Prehistoric Plant Use at Beaver Creek Rock Shelter, Southwestern Montana, U.S.A

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Prehistoric Plant Use at Beaver Creek Rock Shelter, Southwestern Montana, U.S.A. Darla Dexter, Kathleen Martin, and Lauri Travis

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The listing of plants in this article is not an endorsement of pressed in BP or years before present day, where “pres- their use. Some of the plants are toxic. Before using any ent day” is January 1950 (Travis et al. 2012). plants to treat a medical condition, medical advice should be obtained. Botanical remains were scarce within the Beaver Creek Rock Shelter sediments. The rock shelter strata did not contain any plant macrofossils. The only indication of plant Abstract utilization came from evidence within the pollen core. Pol- len cores are typically used for paleoenvironmental infor- The 2011 Carroll College Archaeological Field School mation, not subsistence studies. We have concluded the conducted an exploratory excavation within the Beaver pollen from the seven plant families represents botanical Creek Rock Shelter in southwestern Montana, U.S.A. The remains brought in to the rock shelter by prehistoric in- excavation exposed four cultural occupation layers dat- habitants as the pollen is found only in the three occupa- ing to over 2,500 years ago. Pollen retrieved from the pa- tion layers. Fifteen of the 16 natural layers did not contain leoenvironmental record included a wide variety of plants. the seven pollen families. Plant macrofossils from archae- Seven plant families were found in three of the occupa- ological sites may be disintegrated yet contain well-pre- tion layers and in only one natural layer. This research served pollen, indicating plant resources utilized (Faegri reviewed the traditional Native American ethnobotanical & Iverson 1989:176). The pollen core from Beaver Creek uses of those seven plant families. They were used pri- Rock Shelter demonstrated that three occupation layers marily for medicinal purposes. Although archaeologists contained pollen from Apiaceae, Brassicaceae, Cypera- have traditionally viewed botanical remains as evidence ceae, Fabaceae, Geraniaceae, Lamiaceae, and Ranun- of prehistoric subsistence, this research demonstrates ar- culaceae, representing members of the umbel, mustard, chaeologists’ need to use caution in assuming plant remains in the archaeological record are predominately tied to subsistence. Correspondence Introduction Darla Dexter, Lauri Travis, Carroll College, Department of The 2011 Carroll College Archaeological Field School Sociology and Anthropology, 1601 N. Benton Avenue, excavated the Beaver Creek Rock Shelter in southwest- Helena, Montana 59625, U.S.A. [email protected] ern Montana, U.S.A. The Beaver Creek Rock Shelter is a Kathleen Martin, Carroll College, Corette Library, 1601 N. short-term campsite located on the west flank of the Big Benton Avenue, Montana 59625, U.S.A. Belt Mountains in the Helena National Forest. Excavations revealed four cultural occupation layers dating to 1280±50 BP (Beta-280431), 1730±40 BP (Beta-280432), 1980±50 BP (Beta-280433), and a layer dated between 1980±50 Ethnobotany Research & Applications 12:355-384 (2014) BP (Beta-280433) and 2470±30 BP (Beta-299721), ex- Published: 07 September 2014 www.ethnobotanyjournal.org/vol12/i1547-3465-12-355.pdf 356 Ethnobotany Research & Applications sedge, legume, geranium, mint, and buttercup families, Changes in the paleoclimate undoubtedly affected the respectively (Travis et al. 2011). Pollen from these plant distribution of vegetation communities. Possible climate families were only found in the three occupation layers changes displayed by the Beaver Creek Rock Shelter pol- and a rapidly laid alluvial layer directly above Occupation len column have been discussed in a previous publication 3. Nearly a meter of sediments was deposited above Oc- (Travis et al. 2012) and may be referred to for details. cupation 3 in less than 250 years. It is probable that the pollen from the rapidly deposited sediments was attribut- Cultural chronology of occupation ed to the occupation layer below, especially as the pollen families were not found in any other natural layer in the Although excavations at the Beaver Creek Rock Shelter entire two meters of deposits. As these plant families were exposed limited cultural remains, four occupation layers only found in cultural layers and one incongruous layer, it were identified. Four radiocarbon dates were obtained is probable that the plants were brought in by the short- from three distinct hearth features and one isolated char- term inhabitants of the rock shelter. coal crumble (Travis et al. 2012; Table 1).

The Northern Plains have a rich history of ethnographic The soil/pollen samples were collected from a single col- studies describing traditional Native American plant use. umn isolated in the center of the north wall of test unit C3 This paper will explore the traditional ethnographic Na- (Travis et al. 2011; Figure 1). Samples were collected be- tive American uses of the plant families found within the ing extra careful not to mix strata. Two samples were col- Beaver Creek Rock Shelter occupation layers excavated lected from each stratum. A one-gallon bag was filled for in 2011. Ethnographies of the Blackfeet, Cheyenne, Chip- gathering the granulometry data. A second smaller bag pewa, Cree, Crow, Kutenai, Ojibwa, and Salish are in- (about ½ cup of soil) was collected for pollen samples. cluded. The cultural affiliation of the Beaver Creek Rock The pollen sample was collected from behind the granu- Shelter is unknown due to the nomadic lifestyle of the list- lometry sample as this soil was not exposed and less like- ed tribes. However, it is known through historical records ly to be contaminated. Pollen samples were analyzed by and oral histories that all of these tribes have periodically the PaleoResearch Institute in Golden, Colorado. occupied the area in the last 3,000 years (Dusenberry & Dusenberry Crow 1998, Ewers 1983, Greiser 1994, Grin- Occupation 1, located 55–64 cm below surface (cmbs), nell 1972, Hannus 1994, Lowie & Shapiro 1982, Schlesier dated to 1280±50 BP (Beta-280431) and contained a sin- 1994, Travis 1988). gle hearth feature, stone tools, flakes, and bone fragments from large mammals. A second hearth feature, 80 cmbs in Environment association with Occupation 2, had a radiocarbon date of 1730±40 BP (Beta-280432). The level also had a single The Beaver Creek Rock Shelter is located northeast of projectile point, flakes, and a wider variety of bone frag- Helena, in southwestern Montana, U.S.A. The north-flow- ments from small game species. A third hearth feature, ing Missouri River is bordered on the east by the Big Belt from Occupation 3, was located 169–180 cmbs and dat- Mountains and the west by the Helena Valley. The rock ed to 1980±50 BP (Beta-280433). The occupation layer shelter is located on the west flank of the Big Belt Moun- revealed only flakes and large mammal bone fragments. tains at the confluence of Beaver Creek and an unnamed Occupation 4 was discovered just below Occupation 3 at intermittent drainage at 3840 ft above sea-level. The dom- 170–190 cmbs and consisted of a very dark organic soil inant vegetation is a mixed Douglas fir - Ponderosa pine with heavy charcoal flecking and numerous bone chips community. The Douglas fir - Ponderosa pine communi- throughout, but few other artifacts. The fourth occupation- ty is often separated by areas of mountain meadows or al layer was dominated by large mammal bones with less- small, narrow riparian communities following the creeks. er amounts of small mammal bones. A radiocarbon date Beaver Creek runs northeast-southwest, and the un- on a charcoal sample that was collected from 220–230 named intermittent drainage enters from the north creat- cmbs (about 50 cm below the base of Occupation 4) dating a fairly large secondary terrace, about 6 m north-south ed to 2470±30 BP (Beta-299721). This date appears to by 10 m east-west. Beaver Creek is approximately 30 m be consistent with the site stratigraphic context; therefore, south of the rock shelter and empties into the Missouri Occupation 4 likely dates between 1,980 BP and 2,470 River to the southwest. BP (Travis et al. 2012).

Table 1. Radiocarbon dates for Beaver Creek Rock Shelter, southwestern Montana, U.S.A. Sample Measured Age Technique Conventional Age Stratum 2 σ Calibrated Age Beta-280431 1290 ±50BP standard 1280 ±50BP 15 A.D. 650–880 Beta-280432 1740 ±40BP standard 1730 ±40BP 13 A.D. 230–410 Beta-280433 1940 ±50BP standard 1980 ±50BP 6 B.C. 90 – A.D. 120 Beta-299721 2410 ±30BP AMS 2470 ±30BP 1 B.C. 760–410

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250 250 250 cm 250 0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100 Figure 1. Beaver Creek Rock Shelter Site 24LC1993/2186, southwestern Montana, U.S.A. Profile North Wall Unit C3 (after Travis et al. 2011).

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Plant families plant families and over 2,082 native species (Lesica 2012). Seven families were exclusively identified from pol- The prairies, valleys, wetlands, and mountain forests of len in the three occupation layers (Travis et al. 2011, Tra- Montana support a wide diversity of plant life with 128 vis et al. 2012; Figure 2). Five of the seven families iden- 18 15 13 7 6 4 3 1 Stratum 55938 55938 10171 8071 2253 3932 5327 3033

Total Pollen Concentration 301 301 304 200 201 301 301 204

Pollen Sum 12000 6000 Microscopic Charcoal Zygnema Sporomiella Selaginella TRILETE SMOOTH Fern Spores MONOLETE SMOOTH 20 INDETERMINATE Typha latifolia-type ROSACEAE RANUNCULACEAE 1 Polygonum sawalchense-type POLYGONACEAE Eriogonum 20 POACEAE Phlox LAMIACEAE GERANIACEAE FABACEAE CYPERACEAE 20 CHENO-AMARANTHACEAE BRASSICACEAE LIGULIFLORAE HIGH-SPINE ASTERACEAE LOW-SPINE ASTERACEAE 40 ASTERACEAE 20 Artemisia APIACEAE 20 Pseudotsuga 60 40 PINACEAE 20 Pinus Picea Abies Juniperus Betula Alnus 80 60 40 20 ARBOREAL POLLEN 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1 Undated 1980±50BP 1730±40BP 1280±50BP Sample No. Occupation Ages

Figure 2. Pollen profile, Beaver Creek Rock Shelter, southwestern Montana, U.S.A. (after Cummings & Yost 2011). 1. Polygonum sawalchense is a synonym of P. douglasii subsp. johnstonii (Munz) J.C.Hickman

www.ethnobotanyjournal.org/vol12/i1547-3465-12-355.pdf Dexter et al. - Prehistoric Plant Use at Beaver Creek Rock Shelter, 359 Southwestern Montana, U.S.A. tified in this study are ranked in the top ten largest plant it was removed from the list. The results of the above com- families in Montana. The families from the pollen samples parisons are detailed below. consist of Cyperaceae (with 163 native species ranks second), Brassicaceae (with 99 species ranks fourth), Faba- Results ceae (with 98 species ranks fifth), Ranunculaceae (with 62 species ranks seventh), and Apiaceae (with 49 species Biogeography ranks tenth) (Lesica 2012). The two smaller families, La- miaceae and Geraniaceae, have 38 species and 10 spe- Lesica (2012) classified Montana vegetation life zones cies, respectively. into five types: plains, valleys, montane, subalpine, and alpine. All life zones with the exception of the plains occur Methods in the mountainous regions of Montana. The plains region refers to the Great Plains of eastern Montana. Elevations Due to the large number of species in these families and range from 550 m (1,800 ft) in the plains to above 3,000 the inability to identify the herbal pollen to genus or spe- m (9,500 ft) in the alpine zone. The Beaver Creek Rock cies, we can only speculate about which exact plant spe- Shelter occurs at the lower elevation of the montane zone cies were in the occupational layers. The final list of plant which encompasses the lowest and warmest portions of species was derived from a two-step process. First, all mountainous terrain. The majority of the ethnobotanical Montana native plants from the seven pollen families were species listed are found in low to mid-elevations of the identified (Mincemoyer 2012). Second, each species was plains, meadows, and montane regions of Montana, with investigated for ethnographic use by the Native American fewer species occurring in the higher subalpine and alpine tribes that are known to have occupied the area. If a spe- zones (Table 2). cies was not found in the regional ethnographic literature,

Table 2. Geographic location of selected plant species in Montana, U.S.A. Montana vegetation life zones: (Pl) Plains (548–914 m), (Va)Valleys (NW 610–915 m to over 1525 m in the SW & S-central), (Mo) Montane (NW 760–1680 m and 1370–2130 m east of the Contenental Divide), (Su) Subalpine (NW 1675–2135 m and 1980–2900 in the SW and S-central mountain ranges), and (Al) Alpine (NW 1980–2130 m and above 3000 m in SW). (Δ) Location, or (-Δ) Lower altitude location. Species distribution only to the closest proximity of the study site: (A) in Lewis & Clark County, (B) in adjoining counties, (C) outside of Lewis and Clark and adjoining counties. Plant Names Montana vegetation life zones Species distribution Scientific Common Pl Va Mo Su Al A B C Apiaceae Angelica dawsonii S.Watson Dawson’s angelica Δ Δ Δ Cicuta douglasii (DC.) Western water-hemlock Δ Δ Δ J.M.Coult. & Rose Cicuta maculata L. Spotted water-hemlock Δ Δ Δ Ligusticum canbyi J.M.Coult. & Rose Canby’s wild lovage Δ Δ Lomatium ambiguum (Nutt.) Wyeth biscuitroot Δ Δ Δ J.M.Coult. & Rose Lomatium cous (S.Watson) Cous biscuitroot Δ Δ Δ Δ Δ Δ J.M.Coult. & Rose Lomatium macrocarpum (Hook. Large-fruit desert-parsley Δ Δ Δ Δ & Arn.) J.M.Coult. & Rose Lomatium orientale J.M.Coult. & Rose Oriental desert-parsley Δ Δ Δ Lomatium triternatum (Pursh) Nineleaf biscuitroot Δ Δ Δ J.M.Coult. & Rose Musineon divaricatum (Pursh) Nutt. Wild parsley Δ Δ Δ Osmorhiza chilensis Hook. & Arn. Chilean sweet-cicely Δ Δ -Δ Δ Osmorhiza longistylis (Torr.) DC. Smoother sweet-cicely Δ Δ Δ Osmorhiza occidentalis (Nutt.) Torr. Western sweet-cicely Δ Δ Δ Δ Perideridia montana (Blank.) Dorn Gairdner’s yampah Δ Δ -Δ Δ

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Plant Names Montana vegetation life zones Species distribution Scientific Common Pl Va Mo Su Al A B C Sanicula marilandica L. Maryland black snakeroot Δ Δ -Δ Δ Sium suave Walter Hemlock water-parsnip Δ Δ Δ Δ Brassicaceae Draba incerta Payson Yellowstone whitlow-grass Δ Δ Erysimum cheiranthoides L. Wormseed wallflower Δ Δ Δ Δ Physaria didymocarpa (Hook.) A.Gray Common twinpod Δ Δ Δ Δ Turritis glabra L. Tower-mustard Δ Δ Δ Δ Cyperaceae Amphiscirpus nevadensis Nevada bulrush Δ Δ Δ (S.Watson) Oteng-Yeb. Carex nebraskensis Dewey Nebraska sedge Δ Δ Δ Δ Eriophorum callitrix Sheathed cotton-grass Δ Δ Cham. ex C.A.Mey. Schoenoplectus acutus (Muhl. Hardstem bulrush Δ Δ Δ Δ ex Bigelow) Á.Löve & D.Löve Schoenoplectus americanus Three-square bulrush Δ Δ (Pers.) Volkart Scirpus cyperinus (L.) Kunth Woolgrass Δ Δ Fabaceae Amorpha canescens Pursh Lead plant Δ Δ Astragalus americanus American milkvetch Δ Δ -Δ Δ (Hook.) M.E.Jones Astragalus canadensis L. Canadian milkvetch Δ Δ Δ Δ Astragalus crassicarpus Nutt. Groundplum milkvetch Δ Δ Δ Dalea candida Willd. White prairie clover Δ Δ Dalea purpurea Vent. Purple prairie clover Δ Δ Δ Glycyrrhiza lepidota Pursh Wild licorice Δ Δ Δ Lupinus polyphyllus Lindl. Bigleaf lupine Δ Δ Δ Δ Δ Oxytropis lagopus Nutt. Hare’s-foot locoweed Δ Δ Δ Oxytropis sericea Torr. & A.Gray White locoweed Δ Δ Δ Δ Δ Δ Pediomelum argophyllum Silvery scurfpea Δ Δ Δ (Pursh) J.W.Grimes Pediomelum esculentum Pomme de prairie Δ Δ (Pursh) Rydb. Psoralea hypogaea Torr. & A.Gray Little indian breadroot Δ Δ Psoralea lanceolata Pursh Lance-leaf scurfpea Δ Δ Δ Δ Thermopsis rhombifolia Roundleaf thermopsis Δ Δ Δ (Pursh) Richardson Vicia americana Willd. American purple vetch Δ Δ Δ Δ Geraniaceae Geranium richardsonii Richardson’s geranium Δ Δ Δ Fisch. & Trautv.

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Plant Names Montana vegetation life zones Species distribution Scientific Common Pl Va Mo Su Al A B C Geranium viscosissimum Sticky geranium Δ Δ -Δ Δ Fisch. & C.A.Mey. Lamiaceae Mint Agastache foeniculum (Pursh) Kuntze Lavender hyssop Δ Δ Lycopus asper Greene Rough bugleweed Δ Δ Δ Mentha arvensis L. Wild mint Δ Δ Δ Δ Monarda fistulosa L. Beebalm Δ Δ Δ Δ Prunella vulgaris L. Self-heal Δ Δ Δ Scutellaria galericulata L. Hooded skullcap Δ Δ Δ Δ Stachys palustris L. Marsh hedge-nettle Δ Δ Δ Δ Ranunculaceae Actaea rubra (Aiton) Willd. Red baneberry Δ Δ Δ -Δ Δ Anemone canadensis L. Canada anemone Δ Δ Anemone cylindrica A.Gray Long-fruited anemone Δ Δ Δ Δ Anemone multifida Poir. Pacific anemone Δ Δ Δ Δ Δ Δ Clematis hirsutissima Pursh Sugarbowls Δ Δ Δ Δ Clematis ligusticifolia Nutt. Western virgin’s-bower Δ Δ Δ Δ Delphinium bicolor Nutt. Little larkspur Δ Δ Δ Δ Δ Δ Ranunculus pensylvanicus L.f. Bristly crowfoot Δ Δ Δ Thalictrum dasycarpum Fisch., Purple meadowrue Δ Δ Δ Δ C.A.Mey. & Avé-Lall. Thalictrum occidentale A.Gray Western meadowrue Δ Δ Δ

Fifty of the 61 ethnobotanical species listed currently oc- tana; Schoenoplectus americanus (Pers.) Volkart is found cur in Lewis and Clark County or the adjoining counties in two counties in southwestern Montana; and Scirpus cy- of Flathead, Teton, Cascade, Meagher, Broadwater, Jef- perinus (L.) Kunth is found in only one county in northwest ferson, and Powell. The remaining 11 species that were Montana (Lesica 2012). It is important to note that these found outside of Lewis and Clark County and adjacent species may occur in the surrounding area but have not counties consist of two species in Apiaceae, three in Fa- been documented or that they may have existed in the baceae, one in Lamiaceae, two in Ranunculaceae, and area historically but conditions may have changed in cli- three in Cyperaceae. The following is a list of those 11 mate or land-use that precludes their existence in modern species along with their occurrence in Montana: Angelica times. dawsonii S.Watson, is endemic to Idaho, northwest Mon- tana, and adjacent British Columbia, Alberta, Canada; Lo- The presence of plant resources from distant areas was matium orientale J.M.Coult. & Rose is found in southeast expected, as prehistoric trade systems have been well Montana; Amorpha canescens Pursh, a Great Plains spe- documented (Baugh & Ericson 1994, Boyd 1998, Carlson cies was collected only once in southeast Montana about 1994, Cooper 2008, Galm 1994, Vehik & Baugh 1994, 70 years ago; Psoralea argophylla Pursh is found in the Wood 1974) and Northern Plains tribes were known to eastern half of Montana; Psoralea lanceolata Pursh is travel substantial distances in their seasonal rounds (Duke found mostly in the eastern half of Montana and in one & Wilson 1994, Frison 1991, 1998, Greiser 1994, Reeves county in southwestern Montana; Agastache foeniculum 1970). The Beaver Creek Rock Shelter excavation yield- (Pursh) Kuntze is known from only two counties in east- ed additional evidence of long-distance trade/travel in ern Montana; Anemone canadensis L. is found in north- the form of obsidian and Sauger fish remains. Obsidian east Montana; Ranunculus pensylvanicus L.f. is found in from the Beaver Creek Rock Shelter was sourced to Bear western and south-central Montana; Eriophorum callitrix Gulch located in southern Idaho (Travis et al. 2011). The Cham. ex C.A.Mey. is found only in south-central Mon- excavation also revealed Sauger fish bones, which are

www.ethnobotanyjournal.org/vol12/i1547-3465-12-355.pdf 362 Ethnobotany Research & Applications currently and historically found only in the middle and low- that were known to be utilized by Montana Native Ameri- er Missouri River, not the upper Missouri where Beaver cans. Each table contains the tribe or tribes, the plant part, Creek is located (Travis et al. 2011). and how the plant was prepared.

Northern Plains ethnographic plant use Food, beverages, and food-related ethnographic uses

Numerous sources in literature document traditional Na- Great Plains Native Americans utilized 25 different plant tive American plant use. The following section contains species for subsistence (Table 3). Subsistence uses were the most commonly recorded species from the 7 families dominated by species and particularly roots in the Faba-

Table 3. Plants implied from the archaeological record at Beaver Creek Rock Shelter, southwestern Montana, U.S.A. with ethnographic uses as foods, beverages, and food-related purposes. Information sources: (B) Blankinship 1905, (C) Clavell 1997, (D) Densmore 1927, (G) Grinnell 1972, (H1) Hart 1981, (H2) Hart 1992, (J) Johnston 1970, (K1) Kindscher 1987, (K2) Kindscher 1992, (M) Moerman 1998, (T1) Taylor 1989, and (T2) Teit 1928. Plant names Cultural Plant information Sources Scientific Common source Uses Parts used Preparation Apiaceae Lomatium Wyeth Native food root reduced to flour B, M ambiguum (Nutt.) biscuitroot American J.M.Coult. & Rose Lomatium cous Cous MT Indian food root whole roots dried, B, H2, M (S. Watson) biscuitroot pulverized for J.M.Coult. & Rose porridge, cakes or soup, peeled and eaten raw or boiled Lomatium Large-fruit Salish food root eaten dried or raw K1, M macrocarpum desert- (Hook. & Arn.) parsley J.M.Coult. & Rose Lomatium Nineleaf Blackfeet food flower used to make M triternatum (Pursh) biscuitroot pemmican J.M.Coult. & Rose root eaten raw or roasted M

preservative fruit to keep the hide M of an animal from smelling MT Indian food root reduced to flour B, M or eaten raw, roasted, or baked Musineon Wild parsley Blackfeet food root eaten raw M divaricatum (Pursh) Nutt. Osmorhiza chilensis Western Blackfeet food root chewed and M Hook. & Arn. sweet-cicely eaten as candy Perideridia montana Gairdner’s Blackfeet food root eaten raw as a snack M (Blank.) Dorn Yampah stored for soup M or a staple

Cheyenne food root scraped, dried, and H1, M stored or pulverized and eaten as mush Salish food root smashed, formed M into bread or cakes, and sun dried MT Indian food root eaten raw or boiled M

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Plant names Cultural Plant information Sources Scientific Common source Uses Parts used Preparation Sium suave Walter Hemlock Cree food root eaten roasted, C, M water- raw, or fried parsnip MT Indian food herbage eaten as a relish due B, M to its aromatic flavor Brassicaceae Turritis glabra L. Tower- Cheyenne beverage unknown infusion G, M mustard Cyperaceae Amphiscirpus Nevada Cheyenne food root peeled and G, M nevadensis bulrush eaten raw (S.Watson) Oteng-Yeb. Schoenoplectus Hardstem Cree food stem eaten raw J, M acutus (Muhl. ex bulrush Blackfeet food root eaten raw or cooked J, M Bigelow) Á.Löve & D.Löve MT Indian food root made into syrup, B, M sauce, or relish eaten raw or made B, M into flour for bread Cheyenne food stem eaten raw H1, M Fabaceae Astragalus Canadian Blackfeet food root eaten raw or K1, M canadensis L. milkvetch boiled in blood to make broth Astragalus Groundplum Chippewa tonic root decoction D, K1, M crassicarpus Nutt. milkvetch MT Indian food fruit eaten raw as a snack B, M

pods eaten raw, cooked, B, M or pickled Dalea candida White prairie Blackfeet food root eaten raw K1, K2 Willd. clover MT Indian beverage leaves unspecified K1, K2

food root unspecified K1, K2 Dalea purpurea Purple MT Indian food root unspecified K2, M Vent. prairie clover beverage leaves unspecified K2, M

Glycyrrhiza lepidota Wild licorice Cheyenne food shoots eaten raw H2, Pursh K1, M MT Indian tonic root infusion H2, M food unspecified H2, M Lupinus polyphyllus Bigleaf Salish tonic unknown decoction M, T2 Lindl. lupine Pediomelum Pomme de Blackfeet food root eaten raw or H2, K1, esculentum prairie peeled and dried K2, M, (Pursh) Rydb. T1 Cheyenne thickening root dried and made H1, M agent into a powder

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Plant names Cultural Plant information Sources Scientific Common source Uses Parts used Preparation P. esculentum cont. Pomme de Cheyenne food unknown dried plant H1, M prairie slices boiled and sweetened to make pudding root eaten raw or dried H1, M MT Indian food root dried and mashed M into bread, cake thickener, or porridge eaten dried and M shredded or inner root core eaten raw, roasted, or boiled dried and stored or M crushed into powder Psoralea hypogaea Little indian Cheyenne food root eaten raw or dried M Torr. & A.Gray breadroot and stored Vicia americana American MT Indian food unknown cooked and eaten B, M Willd. purple vetch for greens Lamiaceae Agastache Lavender Cheyenne beverage leaves made into a tea M foeniculum hyssop (Pursh) Kuntze Lycopus asper Rough Chippewa food unknown dried or boiled M Greene bugleweed Mentha arvensis L. Wild mint Cheyenne beverage leaves made into a tea H2, J, and stem for flavoring K2, M Cree unknown made into a tea H2, J, K2, M Salish insecticide leaves powdered and H2, J, sprinkled on meat K2, M and berries Kutenai tonic unknown infusion H2, J, K2, M insecticide leaves powdered and H2, J, sprinkled on meat K2, M and berries Blackfeet spice leaves added to meat H2, J, K2, M beverage unknown dried and used H2, J, to make tea K2, M Ojibwa beverage unknown made into a tea H2, J, K2, M MT Indian beverage unknown unspecified H2, J, K2, M

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Plant names Cultural Plant information Sources Scientific Common source Uses Parts used Preparation Monarda fistulosa L. Beebalm Blackfeet eating tool flowerhead dried and used K1, M like a spoon food prep flowerhead dried and used to K1, M tool apply water to a green hide to make it easier to scrape Salish preservative leaves pulverized and K1, M sprinkled on meat insecticide leaves pulverized and K1, M sprinkled on meat Ranunculaceae Thalictrum Western Blackfeet spice fruit unspecified M occidentale A.Gray meadowrue ceae and Apiaceae families. The primary method of food plant families, Apiaceae and Fabaceae represent the larg- consumption was to eat the roots raw. est variety of plant species with 7 different species each. In treating pain and fevers, roots were the most utilized Medicinal uses for pain and fever reduction plant part. The most popular method for preparation was infusions with 19 entries. Species in 5 of the 7 plant families are represented in the pain and fever-reducing category (Table 4). Of these 7

Table 4. Plants implied from the archaeological record at Beaver Creek Rock Shelter, southwestern Montana, U.S.A. with ethnographic uses as medicines for pain and fever reduction. Information sources: (D) Densmore 1927, (G1) Gilmore 1977, (G2) Grinnell 1905, (G3) Grinnell 1972, (H1) Hart 1981, (H2) Hart 1992, (H3) Hoffman 1884, (H4) Hoffman 1891, (J1) Johnston 1970, (J2) Johnston 1987 (K1) Kindscher 1987, (K2) Kindscher 1992, (M) Moerman 1998, (S) Smith 1932, and (T) Taylor 1989. Plant names Cultural Plant information Sources Scientific Common source Uses Parts used Preparation Apiaceae Angelica dawsonii Dawson’s Blackfeet antirheumatic root poultice of M S.Watson angelica chewed roots analgesic infusion for sore M armpits or groin Cicuta douglasii Western MT Indian analgesic root unspecified M (DC.) J.M.Coult. water-hemlock & Rose Cicuta maculata L. Spotted water- Cree antirheumatic root dried, powdered, & M hemlock made into a liniment Ligusticum canbyi Canby’s wild Salish anticonvulsive root chewed and H2, M J.M.Coult. & Rose lovage and headache rubbed on body Lomatium Large-fruit Crow antirheumatic root poultice of root M macrocarpum desert-parsley shavings (Hook. & Arn.) J.M.Coult. & Rose Lomatium orientale Oriental Cheyenne anti- roots and infusion G3, J.M.Coult. & Rose desert-parsley inflammatory leaves H2, M Sanicula Maryland black Ojibwa fever reducer root infusion M, S marilandica L. snakeroot

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Plant names Cultural Plant information Sources Scientific Common source Uses Parts used Preparation Brassicaceae Physaria Common Blackfeet analgesic unknown plant chewed M didymocarpa twinpod for cramps (Hook.) A.Gray

antirheumatic root infusion for M body aches antirheumatic unknown strong infusion of M plant used as a liniment on sprains anti- unknown decoction of plant M inflammatory Fabaceae Amorpha canescens Lead plant Ojibwa analgesic root decoction H3, M Pursh Astragalus Canadian Blackfeet analgesic root treats pediatric chest K2, M canadensis L. milkvetch aches by bathing in the steam Astragalus Groundplum Chippewa anticonvulsive root decoction D, M crassicarpus Nutt. milkvetch and headache Glycyrrhiza lepidota Wild licorice Blackfeet analgesic root infusion M Pursh antirheumatic infusion M

Pediomelum Silvery Cheyenne fever reducer several decoction or salve, G2, argophyllum (Pursh) scurfpea parts infusion of ground G3, M J.W.Grimes leaves and stems Pediomelum Pomme de Blackfeet antirheumatic root poultice of chewed H2, K1, esculentum prairie roots for sprains K2, M, T (Pursh) Rydb. Thermopsis Roundleaf Cheyenne analgesic leaves dried, burned, G1, rhombifolia (Pursh) thermopsis antirheumatic and inhaled H1, M Richardson MT Indian flower dried and smoked G1, M

Lamiaceae Agastache Lavender Cheyenne analgesic leaves infusion used to G3, foeniculum hyssop treat chest pain K2, M (Pursh) Kuntze due to coughing fever reducer powdered and H1, M rubbed on the body Chippewa analgesic root infusion H1, M Mentha arvensis L. Wild mint Cree headache leaves infusion H2, J1, M fever reducer infusion D, M toothache leafy stems poultice D, M and flowers

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Plant names Cultural Plant information Sources Scientific Common source Uses Parts used Preparation M. arvensis cont. Wild mint Salish toothache leaves infusion H2, J1, M fever reducer leaves infusion H2, J1, M Kutenai antirheumatic leaves poultice H2, J1, M fever reducer unknown infusion H2, J1, M Blackfeet chest pain leaves unspecified H2, J1, M Ojibwa stomach pain unknown infusion of plant H2, J1, M fever reducer leaves infusion H2, J1, M Monarda fistulosa L. Beebalm Chippewa headache leaves chewed and M placed in nostrils Salish fever reducer unknown infusion M

Ojibwa fever reducer flower infusion H4, M anticonvulsive unknown infusion M and headache Ranunculaceae Anemone Canada Ojibwa analgesic root decoction for H4, M canadensis L. anemone lumbar pain Anemone multifida Pacific Blackfeet headache seed head burn on hot coals J2, M Poir. anemone and inhale smoke Clematis Sugarbowls MT Indian headache leaves decoction H4, M hirsutissima Pursh Clematis Western Blackfeet fever reducer bark unspecified J1, J2, M ligusticifolia Nutt. virgin’s-bower Thalictrum Purple Ojibwa fever reducer root infusion M, S dasycarpum Fisch., meadowrue C.A.Mey. & Avé-Lall.

Stomach-related medicinal use has shown there is not one preferred type of plant part or method of preparation for domestic use. All 7 plant families were traditionally used for stomach- related ailments with Apiaceae and Fabaceae dominat- Medicinal uses for ear, nose, and throat ailments ing with 5 plant species each (Table 5). The most common uses were general stomach aids and antidiarrheals. Species in 6 of the 7 plant families were used for treat- Roots were the most common plant part used with infu- ing ailments of the ears, eyes, throat, nose, and mouth sions, the preferred method for plant preparation. (Table 7). The plant family with the most medicinal uses in this category is Apiaceae. Throat aids were the most Domestic uses commonly treated ailment, and infusions made primarily of roots were the preparation method of choice. Species in 5 of the 7 plant families were utilized for traditional domestic purposes, including fragrance, hair care, Traditional medicinal skin care cosmetics, decorations, dye, smoking, and weaving materials (Table 6). Among the 16 different plant species, the The Fabaceae family has the largest number of plant most common use was fragrance. Ethnographic literature species traditionally used for skin care, including general

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Table 5. Plants implied from the archaeological record at Beaver Creek Rock Shelter, southwestern Montana, U.S.A. with ethnographic uses as stomach-related medicines. Information sources: (G) Grinnell 1972, (H1) Hart 1981, (H2) Hart 1992, (H3) Hoffman 1891, (J) Johnston 1970, (K1) Kindscher 1987, (K2) Kinscher 1992, (M) Moerman 1998, (S) Scheinost 2010, and (T) Taylor 1989. Plant names Cultural Plant information Sources Scientific Common source Uses Parts used Preparation Apiaceae Angelica dawsonii Dawson’s Blackfeet stomach aid root infusion M S.Watson angelica malnutrition M aid Cicuta douglasii Western Kutenai emetic root infusion mixed M (DC.) J.M.Coult. water-hemlock with water & Rose Salish cathartic unknown unspecified M

emetic M Lomatium orientale Oriental Cheyenne stomach aid roots and infusion H2, M J.M.Coult. & Rose desert-parsley antidiarrheal leaves H2, M Osmorhiza Smoother Cheyenne stomach aid leaves, infusion G, M longistylis (Torr.) sweet-cicely stem, DC. and root Perideridia montana Gairdner’s Blackfeet antidiarrheal root infusion M (Blank.) Dorn yampah antiemetic M

diuretic eaten M laxative M Brassicaceae Physaria Common Blackfeet stomach aid unknown decoction that M didymocarpa twinpod expands the stomach (Hook.) A.Gray so food can be eaten without pain by someone who has not eaten for an extended period of time stomach unknown chewed M cramps stomach pain leaves infusion M Cyperaceae Schoenoplectus Hardstem MT Indian dietary aid root chewed to prevent J, M acutus (Muhl. ex bulrush dehydration Bigelow) Á.Löve & D.Löve Fabaceae Amorpha canescens Lead plant Ojibwa stomach aid root decoction H3, M Pursh Astragalus American Cree stomach pain root chewed M americanus (Hook.) milkvetch stomach flu M M.E.Jones Dalea candida Willd. White prairie Blackfeet antidiarrheal root dried and made K1 clover into a tea

www.ethnobotanyjournal.org/vol12/i1547-3465-12-355.pdf Dexter et al. - Prehistoric Plant Use at Beaver Creek Rock Shelter, 369 Southwestern Montana, U.S.A. Plant names Cultural Plant information Sources Scientific Common source Uses Parts used Preparation Glycyrrhiza lepidota Wild licorice Cheyenne antidiarrheal roots and infusion H1, Pursh leaves H2, M stomach aid H1, H2, M Pediomelum Pomme de Blackfeet gastroenteritis root dried K1, K2, esculentum (Pursh) prairie M, T Rydb. bowel chewed K1, K2, complaints M, T

colic chewed and blown K1, K2, into baby’s rectum M, T Cheyenne antidiarrheal unknown unspecified H1, M Geraniaceae Geranium Sticky Blackfeet malnutrition leaves infusion eaten and M, S viscosissimum geranium aid applied to the heads Fisch. & C.A.Mey. of two women with large heads due to malnutrition. Both women experienced relief and soon after died. Lamiaceae Mentha arvensis L. Wild mint Cheyenne antiemetic leaves ground infusion K2, M and stem or boiled MT Indian relieves gas unknown steeped in water K2, M and drunk Monarda fistulosa L. Beebalm Blackfeet emetic unknown infusion K2, M Ojibwa stomach aid root decoction K2, M Prunella vulgaris L. Self-heal Chippewa cathartic root compound decoction M Stachys palustris L. Marsh Chippewa gastro- leaves fresh or dried M hedge-nettle intestinal aid infusion for sudden colic Ranunculaceae Actaea rubra (Aiton) Red Cheyenne dietary aid root decoction for H1, Willd. baneberry improving appetite H2, M Ojibwa stomach aid root eaten H1, H2, M Delphinium bicolor Little larkspur Blackfeet antidiarrheal unknown infusion M Nutt.

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Table 6. Plants implied from the archaeological record at Beaver Creek Rock Shelter, southwestern Montana, U.S.A. with ethnographic uses for domestic purposes. Information sources: (B) Blankinship 1905, (G1) Gilmore 1977, (G2) Grinnell 1972, (H1) Hart 1981, (H2) Hart 1992, (J) Johnston 1970, (K1) Kindscher 1987, (K2) Kindscher 1992, (M) Moerman 1998, (S) Smith 1932, (T1) Taylor 1989, and (T2) Turner 1971. Plant names Cultural Plant information Sources Scientific Common source Uses Parts used Preparation Apiaceae Cicuta maculata L. Spotted water- Chippewa smoke seed mixed with tobacco M hemlock Ligusticum canbyi Canby’s wild Crow fragrance root shavings on live coals H2, M J.M.Coult. & Rose lovage smoke root shavings added H2, M to tobacco

Salish hair soap root mixed with H2, M buckbrush leaves Osmorhiza Western Blackfeet dye stem mixed with ochre and M occidentalis sweet-cicely applied to robes (Nutt.) Torr. fragrance root used as perfume for M clothes and diapers Cyperaceae Amphiscirpus Nevada Cheyenne weaving stem woven and used for G2, M nevadensis bulrush material rugs, and bedding (S.Watson) ceremonial unknown Sundance ceremony G2, M Oteng-Yeb. Carex nebraskensis Nebraska Cheyenne ceremonial unknown Sundance and H1, J, M Dewey sedge Massaum ceremonies Blackfeet ceremonial leaves and tied around buffalo H1, J, M grass skulls because it is thought to be a favorite food of the buffalo Schoenoplectus Hardstem MT Indian weaving stem used to make mats, B, J1, M acutus (Muhl. ex bulrush material rugs and bedding Bigelow) Á.Löve & D.Löve Schoenoplectus Three-square Salish weaving leaves sun-dried and used M, T2 americanus bulrush material to make mats, rugs, (Pers.) Volkart and bedding Scirpus cyperinus Woolgrass Ojibwa weaving rushes used to make storage M (L.) Kunth material bags and mats Fabaceae Oxytropis sericea White Blackfeet decoration stem jewelry on M Torr. & A.Gray locoweed headdresses for kids Psoralea esculenta Pomme- Blackfeet decoration root dried pieces used H2, K1, Pursh de-prairie on clothing K2, M, T1 Psoralea lanceolata Lance-leaf Cheyenne ceremonial unknown used for unspecified G2, M Pursh scurfpea ceremonies Thermopsis Roundleaf Blackfeet dye flower rubbed on arrow shaft M rhombifolia (Pursh) thermopsis petals for yellow coloring Richardson

www.ethnobotanyjournal.org/vol12/i1547-3465-12-355.pdf Dexter et al. - Prehistoric Plant Use at Beaver Creek Rock Shelter, 371 Southwestern Montana, U.S.A. Plant names Cultural Plant information Sources Scientific Common source Uses Parts used Preparation Lamiaceae Mentha arvensis L. Wild mint Cheyenne hair oil unknown decoction of plant K2, M fragrance leaves used as perfume K2, M and stem MT Indian fragrance unknown for the home K2, M Monarda fistulosa L. Beebalm Crow fragrance unknown plant mixed with other M plants and beaver castor oil for use on hair, body, & clothing Kutenai fragrance leaves placed on hot rocks for M scent in sweat house MT Indian fragrance unknown used as perfume for M hair, body, and home Ranunculaceae Delphinium bicolor Little larkspur Blackfeet shine and unknown infusion M Nutt. straighten hair dye flower used to dye quills M light blue Ranunculus Bristly Ojibwa dye entire plant boiled for red coloring M, S pensylvanicus L.f. crowfoot Thalictrum Purple Blackfeet fragrance fruit unspecified G1, J, M dasycarpum Fisch., meadowrue MT Indian fragrance fruit stored for smell G1, J, M C.A.Mey. & Avé-Lall. Thalictrum Western Blackfeet cosmetic fruit powdered and J, M occidentale A.Gray meadowrue mixed with water insecticide fruit, seeds, unspecified J, M leaves

fragrance fruit dried and placed J, M in buckskin bags paint fruit crushed and used as paint for robes

Table 7. Plants implied from the archaeological record at Beaver Creek Rock Shelter, southwestern Montana, U.S.A. with ethnographic uses for ear, nose and throat ailments. Information sources: (B) Blankinship 1905, (H) Hart 1992, (J) Johnston 1970, (K1) Kindscher 1987, (K2) Kindscher 1992, (M) Moerman 1998, (S) Smith 1932, and (T) Taylor 1989. Plant names Cultural Plant information Sources Scientific Common source Uses Parts used Preparation Apiaceae Ligusticum canbyi Canby’s wild Crow ear aid root infusion H2, M J.M. Coult. & Rose lovage Osmorhiza chilensis Chilean Blackfeet throat aid root hot drink M Hook. & Arn. sweet-cicely Osmorhiza longistylis Smoother Ojibwa throat aid root infusion M, S (Torr.) DC. sweet-cicely

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Plant names Cultural Plant information Sources Scientific Common source Uses Parts used Preparation Osmorhiza Western Blackfeet eye aid root infusion M occidentalis sweet-cicely nose aid root infustion M (Nutt.) Torr. Perideridia montana Gairdner's Blackfeet throat aid root infusion M (Blank.) Dorn yampah Peucedanum Large-fruit Crow throat aid root chewed for the juice M macrocarpum Nutt. desert-parsley Brassicaceae Physaria Common Blackfeet ear aid leaves infusion for ear M didymocarpa twinpod infections (Hook.) A.Gray eye aid leaves infusion for M bloodshot eyes

throat aid unknown chewed M oral aid leaves clenched between M the teeth to treat toothaches Fabaceae Glycyrrhiza lepidota Wild licorice Blackfeet throat aid root infusion H, M Pursh MT Indian throat aid root chewed for the juice H, M to strengthen the throat for singing Oxytropis lagopus Hare's-foot Blackfeet throat aid leaves chewed K2, M Nutt. locoweed Oxytropis sericea White Blackfeet ear aid leaves infusion K2, M Torr. & A.Gray locoweed Psoralea esculenta Pomme- Blackfeet ear aid root chewed root spittle K1, K2, Pursh de-prairie to remove matter H, M, T eye aid root chewed root spittle K1, K2, to remove matter H, M, T

throat aid root chewed K1, K2, H, M, T oral aid root chewed for teething K1, K2, H, M, T Geraniaceae Geranium Sticky Blackfeet eye aid leaves infusion M viscosissimum geranium Fisch. & C.A.Mey. Lamiaceae Mentha arvensis L. Wild mint Cree oral aid flower ground, mixed with D, M yarrow, put into a cloth, moistened, and rubbed on the gum to remove pus Monarda fistulosa L. Beebalm Blackfeet throat aid root chewed for J, K2, M swollen glands

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Plant names Cultural Plant information Sources Scientific Common source Uses Parts used Preparation M. fistulosa cont. Beebalm Blackfeet eye aid blossoms solution for eye wash J, K2, M Salish oral aid unknown unspecified for J, K2, M toothaches eye aid unknown solution for soreness J, K2, M Prunella vulgaris L. Self-heal Blackfeet eye aid unknown infusion made into M a wash to keep the eye moist and cold Ranunculaceae Anemone canadensis Canada Ojibwa throat aid root eaten to sing well M, S L. anemone Clematis ligusticifolia Western MT Indian throat aid unknown chewed B, M Nutt. virgin's-bower Blackfeet throat aid foliage unspecified M

skin aids, burn dressings, and diaper rash (Table 8). Eth- Traditional cough and cold remedies nographic literature indicates general skin aids were the most commonly used remedy. Infusions, made primarily Species in 6 of the 7 plant families were traditionally used with roots, were the most widespread practice for prepar- as cough and cold remedies (Table 9). The majority of the ing the plants. species were used to treat colds. Infusions, made primar-

Table 8. Plants implied from the archaeological record at Beaver Creek Rock Shelter, southwestern Montana, U.S.A. with ethnographic uses for skin care. Information sources: (B) Blankinship 1905, (H1) Hart 1981, (H2) Hart 1992, (K1) Kindscher 1987, (K2) Kindscher 1992, (M) Moerman 1998, and (T) Taylor 1989. Plant names Cultural Plant information Sources Scientific Common source Uses Parts used Preparation Apiaceae Angelica dawsonii Dawson's Blackfeet skin aid root poultice of M S.Watson angelica chewed roots Cicuta douglasii Western Kutenai skin aid root pounded M (DC.) J.M.Coult. water-hemlock & Rose Osmorhiza Western Blackfeet skin aid root infusion M occidentalis sweet-cicely (Nutt.) Torr. Perideridia montana Gairdner's Blackfeet skin aid root infusion M (Blank.) Dorn yampah Brassicaceae Erysimum Wormseed Chippewa skin aid root decoction M cheiranthoides L. wallflower Physaria Common Blackfeet skin aid unknown infusion of plants M didymocarpa twinpod to heal wounds (Hook.) A.Gray skin aid unknown strong infusion M used as a liniment for dislocations diaper rash unknown decoction M

Fabaceae Astragalus Canadian Blackfeet skin aid root poultice of chewed K2, M canadensis L. milkvetch roots applied to cuts

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Plant names Cultural Plant information Sources Scientific Common source Uses Parts used Preparation Dalea purpurea Vent. Purple prairie MT Indian skin aid leaves poultice of steeped B, M clover leaves applied to fresh wounds Oxytropis lagopus Hare's-foot Blackfeet skin aid unknown plant chewed to M Nutt. locoweed allay swelling Oxytropis sericea White Blackfeet skin aid leaves infusion K2, M Torr. & A.Gray locoweed Psoralea argophylla Silvery MT Indian skin aid unknown decoction used for B, M Pursh scurfpea washing wounds Psoralea esculenta Pomme- Cheyenne burn unknown unspecified H1, H2, Pursh de-prairie dressing K1, K2, M, T Lamiaceae Agastache Lavender Chippewa burn leaves simple or compound M foeniculum (Pursh) hyssop dressing or stalk poultice Kuntze Monarda fistulosa L. Beebalm Blackfeet skin aid flowerhead poultice applied to K2, M heal burst boils skin aid unknown poultice applied K2, M to heal cuts Prunella vulgaris L. Self-heal Blackfeet skin aid unknown infusion applied to M wash a burst boil or neck sore Ranunculaceae Actaea rubra (Aiton) Red Cheyenne skin aid root unspecified H1, Willd. baneberry H2, M Anemone canadensis Canada Chippewa skin aid root poultice or infusion M L. anemone

Table 9. Plants implied from the archaeological record at Beaver Creek Rock Shelter, southwestern Montana, U.S.A. with ethnographic uses as cough and cold remedies. Information sources: (G) Grinnell 1972, (H1) Hart 1981, (H2) Hart 1992, (J1) Johnston 1970, (J2) Johnston 1987, (K) Kindscher 1992, (M) Moerman 1998, and (S) Scheinost 2010. Plant names Cultural Plant information Sources Scientific Common source Uses Parts used Preparation Apiaceae Ligusticum canbyi Canby’s wild Crow cold root chewed H2, M J.M. Coult. & Rose lovage remedy cough root chewed H2, M medicine Peucedanum Large-fruit Crow cold root infusion of shavings M macrocarpum Nutt. desert-parsley remedy and animal fat Osmorhiza chilensis Chilean Blackfeet cold root hot drink H1, M Hook. & Arn. sweet-cicely remedy Cheyenne cold root or chewed roots or M remedy leaves leaf infusion Osmorhiza Western Blackfeet cough unknown infusion M occidentalis sweet-cicely medicine (Nutt.) Torr.

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Plant names Cultural Plant information Sources Scientific Common source Uses Parts used Preparation Perideridia montana Gairdner's Blackfeet cough root infusion, chewed or M (Blank.) Dorn yampah medicine smudge smoke for nagging cough Brassicaceae Turritis glabra L. Tower- Cheyenne cold unknown infusion G, M mustard remedy Fabaceae Glycyrrhiza lepidota Wild licorice Blackfeet cough root infusion M Pursh medicine Thermopsis Roundleaf Cheyenne cold leaves dried, burned, H1, M rhombifolia (Pursh) thermopsis remedy and inhaled Richardson Geraniaceae Geranium Sticky Blackfeet cold leaves infusion with a M, S viscosissimum geranium remedy sweat bath Fisch. & C.A.Mey. Lamiaceae Agastache Lavender Cheyenne cold leaves infusion K, M foeniculum hyssop remedy (Pursh) Kuntze Chippewa cough root infusion K, M medicine Mentha arvensis L. Wild mint Cree cold leaves infusion C, H2, M remedy Salish cold leaves infusion C, H2, M remedy cough leaves infusion C, H2, M medicine Kutenai cough unknown infusion C, H2, M medicine cold unknown infusion C, H2, M remedy Monarda fistulosa L. Beebalm Blackfeet cough unknown infusion K, M medicine Chippewa cold plant tops unspecified K, M remedy

Salish cold unknown infusion K, M remedy cold unknown hung on the wall K, M remedy cough unknown unspecified K, M medicine Ranunculaceae Actaea rubra (Aiton) Red Blackfeet cold root decoction J1, J2, M Willd. baneberry remedy

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Plant names Cultural Plant information Sources Scientific Common source Uses Parts used Preparation Clematis ligusticifolia Western MT Indian cold unknown chewed J1, J2, M Nutt. virgin's-bower remedy Blackfeet cold foliage unspecified J1, J2, M remedy ily with leaves, were the most frequently used method of ble 11). When controlling bleeding, root infusions were the preparation. most commonly used.

Medicinal remedies for heart, lung, and kidney ailments Traditional medicinal feminine care

Species in 4 of the 7 plant families were used as medici- Species in 4 of the 7 plant families were used in tradition- nal remedies for heart, lung, and kidney ailments, Apia- al medicinal feminine care. Uses consist of birthing aids, ceae and Lamiaceae having the largest variety of different abortifacients, breast and breastfeeding aids, a menstrual plant species with 4 each (Table 10). Lung disorders are aid, a feminine deodorant, a general gynecological reme- labeled as pulmonary or respiratory aids and are the most dy, and a newborn aid (Table 12). Prepared root infusions frequently listed. The favored preparation technique was are the primary form of treatment. infusions made from roots. Ethnographic hunting aids

Traditional antihemorrhage and hemostat use Ethnographic hunting aids include animal attractants, athletic strengtheners, a water-proofing agent, and a thirst Species in all 7 plant families were traditionally used for aid and were found in 4 of the 7 plant families (Table 13). preparing hemostatic and antihemorrhagic medicines (Ta- Notably, Cicuta maculata L. and R. pensylvanicus—both deer attractants from different plant families—use differ-

Table 10. Plants implied from the archaeological record at Beaver Creek Rock Shelter, southwestern Montana, U.S.A. with ethnographic uses as remedies for heart, lung, and kidney ailments. Information sources: (H1) Hart 1981, (H2) Hart 1992, (H3) Hoffman 1891, (K1) Kindscher 1987, (K2) Kindscher 1992, (M) Moerman 1998, and (T) Taylor 1989. Plant names Cultural Plant information Sources Scientific Common source Uses Parts used Preparation Apiaceae Ligusticum canbyi Canby’s wild Cree heart aid root unspecified H2, M J.M. Coult. & Rose lovage Crow respiratory root shavings added H2, M aid to boiling water to inhale steam Lomatium triternatum Nineleaf Blackfeet pulmonary roots and infusion M (Pursh) J.M.Coult. biscuitroot aid leaves & Rose Osmorhiza longistylis Smoother Cheyenne kidney aid leaves, infusion M (Torr.) DC. sweet-cicely stem, root Perideridia montana Gairdner's Blackfeet respiratory root infusion M (Blank.) Dorn yampah aid Fabacaeae Dalea purpurea Vent. Purple prairie Chippewa heart aid leaves and decoction M clover blossoms Oxytropis lagopus Hare's-foot Blackfeet respiratory unknown eaten for asthma K2 Nutt. locoweed aid Psoralea esculenta Pomme- Blackfeet pulmonary root chewed H2, K1, Pursh de-prairie aid K2, M, T

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Plant names Cultural Plant information Sources Scientific Common source Uses Parts used Preparation Lamiaceae Agastache Lavender Cheyenne heart aid leaves infusion for a K2, M foeniculum (Pursh) hyssop weak heart Kuntze Mentha arvensis L. Wild mint Cheyenne heart aid leaves ground infusion or H1, H2, and stem boiled to strengthen K2, M the heart Kutenai kidney aid unknown infusion H1, H2, K2, M Blackfeet heart aid leaves unspecified H1, H2, K2, M Monarda fistulosa L. Beebalm Blackfeet kidney aid unknown infusion K2, M Salish pulmonary unknown infusion for pneumonia K2, M aid

Kutenai kidney aid unknown infusion K2, M Ojibwa respiratory unknown boiled and inhale H3, M aid the steam Scutellaria Hooded Ojibwa heart aid unknown unspecified M, S galericulata L. skullcap Ranunculaceae Anemone cylindrica Long-fruited Ojibwa pulmonary root infusion M, S A.Gray anemone aid Thalictrum Western Blackfeet pulmonary seeds infusion M occidentale A.Gray meadowrue aid

Table 11. Plants implied from the archaeological record at Beaver Creek Rock Shelter, southwestern Montana, U.S.A. with ethnographic antihemorrhage and hemostat uses. Information sources: (D) Densmore 1927, (H) Hart 1981, (K) Kindscher 1992, (M) Moerman 1998, (R) Reaves 2005, and (S) Smith 1932. Plant names Cultural Plant information Sources Scientific Common source Uses Parts used Preparation Apiaceae Angelica dawsonii Dawson's Blackfeet hemostat root infusion M S.Watson angelica Brassicaceae Draba incerta Payson Yellowstone Blackfeet hemostat root infusion used to M whitlow-grass stop nose bleeds Cyperaceae Eriophorum callitrix Sheathed Ojibwa hemostat matted fuzz unspecified M, S Cham. ex C.A.Mey. cotton-grass Schoenoplectus Hardstem Cree hemostat stem poultice of stem M acutus (Muhl. ex bulrush pith applied under Bigelow) Á.Löve a dressing & D.Löve Fabaceae Astragalus Canadian Blackfeet antihemor- root chewed when K, M canadensis L. milkvetch rhagic spitting blood

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Plant names Cultural Plant information Sources Scientific Common source Uses Parts used Preparation Astragalus Groundplum Chippewa hemostat root decoction D, M crassicarpus Nutt. milkvetch Geraniaceae Geranium Richardson's Cheyenne hemostat roots or infusion of dried root H, M, R richardsonii geranium leaves or powdered leaves Fisch. & Trautv. used as a snuff to stop nose bleeds Lamiaceae Agastache Lavender Cree antihemor- leaves and infusion for D, M foeniculum hyssop rhagic stems spitting blood (Pursh) Kuntze Mentha arvensis L. Wild mint Cree antihemor- unknown plant infusion M rhagic Cree hemostat leafy stems inserted into the nose M and flowers to stop bleeding Ranunculaceae Anemone canadensis Canada Chippewa hemostat leaves used to stop M L. anemone bleeding noses, sores and wounds

Table 12. Plants implied from the archaeological record at Beaver Creek Rock Shelter, southwestern Montana, U.S.A. with ethnographic medicinal feminine care uses. Information sources: (C) Clavelle 1997, (H1) Hart 1981, (H2) Holmes 1884, (K) Kindscher 1992, (M) Moerman 1998, (S) Smith 1932, (T1) Taylor 1989, and (T2) Turner 1971. Plant names Cultural Plant information Sources Scientific Common source Uses Parts used Preparation Apiaceae Osmorhiza longistylis Smoother Chippewa menstrual root infusion to treat M (Torr.) DC. sweet-cicely aid amenorrhea Ojibwa birthing aid root infusion M, S Osmorhiza Western Blackfeet breast aid root infusion to treat M occidentalis sweet-cicely swollen breasts (Nutt.) Torr. feminine root infusion M deodorant birthing aid root infusion to M induce labor Perideridia montana Gairdner's Blackfeet breast aid root infusion used to M (Blank.) Dorn yampah massage sore breasts with warm stones Brassicaceae Draba incerta Payson Yellowstone Blackfeet aborti- unknown unspecified M whitlow-grass facient Physaria Common Blackfeet newborn leaves decoction to aid in M didymocarpa twinpod aid the healing of the (Hook.) A.Gray umbilical cord aborti- unknown infusion taken in M facient small amounts

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Plant names Cultural Plant information Sources Scientific Common source Uses Parts used Preparation Lamiaceae Monarda fistulosa L. Beebalm Salish birthing aid unknown beverage drunk K, M after childbirth MT Indian birthing aid unknown infusion to aid in the K, M expulsion of afterbirth Prunella vulgaris L. Self-heal Ojibwa gyne- root compound M, S cological remedy Ranunculaceae Actaea rubra Red Cheyenne breast root infusion used after M (Aiton) Willd. baneberry feeding aid childbirth to increase the milk flow stem infusion taken H1, M by pregnant or breastfeeding mothers to increase the milk flow Chippewa menstrual root decoction to M aid treat excessive menstrual flow Cree menstrual root infusion to C, H2, M aid treat excessive menstrual flow birthing aid whole plant infusion taken to C, M clear up the birthing system after childbirth Ojibwa birthing aid root infusion taken to M clear up the birthing system after childbirth Anemone multifida Pacific Blackfeet aborti- unknown unspecified K, M Poir. anemone facient

Table 13. Plants implied from the archaeological record at Beaver Creek Rock Shelter, southwestern Montana, U.S.A. with ethnographic uses as hunting aids. Information sources: (G) Gilmore 1977, (J) Johnston 1970, (M) Moerman 1998, and (S) Smith 1932. Plant names Cultural Plant information Sources Scientific Common source Uses Parts used Preparation Apiaceae Cicuta maculata L. Spotted water- Ojibwa animal root smoke of burning root M, S hemlock attractant used to bring buck deer close enough to shoot with an arrow Perideridia montana Gairdner's Blackfeet athletic root chewed to give buffalo M (Blank.) Dorn yampah strength hunter endurance hunting aid whole plant rubbed on arrows as M a waterproofing agent

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Plant names Cultural Plant information Sources Scientific Common source Uses Parts used Preparation Fabacaceae Amorpha canescens Lead plant MT Indian animal blooms pound, moisten, mix, G Pursh attractant and rub on clothing Glycyrrhiza lepidota Wild licorice Blackfeet thirst aid burs kept in mouth of M Pursh buffalo runners to prevent thirst Lamiaceae Mentha arvensis L. Wild mint Blackfeet animal unknown boiled with hunting J attractant traps to destroy human scent Ranunculaceae Ranunculus Bristly Ojibwa animal seeds burned to lure buck M, S pensylvanicus L.f. crowfoot attractant deer close enough to shoot with an arrow ent plant parts, yet the preparation of the plants was iden- Additional medicinal aids tical. Additional medicinal aids are remedies that did not fit into Ethnographic stimulants any other categories, including plants that were used for panacea, snakebites, diaphoretics, a blood remedy, and Ethnographic stimulants consist of 4 stimulants and 2 an orthopedic aid. Ten species of plants used as addition- strengtheners with the majority of species from the Api- al medicinal aids occur in 4 of the 7 plant families (Table aceae family (Table 14). The plant part most commonly 15). Infusions made from roots were the most common used was roots, which were prepared in a variety of ways treatment for these ailments. including chewing, infusions, a tonic, and a decoction.

Table 14. Plants implied from the archaeological record at Beaver Creek Rock Shelter, southwestern Montana, U.S.A. with ethnographic uses as stimulents. Information sources: (D) Densmore 1927, (K) Kindscher 1992, and (M) Moerman 1998. Plant names Cultural Plant information Sources Scientific Common source Uses Parts used Preparation Apiaceae Lomatium triternatum Nineleaf Blackfeet athletic root chewed to prevent M (Pursh) J.M.Coult. biscuitroot strength side aches while & Rose running Musineon divaricatum Wild parsley Blackfeet stimulant root tonic to stimulate K, M (Pursh) Nutt. the appetite Osmorhiza chilensis Chilean Cheyenne stimulant root or chewed roots or M Hook. & Arn. sweet-cicely leaves infusion of leaves to bring one around Peucedanum Large-fruit Blackfeet strength root infusion M macrocarpum Nutt. desert-parsley Fabaceae Astragalus Groundplum Chippewa stimulant root decoction D, M crassicarpus Nutt. milkvetch Lamiaceae Mentha arvensis L. Wild mint Cheyenne stimulant leaves ground infusion or K, M and stem boiled to stimulate vital organs

www.ethnobotanyjournal.org/vol12/i1547-3465-12-355.pdf Dexter et al. - Prehistoric Plant Use at Beaver Creek Rock Shelter, 381 Southwestern Montana, U.S.A. Table 15. Plants implied from the archaeological record at Beaver Creek Rock Shelter, southwestern Montana, U.S.A. with ethnographic uses as additional medicinal aids. Information sources: (D) Densmore 1927, (G) Grinnell 1972, (H) Hart 1992, (K1) Kindscher 1987, (K2) Kindscher 1992, (M1) Moerman 1998, (M2) Moerman 2003, (S) Smith 1932, and (T) Taylor 1989. Plant names Cultural Plant information Sources Scientific Common source Uses Parts used Preparation Apiaceae Angelica dawsonii Dawson's Blackfeet panacea root infusion M1 S.Watson angelica Cicuta douglasii Western MT Indian snakebite root poultice of split root M1 (DC.) J.M.Coult. water-hemlock & Rose Peucedanum Nineleaf Blackfeet panacea root chewed and sprayed M1 macrocarpum Nutt. biscuitroot by the mouth to heal where the root lands Perideridia montana Gairdner's Blackfeet panacea root chewed M1 (Blank.) Dorn yampah Sanicula marilandica Maryland black Ojibwa snakebite root pounded M1, S L. snakeroot Brassicaceae Turritis glabra L. Tower-mustard Cheyenne panacea unknown infusion used to G, M1 prevent sickness Fabaceae Dalea purpurea Vent. Purple prairie MT Indian panacea root pulverized, boiled, K2, M1 clover and drunk to prevent sickness Psoralea Pomme- Blackfeet orthopedic root poultice of chewed H, K1, esculenta Pursh de-prairie aid root to heal fractures K2, M1, T Lamiaceae Agastache Lavender Cheyenne diaphoretic leaves steamed to induce K2, M1 foeniculum (Pursh) hyssop sweating in order Kuntze to release toxins Mentha arvensis L. Wild mint Cree panacea unknown infusion used to D, M1, prevent sickness M2 Blackfeet panacea leaves beverage to treat a M1, M2 variety of illnesses Ojibwa blood whole plant infusion M1, M2 remedy diaphoretic unknown steamed to induce M1, M2 sweating in order to release toxins Monarda fistulosa L. Beebalm Salish panacea unknown infusion to treat M1 miscellaneous diseases

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Summary and Discussion ate geographic area, or may require time for preparation, such as drying. Having a prepared supply of treatments Archaeologists have traditionally viewed botanical re- could be a major factor in survival. The prehistoric people mains as evidence of prehistoric subsistence, particularly of the Beaver Creek Rock Shelter appear to have been when interpreting macrobotanical remains. This research well adapted to an unpredictable environment, as these demonstrates that archaeologists need to use caution in same plants reappear in the archaeological record for assuming plant remains in the archaeological record are thousands of years. predominately tied to subsistence. Moerman (1996), who summarized the number of Native American food and me- Acknowledgments dicinal plant uses from a large computerized database with 44,775 Native American historic plant uses, dem- The Beaver Creek Rock Shelter research was funded by onstrated that medicinal uses were more than twice as a Cost Share Agreement between the Helena National numerous as food uses. Of the 44,775 historic uses he Forest and Carroll College. The research would not be recorded 45% were medicinal, 19% food, and 29% both possible without support from the Helena National Forest food and medicinal (Moerman 1996:9). Archaeologists Mark Bodily, Arian Randall, and Kyle Mc- Guire. We also thank anonymous reviewers for their con- The importance of having medical supplies available is structive comments. unmistakable. Although we cannot be certain which species of plants are represented in our pollen core, some of Literature Cited the families are heavily laden with species used historically for medicinal purposes. Moerman (1996) calculated the Baugh, T.G. & J.E. Ericson. 1994. Prehistoric Exchange top ten plant families most commonly used for medicinal Systems in North America. Plenum Press, New York, purposes. Three of the families discovered at the Beaver U.S.A. Creek Rock Shelter are included on Moerman’s top ten medicinal list, including Apiaceae (ranked second), Ra- Blankinship, J.W. 1905. Native Economic Plants of Mon- nunculaceae (ranked fifth), and Lamiaceae (ranked ninth). tana. Montana Agricultural College Experiment Station, Bozeman, Montana, U.S.A. Perhaps more noteworthy, as it is unexpected, is that three of the plant families found at the Beaver Creek Rock Shel- Boyd, M. 1998. Interdependence and power: Complexity ter were ranked by Moerman among the least-used fami- in hunter-gatherer/farmer exchanges. Plains Anthropolo- lies for traditional medicinal use, including Brassicaceae gist 43(165):311–319. www.jstor.org/stable/25669553 (ranked second in the bottom ten), Fabaceae (ranked eighth in the bottom ten), and Cyperaceae (ranked ninth Carlson, R.L. 1994. Trade and exchange in Prehistoric in the bottom ten) (Moerman 1996:5). Finding these three British Columbia. Pp. 307–362 in Prehistoric Exchange families on Moerman’s medicinally least-used list was un- Systems in North America. Edited by T.G. Baugh & J.E. expected as our research showed that in the Northern Ericson. Plenum Press, New York, U.S.A. Plains ethnographies Brassicaceae, Fabaceae, and Cy- peraceae families were predominately used for medicinal Clavelle, C.M. 1997. Ethnobotany of Two Cree Communi- purposes. ties in the Southern Boreal Forest of Seskatchewan. Un- published research paper, Department of Anthropology, The discrepancy in the research may be due to sample University of Seskatchewan Saskatoon, Canada. size or geographical considerations. Moerman’s research area included North America and our research area en- Cooper, J. 2008. Bison Hunting and Late Prehistoric Hu- compassed solely Montana and surrounding areas. man Subsistence Economics in the Great Plains. Ph.D. Furthermore, Moerman’s research included 291 tribes, Dissertation, Department of Anthropology, Southern whereas our study was limited to 8 tribes. Methodist University, Dallas, Texas, U.S.A.

The appearance of the 7 plant families—Apiaceae, Bras- Cummings, L.S. & C. Yost. 2011. Pollen analysis of sedi- sicaceae, Fabaceae, Geraniaceae, Lamiaceae, Ranuncu- ment samples and protein residue analysis of a projec- laceae, and Cyperaceae—in the occupation layers at the tile point from the Beaver Creek Rock Shelter, Montana. Beaver Creek Rock Shelter suggests the plants were uti- Pp. 121–138 in Carroll College 2011 Archeological Field lized by the prehistoric inhabitants of the shelter. Our eth- School: Test Excavations at 24LC 1993/2186 Lewis and nographic research of Northern Plains traditional uses of Clark County, Helena National Forest. Edited by Lauri Tra- plants in these families implies the rock shelter occupants vis. Department of Sociology and Anthropology, Carroll often had medicinal remedies readily available. When an College, Helena, Montana, U.S.A. [Submitted to Helena injury or illness strikes, the medicinal plants needed for National Forest, Helena, Montana]. treatment may not be in season, located in the immedi-

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