solutions. It is an outlook towards you, others, the world and everything. The word "Philosophy" comes from the Greek word “philosophia”, which literally means "love of wisdom1". Philos means love and Sophia means knowledge2. The Sanskrit term for philosophy is darśana and "philosopher" is dārśanika, one who is familiar with the systems of Philosophy. Some of the definitions of “Philosophy” are: 1. “Origin, love of, or the search for, wisdom or knowledge” 2. “Philosophy is theory or logical analysis of the principles underlying conduct, thought, knowledge and the nature of the universe3". Thus, the study of philosophy takes us to the journey of mysteries of universe, of an individual as well and from our mind to the universal consciousness. "Philosophy is rationally critical thinking, of a more or less systematic kind about the general nature of the world (metaphysics or theory of existence, key concept), the

1 en.wikipedia.org/wiki/philosophy (Retrieved on 02.02.2012) 2 H.P.Sinha, Bharatiya Darshan Ki Ruparekha, Motilal Banarsidass Publishers Pvt. Ltd., Delhi, 2010, p.3 3 Webster's New World Dictionary, 2nd edition, World Publishing Company of Cleveland, Ohio, 1970, p.15 2

justification of belief (epistemology or study of the nature and scope of or philosophical theory of knowledge) and the conduct of life (ethics or theory of value)”. Each of the three elements in this list has a non-philosophical counterpart, from which it is distinguished by its explicitly rational and critical way of proceeding and by its systematic nature. Philosophy is conceptual analysis. The Indian thinkers of antiquity viewed philosophy as a practical necessity that needed to be cultivated in order to understand how life can best be led. They proclaimed the principle that knowledge in itself was of no value and was needed only because it taught people the correct path in life. This understanding of the aim of knowledge, philosophy and wisdom distinguishes Indian Philosophy from the western ones. It became a custom for Indian writers to explain at the beginning of philosophical work how it serves human ends (puruṣārtha). Indian philosophers were also concerned with religious and metaphysical questions such as, the precise nature of liberation. The philosophy of India takes its stand on the spirit which is above mere logic, and holds that culture based on mere logic or science may be efficient, but cannot be inspiring. Darśana is a culture which means a doctrine that helps one see and experience the reality. In India, two types of cultures or Darśana-s were developed, namely Vedic culture and Śramaṇa culture. Jainism and Buddhism belong to Śramaṇa culture. And Nyāya, Vaiśeṣika, Sāṃkhya, Yoga, Mīmāṃsā and Vedānta follow Vedic culture. Basically, darśana-s were designed to solve the practical difficulties and sufferings of our life. Majority of Indian darśana-s accept “Karma Siddhānta” (Laws pertaining to human actions), which believe that our present life is due to our past actions called as karma. Happiness and miseries are essential fruits of our past deeds. This is scientific as it has cause and effect relationship. Each one is a creator of one‟s fortune. Selfless deeds are independent of the law of karma. This karma theory easily explains why one person and his life are different from the others in status and many aspects. And accordingly, each one is unique. 3

By understanding this philosophy, we stop blaming others for our status, sufferings and all. Only we are responsible for what we get in our life. So, it gives us hopes. One can make his life worth living, contented with his own karma. Each human being wishes to get rid of suffering. Darśana-s lead us towards mokṣa i.e. liberation from sufferings and therefore these darśana-s are also called as „mokṣa-darśana‟. Buddhism (Bodhicaryā) explains the process or sādhana to the final goal as a march towards enlightenment. Jainism names it as kaivalya followed by mokṣa. Pātañjala Yogasūtra‟s goal is achievement of „discriminating insight‟ (viveka) followed by kaivalya. Vedānta calls it as realization of the transcendental self (Ātman-Brahman). The main instrument for this purpose is our own consciousness, ātman that makes Indian Philosophy „ātma-vidyā’. As compared to this, Western philosophy was basically started out of curiosity and without any practical approach. According to them, „Philosophy‟ is a mental and analytical exercise. Darśana is an end in itself (sādhya) according to Western philosophers. Whereas, eastern philosophers believe that philosophy is only an instrument (sādhanā) to gain knowledge initially and thereafter intuitive experience and spiritual contentment (mokṣa). Spirituality corrects, purifies, decorates and develops inner life. As such, it is an inward journey making us introvert. As against this, Science which deals with our outer life is an extrovert process. But, as we see and experience today, both are complimentary to each other. Western philosophies were developed sequentially, one after the other. One philosopher got popularity at the cost of previous one. The next philosophy got accepted widely when the previous got destroyed. Western philosophers4 like

Democritus (460-370 B.C.), Plato (428-348 B.C.) and Socrates (464-399 B.C.) all of Greece, Descartise Rene (1596-1650) of France, Spinoza Baruch (1623-1677) Dutch-Jewish, Irish Berkeley, Bishop George (1685 to 1753), Locke John (1632- 1704) of England and Hegel G.W.F. (1770-1831) of Germany are examples of it. They have emphasized importance of intelligence to gain knowledge, but this is indirect and intuitional knowledge as per Indian Philosophy.

4 http://www.philosophybasics.com/philosophers.html (Retrieved on 08.01.2015) 4

Indian Darśana-s are developed in co-ordination with each other and all are alive today as part of our life. According to Max Muller, in India, the study of darśana-s is not done only for gaining knowledge but to achieve the ultimate goal of the life5. The common observation of the author of this Thesis while studying most of the scripture, is that the great Rishis centered philosophy on an assumption that there is a unitary underlying order in the universe which is all pervasive and omniscient. The efforts by various schools were concentrated on explaining this order and the metaphysical entity at its source. The concept of natural law (Dharma) provided a basis for understanding questions of how life on earth should be lived. The sages urged humans to discern this order and to live their lives in accordance with it. Traditionally, schools or Darśana-s of Indian Philosophy are classified as orthodox (āstika) and heterodox or non-orthodox (nāstika) depending on whether they regard the Veda as an infallible source of knowledge. There are six schools of orthodox Indian Philosophy which trust in validity of Veda and they all have drawn from a common reservoir of thoughts. And the other three heterodox schools are those do not believe in Veda. The orthodox schools are: 1. Nyāya, the school of logic 2. Vaiśeṣika, the atomist school 3. Sāṃkhya, the enumeration school 4. Yoga, the school of Patañjali (which provisionally asserts the metaphysics of Sāṃkhya) 5. Pūrva Mīmāṃsā (or simply Mīmāṃsā), the tradition of Vedic exegesis, with emphasis on Vedic ritual, and 6. Uttara Mīmāṃsā (also called Vedānta), the Upanisadic tradition, with emphasis on Vedic Philosophy. All these systems recognize as obligatory unselfish love and disinterested activity, and insist on cittaśuddhi (purification of mind) as essential to all moral cultures. In

5 F.M.Muller, The Six systems of Indian Philosophy, BiblioLife, Longmans Green And Co., New York, 2009, p.370 5

different degrees, they adhere to the rules of caste (varṇa) and stages of life (āśrama-s). Of these six systems, the Vaiśeṣika is not very much in honour, while the Nyāya on its logical side is popular and finds many devotees, especially in Bengal. Yoga Philosophy in its practical form is being practiced and getting more and more popular due to its positive effects in modern stressful life. The Pūrva- Mīmāṃsā is closely related to Hindu traditions and customs; whereas the Sāṃkhya was not a living faith. The Vedānta in its different forms pervades the whole atmosphere. Though, during last fifty years most of the yoga followers have started creating faith in Sāṃkhya and getting more popularized. These darśana-s are grouped like as „Nyāya-Vaiśeṣika‟, where both are having many common principles forming a complete darśana, and their theories give us an analysis of the world of experience. They accept God as the result of inference. Sāṃkhya is not theism. „Sāṃkhya‟ and „Yoga‟ have common principles of puruṣa and prakṛti; both developed independently having indirect influence of Veda. Mīmāṃsā and Vedānta are termed as “Vedānta” and this group is a gift of Vedic culture, where Mīmāṃsā describes rituals in the form of karmakāṇḍa and Vedānta describes the explanations in the form of jñānakāṇḍa. Pūrva Mīmāṃsā derives the general conception of deity from Veda-s, though not anxious about the supreme spirit. The Uttara Mīmāṃsā accepts God on the basis of śruti (listening to authorities and analytical thinking) assisted by inference. Realization of God can be had through Meditation and jñāna. Therefore, in India, Darśana is an instrument towards final goal, which is to get free from miseries. Philosophy is for life and not merely a thought process6. The Heterodox are Jains, Buddhists and Materialists (Cārvāka). However, Vidyāraṇya classifies Indian Philosophy into sixteen schools where he includes schools belonging to Śaiva and Rādheśvara thoughts with others.

6 Radhakrishnan and Moore, A Sourcebook in Indian Philosophy, Princeton University Press, New Jersey, 1967, p.4

The History of Indian Philosophy (theoretical background)

The main schools of Indian Philosophy were formalized chiefly between 1000 B.C. to the early centuries A.D. Competition and integration between the various schools was intense during their formative years, especially during 800 B.C. to 200 A.D. Some like the Jain, Buddhist, Śaiva and Advaita schools survived, while others like Sāṃkhya and Ājīvika (heterodox school) did not, either being assimilated or going extinct. The period between 5th and 9th century was the most brilliant epoch in the development of Indian Philosophy as Hindu and Buddhist philosophies flourished side by side. Of these various schools of thought the non-dualistic Advaita Vedānta emerged as the most influential and most dominant school of Philosophy. The major philosophers of this school were Gauḍapāda, Ādi Śaṅkaracārya and Vidyāraṇya. Vyāsbhāṣya of Pātañjala Yogasūtra and Sāṃkhyakārikā were composed during this period. The main divisions as per their periods of popularity of Indian Philosophy are as under: 1. The Vedic period. 2. The Epic period. 3. The Sūtra period. 4. The Modern and Contemporary period.

7 1. The Vedic era (around 8000-4000 B.C.) : There are four Veda-s, the oldest literature of Veda-s, namely Ṛgveda, Yajurveda, Sāmaveda and Atharvaveda. Each Veda consists of saṃhitā (Prayers and Mantras), brāhmaṇas (rituals of yajña), āraṇyaka and upaniṣad (philosophy). Ṛgveda includes collection of 1028 devotional mantras. Yajurveda describes rituals of yajña in details. Sāmaveda is a melody, supreme in music and chantings. Atharvaveda describes mysterious techniques of Tantra and magical powers. Upaniṣad-s are collection of knowledge received by intuition and written in the form of dialogues. Main Upaniṣad-s are eleven, namely

7 Swami Anand Rishi, Pātañjalayogadarśana, Yoga Vidya Niketan, Navi Mumbai, 2015, p.273. 7

Īśa, Kena, Kaṭha, Praśna, Muṇḍaka, Māṇḍukya, Taittirīya, Chāndogya, Aitareya, Bṛhadāraṇyaka and Śvetāśvatara.8 Indian Philosophy has a rich and diverse philosophical tradition dating back to the composition of the Upaniṣad-s in the later Vedic period. According to Radhakrishnan, the earlier Upaniṣad-s constitute "...the earliest philosophical compositions of the world." Upaniṣad-s guide us in crisis and therefore are included in world literature.

2. The Epic era (4000-3000 B.C.): The next period in Indian Philosophy was the epic period, during which great poetries like Mahābhārata and Rāmāyaṇa were created. In this era, two great philosophies Jainism and Buddhism also came into existence.

3. Sūtra-era: The third era from 500 to 1000 B.C. was Sūtra-era. The most important philosophical literature created in this era in terms of sūtra-s like Nyāya, Vaiśeṣika, Sāṃkhya, Yoga, Mīmāṃsā and Vedānta. The entire philosophy of life and its mysteries are explained in condensed form in sūtra-s with minimum words. And these were further explained by other commentators or bhāṣyakāra-s in details in the later periods. Sūtra-s are short aphorisms, free from doubts. Sūtra-s are not work of one thinker or of one age but a succession of thinkers spread over a number of generations. The word sūtra can be defined as under –

अ쥍ऩाक्षरमसन्दि嵍ध ं सारवत ् वव�वतोमुखम ् ।

अतोभमनव饍य ं च सूत्र ं सूत्रवविो ववि:ु ॥ A sūtra (means thread in Sanskrit) is very concise form of composition in minimum words, consists of aphoristic statements that together furnish the reader with a thread which strings together all the memorable ideas characteristics of that school of thought.9 4. The Modern era: The fourth era since last 200 years produced commentaries and reformulations continuing up to as late as the 20th century by Aurobindo,

8 S.H.Dixit, Bharatiya Tattvajnana, Phadke Prakashan, Kolhapur, 2009, p.56 9 G.Feuerstein, The Yoga Traditions, Motilal Banarsidass Publishers Pvt.Ltd., Delhi, 2002, p.286. 8

Mahatma Gandhi, Rabindranath Tagore, Dr. S. Radhakrishnan, Swāmī Vivekānanda and Iqbaal among others. Having the same or rather intertwined origins, all of these philosophies have a common underlying theme of dharma and karma, and similarly that attempt to explain the attainment of emancipation. Vedānta is Upaniṣad-s which means to sit close to Guru with faith. According to Dr. Dasgupta, “In the whole world, there is no study so beneficial and as elevating as that of Upaniṣad-s. It has been the solace of my life; it will be the solace of my death”.10 These Upaniṣad-s classifiy ātman (the supreme self as against jīva, which is an individual self) into four types namely: bodily (śārīrika), empirical (ānubhavika), transcendental (viśvātīta) and absolute (nirapekṣa). There are four states of an individual (jīvātmā) as per Māṇḍukya Upaniṣad, and they are jagṛt, swapna, suṣupti and turyāvasthā. Process of acquiring knowledge is done by hearing (śravaṇa), meditation (manana) and practice (nididhyāsana).11 Advaita Vedānta rejects theism and dualism by insisting that “brahman (the Ultimate Reality) is without parts or attributes…one without a second.” Since, brahman has no properties, contains no internal diversity and is identical with the whole reality it cannot be understood as God. Brahman though being indescribable is at best described by Śaṅkaracārya as saccidānanda (merging of sat + cit + ānanda, i.e., Existence, Consciousness and Bliss). Advaita ushered a new era in Indian Philosophy and as a result, many new schools of thought arose in the medieval period. Some of them were Viśiṣṭādvaita (qualified monism), Dvaita (dualism), Dvaitādvaita (dualism-nondualism), Śuddhādvaita (pure non-dualism), Acintya Bhedābheda (inconceivable one-ness and difference) and Pratyabhijñā (the recognitive school).

10 Dasgupta Surendranath, History of Indian philosophy, vol.I, Motilal Banarsidass Publishers Pvt.Ltd., Delhi, 1992, p.40 11 Ibid, p.41 9

Essence of Indian Philosophies Various systems of Indian Philosophy have some common characteristics like most of them believe that this world is full of miseries, pains and problems. Yoga calls it as „kleśa-s‟, Jaina as „kaṣāya-s‟, whereas Sāṃkhya and Buddhism describe it as „dukkha‟. Due to this concept, Western philosophers call this philosophy as pessimistic. But in true sense, each darśana in India asks us to make efforts towards permanent blissful state or mokṣa and do good karma. Be optimistic to use various remedies to remove miseries from our life. For this, Buddhism suggests „aṣṭāṅgika mārga’; a path consisting of eight limbs namely, 1. samyak dṛṣti (right understanding) 2. samyak saṃkalpa (right thought) 3. samyak vāc (right speech) 4. samyak karmānta (right action) 5. samyak ājīva, (right livelihood) 6. samyak vyāyāma (right efforts) 7. samyak smṛti (right mindfulness) 8. samyak samādhi (right concentration) Through spiritual education in the noble eight fold path of śīla (morality, character), samādhi (Meditation), paññā (prajñā - insight or wisdom), one gets liberated from ignorance, craving and sorrow. He achieves supreme enlightenment (sammā- sambodhi) and transcends his separate limited individuality and overcomes the cycles of birth and death and gets the supreme silence. Jainism is both a religion that prescribes a path of non-violence towards all living beings and a system of Philosophy. Its philosophy and practice emphasize the necessity of self-effort to move the soul towards divine consciousness and mokṣa or liberation. The original preaching of Lord Mahāvira, the founder of current systems of Jainism, was conveyed by oral tradition. These were finally compiled and stored in various aṅga-s also called as Āgama-s. Various techniques and principles of both philosophies, Yoga and Jainism are discussed and analysed in this thesis. 10

Patañjali also prescribed the final goal of life similar to Jainism. However, like Mahāvira, Patañjali does not refer to any religion, sect or cult. Objective of Thesis: The ultimate purpose of doing research in this specific area and writing this thesis is to study and analyse the Yoga and Jain scriptures in details to collect common data of spiritual practices and through a comparative study to make it socially relevant. This also would make us understand the unique philosophies in a better way, more clearly and effectively. This would definitely help us to convey the practices and blends of both philosophies to all Yoga students and Jain community students. Peace of the mind and eternal silence is the goal of all philosophies. Yoga is a science of Individual development, whereas Jainism is a science of individual as well as social development and community upliftment. A comparison between these two philosophies having common goal, and dealing with physical, mental and spiritual practices is undertaken in this thesis. Relevant data of level of experiences during meditation and other spiritual practices of Yoga and Jainism are collected from seers, masters and literature and is described in following chapters. Through that, an honest attempt to probe into both the philosophies is made here. So, similarities and differences can be highlighted appropriately with an inductive approach. A proper blending of both these principles and applying them to the members of societies results into the development of society and removal of obstacles in all round progress. The immediate goal of this research work is to reduce stress level in the society and later on to suggest forming a new set of social norms and rules common to both to promote sound health of the society through health of each individual. The reason for selecting “Pātañjala Yoga” among all schools of Yoga for comparison is because it is the most classical, comprehensive or systematic work has done so far in the field of Yoga. Through this, a perfect blend or a combination of the best practices of both the philosophies could be made applicable in day to day life of a common man, specially a true aspirant. Thus, this is conceptual research study.

The basis of Research work and Hypothesis: During the study of Jain philosophy, it was observed that its religious, ethical and moral principles are relevant and applicable to all human beings, the entire community. Just taking the example of the doctrine of anekāntavāda, the implementation part syādvāda indicates that one should respect the other‟s opinion. There is no single end or the final solution to any problem. There are many or infinite solutions to a given problem. In this manner, each opinion could be right at given time or from a view point. The principle of non-violence as described by the founder of Jainism, Lord Mahāvira should be practiced by each individual taking care not to hurt others, not only human beings but all species, plants and living beings; will definitely result into an environment of total love, compassion, truthfulness, friendliness and kindness. Thus, this broader aspect of Jainism offers all practices mainly to uplift not only an individual but the entire society and the universe. Moreover, if we study the entire Pātañjala Yogasūtra, one comes to know about all the techniques to purify the human mind, to promote individual‟s health, to remove all the kleśa-s inclusive of false knowledge and to make one realize the right knowledge. Finally, it takes an individual to a higher spiritual level. Though, the goal of liberation is common to both philosophies, the modes of techniques and methodologies differ in targeting the objects. If, we try to study both for the proper applications blending these practices, an individual practicing Yoga can definitely uplift himself physically, mentally, emotionally, intellectually and spiritually finally forming an ideal family and the society. Whereas, an ideal environment with all social values and virtues in the entire society following the principles of Jainism will definitely produce the best individuals with proper understanding and care for each other. The basic research questions that initiated this thesis are analysed here, applied to the selected two philosophies namely Jainism and Yoga. Accordingly the Hypothesis which is non-directional is formed.

Survey of previous research (Literature Review): Though many principles in Pātañjala Yogadarśana are inspired from Jainism and Buddhism, but term „Yoga‟ was having differtent meaning in Jain Ᾱgama-s. Pandit

Devanandī of fifth century (Samādhitantra, Iśtopadeśa), Jinabhadra Gaṇī of 609 A.D. th (Dhyānaśataka) followed by Yogendudeva of 7 century (Yogasāra, Paramātmaprakāśa) and Ᾱcārya Haribhadrasūri of 8th century (Yogabindu, Yogadṛṣtisamuccaya, Yogavinśikā, Yogaśatakānd and many other books) were the initial scholars to get inspired by Pātañjali‟s work on Yoga and hence included many Yogīc practices in Jain scriptures written by them. They formed many meditative techniques where Yogīc poses and Pranayamic practices were mentioned. Ᾱcārya Hemacandrasūri (11th century) wrote „Yogaśāstra’ including aṣṭāṅgayoga, nāḍi, japa and mantrayoga. Yaśovijayjī (17th century) wrote Pātañjala Yogasūtravṛtti among his 108 books. In the later era, Muni Nathmal (20th century) wrote Jain Yoga and Ᾱtmārāmjī Mahārāja (1933) wrote Jain Agamo Me Ashtangayoga and Jain Yogasiddhanta Aur Sadhana. Later on Ācārya Śubhacandrajī and Ācārya Hemacandrajī have contributed to Jaina Yoga with their works. All this work was inclusion of Yoga principles into Jain philosophy or blending of both. It was observed while reviewing these briefly that nowhere the comparison of spiritual practices was found exclusively. Most of the studies undertaken afterwards in the fields of two philosophies namely, Yoga and Jainism are independent excluding each other; hence there was a need for comparative study. Going through the research work done currently in this field among available journals, books, exhibitions and various libraries at various places like Somaiya Vidyavihar Libraries, Shanti Niketan, Tithal -Dist.Valsad, Jain Museum at Palitana (both places in Gujarat have huge collection of Jain literature) and Jain Upāśrayas, the only comparative studies found are recent works in Hindi done by Dr. Aruna Anand (Patanjala Yoga Evam Jain Yoga Ka Tulanatmaka Adhyayana) of Delhi in 2002, one thesis submitted to University on comparative study of Yoga, Buddhism and Jainism by Rama Dattatreya Garge of Yoga Vidhyadham, Kolhapur, 2014 and one in Gujarati by Dr. Kishor Gada (Yoga Ane Jain Sahitya) of Mumbai in 13

2014. All of them have tried to compare mainly the principles of the entire Yoga and Jainism philosophies but not aiming at only spiritual practices. Prime sources: It was a huge and the most difficult task to go through all the Jain Ᾱgama-s. Hence, the lists of topics from each Ᾱgama were referred to search for spiritual practices and finally only few related Ᾱgama-s like Ācārāṅga Sūtra and Āvaśyaka Sūtra and few others were referred and studied. Most of the data are collected from these Ᾱgama-s and all sūtras of Tattvārthasūtra, the original work of Śri Umāswāti and translated by various authors. This scripture is considered as summary of all Āgama-s. Secondary sources: Few commentaries of Ᾱgama and many scriptures and books written by different scholars of both philosophies - Jainism and Yoga have been referred to here. This documentary study has been done with „people and tools triangulation’, where the researcher has done cross checking of original scriptures with many monks, Ācārya-s and other tools like writings and principles of different sects of Jainism to derive common and fundamental principles. So, it includes opinions on original Ᾱgama-s and prescribed spiritual practices gathered from interviews and discussion with great Jain and Yoga scholars and Professors of Jainology and Yoga experts. Yoga in various Jain and Indian literatures: There is three-fold tradition of Yoga literature in Indological writings, the Vedic, the Jaina and the Bauddha. Though the term Yoga has occurred many times in Ṛgveda, it has always been used in the sense of 'union' only and never in the sense of meditation or concentration of mind. Even such key-words of the Yoga literature like meditation, non-attachment, breath control and withdrawal from external world are absent in the Ṛgveda. However, the Upaniṣad-s do abound in the mention of these concepts. There might be differences of opinion regarding the nature or numbers of the ultimate reality but there is a remarkable unanimity regarding the acceptance of Yogīc sādhanā for its realization. All the Vedic systems including the Nyāya-Vaiśeṣika, Sāṃkhya, Yoga and Vedānta accept the utility and relevance of Yoga in their 14

respective systems. Pūrva-Mīmāṃsā is the only exception which does not ever refer to Yoga. It is interested in ritualistic action. Hindu methods of spirituality are triple yoga or three way method. Namely, these are karmayoga - the way of selfless work, bhaktiyoga - the way of exclusive devotion to God and jñānayoga - the way of Wisdom12. Sāṃkhya and Śaṅkara guide us on the path of self-knowledge. Mīmāṃsā suggests the path of karma to get liberated to have permanent blissful state. Thus, no darśana- s is pessimistic, and is spiritual in true sense as they never recommend running away from the world. The Bhagavadgītā and the Mahābhārata, the Bhāgavata, the Yogavāsiṣṭha and the important works on Tantra including many works of Haṭhayoga accept the place and importance of Yoga. Many medieval saints and scholars like Jñānadeva and Kabira have discussed the subject of Yoga with great seriousness13. Jain darśana suggests practice of triratna i.e. right faith, right knowledge and right conduct. The three Jewels are a metaphor for describing conduct and knowledge:  Samyak-darśana (correct perception or insight)  Samyak-jñāna (correct knowledge)  Samyak-cāritra (correct conduct) The mastery and equilibrium of these three only can take the aspirant to the path of liberation, the true Yoga. As mentoned earlier, most of the scriptures written after sixth century by Ᾱcārya Haribhadrasūri, Hemacandrācārya, Yashovijayjī and many others have given great importance to Yoga and its techniques prescribed by Sage Patañjali and Haṭhayoga. A Comparative Study of different Indian Philosophies: a) Fundamental Concepts: All Indian Philosophies except Śaṅkara and Yogācāra sect of Buddhism accept the existence of this world (jagat). The concept of God (Īśvara) or the supreme

12 T.M.P.Mahadevan, Outlines of Hinduism, Chetana Pvt. Ltd., Bombay, 1999, p. 79 13 www.Jainworld.com (Retrieved on 20.04.2014) 15

consciousness in different forms is acceptable to all except Buddhism, Jainism, Sāṃkhya and Cārvāka-s. Another common feature of all darśana-s is all of them except Cārvāka believe in consciousness, power of ātman. Ātman is immortal. Buddha believed in empirical self, which is a stream of consciousness and transitory in nature. Nyāya and Vaiśeṣika have realistic view. They say ātman becomes conscious only when it comes in contact with mind, body and senses. Thus according to them consciousness is accidental property of ātman and ātman is knower, doer and enjoyer. Individual souls are many (jīvātmā) whereas universal soul (paramātmā) is one. According to Mīmāṃsā darśana, ātman is permanent entity. Sāṃkhya believes consciousness as essential property of the self (puruṣa). Law of karma is approved by all nine darśana-s except Cārvāka, which says we always get fruits of those karma-s (deeds) for which we are responsible.

All darśana-s except Cārvāka believe ignorance as the cause of bondage, and that only brings miseries in our life and drags us into the cycle of birth and death. Ignorance is non-discrimination between puruṣa and prakṛti as per Sāṃkhya, not knowing four Āryasatya-s as per Buddhism and not knowing the state of ātman as per Śaṅkara's Vedānta. The main cause of bondage is kleśa or avidyā according to Yoga, mithyātva in Jainism. All these darśana-s expect us to gain, give us knowledge of and attain mokṣa or liberation. All darśana-s believe in knowledge as well as practices i.e. jñāna and sādhanā, and they have prescribed various practices for this, similar to yoga darśana-s. One has to perform ethically and morally in the best ways on this world platform. Except Cārvāka, all believe in ethical discipline and self control, which doesn‟t mean suppression of senses but, directing them to proper direction. All darśana-s except Cārvāka believe in re-birth and life after death. Cārvāka doesn‟t support eternity of ātman. 16

As per Bhagavadgītā, the great Indian poetic scripture, ātman is that which pervades the entire body is indestructible, imperishable14. As per Buddha, life starts a new chapter of future after the last chapter of the past. Nyāya and Vaiśeṣika confirm re-birth by illustration of cry and laugh of a new born child. Sāṃkhya talks of subtle body entering into a new gross body. b) Pramāṇa-s (Means of valid knowledge): The most common feature among all darśana-s is epistemology in them. Pramāṇa-s are valid means of acquiring knowledge or evidences. In our daily life, we consciously or unconsciously use these valid means of knowledge available to us to know various things that come our way. We should understand all these pramāṇas properly to avoid using wrong means to know a particular type of object. Proper understanding of pramāṇa-s facilitates channelising of our energy properly and also culminates in the attainment and fulfillment of the objective. The most common, prime and important pramāṇa - pratyakṣa, is a doubtless knowledge, a direct realization, an immediate cognition and an independent proof of all knowledge acquired through our inner and outer senses. It is an external or ordinary and internal or extraordinary perception. The immediacy of direct cognition is the intrinsic characteristic of perceptual knowledge, and does not merely depend on the organs of perception. Another pramāṇa is anumāna (inference) which means „knowing after‟ (method by which knowledge derived from another knowledge) and is indirect, mediate knowledge. Looking at one object, we deduce the presence of the other from the knowledge of invariable relationship between both of them. This is logical process of gaining the knowledge. The knowledge gained thus is called inferential knowledge or the logical deduction. The basis of this knowledge is perception but at the core is vyāpti or invariable concomitance.

14 A.C.Bhaktivedanta Swami Prabhupada, Bhagvad-Gita As It Is, The Bhaktivedanta Book Trust, Mumbai, 2005, p.416

The methodology of Inference consists of three sentences i.e. pakṣa (minor term), sādhya (major term) and hetu (middle term, conclusion). It involves a combination of induction and deduction moving from particular to particular via generality. Cārvāka-s believe only in direct perception as evidence (pratyakṣa pramāṇa). Normally, we believe in only those things which we can directly see or perceive through our senses. This perception can be external or internal. Buddhism gives importance to pratyakṣa (Direct Perception) and anumāna (Inference). When something is inferred from an event is anumāna pramāṇa. In addition to these two, Sāṃkhya Philosophy includes upamāna (analogy) as pramāṇa. Mīmāṃsā and Advaita Vedānta philosophies have two more pramāṇa-s, namely arthāpatti (presumption) and anupalabdhi (non-cognition) in addition to above four. Thus there are total six means of valid knowledge. Jainism believes pratyakṣa, anumāna and śabda or āgama-s as pramāṇa-s, though pratyakṣa here is different from „direct perception through senses‟ as described in other darśana-s. What you perceive perfectly without support of the senses, through our inner senses or intuition power is pratyakṣa as per Jainism. c) Dhyāna (Meditation) Dhyāna is a deliberate effort to eliminate ego and getting absorbed into the truth as per common principles of all Indian Philosophies. We and only we are author of our being, good or bad, rich or poor, wise or mad. No God or Īśvara or Lord can write our fate. Both Buddhist Dhyāna and Yoga doctrine of meditation followed by samādhi emphasizes the physical and hygienic conditions necessary for mental training. Buddhists have coined the word Zen for meditation and practices include “moment to moment awareness” and „Vipassanā‟. Dhyāna of aṣṭāṅgayoga is discussed in details in the next chapter. Ideals of Yogīc practice in Pātañjala Yoga is insight into truth, in Upaniṣad-s it is union with Brahman or realization of Brahman, separation of puruṣa from prakṛti in Sāṃkhya and in Buddhism, it is attainment of the bodhisattva condition or realization of emptiness of world. A focused inward journey towards self is prescribed by Jainism. Its meditative techniques directly take the aspirant to the ultimate goal. The details are given in third chapter. 18

d) Darśana-s system of Indian Philosophies: A brief outline of each of the following nine darśana-s of Indian Philosophy is mentioned here. Each outline mainly focuses on philosophical point of view and specially mentions spiritual practices prescribed in their scriptures. Those darśana-s which believe in authority of Veda-s are āstika darśana-s, these are first six of them as given below and others three are called nāstika darśana -s mentioned next to āstika ones : Āstika darśana-s: 1. Nyāya 2. Vaiśeṣika 3. Sāṃkhya 4. Yoga 5. Pūrva Mīmāṃsā 6. Uttara Mīmāṃsā Nāstika darśana-s: 7. Jainism 8. Buddhism 9. Cārvāka/Lokāyata 1. Nyāya darśana Gautama, the great philosopher has given a collection of logical thoughts and the most valid acceptable features in the form of pramāṇa-s. The old naiyāyika-s emphasize on philosophy whereas the new Tattvacintāmaṇi is more on logic. According to this philosophy, liberation (mokṣa) can be experienced only through knowledge of real form of objects. These substances are 16 in numbers15, namely: pramāṇa (valid means of knowledge), prameya (objects of valid knowledge), saṃśaya (doubt), prayojana (aim), dṛṣṭānta (example), siddhānta (conclusion), avayava (members of syllogism), tarka (hypothetical reasoning), nirṇaya (settlement), vāda (discussion), jalpa (wrangling), vitaṇḍā (caviling), hetvābhāsa

15 C.Sharma, A Critical Survey of Indian Philosophy, Motilal Banarsidass, Delhi, 1997, p.192 19

(fallacy), chala (quibbling), jāti (sophisticated refutation) and nigrahasthāna (point of defeat)16. Nyāya scripture Arthakumudi says that the knowledge enlightens us; it is the basis of our activities and attribute of soul. Eastern Nyāya pramāṇa consists of five steps called pañcāvayava: 1. pratijñā (what is required to be proved) 2. hetu (reason) 3. vvyāptivākya (illustration) 4. upanaya (Reaffirmation or application) and 5. nigamana (conclusion) This process is comparable with western logic of Mill consisting of major promise, minor promise and conclusion. Vyāpti here is a joint method of agreement and difference, i.e. anvaya and vyatireka. Inference can be svārthānumāna (inference for oneself, it does not need any formal procedure), parārthānumāna (pañcāvayava, it is the inference for others consisting of five steps as mentioned above), pūrvavat (inferring an unperceived effect from a perceived cause), śeṣavat (inferring an unperceived cause from a perceived effect) and sāmānyato dṛṣṭa (inference is not based on causation but uniformity of co-existence). Another classification gives three types of inferences namely, kevalānvayi, kevalavyatireki and anvayavyatireki. Other pramāṇa-s are śabda (verbal testimony) which is vaidika or laukika and upamāna (analogy). Gautama has high regards for a fatherly figure, Īśvara, and he has given great importance to Him. He explains Īśvara as the infinite entity, a creator, operator and destroyer. Nyāya also explains karma theory and difference between jīvātmā and paramātmā like some other darśana-s. The ultimate knowledge gives us liberation- mokṣa having six characteristics: majesty, almighty, all glorious, infinitely beautiful, knowledge and detachment. For this path of liberation, one should get rid of ajñāna (lack of knowledge) and practice śravaṇa, manana and nididhyāsana (process of listening, understanding,

16 M.Hiriyanna, Outlines of Indian Philosophy, Motilal Banarsidass, Delhi, 2000, p.245 20

contemplation and meditation) to make soul liberated or to reach apvarga. What you get through knowledge is videhamukti and there is no concept of jīvanmukti. In Indian Philosophy, theory of causation has great significance. Satkāryavāda and asatkāryavāda are two prime doctrines. Satkāryavādin-s believe that effect is already present in the material cause prior to its origination and so not basically new and different from material cause, e.g. as milk is not any other material than milk, it gives rise to curd. Curd is already there in it in unmanifested form and takes the manifested form only when it changes its form different from milk. Asatkāryavāda on the other hand, maintains that effect, prior to its origination, is not there in material cause. Curd is not milk and as it is different, and it is not there prior to its production. Purpose of curd is not served by milk. Asatkāryavādin-s say that though, the effect is produced out of the cause only and nothing else, still the effect, as an effect, is not in cause, since it is not seen to be present there. The final outcome of this theory is that, effect is only potentially and not actually present in the cause17. This cause and effect relationship is very well explained in details here in Nyāya darśana as compared to similar theories of Jainism, Buddhism and Mimansa. The prominent defect of Nyāya darśana is that it believes consciousness as accidental character of ātman, as free soul is unconsciousness. Many have criticized their theory of mokṣa, as 'mokṣa of Nyāya is a word without any meaning'. 2. Vaiśeṣika Darśana Founded by philosopher Kaṇāda (around in second century B.C.) and older than Nyāya, it is also called as aulukya darśana. The earliest systematic exposition of Vaiśeṣika was found in the Vaiśeṣika Sūtra of Kaṇāda, This treatise is divided into ten books. The commentary (bhāṣya) of Vaiśeṣika Sūtra is known as padārtha- dharma-saṃgraha. It is very close to Nyāya darśana in many principles like mokṣa- as an ultimate goal, asatkāryavāda, lack of knowledge as cause of miseries and ātman-as unconscious entity. Both philosophies are dependent on each other.

17 B.Kar, Indian Philosophy: An Analytical Study, Ajanta Publications, Delhi, 1985, pp. 81-85.

According to this theory, all things which exist, can be cognized, can be named are padārtha-s or bhava-padārtha-s, the objects of experience, and are classified into six categories. 1. dravya (substance) 2. guṇa (quality) 3. karma (activity) 4. sāmānya (generality) 5. viśeṣa (particularity) 6. samavāya (inherence) The Vaiśeṣika gave us atomic theory of creation as world is made up of atoms, which are permanent. The world is made up of four types of atoms (earth, water, fire and air) and God18. Each one is of two types, namely atomic and composite. Vaiśeṣika-s believe that whatever is perceived is composite. And even the smallest perceptible thing is called as “triad” (tryaṇuka) which is made up of three dyads. Each dyad has two parts each one is called atom. It has both ethical and spiritual approach. Substance is multiple. Karma-s (actions) have characteristics of upward and downward movements, contraction, expansion and locomotion. Generality is of three types: parā, aparā and parāparā. Particularity is permanent, infinite and imperceptible. Abhāva-padārtha (non-existence) is only the negation of something, somewhere and not absolute nothing. Thus Nyāya-Vaiśeṣika dismisses śūnya as unthinkable or as a pseudo-idea19. It includes five elements (pañcamahābhūta-s), space, time, self, mind and soul (jīvātmā and paramātmā). It also believes in theory of atomism, which says, all objects in the physical universe are reducible to a finite number of atoms, though God controls and maintains it. Though, both systems Nyāya and Vaiśeṣika were developed independently, eventually they got merged due to their closely related metaphysical theories. The

18 H.P.Sinha, Indian Philosophy, Vol.II, Motilal Banarsidass, Delhi, 2010, p.210 19 M.Hiriyanna, Outlines of Indian Philosophy, Motilal Banarsidass, Delhi, 2000, p.237 22

main difference is sources of valid knowledge, i.e. Nyāya has four whereas Vaiśeṣika accepted only two i.e. perception and inference as pramāṇa. 3. Sāṃkhya Philosophy Sage Kapila prescribed the theory of dvaitavāda (duality of two opposites: puruṣa and prakṛti). It is considered as one of the oldest philosophies after Veda-s, yet most important among all other philosophies. It is originated from the root sam+khyā = samyak jñāna = A balance of knowledge taking us to a state of equilibrium. It consists of 25 numbers (saṃkhyā) of principles, the main evolutes being prakṛti and puruṣa, two separate entities. There is no Īśvara in this philosophy (Atheism). Puruṣa is our own consciousness, witness or spirit and is formless, passive. Prakṛti is the root cause of this world. It is all visible universes inclusive of our body. It is a prime and independent principle which is imperceptible, unmanifested, active but unconscious, impersonal, eternal and gross. Sāṃkhya has given logical, teleological, ontological, ethical and religious proofs for the existence of puruṣa (soul) and prakṛti. When puruṣa gets realized through prakṛti, its own nature, then; it gets liberated which is the state of mokṣa or kaivalya. Intense meditation isolates puruṣa to get liberation. We need to get rid of ādhibhautika (from worldly objects), ādhidaivika (natural calamities) and ādhyātmika (physical and mental diseases) miseries. Nothing gives permanent release from pain and sufferings. Sāṃkhyakārika gives characteristics of three primary and dynamic forces. These are three main elements or qualities that go with prakṛti and they are sattva, rajas and tamas. Emergence and development of this world is due to imbalance of these three elements called as tri-guṇa-s. Sattva is symbol of knowledge, illumination, happiness and purity. It is active and reflected by white colour, manifested in the form of light and subtleness. Its actions are joy, contentment and satisfaction. Rajas is inspiring, activating, self-motivated and stimulating. Its reflection is red in colour. It activates others like tamas, sattva, pain, worry, discontent. 23

Tamas is symbol of ignorance, restriction, an obstacle which opposes knowledge and is black in colour. It is passive and represents inertia, heaviness, lethargy and laziness. Theory of evolution includes cycle of laya and sṛṣṭi (journey from subtle to gross). Creation of this universe is nothing but the union of puruṣa and prakṛti or imbalance of tri-guṇa-s. Basically, the nature has transcendental dimension where all three guṇa-s get into the balanced state or laya state of evolution. The first evolute of prakṛti as per Sāṃkhya is Mahat tattva, and when it gets activated, it gives rise to Buddhi (decision or ascertainment). When it is sāttvika, it is self-illuminated and consists of all positive values like knowledge, virtue, detachment, excellence. The next evolute is ahaṃkāra which is principle of individualization. It is of three types, i.e. sāttvika, rājasika and tāmasika. Sāttvika ahaṃkāra brings growth ineleven indriya-s or senses namely, manas or lower mind, five cognitive senses or jñānendriya-s (sight, smell, taste, touch and hearing) and five conative senses or karmendriya-s (speech, prehension, movements, reproduction and excretion). Tāmsika ahaṃkāra brings growth in five subtle elements i.e. earth, ether, water, fire and air and rājasika ahaṃkāra (tejas) does not bring any growth but, supports the other two. The evolute „manas’ or mind here in Sāṃkhya is not eternal and is with organ (anitya and sa-avayava) as against Nyāya-Vaiśeṣika philosophies, where it is eternal (atom) and organless. Ego (ahaṃkāra) gives birth to all senses as per Sāṃkhya, whereas Nyāya-Vaiśeṣika makes pañcamahābhūta-s responsible for senses. Like this, there are twenty five elements as per Sāṃkhya. As per Sāṃkhya philosophy, there are three types of bondages or miseries in our life due to avidyā (lack of knowledge): ādhibhautika (from worldly objects), ādhidaivika (natural calamities) and ādhyātmika (physical and mental diseases). Due to this non- discriminative knowledge or avidyā, the independent puruṣa mistakes miseries of buddhi as its own dukkha and the self (ātman) realizes that it is different from intellect. The true knowledge or samyak jñāna differentiate puruṣa from prakṛti. One has to practice manana, nididhyāsana (contemplation) to acquire such knowledge. And then, one reaches the final and complete state of perfection which is 24

the original form of self, called as mokṣa. This concept of mokṣa is similar to many other Indian philosophies. The self gets jīvanmukti with gross body and then, videhamukti with subtle form of body. Three Pramāṇa-s of Sāṃkhya are pratyakṣa (direct perception), anumāna (inference) and śabda (testimony, scripture and words from great sages) and they are similar to same pramāṇa-s in other philosophies like Patañjali‟s Yoga. The fact that Sāṃkhya-s, while dealing with theoretical questions at great length are almost silent with regards to its practical methods obtaining release from bondage from avidyā is also of great significance. It shows that the system was meant to be nothing more than a purely theoretical philosophy offering a scientific and most plausible theory of life and the universe in terms of the intellect20. Sāṃkhyakārikā consists of 72 kārikā-s. There is no reference to God or any creator of this world. The most important theory of Sāṃkhya is satkāryavāda i.e. theory of causation which explains existence of effect in its cause prior to its production or emergence. According to it, whatever exists that only becomes visible or active. sat (existence) + kārya (effect) + vāda (theory) = kārya-kāraṇa principle. 4. Yoga Philosophy In ancient Vedantic days, the importance was given to the process of self realization to get rid of bad effects of all mental problems like greed, anger and ego. Each young child in an āśrama (residential school) used to follow a strict discipline of getting up early for education, practice of postures and exercise, breath control and other spiritual practices like mantra- chanting, japa- meditation. Such routine was termed as Yoga afterwards. The oldest reference to Yoga is found in Kaṭhopaniṣad21 (1000 B.C.) where adhyātmayoga is described with target of supreme-being. Few more Yoga Upaniṣad-s are amṛta-bindu, amṛta-nāda-bindu, nāda-bindu, dhyāna-bindu,

20 I.K.Taimni, The Science of Yoga, The Theosophical Publishing House, Chennai, 2005, p.56 21 F. Georg, The Yoga Traditions, The Yoga Traditions, Motilal Banarsidass Publishers Pvt.Ltd., Delhi, 2002, pp.181-184 25

tejobindu, haṃsa, yoga-cūḍāmaṇi, yoga-tattva, yoga-kuṇḍali and śāṇḍilya upaniṣad- s. All these scriptures explore different aspects of the Yogī c process. “This immeasurable constant (self) must be seen as singular. The self is taintless, unborn, great, constant and beyond space (and time).”22 “The sage relinquishes joy and sorrow realizing by means of the Yoga of the deep self (adhyātman). The God who is difficult to see, hidden, immanent, stationed in the cave (heart), dwelling in the deep, the primordial (purāṇa)”, says Kaṭhopaniṣad23 “The self can‟t be attained through study, or by thought, or by much learning. It is attained by the one whom it chooses. The self reveals its own form”, says Kaṭhopaniṣad 24Bhagavadgītā has given some of the most popular definitions of Yoga, they are:

योगः कर्मस ु कौशलर् ् | 25 Yoga is dexterity in action. This action is out of calmness and with full of awareness. It also means action is done with maximum efficiency. This perfection is also result of performing actions in a detached way, without overly being anxious about the outcome of the action. This leads to karmayoga.

सर्配वं योग उ楍यते | 26

‘Yoga means equanimity‟. One who can maintain equanimity of mind in all situations like Lord Kṛṣṇa is Yogī. Sage Vasiṣṭha defines Yoga as:

22 ekadhaivānudraṣtavyametadaprameyaṁ dhruvam, virajaḥ para ākāśādaja ātmā mahān dhruvaḥ / Bṛhadāraṇyaka Upaniṣad, 4.4.20

23 taṁ durdarśaṁ gūḍham anupraviṣṭaṁ guhāhitaṁ gahvareṣṭham purāṇam adhyātma-yogādhigamena devam matvā dhīro harṣaśokau jahāti/ 2.12, Commentary on Kaṭhopaniṣad, Swami Chinmayananda, Central Chinmay Mission Trust, Bombay, 1989, p.74 24 nāyam ātmā pravacanena labhyo na medhayā, na bahunā śrutena: yamaiveṣa vṛṇute tena labhyastasyaiṣa ātmā vivṛṇute tanūṁ svām/ Kaṭhopaniṣad, 1.2.23 25 Bhagavadgītā , II.50 26 Ibid, II.48 26

27 र्न: प्रशर्नोपाय: योग इ配यभिभियते | Yoga is a skilful method to calm the mind. Controlling mental fluctuations (cittavṛtti-s ) is Yoga as per sage Patañjali, who was one of the greatest philosophers and a compiler of all Yogīc principles. The person if succeeds in diverting one‟s mind from worldly thoughts and can focus on his own consciousness and then, universal consciousness, can get rid of all pains, sufferings and then, can enjoy fruits of bliss. Yoga study helps in doing this. To gain control over mind with various Yogī c practices, one can improve concentration and memory, relax mind to develop focus on object of meditation. This accelerates his journey on spiritual path to know and realize his own spirit. One can develop and experience a great discriminative power to reduce intensity of greed, anger, desires ego, jealousy and other kleśa-s (afflictions). As these are the sources of suffering, he can take himself away from them, towards liberation. Many Yoga philosophies got emerged from the roots of Veda-s, Sāṃkhya and other basic principles being followed by various ancient Indian ṛṣi-s (monks) of that time. Svātmaram, Gorakṣanātha and Gheraṇḍa are some of them. For the purpose of this thesis, major portion is restricted to Pātañjala Yoga principles and practices. Maharṣi Patañjali has prescribed practice of aṣṭāṅgayoga, practice for liberation and a great journey towards samādhi to minimize our mental fluctuations. This journey takes us to total bliss. He has also given treasure of other different practices for different types and levels of persons like aṣṭāṅgayoga, kriyāyoga, abhyāsa-vairāgya, cittaprasādana, pratipakśabhāvanā and other meditative practices by which one can identify one‟s own problems in the form of kleśa-s or distracting vṛtti-s and then, start gaining control over them by practices. There is a general belief that Sāṃkhya is the basis of Yoga. Only difference being the concept of Īśvara introduced by Patañjali in his Yogasūtras. One of the Niyama-s is Īśvarapraṇidhāna, means surrendering to the God, the ultimate. This indicates that this philosophy believes in existence of God. But, here world is not created by this Īśvara, He is like another puruṣa except that he is viśeṣa (unique) puruṣa. Two

27 Laghuyogavāsiṣṭha, edited by Vasudeva Sharma Panasikara, Motilal Banarsidass, Delhi, 1985 27

different entities like puruśa and prakṛti are brought together by Īśvara. Hence Yoga darśana is at times called seśvara-sāṃkhya (meaning Sāṃkhya with Īśvara). Though yoga practices are meant for spiritual upliftment, most of the people in the world use them for physical development and mental peace. Basically, it is totally secular, not confined to or devoted to any religion and makes us a true human being. Lots of resistance still prevails with many of religious institutions, but many of them have started practice of Yoga for self development. We may also say that Patañjali‟s sole concern was individual. His doctrine tells us how to introduce philosophy in day to day life and get rid of sorrow and suffering attaining liberation or Kaivalya. The main aim here, in this thesis is to identify and analyse all those meditative and spiritual techniques prescribed by Sage Patañjali and compare with spiritual techniques given in Jain Philosophy. Yoga is comparable with any religious principles as mentioned by Taimini in his book Science of Yoga.28 If we study Yoga technology, we find that no effort has been made to link up the facts of Yogīc philosophy with doctrines which are considered to be religious. But this does not mean that there is no relation between them. In fact, a religious man can see, if he studies the subject of Yoga with an open mind that all the ideas of Yogīc philosophy can be interpreted in religious terras, and the consciousness which the Yogī seeks to uncover within the folds of his mind is nothing but that Supreme Reality which is commonly referred to as God. God is recognized by every religion with any philosophical background to be a „Mighty Being‟ whose consciousness transcends the manifested Universe. He is considered to be hidden within every human heart. He is supposed to transcend the mind. Basically, these ideas are the same as those of Yogīc philosophy. The main difference lies in the assertion by Yogīc philosophy that this Supreme Reality or Consciousness is not merely a matter for speculation or even adoration but can be discovered by following a technique which is as definite and unfailing as the

28 I.K.Taimni, The Science of Yoga, The Theosophical Publishing House, Chennai, 2005, p.371

technique of any modern Science. Yoga thus imparts a tremendous significance to religion and places the whole problem of religious life and endeavour on an entirely new basis. So, it is difficult to understand how any religious man can reject its claims without giving them due consideration. Yoga philosophy and its meditative techniques are discussed in details independently in a separate chapter. Mīmāṃsā Philosophy Sage Jaimini prescribed Mīmāṃsā in the form of sūtra-s. Pūrva Mīmāṃsā (pre) and Uttara mīmāṃsā (post), both philosophies have taken Veda as base to establish their principles. Pūrva mīmāṃsā is known as karmamīmāṃsā and Uttara mīmāṃsā is also called as jñānamīmāṃsā or Vedānta (end of Veda-s). It follows principles of (epistemology) of pramāṇa-vicāra, tattva-vicāra and dharma-vicāra. 5. Pūrva mīmāṃsā: (Karma-kāṇḍa + Brahman = Mīmāṃsā) World and all its objects (jagat) are truth here as against Advaita darśana’s māyāvāda and also śūnyavāda of Budhhism. This philosophy has specific approach towards soul (ātman), heaven, hell and Vedic yajña. Ātman (paramāṇu) is eternal and controlled by karma-s and not by God unlike Nyāya-Vaiśeṣika. Though, Īśvara is not important to them (polytheist), but later they accepted him as a controller of karma-s. In Pūrva Mīmāṃsā, God doesn‟t exist and Vedic karmakāṇḍa (rituals) is true religion. They are under control of law of karma. Various kinds of karmakāṇḍa-s are as under: 1. nitya karma (daily rituals: Morning bath, prayer, meditation, sandhyā-pūjā) 2. naimittika karma: birth, death, marriage, eclipse. 3. kāmya karma: optional 4. niṣiddha karma: all prohibited acts. 5. prāyaścitta karma: to wash out and repent for all misdeeds. 6. niṣkāma karma: It belongs to our true religion This philosophy of Pūrva Mīmāṃsā was criticized later due to incompleteness regarding world, soul and also because, there is no place for God.

6. Uttara Mīmāṃsā (Upaniṣadic era): In this philosophy, the teachers of Advaita Vedānta philosophy have gone into this aspect of process of knowledge into great detail and have enumerated six pramāṇa-s. These pramāṇa-s are pratyakṣa (direct perception), anumāna (inference), upamāna (comparison), śabda (reliable, verbal testimony), arthāpatti (postulation or implication), anupalabdhi (non-perception, non-apprehension, non-existence). The other pramāṇa-s of Mīmāṃsā philosophy are dṛṣṭārthāpatti, śrutārthāpatti. Knowledge itself is pramāṇa in Mīmāṃsā as against Nyayāyika-s.29 1. Pratyakṣa: There are two kinds of direct perception or pratyakṣa, external and internal. The external perception implies cognition of sense objects, namely sound, touch, form, taste and smell by all five sense organs when the contact is made. The internal perception means the direct and immediate cognition of pain, pleasure, love, hate, anger, knowledge or ignorance of any object in and by our mind. 2. Anumāna or inferential knowledge: In anumāna, there are definite steps to be followed. The teachers of Advaita Vedānta have suggested following three steps: a. Perceptual evidence: e.g. We see smoke on the hill b. Invariable concommitence: Wherever there is smoke, there is fire as seen in the kitchen c. Conclusion: Therefore, the hill has fire (logical deduction) 3. Upamāna: Upamāna is a process by which the knowledge of „A‟ in similarity to „B‟ is gained from the perception of B‟s similarity to A, which has been seen elsewhere. It is a distinct means of knowledge that can‟t be compared with anumāna. Such knowledge can‟t be gained without the observation of two similar things together.

29 H.P.Sinha, Indian Philosophy, Vol. II, Motilal Banarsidass, Delhi, 2010, pp.158-163

e.g. A person who has seen his cow at home goes to forest and sees a gavaya (a wild cow), and sees the similarity „this cow is like my cow‟ and on this basis concludes the opposite to be equally true that „my cow is like this gavaya‟ 4. Arthāpatti: This means postulation, supposition or presumption of a fact. It is a method of assumption of unknown fact in order to account for a known fact that otherwise is inexplicable. For example, a fat person says that he never eats in the day, then we can easily postulates that he eats in the night, else his fatness is inexplicable. 5. Anupalabdhi: The Advaitin-s and the Mīmāṃsaka school of Kumārīla Bhaṭṭa believe anupalabdhi, which means non-apprehension, to be a separate independent pramāṇa. Non- existence of a thing is apprehended by its non-perception. By not seeing a jar in a place, one knows that it is not there. We use this method of knowledge also very often, and this is explained by examples like: „There is no teacher in the class-room.‟ „There is no sound here.‟ „This flower has no fragrance.‟ It may seem paradoxical that non-apprehension of a thing is a means to the apprehension of its non-existence (abhāva). But in fact, both non-perception as well as perception serves as a means to get various types of knowledge, for the simple reason that the knower is conscious of both. They lead to positive and negative experiences. Knowledge of non-existence of a thing can be on the basis of direct or indirect knowledge. It could either be on the basis of our immediate non-perception of a thing or even on the basis of inference or verbal testimony. In the former the knowledge is immediate while in the latter case, which is applicable in suprasensual objects, the knowledge of abhāva of a thing is mediate. 6. Śabda (Verbal knowledge) : Śabda pramāṇa is verbal testimony. It is also called āptavākya (statement of a trust- worthy person) and āgama (authentic word). A verbal statement, uttered or written, is man‟s most potent instrument for transmitting knowledge. We learn mostly by means of words. An oral or written message is a universal mode of communication. 31

We constantly get various information, direction and knowledge through words. Right from childhood to this moment we use words as a valid & effective means of bringing about awareness of things, ideas or emotions. Books, magazines, lectures, newspapers, letters, conversations, chats, radio, Television, movies, songs and many other media, in all these, words are used, or each one depends on words. We cannot do without verbal testimony. A verbal statement conveying valid knowledge must have an authentic source which must be free from defects. Only a competent and reliable person possessed of knowledge can impart accurate knowledge, which does not need any verification. If all that we know from verbal testimony were to await confirmation, then the bulk of human knowledge would have to be regarded as baseless. Among the Western philosophers only a few recognize verbal testimony as a valid and independent means of knowledge, but a majority of Indian philosophers do. Those who do not accept it as an independent method of knowledge simply club it along with other means like inference. Actually, the process of verbal knowledge cannot be clubbed with inference because it does not involve any knowledge of invariable concommitance as is the case in inference. So it is a category by itself. It is interesting and also worthwhile to go into the exact process of derivation of meaning from a sentence. At times there is substantive-adjective relationship between the subject and predicate of the sentence and at times there may not be such a relationship, but a non-relational entity could form their locus. Such understanding becomes important when it comes to derivation of meaning form sentences like tat tvam asi (That thou art). Lot of work has been done in regards to derivation of meaning of a sentence, especially by the mīmāṃsāka-s. Only that combination of words is called a sentence when four factors are taken care of. They are expectancy (ākāṅkṣā), consistency (yogyatā), contiguity (āsatti), and knowledge of the purport (tātparya-jñānam). Understanding of all this facilitates us to understand why verbal testimony is an independent means of knowledge very different from inference and others. Having known these pramāṇa-s, when a qualified pramātā (knower) takes resort of these and turns his focus to prameya (object of knowledge) then pramā or valid knowledge is instantaneously brought about. The knowledge brought about by any 32

valid means of knowledge is alone valid knowledge, it does not and cannot depend on verification by other means, because the other means have no reach to that. The right knowledge does have some definite indications and thus validity of a means is confirmed by the perception of those indications in the pramātā. So instead of wasting ones time trying to see a form by our nose we should rather open our eyes and fulfill our aspiration. This alone is the objective of understanding the various means and methods of knowledge at our disposal. There are various schools of Vedānta philosophy and related theories as under30:

1. Non-dualism: (advaitvāda) Advaita Vedānta of Śaṅkara (era -788 to 820 A.C.) is Upaniṣadic and based on Brahmsūtra of Badarāyāṇa.

2. Qualified Monism: (viśiṣṭādvaitavāda) of Rāmānuja (1056 to 1137 A.C.)

3. Dualism: (dvaitavāda) by Madhvācārya (1199 to 1278 A.C.)

4. Śuddhādvaitavāda of Vallabhacārya (1481 to 1533 A.C.) 5. Dualism cum Non-dualism (bhedābheda or dvaitādvaitavāda) by Nimbārkācārya (13th century) Śaṅkara's monism being the most popular is briefly discussed below: In case of non-dualism, ātman is one as against Nyāya, Vaiśeṣika, Sāṃkhya, Mīmāṃsā and it gets merged with Brahman. When it gets liberated, it becomes one with Brahman. Brahman is self illuminating, nirguṇa, indiscriminative, beyond time (eternal) and space limits. It is only truth, ultimate goal of realization, highest knowledge and free from any distinction. Brahman is sat-cit-ānanda, i.e. real existence, consciousness and bliss. The world is illusion and ever changing, bound by time, period, cause and rules, i.e. “brahmasatyam jaganmithyā………” Existence of any object is apparent, practical and supreme. World is known by aparā-vidyā, so illusion. Brahman is known by parā-vidyā, so the truth. World is believed as truth because it depends on the truth i.e. brahman.

30 Ibid, p.295

Māyā is different from avidyā. Māyā and prakṛti, both are tri-guṇātmaka, materialistic and acetana; both are hurdles on the path of liberation. Hence by destroying avidyā, one can achieve liberation. Functions of māyā are concealment of truth and projection of falsity. Īśvara here is saviśeṣa, having its form and is an object of sādhanā. Śaṅkara's theory on God is nimittopādāneśvaravāda (Panentheism). There are three states of Īśvara and the fourth one is Brahman. They are Īśvara, Hiraṇyagarbha, Vaiśvānara and Brahman. There are three states of consciousness giving us experiences as waking, dreaming and dreamless sleep. Ātman or Brahman when bound in body, senses and mind, it becomes jīva, individual self. In Mīmāṃsa, liberation is by karma, whereas here it is by knowledge through sādhancatuṣṭaya31. Four-fold sādhana is prescribed in Advaita Vedānta as under: 1. Nityānitya: It is vastu-viveka, i.e. to acquire discrimination power, to know what is permanent and what is not. 2. Iha-bhūtārtha: bhoga-virāga or vairāgya, i.e. to develop detachment towards that which is transitory. 3. Śamadamādisādhanasaṃpadā: Practice of śama (calmness), dama (restraint), śradhhā (faith), samādhāna (self contentedness), uparati (self-withdrawal), titikṣā (forbearance). 4. Mumukṣūttva: Intense desire to get liberated With this sādhanacatuṣṭaya, guidance from a Guru makes one practice śravaṇa, manana and nididhyāsana. Thus, the spiritual journey starts from „tattvamasi’ progressing towards „ahaṃ brahmāsmi’. According to Śaṅkara, he becomes Brahman with his own efforts, whereas according to Rāmānuja, he reaches to the level of Brahman with grace of God. Śaṅkara's vivartavāda, where there is no differentiation between cause and effect, is different from Sāṃkhya‟s pariṇāmavāda. Principle of pañcīkaraṇa includes combination of five gross elements namely ākāśa (space), vāyu (air), agni (fire), āpa

31 L.Namjoshi & etal, Indian Philosophical Terms, Somaiya Publications, 2004, p.407 34

(water) and pṛthvī (earth) and further it says that each element is made up of five subtle elements.32 Theory of karma says that jīva is as per previous karma-s (acts), good or bad. Īśvara of Rāmānuja is concrete as against Śaṅkara's God, which is abstract. Jīva here, born out of avidyā and is active as against Sāṃkhya philosophy. Devotional sādhanā leads to paramā bhakti, total surrendering of karma-s to Īśvara. Knowledge and devotion are closely related. A brief understanding of the Nāstika darśana-s is given below: 7. Jain Philosophy Along with gradual evolution of Hindu spirituality in India from time of Veda-s to the emergence of the secret teachings of the first Upaniṣad, the great religio-spiritual tradition of Jainism also rose up in Lord Mahāvira‟s era (around 600 B.C.). Jainism came to limelight when Hinduism failed to practice tolerance for which they are known.33 Jainism came into formal being after Mahāvira, who became the last tīrthaṅkara of Jain traditions, synthesized philosophies and promulgations of the ancient Śramana philosophy, during the period around 550 B.C., in the region that is present day Bihar in northern India. This period marked an ideological renaissance, in which the Vedic dominance was challenged by various groups like Jainism and Buddhism. A Jain is a follower of Jina-s, spiritual 'victors' (Jina is Sanskrit word for 'conquerer'), who attains victory over inner enemies – the four kaṣāya-s viz anger, pride, deceit and greed. They are human beings who have gained mastery over senses and rediscovered the dharma, become fully liberated and taught the spiritual path for the benefit of other human beings. Jains follow the teachings of 24 special supreme Jinas who are known as tīrthaṅkara-s or ford-builders. The 24th and most recent tīrthaṅkara, Lord Mahāvira, lived in 6th century B.C., in a period of Cultural Revolution all over the world. During this period, Socrates was born in Greece, Zoroaster in Iran, Lao-Tse and Confucious in China and Mahāvira and Gautama

32 Ibid, p.319 33 G.Feuerstein, The Yoga Traditions, Motilal Banarsidass, Delhi, 2002, p.187. 35

Buddha in India. The 23rd tīrthaṅkara of Jains, Lord Pārśvanātha is recognised now as a historical person, lived during 872 to 772 B.C. Jain tradition is unanimous in making Riṣabha, as the First tīrthaṅkara. Jainism is not considered as a part of the Vedic Religion (Hinduism), even as there is constitutional ambiguity over its status. Jain tīrthaṅkara-s find exclusive mention in the Veda-s and the Hindu epics. During the Vedāntic age, India had two broad philosophical streams of thought: The Shramana philosophical schools, represented by Buddhism, Jainism and the long defunct and ājīvika on one hand, and the Brāhmaṇa / Vedāntic / Purāṇic schools represented by Vedānta, Vaiṣṇava, and other movements on the other. Both streams are known to have mutually influenced each other. Together with Hinduism and Buddhism, Jainism is one of the three major socio-religious movements to which India‟s spiritual genius has given birth.34 The Hindu scholar Lokmanya Tilak credited Jainism with influencing Hinduism in the area of the cessation of animal sacrifice in Vedic rituals. Bal Gangadhar Tilak has described Jainism as the originator of Ahiṃsā and wrote in a letter printed in Bombay Samachar, Mumbai, dated 10th Dec, 1904: "In ancient times, innumerable animals were butchered in sacrifices. Evidence in support of this is found in various poetic compositions such as the Meghadūta. But the credit for the disappearance of this terrible massacre from the Brahminical religion goes to Jainism." Swāmi Vivekānanda also credited Jainism as one of the influencing forces behind the Indian culture. One of the main characteristics of Jain belief is the emphasis on the immediate consequences of one's physical and mental behavior. Because Jains believe that everything is in some sense alive with many living beings possessing a soul, great care and awareness is required in going about one's business in the world. Jainism is a religious tradition in which all life is considered to be worthy of respect and Jain teaching emphasizes this equality of all life advocating the non-harming of even the smallest creatures. Non-violence (ahiṃsā) is the basis of right View, the condition of

34 Ibid, p.187.

right Knowledge and the kernel of right Conduct in Jainism. These three together are called as „tri-ratna’. Jainism is the path of emancipation or Kevalajñāna (absolute knowledge) and encourages spiritual independence (in the sense of relying on and cultivating one's own personal wisdom) and self-control (vrata-s) which is considered vital for one's spiritual development. The goal, as with other Indian religions, is mokṣa which in Jainism is realization of the soul's true nature. Anekāntavāda is one of the best principles of Jainism positing that reality is perceived differently from different points of view, and that no single point of view is completely true. Jain doctrine states that only Kevalis, those who have infinite knowledge, can know the true answer, and that all others would only know a part of the answer. Anekāntavāda is related to the Western philosophical doctrine of Subjectivism. Various spiritual practices of dhyāna-s, tri-ratna-s, tri-gupti-s, pañca-samiti-s, ten dharma-s (true duties) and others are mentioned here in a separate chapter on Jainism in order to establish a strong platform of comparing them with the Yogīc practices. 8. Buddhist Philosophy Buddhist philosophy is a system of beliefs based on the teachings of Siddhartha Gautama, a Nepalese prince later known as the „Buddha‟ (Pāli word for "awakened one"). Early Buddhism is represented the doctrines belonging to the period between the rise of Buddhism and the time of Aśoka. The Buddhist views that prevailed in the time of Aśoka may be said to be the Hīnayāna doctrine. The tendencies that developed during the period from Aśoka to Kaniṣka and became explicit thereafter form the Mahāyāna Buddhism. From its inception, Buddhism has had a strong philosophical component. Buddhism is founded on the rejection of certain orthodox Hindu philosophical concepts. Mahāyāna with Sanskrit as its language is younger branch as compared to Hīnayāna with Pāli language. Mahāyāna possesses no canon, since it does not represent any homogeneous sect.35

35 S. Radhakrishnan, Indian Philosophy, Vol.I, Oxford Uni.Press, Delhi, 1989, p.585. 37

As per Visuddhimagga of Buddhism, one who wants to attain nirvāṇa should resort to the cremation ground, which is a school of many exquisite virtues and imparts to us the lesson that the world and the self are unreal. The Hīnayāna Buddhism is not merely a way to nirvāṇa, but also teaches us the way to rebirth into the world of Brahma by the grace and help of holy saints.36 The Hīnayāna emphasizes the necessity of saving knowledge, and aims at the salvation of the individual, and refuses to develop the mystery of nibbāṇa (nirvāṇa) in a positive sense. It is a religion for the thinking and the strong in spirit, while a new development had to arise for the emotional and the worshipful. Mahāyāna lays a greater stress on love, and aims at the salvation of every sentient being, and finds in nirvāṇa the one reality which is free from limitations of every phase of the limited experience of which we have empirical knowledge. The ethical ideal of the Mahāyāna is the bodhisattva, as distinct from the arhat of the Hīnayāna. Bodhisattva literally means “one whose essence is perfect knowledge”. A bodhisattva out of the abundance of his love for suffering humanity stops short of nirvāṇa. This stage is comparable to „jīvanmukta‟ of Hindu Philosophy. The Hīnayāna ideal of complete absorption or arhattva is lonely journey on the trackless path of eternity. While Hīnayāna made nirvāṇa attainable by a few only through the life of a monk, the Mahāyāna taught that every man could aim at becoming bodhisattva by the practice of virtue and devotion to Buddha. Though, the help of savior is necessary. To become Buddha is to become one in essence with the infinite37. Buddha used critical analysis insisting on observation and reasoning as the way to truth. His thoughts are reflected as: “One must not accept my law from reverence, but first try it as gold is tried by fire” The Hīnayāna schools are two namely, the vaibhāṣika-s and the sautrāntika-s or sarvāstivādin-s that are realists. The Mahāyāna schools are the Yogācāra-s, who that idealists, and the mādhyamika-s, whose philosophy is a negative critical system. The Yogācāra-s practice yoga, as it helps to

36 Ibid., p.589 37 Ibid., p.603-604 38

acquire intuitive insight. The metaphysical truth requires Yogīc discipline. When the mind is clear of all prejudice or illusion, it reflects the truth. The Vijñānamātra Śāstra distinguishes four kinds of nirvāṇa.38 1. Dharmakāya nirvāṇa is possessed by every sentient individual, pure and spotless, in its negative being. 2. Upādhiṣeśa nirvāṇa has some residue left. It‟s a state of relative being which, though frees from all affection, all hindrance, is still under the influence of materialism causing suffering. 3. Anupādhiṣeśa nirvāṇa has no residue. A state of complete liberation from all fetters. 4. The nirvāṇa, an absolute enlightenment, the highest kind of nirvāṇa. According to Buddha, nirvāṇa is a state of perfection, is only a negation of the influx and a positive return of self to self.39 Thus, nirvāṇa is to put end to all misery by giving up false notions of the reality of things which is avidyā. Mind is the source of all trouble and unhappiness. Once we get rid of ignorance, nirvāṇa can easily be attained. The true aspirant should practice the six transcendental virtues of charity, morality, patience, enterprise, meditation and supreme wisdom. The coming into being of life, which is suffering as well as cessation, is accounted for by the doctrine of pratītyasamutpāda (dependent origination). A common metaphor used in the spiritual traditions of the world's great religions is that of walking a path.40 Thus, a spiritual practice takes a person or pilgrim along the path towards the goal of salvation or liberation. According to Pāli, the language used in Buddhist literature, the word Yoga has been translated as the “spiritual practice”. In one of the Budhhist sect, Theravāda, the generic term for spiritual cultivation is „bhāvanā‟.

38 Ibid., p.642-643 39 H.Zimmer, Philosophies of India, Motilal Banarsidass Pvt., Ltd, Delhi, 1990, p. 547 40 "Buddhism"(2009) In Encyclopædia Britannica. Retrieved November 26, 2009, from Encyclopædia Britannica Online Library Edition 39

In Zen Buddhism, meditation (zazen), the writing poetry (haiku), painting, calligraphy, flower arranging, tea making and serving, maintenance of Zen gardens are considered to be spiritual practices. The principle doctrines of Buddhist philosophy are as under: 1. Four Noble Truths (cattāri aryasaccāṇi) 2. The Law of dependent origination

3. Momentariness, Non-self and dukkha (kṣaṇikavāda) 4. Emphasis on practice of Meditation (samatha and vipassanā) Four Noble truths and Law of dependent origination are explained in details below. Meditation is a spiritual practice performed by most followers of Buddhism. Its primary function is to help people relax and attain a state of inner peace. Meditation only requires that participants be conscious of their thoughts, actions and intents, but some Buddhists incorporate breathing exercises, the chanting of mantras and writing into this spiritual practice. Many Buddhists attempt to awaken their spiritual self and attain enlightenment by penetrating the true nature of experiences, choices and relationships by practicing meditation at least once each day. The method of emancipation in Hīnayāna is contemplation and meditation on four truths as mentioned below. The teachings on the Four Noble Truths are regarded as central to the teachings of Buddhism, and are said to provide a conceptual framework for Buddhist thought. Meditation on these noble truths is a pure act above all consequences and is highest level of contemplation. They are as good as prayers in Hīnayāna school. It has four progressive and methodological stages, namely 1) Gladness and joy accompanied by insight, reflection, contemplation and enquiry. 2) Elation, internal calm, deep peace of mind. 3) Total absence of all passions and prejudices, lust is stilled. 4) Self possession and complete tranquility without care and joy. The four noble truths explain the nature of dukkha (suffering, anxiety or dissatisfaction), its causes, and how it can be overcome. The four noble truths are: 1. The truth of dukkha (suffering, pain, anxiety and dissatisfaction): whoever is born is going to suffer from illness, old age and death, no one can escape from this. 40

2. The truth of the origin of dukkha: dukkha samudāya the cause or origin of dukkha can be known, which is craving conditioned by the root cause, ignorance (in Pāli, avijjā) of the true nature of the things or happenings. 3. The truth of the cessation of dukkha: dukkha nirodha the complete cessation of dukkha is possible. 4. The truth of the path leading to the cessation of dukkha: dukkha- samudāya- gāminī-pratipat this noble truth identifies the path which is ethical and spiritual or the remedies of cessation of all sufferings forever41. This remedy consists of a set of eight interconnected factors or conditions, that when developed together, leads to cessation of all sufferings (dukkha). This path was taught by Buddha to his disciples. This set is also called as “Noble eightfold path” or Budhhist‟s path to self-awakening and liberation.These eight factors are: 1. Right View: Right observation, samyak dṛṣti, (sammā diṭṭhi in Pāli). It means viewing reality as it is, not just as it appears to be. It is the true knowledge of four noble truths. 2. Right Intention: Right Thought, samyak saṃkalpa (sammā saṅkappa in Pāli). It means intention of renunciation, introspection, resolve, freedom and harmlessness. 3. Right Speech: It is samyak vāc (sammā vācā) or abstaining from lying, from abusive speech. 4. Right Action: It is samyak karmānta (sammā kamanta). It is abstaining from killing, stealing and illicit sex or unchastity according to magga-vibhaṅga sutta. 5. Right Livelihood: samyak ājīva (sammā-ajīva). It is abstaining from dishonest livelihood. The scripture abandons five types of business or activities like dealing in weapons, meat, human trading, intoxicants and poisons. 6. Right Effort: samyak vyāyāma (sammā vyāyāma). It is right diligence or endeavor. One has to make efforts to avoid wrong, unwholesome and harmful thoughts, speech and actions.

41M.N.Kundu, Buddha’s Way of Transforming Awareness, The Speaking Tree, The Times of India, Mumbai, dt.23.05.2013, p.7

7. Right Mindfulness: samyak smṛti (sammā-sati). It is right memory, awareness, alertness and attention. 8. Right Concentration: samyak samādhi (sammā-samādhi). It is an advanced meditation; one develops with constant concentration and getting absorbed into the object. The noble eightfold path is, from the sūtrachological viewpoint, an attempt to change patterns of thought and behavior. These are not the stages where each stage is completed before moving to the next stage. Actually, these are eight significant dimensions of one‟s behavior – mental, spoken and bodily taken together, they define a complete path, a way of living. This gives to a true practitioner, wisdom (paññā) by 1 and 2, ethical conduct (sīla) by 3, 4 and 5, and concentration (samādhi) by 6, 7 and 8 from above. There are twelve causal wheels of dependent origination as described below.42 One leads to another, hence the solution is to destroy avidyā, the others in turn will be destroyed one by one in the same order and cessation of the whole mass of suffering. 1. avidyā: Ignorence 2. saṃskāra: Impression of karmic forces 3. vijñāna: Initial consciousness of the embryo 4. nāmarūpa: Sūtracho-physical organism 5. ṣaḍāyatana: Six sense organs including mind 6. sparśa: Sense object – contact 7. vedanā: Sense experience 8. tṛṣṇā: Thirst of sense enjoyment 9. upādāna: Clinging to this enjoyment 10. bhāva: Will to be born 11. jāti: Birth or re-birth 12. Jarāmaraṇa: Old age and death

42 C.Sharma, A Critical Survey of Indian Philosophy, Motilal Banarsidass, Delhi, 2003, pp. 71-72

Redemption from suffering is the motive of Buddha‟s teachings. As the greatest sin of man is to have been born, the will to live is the ground of our existence; its negation is our salvation43. Buddhism is not a doctrine or belief system but a process of observation, introspection and inquiry. Any preconceived faith or belief detrimental to objective enquiry. Hence Buddha advised us not to accept even his ideas until we acquire ownership of the same through self-investigation. Buddhist meditation is neither an exercise in relaxation nor an effort for an elevated state of consciousness. It is basically about living in each moment and observing the flow of phenomena. It involves dwelling in a state of non-reactive witnessing of reality knowing fully well that there is neither doer nor sufferer but mere flow of phenomena amidst universal flux of mind and matter.44 Buddhism shares many philosophical views with other Indian systems, such as belief in karma, a cause-and-effect relationship between all that has been done and all that will be done. Events that occur are held to be the direct result of previous events. A major departure from Hindu and Jain philosophy is the Buddhist rejection of a permanent, self-existent soul (ātman) in favour of anicca or impermanence. However, Jain thinkers rejected this view by opining that, if no continuing soul could be accepted, then even the effort to attain any worldly objective would be useless as the individual acting and the one receiving the consequences would be different. Therefore, the conviction in individuals that the doer is also the reaper of consequences establishes the existence of a continuing soul. The entire philosophy is summarized in opening verses of Dhammapada45 given below which explain us how an altered view can bring tranquil perception in place of the polluted perception in line with noble eightfold path:

43 Ibid., p. 411 44 M.N.Kundu, Buddha’s Way of Transforming Awareness, The Speaking Tree, The Times of India, dt.23.05.2013, Mumbai, p.7 45 G.Fronsdal, The Dhammapada: A New Translation of the Buddhist Classic with Annotations, Shambhala Publications, 2006, p.15 43

All experience is preceded by mind, Led by mind, Made by mind. Speak or act with a corrupted mind, And suffering follows As the wagon wheel follows the hoof of the ox. All experience is preceded by mind, Led by mind, Made by mind. Speak or act with a peaceful mind, And happiness follows Like a never-departing shadow 9. Cārvāka Philosophy Cārvāka was a philosophy of skepticism and materialism, founded in the Mauryan period. Cārvāka or Lokāyata, both mean popular or agreeable in Sanskrit. It was emerged as an alternative to Orthodox Hindu pro-vedic Āstika schools. They were extremely critical of other schools of philosophy of the time. Cārvāka deemed Veda- s to be tainted by the three faults of untruth, self-contradiction, and tautology. And in contrast to Buddhists and Jains, they mocked the concept of liberation and believed that, the viewpoint of relinquishing pleasure to avoid pain was the "reasoning of fools". Cārvāka thought consciousness was an emanation from the body and it ended with the destruction of the body. They used quotes from Bṛhadāraṇyaka Upaniṣad to support this claim. Cārvāka denied theory of re-birth or reincarnation and also denied inference as a means of knowledge and held sensory indulgence as the final objective of life. The name Cārvāka first was used in 7th century by philosopher Purandara, who referred to his fellow materialists as the “Cārvākas”. During 8th century, philosopher Kamalaśīla, Haribhadra, Ādi Śaṅkara used the term Lokāyata.46

46 http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Carvaka (Retrieved on 30.04.2013) 44

Cārvāka held the view that Invariable Concomitance (vyāpti), a theory of Indian logic which refers to the relation between middle term and major term freed from all conditions, could not be ascertained. However, Buddhists refuted this view by proposing that Invariable Concomitance was easily cognizable from the relation between cause and effect or from the establishment of identity. Modern Philosophy: Indian and Western Modern Indian Philosophy was developed during British occupation (1750–1947)47. The philosophers in this era gave contemporary meaning to traditional Philosophy. Some of them were Swāmī Vivekānanda, Rabindranath Tagore, Sri Aurobindo, Swāmī Sahajanand Saraswati, Mahatma Gandhi, Ananda Coomaraswamy, BalGangadhar Tilak, Ramana Maharshi and Sarvepalli Radhakrishnan. Among contemporary Indian philosophers, Osho and J.Krishnamurti developed their own schools of thought. Sri Pandurang Shastri Athavale, U.G.Krishnamurti and Krishnananda are other prominent names in contemporary Indian Philosophy. Modern Philosophy in Western world is divided into two major groups: rationalists and empiricists. Rationalists argued that all knowledge must begin from certain in- nate ideas in the mind. Contradictory to this, Empiricists believed that knowledge must begin with sensory experiences. The modern quest for the new reliable founda- tions manifests itself in the form of an old ontological striving - to find the first and universal principles that ground and define everything else in the totality of the world. However, instead of searching for the first principles of being(s), modern philosophers are looking for the first principles of human knowledge. This epistemolog- ical turn away from the ancient realist ontology of nature was performed in a ground breaking manner by Rene Descartes in his Meditations on First Philosophy (1641). A more decisive and elaborate transformation of ancient Metaphysics (i.e., First Phi- losophy) into a science of a priori principles of human knowledge was subsequently carried out by Immanuel Kant in his “Critique of Pure Reason”48 (1781).

47 https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Indian_philosophy (Retrieved on 20.08.2014) 48 http://www.academia.edu/Documents/in/Critique_of_Pure_Reason (Retrieved on 20.08.2014) 45

Eastern Philosophy v/s Western Philosophy a) Basics: Eastern philosophy includes various philosophies of Asia, including Indian philosophy, Chinese philosophy, Iranian philosophy, Japanese philosophy, Korean philosophy, Arab philosophy and Jewish philosophy. The division is not purely geographic but also stems from general hermeneutic and conceptual differences that lay between Eastern and Western traditions. Almost each philosophy in eastern countries except Cārvāka, glorifies importance of religion. Western philosophy keeps huge distance from religions. Western society strives to find and prove „the truth‟, while Eastern society accepts the truth as given and is more interested in finding the balance. Westerners put more stock in individual rights; Easterners in social responsibility. Western philosophy refers to philosophical thinking in the Western or Occidental world, beginning with Ancient Greece and Rome, extending through central and Western Europe and the Americas. b) Supreme God and the Demigods Owing to its origin from within the Abrahamic religions, some Western philosophies have formulated questions on the nature of God and his relationship to the universe based on Monotheistic framework within which it emerged. This has created a dichotomy among some Western philosophies being secular and religious philosophies. This inturn created some religion's dogma regarding the nature of God and the universe. Eastern religions have not been as concerned by questions relating to the nature of a single God as the universe's sole creator and ruler. The distinction between the religious and the secular tends to be much less sharp in Eastern Philosophy, and the same philosophical school often contains both religious and philosophical elements. Thus, some people accept the so-called Metaphysical tenets of Buddhism without going to a temple and worshipping. Some have worshipped the Taoist deities religiously without bothering to delve into the theological underpinnings, while others embrace the Taoist religion simply by ignoring the mythological aspects. This arrangement stands in marked contrast to some recent philosophy in the West, which has traditionally enforced either a completely unified philosophic/religious belief system or a total repudiation of some forms of religion by philosophy. 46

To summarize, this chapter makes a humble attempt to explain in brief the basic understanding of Philosophy and its metaphysical foundation, various eras of development of it in India and the relevant scholars. There are nine darśana-s in Indian Philosophy which include Yoga and Jainism, both the prime pillars of this research work. The basic principles and techniques of each philosophy are described in brief. Each darśana has its unique features but almost all of them have common goal towards permanent freedom from sufferings or the most blissful state. Different principles of Indian philosophies bring about systematic purification of the subtle body after purifying gross body. Spiritual practices mainly include purification, relaxation and meditation. These practices give us true experience of fluidity that connects us to a larger, vibrant whole. And in this process, the ego also gets dissolved or at least looses its rigidity. Quantum Physics tells us that everything is interconnected and idea of a separate „I‟ is an illusion. According to, Yoga darśana, Yoga practices bring gradual transformation of tāmasika and rājasika qualities and forces into sāttvika qualities. As compared to this, in Jainism, this transformation is brought about by inhibiting of the physical influx of darkening karmic colour into the crystal of the monad (jīva).49 So, when karma pudgals get reduced, the sāttvika quality automatically increases. Here, Pātañjala Yoga is selected amongst all other schools of Yoga for the study of comparing the spiritual Yogīc practices with those of Jainism directed towards achievement of the final goal. It is justified here that the main approach of Eastern Philosophy is totally different from Western Philosophy as the main essence of Indian philosophies is spirituality. Here, the choice has been made for comparison from two Indian Philosophies, Yoga and Jainism, so, both needs to be studied in details. The next two chapters are allotted for the details collected from various scriptures of each philosophy, interviews taken and interactions made with the scholars from each field. *****

49 H.Zimmer, Philosophies of India, Motilal Banarsidass Pvt. Ltd., Delhi, 1990, p.547