The Priesthood of Believers: the Forgotten Legacy of the Reformation

HTS Teologiese Studies/Theological Studies ISSN: (Online) 2072-8050, (Print) 0259-9422

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The priesthood of believers: The forgotten legacy of the reformation

Author: This contribution revisits the priesthood of believers. It is placed within the current discourse on 1,2 Wim A. Dreyer relevant ecclesiologies and ecclesial praxis for 21st-century reformed churches. Luther placed Affiliations: much emphasis on the priesthood of believers in his rejection of the Roman Catholic differentiation 1Department of Systematic between ordained clergy and laity. This was taken up by Calvin, but not to the same extent as and Historical Theology, Luther. The limited attention given to the priesthood of believers in reformed ecclesiologies, Faculty of Theology and confessions and church orders is challenged in the current discourse on ecclesiology, especially Religion, University of Pretoria, Pretoria, by theologians working in the field of missional ecclesiology. Much emphasis is placed on the South Africa role of the ‘ordinary’ church member in terms of ministry. It is proposed that a continued reformation of the church would inter alia imply a renewed appreciation of the priesthood of 2Centre for Reformed believers. The shift in ecclesiology must be visible in reformed church polity and church orders. Theology, Hervormde The interrelatedness of ecclesiology, church polity, church order and ecclesial praxis makes this Teologiese Kollege, Pretoria, South Africa unavoidable. A church order should not be regarded as an immutable historical document with everlasting authority, but rather as an instrument that could facilitate change and ecclesial praxis Research Project Registration: in the spirit of ecclesia semper reformanda. As such, church polity could even be regarded as a Project Leader: Wim Dreyer ‘practical ecclesiology’. Recent changes to the Church Order of the Nederduitsch Hervormde Project Number: 77370920 Kerk van Afrika are used as a case study and to illustrate the point. Description: This research is part of the Contribution: The primary contribution of this manuscript contributes to the historical and project, ‘Justice and Human systematic analysis of the concept ‘priesthood of all believers’, as well as its relevance to the Dignity. A Reformed current discourse on missional ecclesiology. It falls within the scope of HTS Theological Studies perspective’, directed by Dr in terms of original theological research. Wim Dreyer, Department of Church History and Church Keywords: reformed church polity; ecclesiology; priesthood of believers; Luther; Calvin; Van Polity, Faculty of Theology, Ruler; Kraemer; Nederduitsch Hervormde Kerk van Afrika. University of Pretoria.

Corresponding author: Wim A. Dreyer, Introduction [email protected] The priesthood of believers was a cornerstone of Luther’s understanding of the church. In Calvin’s Dates: Institutes, it is mentioned several times. However, it has become a forgotten part of reformed Received: 03 Apr. 2020 ecclesiologies (Barth 1990:15) and more or less disappeared from the church orders of most Accepted: 11 Aug. 2020 Published: 19 Oct. 2020 reformed churches. In the current debate on missional ecclesiology, the priesthood of believers re-emerged as a central question (see Roldán 2004; Van Aarde 2017), although not uncontested How to cite this article: (Voss 2013:vii). This contribution argues that the priesthood of believers should receive more and Dreyer, W.A., 2020, ‘The very specific attention in contemporary discourse on reformed ecclesiology, church polity, church priesthood of believers: The forgotten legacy of the orders and ecclesial praxis. Recent changes to the Church Order of the Nederduitsch Hervormde reformation’,HTS Teologiese Kerk van Afrika (NHKA 2016)1 are used as a case study to illustrate the importance of the Studies/Theological Studies priesthood of believers. 76(4), a6021. https://doi. org/10.4102/hts.v76i4.6021 There are several reasons why the priesthood of believers disappeared from reformed Copyright: vocabulary. One important reason for this was the proliferation of churches and sects during © 2020. The Authors. the 16th century. Many of the sects had leaders who claimed to have special gifts, divine Licensee: AOSIS. This work is licensed under the knowledge through the Holy Spirit and no need of formal theological education. They were Creative Commons regarded with suspicion and sometimes ruthlessly persecuted, martyred and ridiculed. Some Attribution License. Anabaptist leaders, like Baltazar Hübmaier, were highly educated theologians who differed substantially from Roman Catholic as well as Lutheran doctrine. Hübmaier was burned at the stake in Vienna in 1528.

Read online: Scan this QR The Anabaptists were convinced that every church member has the same rights and privileges as code with your ordained clergy (Jones 1918:230). The fear of sectarianism and the opposition to Anabaptist views smart phone or mobile device were probably the reason why the magisterial reformers became more restrained towards the to read online. 1.NHKA, Nederduitsch Hervormde Kerk van Afrika, is one of the Dutch Reformed churches in South Africa.

http://www.hts.org.za Open Access Page 2 of 7 Original Research priesthood of believers. This is already evident in the early Spirit, which is more indicative of the general priesthood of writings of Luther (see Barth 1990:48). It led to a dichotomous believers. It is only in later New Testament material, approach, where the priesthood of believers was supported especially the Pastoral Letters, where the charisma seems to in theory but not in practice. be regulated and organised, even ordained by the laying of hands (see 1 Tm 4:4–14; 2 Tm 1:6). In those passages, the The neglect of the priesthood of believers in reformed circles episkopos and presbuteros meet and even form a council. In (in theory it is somewhat different in the Roman Catholic summary, the New Testament presents us with a diverse Church after Vatican II) is quite evident in many major form of ministry, including informal and formal ministry. publications on ecclesiology. Two examples will suffice. In The work had to be carried out, whether by ‘ordained’ or the 539 pages of the magisterial ecclesiology of Van’t Spijker ‘lay’ people (to use contemporary language). Serving Christ (ed. 1990) under the title De kerk – wezen, weg en werk van de was not about an important, formal position but rather a kerk naar reformatorische opvatting, the priesthood of believers practical expression of discipleship. is never discussed. In the comprehensive Routledge Companion to the Christian Church (Mannion & Mudge 2010), the As is clear from the Pastoral Letters, the institutionalisation of priesthood of believers is mentioned on 3 of 684 pages, but the offices began quite early. The process of institutionalisation never in connection with reformed ecclesiology or reformed is evident in the writings of Clement of Rome. Around AD 96, church polity. Clement of Rome sent a letter to church in Corinth, in which he distinguishes very clearly between the laypersons and Over time, I believe, the neglect of priesthood of believers priests. The First Letter of Clement to the Corinthians (see Goold had a detrimental effect on reformed churches. It contributed & Lake 1975) deals with ministry in the early church, the to a strong institutional and structured ecclesiology in which orderly succession or appointment of bishops, deacons and the office of the minister became a dominant factor. More presbyters, as well as the respect with which they must be than often, the ministerial office limited growth instead of regarded. As such, it could be regarded as an early attempt to promoting it. order ecclesial ministry and distinguish between ordained and non-ordained church members (see Moriarty 2012). We Historical overview read, for instance (First Letter of Clement to the Cor, ch. 40): [F]or to the high priest the proper services (λειτουργίαι) have been The priesthood of believers could be regarded as one of the given, and to the priests the proper office has been assigned, and central principles of the 16th-century Reformation. The upon the Levites the proper ministries (διακονίαι) have been doctrine asserts that all believers have equal access to God imposed. The layman (ὁ λαϊκὸς ἄνθρωπος) is bound by the through Christ, the only high priest, and thus do not need layman’s (λαϊκοῖς) rules. Let each of you brothers, give thanks to any other priestly mediator. The implication of this doctrine God with your own group (τάγματι), maintaining a good is that all Christians are equal before God. Ordained clergy conscience, not overstepping the designated rule of his ministry (λειτουργίας), but acting with reverence. differ from non-ordained believers only in terms of function (ministerium) and not in terms of status (officium). During the 3rd century, Cyprian was instrumental in the sacralisation of the ecclesial offices (Voss 2013:148). Cyprian’s It is accepted by most scholars (see Voss 2013:149–152 for an sacralisation of the clergy is a ‘watershed’, a ‘new era’ and overview) that the priesthood of believers was the obvious ‘major turning point’ in the history of the doctrine of the and almost uncontested way early Christianity functioned. priesthood of all Christians (Voss 2013:167). It is typified by In fact, early Christianity functioned primarily as a religious Cyprian’s view that only the bishop is worthy to enter the movement rather than a well-organised structure (see Dreyer holy presence of God and bring sacrifices to God. 2016:68–136; Stark 1996; Van Aarde1995:632–633). That being said, it is also clear that the initial movement towards a The institutionalisation of the Christian churches increased formalised clergy is present in the New Testament. The dramatically after the Edict of Milan (313 CE) and the Council ‘offices’ in the New Testament is so diverse that it is almost of Nicaea (325 CE). This reflects in the writings of Eusebius impossible to put it into an orderly system (see 1 Cor 12–14, and several other early Christian authors and theologians. Rm 12:6–8, Gl 6:6; 1 Th 5:12 en Phlp 1:1). Emperor Constantine became the Pontifex Maximus, the pre- eminent royal priest and ‘bridge-builder’ (pontifex) between The diversity is evident within the same corpus. In the God and man. Together with the sacralisation of the bishop, Pauline literature, one finds reference to apostles, prophets it resulted in ‘defrocking’ ordinary Christians. They were no and teachers (1 Cor 12:28), as well as preaching, diaconate, longer priests responsible for ministry, but dependent on teaching, support, leadership and support (Rm 12:6–8). It is ordained clergy for their spiritual well-being. Tertullian’s also clear that ‘prophecy’ (preaching the gospel) is more view that baptism is the ordination of every Christian to be a important than the other. It is possible that texts like Galatians priest in service of Christ gradually disappeared. By the 5th 6:6, 1 Thessalonians 5:12 and Philippians 1:1 give some century CE, it was gone. indication of the existence of a primitive form of office. On the other hand, there is the opinion that it does not indicate By the time the work of Pseudo-Dionysius (485–528 CE) the existence of ‘offices’ at all, but rather gifts of the Holy appeared, the ‘hierarchical access to God’ was well established

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(Voss 2013:158). According to this view, God interacts with the The priesthood of believers was not so prominent in the world only through ‘three levels’ of clergy (bishop, priest and theology of John Calvin (Niesel 1957:202). In Calvin’s deacon). Only the bishop can stand in the place of Christ to Institutes, the priesthood of believers is mentioned only offer to God what is required by God. The impact of his views in passing, almost as an afterthought when other issues are cannot be underestimated. For instance, Thomas Aquinas cited discussed. In the section (Inst. II/11/15) where Calvin Pseudo-Dionysius more than a 1000 times including his explains the munus triplex, we find a cursory reference to the hierarchical views (Voss 2013:159). priesthood of believers (Inst. II/15/6), stating that although we are unclean, in Christ we are priests who can enter the The one voice speaking against this trend was that of Aurelius heavenly sanctuary without fear, knowing that our prayers Augustine (354–430 CE). He maintained (infant) baptism as are acceptable to God. an ordination into Christ’s royal priesthood. In his exposition of 1 Peter 2:9, he writes ‘we call them all priests insomuch as The priesthood of believers is mentioned by Calvin (e.g. Inst. II/7/1) as an extension of Christ’s priesthood. Calvin also they are members of the One Priest’. The responsibility of all mentions the priesthood of believers when he speaks about those who were baptised is to offer their lives to God. Peter and the keys of the kingdom (Inst. III/4/14 and again Augustine defines the royal priesthood’s ‘true sacrifices’ as in IV/7/4 as well as IV/19/28). It is remarkable that Calvin ‘works of mercy done to ourselves or our neighbour and does not discuss the priesthood of the believers in detail, directed to God’ (see Voss 2013:175). never connects it to any ecclesial office (including the elders and deacons) and places it within the everyday life of the Following Augustine, the priesthood of believers became a Christian (see Pont 1989:453). cornerstone of the ecclesiology of Martin Luther and his rejection of the Roman Catholic exclusivist understanding of Calvin emphasises that Christ is the only priest. That would priesthood (Pont 1989:452). According to Luther, every lead to the logical conclusion that not only is the Roman Christian is someone else’s priest, and we are all priests to Catholic Church in error by maintaining the priestly office, one another. Luther based this view on two pillars, that is, but a ‘general priesthood’ in Reformed churches would also the priesthood of Christ and his understanding of baptism. In be suspect. As a result, in the Reformed tradition, there is a such a way Luther demolished the distinction between clergy very strong emphasis on ordained ministry, as well as an and laity. His ecclesiology was determined by his underestimation of the priesthood of believers. The role of understanding of the church as a community of saints the ‘ordinary’ church member is articulated in terms of governed by the law of the priesthood of all believers. The ‘calling’ and everyday life, whilst the ordained minister, priesthood of believers became the new law of the church’s elder and deacon have clearly defined responsibilities, the life (Althaus & Schultz 1966:313). The church is founded one not allowed to transgress onto the other’s responsibilities. It is, for instance, not allowed to serve simultaneously in the upon the priesthood of Christ, and its structure is the various offices. priesthood of Christians (Aguilan 2015:3). The implications for church polity are self-evident. At the Council of Trent The fear of sectarianism did not prevent the authors of the (1545–1563), Luther’s views were rejected as could be Heidelberg Catechism (1563) to include a question on the expected in the light of the importance attached to the bishop priesthood of believers. Question 32 of the Heidelberg as a mediator between God and man. Catechism seems to be a very considered response to the Anabaptist position. Reading Ursinus’ (2004:333–340) Luther articulated this understanding of the priesthood of lectures on the Heidelberg Catechism,2 we find a profound believers in his ‘Letter to the Christian Nobility’ when he exposition of what it means to be a Christian, a disciple of writes (Luther [1520] 1966): Christ, to be anointed as priest, prophet and king. [I]t is pure invention that pope, bishop, priests, and monks are called the spiritual estate while princes, lords, artisans, and In Question 32 the Heidelberg Catechism asks: farmers are called the temporal estate. This is indeed a piece of ‘Q. Why are you called a Christian? deceit and hypocrisy. Yet no one need to be intimidated by it, and for this reason: all Christians are truly of the spiritual estate, A. Because I am a member of Christ by faith and thus share in and there is no difference among them except that of office. Paul His anointing, so that I may as prophet confess His Name, as says in 1 Corinthians 12 that we are all one body, yet every priest present myself a living sacrifice of thankfulness to Him member has its own work by which it serves the others. This is and as king fight with a free and good conscience against sin and because we all have one baptism, one gospel, one faith, and are the devil in this life, and hereafter reign with Him eternally over all Christians alike … We are all consecrated priests through all creatures’.3 baptism … It follows from this argument that there is no true, basic difference between laymen and priests, princes and In the German and Latin texts of the Heidelberg Catechism the bishops, between religious and secular, except for the sake of terminology as we use it (‘office’ or ‘priesthood’) does not office and work, but not for the sake of status … The priesthood 2.A digital copy of Ursinus Commentary on the Heidelberg Catechism is to be found at of believers means that we stand before God, pray for others, http://www.rcus.org/wp-content/uploads/2013/09/UrsinusZ_HC-Commentary-17- intercede with and sacrifice ourselves to God and proclaim the NEW-HC.pdf. Word to one another. (pp. 127–129) 3.See http://gksa.org.za/pdf/Eng%20documents/heidelberg%20catechism.pdf.

http://www.hts.org.za Open Access Page 4 of 7 Original Research appear (see text in Bakhuizen van den Brink 1940:162–163). sacraments. The role of ‘ordinary’ church members was Rather, the Catechism simply says that Christ and the limited to the spiritual formation of children, maintaining a Christian had been called and anointed (gesalbet/unctus sit) Christian household and attending Sunday service. In closely by the Holy Spirit to be prophet, priest and king. According knit communities, mutual support of fellow Christians was to the Catechism, being anointed means: expected and almost mandatory. • as prophet I am called to witness; • as priest I am called to give myself as a living sacrifice For many, the local minister became the epitome of learning (danckopffer/gratitudinis hostiam) to God; and as a result the only one qualified to proclaim the gospel • as king I am called to conquer in freedom and good of Jesus Christ. conscience all evil. The period after the Second World War was a time marked by This formulation is still of fundamental importance to our a growing sense of ecclesial and spiritual crisis. This revitalised understanding of what it means to be the church of Christ in the interest in ecclesiology (Kärkkäinen 2002:7–9), including the 21st century. The origin of the threefold office of the the role and calling of church members. Furthermore, in the Christian as articulated by the Heidelberg Catechism is to be post-war ecumenical movement, the nature and mission of found in the threefold office (munus triplex) of Christ as the the church became a dominant discourse, including references anointed prophet, priest and king. Traditionally, the to the priesthood of all believers. It is in this post-war period outpouring of the Holy Spirit on Jesus at his baptism is that Van Ruler and Kraemer published books with the titles regarded as the moment of the public announcement and ‘Het vergeten ambt der kerk’ (Kraemer) and ‘Bijzonder en algemeen anointment of Jesus as Christ. ambt’ (Van Ruler).

Similarly, the outpouring of the Holy Spirit on the church Van Ruler (1952:42) was of the opinion that theologians who (Ac 2) is regarded as the anointment of all believers and the speak so easily of the ‘office of the Christian’ ambt( der church collectively to the offices of priest, prophet and king. gelovigen) often do so without giving proper attention to the relevant issues. One concern he raises is the question whether The Synod of Dort (1618–1619), in the compilation of the the term ‘office’ could imply an institutionalised and formal Church Order, deemed it unnecessary to say anything about function, rather than something which flows from the the priesthood of all believers. In fact, 80% of the articles of community in and through the Holy Spirit. As a result, Van the Church Order pertains to the calling and functioning of Ruler often speaks of ‘the priesthood of all believers’, but in a the ministers, elders, deacons, doctors and assemblies. generic manner, including the prophetic and kingly calling. Ordinary members of the church are mentioned only in Van Ruler seems a little ambivalent in terms of ‘the threefold terms of discipline (exercised over them by the clergy and office of the Christian’ or ‘the priesthood of all believers’. Van consistory) and their responsibility to attend worship and Ruler (1952:7) even points out that ‘priesthood of all believers’ sacraments. Church members are regarded as those who and the ‘threefold office of the Christian’ could be regarded must be ‘comforted’ by those called to ecclesial office. as synonyms.

It is also clear that the Synod of Dort had a somewhat elitist Van Ruler follows Bouwman in using the term ‘office’, but if we read Bouwman’s Gereformeerd Kerkrecht, which first understanding of ministry. Only those who are educated and appeared in 1928, we see that Bouwman consistently uses the studied are suited and qualified to be called to ministry. This term ‘calling’ instead of ‘office’ (Bouwman 1970:330). Only at is especially clear in articles 8 and 9 of the Church Order: the end of the discussion, he comes to the conclusion that we 8. No schoolmasters, artisans or others who have not followed might ‘even call this calling an office’, and then continues to the prescribed course of study for the ministry shall be admitted speak of a ‘calling’ as priest, prophet and king. The purpose to the ministry, unless there is assurance of their singular gifts, of this calling is to serve and glorify God. It is also remarkable godliness, humility, modesty, common sense, and discretion, together with gifts of public speaking. When such persons that Van Ruler (p. 39), after an extensive discussion, then present themselves for the ministry, the classis shall (if the synod continues to speak of the ‘priesthood of all believers’. approves) first examine them, and after the classis by the examination finds them acceptable, it shall allow them to exhort Kraemer’s approach is quite different. He delivered a series for a time, and then further deal with them as it judges shall be of lectures at Cambridge University during February 1958 edifying. on ‘A Theology of the Laity’ (Kraemer 1960:7). He placed 9. Novices, priests, monks and those who leave any sect shall not these lectures within the field of congregational studies, in be admitted to the ministry except with great care and caution Dutch ‘gemeenteopbouw’. Kraemer addressed this issue in after they have also first been tested for a certain time. the context of the crises churches experienced after the Second World War. Kraemer (1947:24) articulated this In the following years and centuries, formal theological sense of crisis in his earlier and very influential publication education became an undisputed prerequisite for ordination ‘The Christian message in a non-Christian world’, stating and ministry in reformed churches. Church members were that the church had never been free of crisis and will always excluded from formal ministry, especially ministering of remain ecclesia militans. The church always remains the

http://www.hts.org.za Open Access Page 5 of 7 Original Research pilgrim church, always facing threats from within and Priesthood of believers in the without. Kraemer, following Karl Barth, was convinced that the discrepancy between what the church is and how Church Order of the Nederduitsch it manifests empirically is its greatest challenge. One aspect Hervormde Kerk van Afrika of the modern ecclesial crisis is the disappearance of the We now turn to a more recent example of a church that priesthood of believers; thus, a ‘theology of the laity’ is of intentionally included the priesthood of believers in a church utmost importance (Kraemer 1960:9). Kraemer (p. 10) is order as part of a process of transformation and reformation. convinced that the neglect of church members (or priesthood of all believers) has its origins in a very limited The NHKA is a South African church with roots in the Dutch ecclesiology. Reformed tradition. It could be regarded as a church in transition, as probably all South African churches. The Kraemer refers to the large number of publications that changing sociopolitical context of South Africa, as well as emphasise the responsibility of the congregant/church rapid change within the church (such as a severe decline in member, but at the same time the lack of a proper theological the number of church members), necessitates change in understanding of the issues at hand. He laments the fact that ecclesial praxis and ministry. Since 1990, it became clear that these publications almost exclusively attend to some practical these changes could not be superficial or cosmetic, but should issues, without systematic theological reflection. The one be part and parcel of a fundamental shift in ecclesiology. exception (in that time) was the work that had been carried Substantial and lasting transformation could only be out in Roman Catholic theology by Yves M.J. Congar achieved through systemic change, if the system story (Kraemer 1960:10–11). Congar made an extensive analysis of changes. It became clear that if the church is to reform, a shift the Corpus Iuris Canonici and came to the conclusion that it in ecclesiology is required. was too much about the official hierarchy and too little about church members. Sixty years after Kraemer’s lectures at One of the reasons for this is the fact that church polity and Cambridge University, reformed ecclesiology and church church orders are based on ecclesiology, on our understanding polity are still limited in terms of the priesthood of all of what the church is and should be (Koffeman 2009:16–21). believers. The way we understand the church defines our church polity, which in turn influences the congregational praxis and Kraemer (1960:90–92) is very critical of the terminology ministry. used in a theology of the laity. He was of the opinion that the ‘priesthood of believers’ is not adequate to express the Initially, it was not clear what such a shift in ecclesiology fullness of a ‘theology of the laity’. He points out that would entail. The growing prominence of missional exactly because the priesthood of believers was so neglected ecclesiology within South African reformed churches had in both the Roman Catholic and reformed traditions, and some influence in the NHKA, but it needed further because it is limited in scope and carries so much baggage development and some sense of its practical implications. with it, one should rather opt for a ‘theology of the laity’, The process of transformation started out with the approval which is a broader and more inclusive term. Kraemer’s and implementation of new liturgical formularies, greater criticism of the limited use of the term ‘general priesthood’ liturgical diversity, a new hymnbook, new mission strategies, in reformed theology is mainly based on the fact that the extensive ecumenical collaboration (including theological reformers used it to oppose the Roman Catholic education at the University of Pretoria) and models of understanding of the sacramental ordination and the ministry adapted to smaller congregations. As the process of misuse of power by the Roman clergy. It had the character transformation continued, the rallying cry of ecclesia semper of protest and democratisation – another reason why it reformanda played an important role. It made it possible to received so little attention later on. On the other hand, one understand that tradition could be reformed without losing could argue that Kraemer’s use of the term ‘laity’ is the essential spirit and ethos of that tradition. During the problematic. In the Dutch translation (Kraemer 1960), it is 68th General Assembly (2007), the continuing reformation of much better where he used the term ‘gemeentelid’ as a the church was formulated as a movement away from: translation for ‘laity’. • self-centredness to God-centredness • the congregation to the kingdom of God In Kraemer’s chapter on a ‘theologie van het gemeentelid’ • civil religion to genuine Christian faith (Kraemer 1960:122–157), he places the role of the church • linear thinking to systemic thinking member firmly within a theology of mission missio( Dei). It is • institutional culture to a ministry-based culture not the offices of a minister, elder or deacon, which are • programmes and actions to people and relationships fundamental to the existence and mission of the church, but • members who are consumers to members who are rather the office of the ‘common church member’. On the co-workers in ministry (the priesthood of believers) other hand, Kraemer’s use of the term ‘office’ could also be • a ‘maintenance’ model of church to a missional lifestyle. criticised, for it carries with it a strong sense of ecclesial institutionalism that does not facilitate the missional role of Flowing from this, the General Assembly passed a resolution church members. which asked for a complete revision of the Church Order

http://www.hts.org.za Open Access Page 6 of 7 Original Research with a strong emphasis on the missional calling of the NHKA, branches of the women’s association (Nederduitsch Hervormde as well as the responsibilities and calling of church members. Sustervereniging) in the various congregations to fulfil their This in itself was quite remarkable, because just 10 years calling. earlier (1997) the General Assembly approved a completely new Church Order, after 14 years of preparation (1983–1997). In Ordinance 6, the priesthood of believers is mentioned expressis verbis in relation to Christian formation and In terms of this contribution, it must be noted that the 1997 education. The article states that with the purpose of fulfilling Church Order barely mentions any responsibilities of church their responsibilities in terms of the priesthood of believers, members and accepts attending catechesis and Sunday church members are educated in the following ways: service. The 1997 Church Order was a classic example of a • preparation for baptism and/or Communion reformed church order, with the emphasis on the offices of • preparation for confirmation through catechesis minister, elder and deacon, as well as the assemblies of the • preparation for marriage offices (a presbyterial-synodal system of church governance). • formation of elders and deacons for official duties The 1997 Church Order permeated with reformed • adult catechesis ecclesiology, to be more precise, the three notae ecclesiae as • church publications articulated in the Belgic Confession. In terms of ministry, the • spiritual formation of young people in terms of focus was entirely on the ordained minister’s responsibilities discipleship in terms of preaching and ministering sacraments and the • family guidance in terms of personal devotions, prayer elder’s responsibility in terms of discipline. and Bible study.

The 71st General Assembly of the NHKA (2016) had as point In Ordinance 7, the church as a missional community is of departure Resolution 1, which articulated an ecclesiology addressed. In Ordinance 7.1.1. (p. 77), it is stated that the for the NHKA at the start of the 21st century under the congregation is called to ‘live as a missional community, as a heading ‘Kerkwees in die toekoms’, which could be translated witness to God’s love with the purpose to teach people to live as ‘Being church in the future’. Resolution I (in summary) as disciples of Jesus Christ’. In Ordinance 7, specific attention addressed the nature and mission of the church under the is given to the responsibility of all church members to following points: proclaim the gospel of Jesus Christ in various ways in the • The nature of the church is not determined by the world and everyday life. challenges of our time, but by the nature of God. • The church is an eschatological community, living In comparison with the 1997 Church Order, the 2016 revised between the first and second coming of the Lord Jesus Church Order reflects a fundamental shift in ecclesiology, Christ. which includes the priesthood of believers and the • The church is creatura Verbi, it exists in the Word that responsibility of church members to live as disciples of Jesus became flesh and through the proclamation of the living Christ. This ecclesiology was presented to the church in Word. visual form and with a very simple motto: Being church in the • The church lives organically as the people of God, the footsteps of Christ. Many congregations are currently using household of the Father, the body of Christ and the this as their logo and vision, although a certain uneasiness is temple of the Holy Spirit. still evident. This has much to do with the question of how a • The NHKA is a visible manifestation of the one, holy and missional ecclesiology relates to reformed ecclesiology, universal church. The church lives in community ministry and ecclesial praxis. (koinonia) with God and all people. • The church is called to proclaim the gospel to the world. Concluding remarks The church is missional. In other words, mission is not just one activity amongst many, rather the church is by its Going forward, it seems to me important to clarify very nature missional, corresponding to the nature of terminology if the priesthood of believers is to receive its God (missio Dei). proper attention. One obstacle is the use of the term ‘office of • Diversity in unity is important, both in ministry and the believer’ or when the priesthood of believers is regarded liturgy. as an ‘office’ in the sense of a priest or a minister, even contrary to ordained ministry with the danger of sectarian Against the backdrop of Resolution 1 the revised Church sentiments. Two things could assist us in avoiding some of Order was submitted to the General Assembly and approved the pitfalls surrounding the priesthood of believers: unanimously. The priesthood of believers received specific • In the New Testament, the term ‘office’ is never used or attention in articles 4 (NHKA 2016:66), 6 (pp. 74–75) and 7 intended in connection with the priesthood of all (pp. 77–79) of the revised Church Order. believers. When the New Testament (e.g. 1 Pt 2:5) speaks of the holy priesthood, the whole people of God is implied In Ordinance 4, the priesthood of believers is mentioned who are responsible to serve God through spiritual gifts. explicitly in relation to the female members of the NHKA, The priesthood of believers is a general term and not an who, on the basis of the priesthood of believers, form indication of a specific office.

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• The Heidelberg Catechism teaches us that Jesus was Data availability statement anointed as the Christ, as priest, prophet and king. It is Data sharing is not applicable as no new data were created or remarkable that the Heidelberg Catechism does not use analysed. the term ‘office’ in relation to Christ’s or our own anointment. All Christians, who were grafted into Christ, were anointed by the Holy Spirit to serve God as Disclaimer priests, prophets and kings. If the priesthood of believers The views and opinions expressed in this article are those of is to find wider practical application within reformed the author and do not necessarily reflect the official policy or churches, especially in terms of a missional ecclesiology, position of any affiliated agency. Question 32 of the Heidelberg Catechism could serve as guide. I am of the opinion that Question 32 should be References articulated more precisely in reformed church orders, Aguilan, V., 2015, The priesthood of all believers: Ecclesiological and political including the Church Order of the NHKA. If the implications today, paper uploaded 09 March 2016, viewed 15 June 2018, from https://www.researchgate.net/publication/297707832_The_Priesthood_of_all_ priesthood of believers would be articulated in terms of Believers_Ecclesiological_and_Political_Implications_Today. Question 32, it should reflect the intention of the Althaus, P. & Schultz, R.C., 1966, The theology of Martin Luther, Fortress Press, Philadelphia, PA. Heidelberg Catechism by not allowing it to be Bakhuizen van den Brink, J.N., 1940, De Nederlandsche Belijdenisgeschriften, institutionalised but by maintaining the aspect of Uitgeversmaatschappij Holland, Amsterdam. anointment and calling. The priesthood of believers Barth, H-M., 1990, Einander Priester sein: Allgemeines Priestertum in ökumenischer perspektive, Vandenhoeck & Ruprecht, Göttingen. should be understood as including the prophetic and Dreyer, W.A., 2016, ‘Praktiese ekklesiologie – Kerkwees in die 21ste eeu’, HTS kingly calling of all believers. Teologiese Studies/Theological Studies 72(5 suppl. 10), a4375. https://doi. org/10.4102/hts.v72i5.4375 Goold, G.P. & Lake, K., 1975, The apostolic fathers vol. I & 2, G.P. Goold (ed.), transl. K. With all this in mind, I am of the opinion that we should not Lake, Harvard University Press, Cambridge, MA. think of the priesthood of believers in terms of an office Jones, R.M., 1918, ‘The Anabaptists and minor sects in the reformation’, Harvard (officium) but rather as service (ministerium). This service is Theological Review XI(3), 223–246. https://doi.org/10.1017/S0017816000011731 performed in obedience to God and unity with Christ, by Kärkkäinen, V.-M., 2002, An introduction to ecclesiology, IVP Academic, Downers Grove, IL. Koffeman, L.J., 2009, Het goed recht van de kerk: Een theologische inleiding op het those who were baptised into his death and resurrection (Rm kerkrecht, Kok, Kampen. 6), were anointed by and with the Holy Spirit, and as a result Kraemer, H., 1947, The Christian message in a non-Christian world, Edinburgh House share in his priestly, kingly and prophetic ministry. Press, London. Kraemer, H., 1960, Het vergeten ambt in de kerk, Boekencentrum N.V.,’s-Gravenhage, Gravenhage. Hans-Martin Barth (1990:103) states categorically: ‘The Luther, M., [1520] 1966, ‘To the Christian nobility of the German nation’, inJ. Protestant Church is the church of the universal priesthood – Atkinson (ed.) and transl. C.M. Jacobs, Luther’s works: The Christian in society ,I pp. 126–134, Fortress Press, Philadelphia, PA. or it is nothing’ (own translation). Going forward, the role of Mannion, G. & Mudge, L.S. (reds.), 2010, The Routledge companion to the Christian ordained ministry will in all probability become limited, and Church, Routledge, New York, NY. the priesthood of believers will become increasingly Moriarty, W., 2012, ‘1 Clement’s view of ministerial appointments in the early Church’, Vigiliae Christianae 66(2), 115–138. https://doi.org/10.1163/157007211X586142 important. How and on what grounds the priesthood of NHKA, 2016, Kerkorde van die Nederduitsch Hervormde Kerk van Afrika, Kerkargief, believers will be included in church orders and ecclesial Pretoria. praxis is one of the challenges facing church polity, or for that Niesel, W., 1957, Die Theologie Calvins, EVZ-Verlag, Zurich. 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