A Cultural Framework for Canadian Heritage Rivers

A CULTURAL FRAMEWORK FOR CANADIAN HERITAGE RIVERS

2nd Edition

January 2000 CULTURAL FRAMEWORK

Published under the authority of the Minister of the Department of Canadian Heritage on behalf of the provincial and territorial Ministers responsible for parks and culture, Ottawa, Canada.

First published in 1997.

A limited number of copies of this document are available free of charge by contacting the Secretariat, Canadian Heritage Rivers Board, c/o Parks Canada Agency, Ottawa, Canada K1A 0M5.

ii TABLE OF CONTENTS

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS ...... v

FOREWORD ...... vii

SUMMARY...... ix

1.0 INTRODUCTION ...... 1 1.1 Background ...... 1 1.2 Purpose and Objectives of the Framework ...... 1 1.3 Parameters of the Framework ...... 2 1.4 Optional Approaches ...... 3 1.5 Overview of Framework Design Process ...... 4

2.0 FRAMEWORK THEMES AND NARRATIVES ...... 7 2.1 Theme Narratives ...... 7 Theme 1: Resource Harvesting ...... 9 Sub-theme 1.1 Fishing ...... 9 Sub-theme 1.2 Shoreline Resource Harvesting ...... 10 Sub-theme 1.3 Extraction of Water ...... 11 Theme 2: Water Transport ...... 14 Sub-theme 2.1 Commercial Transportation ...... 14 Sub-theme 2.2 Transportation Services ...... 15 Sub-theme 2.3 Exploration and Surveying ...... 16 Theme 3: Riparian Settlement ...... 19 Sub-theme 3.1 Siting of Dwellings ...... 19 Sub-theme 3.2 River-based Communities ...... 21 Sub-theme 3.3 River-influenced Transportation ...... 21 Theme 4: Culture and Recreation ...... 24 Sub-theme 4.1 Spiritual Associations ...... 24 Sub-theme 4.2 Cultural Expression ...... 25 Sub-theme 4.3 Early Recreation ...... 26 Theme 5: Jurisdictional Uses ...... 29 Sub-theme 5.1 Conflict and Military Associations ...... 29 Sub-theme 5.2 Boundaries ...... 30 Sub-theme 5.3 Environmental Regulation ...... 31

iii 3.0 CONSIDERATIONS IN DESIGNING THE FRAMEWORK ...... 35 3.1 Adaptation of Framework Themes to CHRS Selection Guidelines . . . . . 35 3.1.1 Interpretation of “Native Peoples” ...... 36 3.1.2 Interpretation of “Settlement Patterns” ...... 37 3.1.3 Interpretation of “Transportation” ...... 38 3.1.4 Interpretation of “Major Themes” ...... 38 3.2 Examination of Related Documents ...... 39 3.3.1 Other Cultural Frameworks ...... 39 3.3.2 Provincial and Territorial Systems Studies and Nomination Documents ...... 40 3.4 Compatibility with Other Heritage Policies ...... 42

4.0 IMPLEMENTING THE FRAMEWORK ...... 43 4.1 Potential Framework Users ...... 43 4.2 Limitations in Applying the Framework ...... 43 4.3 Interpreting Key Terms ...... 44 4.3.1 “Human Heritage Values” ...... 44 4.3.2 “River Environment” ...... 45 4.3.3 “Historic Period of Outstanding Importance” ...... 46 4.4 Types of River-related Human Activities ...... 46 4.5.1 Human Uses of Rivers ...... 46 4.5.2 Influences of Rivers on Human Activities ...... 47 4.5 Types of Potential Theme Representations ...... 48 4.6 Determining River-relatedness ...... 49 4.6.1 Physical River-relatedness ...... 49 4.6.2 Functional River-relatedness ...... 50 4.7 Conclusion ...... 51

5.0 BIBLIOGRAPHY ...... 53

APPENDIX A: Notes on Consultations During the Development of the Framework...... 61

APPENDIX B: Notes on Applying the Framework to Nominations ...... 62

iv ACKNOWLEDGMENTS

The original version of this document, published in 1997, was essentially the work of Dr. Philip Goldring of the Historical Service Branch of the National Historic Sites Directorate, Parks Canada. This version retains much of Dr. Goldring’s work and to him goes credit for the collection and synthesis of technical and policy documents, the analysis of policies, guidelines, parameters and data, the crafting of the framework's original seven themes, the orchestration of peer and other reviews, including that of the Canadian Heritage Rivers Board, and the editing the original version of this framework in 1996.

A number of other Parks Canada staff members assisted Dr. Goldring, notably Nick Coomber of the National Parks Directorate, who initiated the project, co-ordinated liaison with the Canadian Heritage Rivers Board, and provided editorial and technical assistance. Acting as a consultant, Mr. Coomber is responsible for drafting this revised version of the framework in consultation with Dr. Goldring. The contribution made by staff members of provincial and territorial governments participating in the Canadian Heritage Rivers System was also valuable to formulation of the revised framework, particularly their perspective and insights gained from application of the framework to nominations, plans and studies of Canadian heritage rivers in their own jurisdictions.

v vi FOREWORD

This document, Version 2 of the CHRS than first thought. Where possible, they Cultural Framework, is the result of a were redefined and subdivided. The decision of the Canadian Heritage Rivers present framework, however, still stops Board in 1997 to test the original version short of the important but complex over a period of three years and to revise it process of weighting themes and on the basis of experience gained over the assessing resources that represent three years. There have been twelve themes. nominations to the CHRS since the original framework was published, and several of 3. While the 1997 framework was these have applied its thematic structure to comprehensive, it allowed for inclusion descriptions of cultural heritage values. of some activities which were of little Two assessments of existing theme heritage value because of their modernity representation have been undertaken since or environmental harm, or because they 1996, the first by GeoHeritage Planning in were basic human activities which were 1997 and the latest by Nick Coomber ubiquitous. Thus, for example, any Heritage Planning in 1998. Discussion with representation of hydro-electric power planning staff of CHRS jurisdictions, an generation, which is now an element of analysis of the twelve nomination the Resource Harvesting theme, must documents, and experience from have some type of redeeming historical undertaking the two framework-based significance. The ubiquitous activity of assessments were the foundations for human consumption is now only of redrafting of the framework. interest where it occurs on a large scale and has some historical value. 1. Acceptable element representations were narrowed to include only those that can 4. It was found in the last framework be subject to traditional protected area assessment that there were no planning and management. This representations on any rivers in the therefore excludes resources and features CHRS of 29 of the 88 elements of the which are not tangible and in situ within original framework. While it was the immediate environment of the river. possible that this had occurred only by Thus, values such as documents and off- chance and the situation would be site artifacts are now no longer “corrected” in time, or that there were acceptable representations of the actually representations but they were not framework. being reported, it was considered more likely in most cases that the 29 elements 2. It was found that there were numerous were difficult to represent, either because representations of certain elements of the of an obscure definition or extreme 1997 framework. These elements were rarity. In either case, it was judged in therefore judged to be more significant most cases that these elements should be components of Canada’s river heritage combined with others or dropped.

vii In this version of the framework, the 7 themes of the original framework are reduced to 5, the 22 sub-themes are reduced to 15, and the 88 elements are reduced to 60. Of the 28 elements which were eliminated, 12 were dropped entirely and 16 reorganized under other sub-themes and elements. 9 completely new elements were added. Since 76 of the original 88 elements are retained somewhere in the present framework, it may fairly be stated that 86% of the original framework is retained in Version 2.

Nick Coomber December 9, 1999

viii SUMMARY

This Version 2 of the Cultural Framework The framework is built around the concepts for Canadian Heritage Rivers is a second of human use of rivers and the influence of attempt to classify the historic connections rivers on human activities. It distinguishes between rivers and human activity in these from other human activity that is not Canada. The five themes, fifteen sub- river-related. themes and sixty elements are closely based on those contained in the first version of the The framework offers a common framework published in 1997. The intent is vocabulary and approach to the cultural to represent each element of the framework dimension of Canada's river heritage, and by “cultural resources” located on Canadian may be used to classify the aspects of that Heritage Rivers. heritage that are effectively commemorated by rivers that are already in the system, or The themes, sub-themes and elements may be nominated to it in future. The reflect categorizations and other framework also offers definitions and terminology of the Canadian Heritage distinctions that river managers can use to Rivers System Objectives, Principles and prepare inventories, evaluate resources, and Procedures (1984) and in the Guidelines develop appropriate management tools for (1991) but are essentially an independent the sites and in situ artifacts that represent a creation intended to classify all manageable river's importance to the lives of people river heritage in Canada. over time. Applying the framework to individual rivers will help to illuminate the THEMES AND SUB-THEMES river's role in Canadian history, clarify the role of the river in the CHRS, and assist in 1.Resource Harvesting setting management priorities. Fishing Shoreline Resource Harvesting Extraction of Water Representations of a river's human heritage 2. Water Transport are “cultural resources”. Some are large Commercial Transportation and substantial, like weirs and buildings; Transportation Services others are as insubstantial as native Exploration and Surveying 3. Riparian Settlement pictographs. All are in their original Siting of Dwellings locations or in situ. Each Canadian River-based Communities Heritage River is itself a cultural resource, River-influenced Transportation since designation recognizes its cultural 4. Culture and Recreation Spiritual Associations meaning and value to all Canadians, Cultural Expression particularly to people who have used it. Early Recreation 5. Jurisdictional Use A summary of the framework is essentially Conflict and Military Associations Boundaries the contents of Chapter 2. Other chapters Environmental regulation contain discussions of its background, formulation and implementation.

ix viii ix 1.0 INTRODUCTION

1.1 Background These plans are being used to help the governments in question to identify potential The Canadian Heritage Rivers System heritage rivers and set priorities for their (CHRS) is a co-operative federal- possible nomination to CHRS. provincial/territorial program. Rivers included in the System are those that are Since every jurisdiction nominates rivers formally recognized by the Canadian according to its own priorities, without Heritage Rivers Board, and Ministers of intergovernmental co-ordination, the managing governments, as possessing resulting system is unlikely ever to be outstanding heritage value. The System has completely representative of Canada's river grown rapidly during its first 15 years and, at heritage. If a representative system did the time that this document was prepared, emerge from this multi-jurisdictional comprised nominations of 34 rivers or approach there would in fact be no way of sections of rivers located in every province knowing it had happened and when to stop and territory. adding components. Parks Canada, as the lead federal agency in the CHRS, is One of the principles of the CHRS is that committed to encouraging member each government has the right to identify governments to adopt a national perspective rivers with heritage value, to nominate them on the development of the System. This is for inclusion in CHRS, and to manage them set out in Parks Canada's Guiding Principles once they have been included. The federal and Operational Policies (1994:65-66). In government is only one member of the partial fulfillment of this commitment, the Board that oversees the development of the 1997 cultural heritage framework was program. Its jurisdiction is limited to federal presented for voluntary implementation by crown lands — chiefly Parks Canada lands members of the Canadian Heritage Rivers and the territorial North, where federal Board, which adopted it as a guideline in jurisdiction is normally shared with the 1997. territorial governments. Rivers located elsewhere may only be nominated by 1.2 Purpose and Objectives of the provincial governments. Framework

Unlike the selection process for national This cultural heritage framework will give parks, the selection of heritage rivers is not managers responsible for rivers a systematic under the direction of a single national basis for identifying and assessing rivers for agency that can identify rivers that are either possible nomination to the CHRS. By representative of Canada or outstanding describing the possible cultural values from a national perspective. Both territories illustrating the human activities that affect and most provinces have prepared systems and have been affected by rivers, this plans for rivers within their jurisdictions. framework can help foster the protection of

______A Cultural Framework for Canadian Heritage Rivers - 1 - Introduction a balanced cross-section of cultural river- A number of preconditions, or parameters, related values in Canada. were required of this framework by the mandate and principles of the CHRS and, The purpose of the framework is to help particularly this latest version, by practical conserve a balanced representation of considerations: Canada’s cultural river heritage for its future management and interpretation from i) Only Canadian cultural resources and a national perspective. The objectives of the values are addressed; since the rivers to framework are: be commemorated through the CHRS program must have at least one bank in 1. To encourage the adoption of a Canada, the themes must be based on standardized approach among CHRS human activities that actually occurred governments to the identification, in Canada. documentation and evaluation of rivers’ cultural values; ii) The framework addresses the relationship of cultural resources to 2. To provide governments participating rivers in Canada, not to Canadian in the CHRS with a method of history as a whole. assessing how rivers in their jurisdictions can contribute to the iii) To maintain the CHRS principle that cultural heritage represented by the all parts of Canada have a river CHRS; and heritage that is worthy of recognition, the framework was required to 3. To provide a tool which the Board can acknowledge regional variations in use to measure the amount Canada’s human activities across Canada. This cultural river heritage that is enabled the framework to allow for the represented in the CHRS. manner in which the significance of an activity can vary in time and space - an By enabling classification of those values activity that may be archaic and that are already represented in the System, unrepresentative in one place might be the framework will allow managers to more significant at the same time in identify gaps and duplications. It will also another part of the country. allow recognition of those values that are special within the System or, in other iv) The framework is not a plan that words, those which are rare or unique from identifies specific rivers that should be a national perspective, and which are included in the System. This therefore of relatively greater importance in prescriptive approach would conflict setting nomination and management with priorities, often developed priorities. through provincial and territorial systems plans, of member 1.3 Parameters of the Framework governments. These governments may choose voluntarily to adopt this

______A Cultural Framework for Canadian Heritage Rivers - 2 - Introduction framework, either individually or as a cultural resources which: Board. C are found in situ within a river’s immediate environment; C have historical significance and v) The framework could be applied either merit; separately or together with a parallel C are evidence of human activities natural heritage framework. During related to a river. preliminary consultations on framework approaches, participants 1.4 Optional Approaches often expressed the view that Canadian heritage rivers should be managed Several optional approaches to a cultural holistically and that separating natural framework were identified before work and cultural values was a retrograde began. A list of these options is presented step. It was, however, decided to here, with a brief explanation of the choices develop separate frameworks for that were made. several reasons: i) Complete the provincial/territorial C A common framework would systems plans — the status quo. conflict with the principle of the Completed provincial and territorial CHRS that rivers may be included systems plans vary in their approaches, for either or both their natural but in general, their cultural heritage values and their cultural components are less developed than heritage values. their natural components. This does not C Systems planning processes for meet Parks Canada's commitment to national parks and national historic develop a balanced approach to river- sites are separate and distinct, an related history across Canada. Even if a important national precedent; balanced system occurred by chance, C Some important rivers contain provincial and territorial systems plans outstanding natural or cultural could not indicate if this were the case. values but not both, and some would transgress either natural or cultural ii) Extract river-related themes from integrity guidelines; existing historical thematic C There would be few benefits for frameworks. Using the National cultural resource management Historic Parks Systems Plan, this might through separate frameworks since have worked if all river-related management of Canadian Heritage human activities could be neatly Rivers is normally holistic in divided from activities that did not encompassing both types of heritage involve rivers. This is not feasible. values as well as recreational values. Adopting this approach could also magnify or distort some of the vi) Framework elements must be defined idiosyncrasies of existing frameworks. so that they can be represented by Various historic parks and sites

______A Cultural Framework for Canadian Heritage Rivers - 3 - Introduction frameworks were, in fact, examined for for regional and topical differences. this project, but were not helpful in organizing the themes. v) Establish a national advisory body to CHR Board. This approach would be iii) Develop a regional classification of expensive and would not necessarily river-related activities. Such remove the need for frameworks. A influences as climate, natural resources, comparable Board, the Historic Sites and the physical character of rivers do and Monuments Board of Canada, affect the variety of human use of rivers strongly advocated the preparation of in different parts of Canada. But it national thematic studies to help in its proved impossible to establish regional own deliberations. A national advisory boundaries that would reflect both the body for the CHRS's Board might have diversity of river-related human great value in deciding on the activities and the ways in which these application of a framework, but would activities change from one area to not necessarily remove the need to another. Moreover, some cultural prepare one. resources are significant simply because they are not typical of the region where vi) Use a combination of some or all of they are found, e.g. evidence of the above. Not all of these options are cultivation by pre-contact Aboriginal mutually exclusive. Some actually lend people on the Red River in Manitoba. themselves to being combined. Decisions of this sort are best made on a case-by-case basis and no general The sixth option was chosen. Elements of criteria could be established. options one to four are in fact present in the cultural framework described here. Other iv) Rely on chronological classifications Boards' or agencies' historical frameworks, of river-related activities. This as well as provincial and territorial CHRS approach would assume that there was systems studies, demonstrated the value of a such a thing as, say, a “typical” 18th- thematic approach to understanding river- century river. Such an approach might related cultural heritage. In particular, A work in a small country, one in which Topical Organization of Ontario History settlement goes back a long time and in (n.d. 1975?) proved useful in providing not which the main phases of economic only thematic concepts but also a format for development had been relatively this framework to follow, introducing each uniform across space and time. Such a major theme by a narrative section that country has little in common with emphasizes its context, both from region to Canada. Rivers were used in Acadia region and over time. and New France in the 17th century in ways that did not reach the Prairie 1.5 Overview of Framework provinces until the mid-19th. Design Process Chronological classifications would have to be severely qualified by a This framework was developed within the wealth of additional context to account

______A Cultural Framework for Canadian Heritage Rivers - 4 - Introduction general context of the Canadian Heritage of sub-themes and elements based on Rivers System, Objectives, Principles and empirical evidence gained from the Procedures (1984) the primary guiding testing in both the original and present policy of the program to which all versions of this framework; and participating governments agree to adhere. C a three year practical application period Also of importance are the more detailed to thoroughly test the practicality of the operational policies contained in the framework. Canadian Heritage Rivers System Guidelines which were adopted at various Because research and consultation are times by the CHRS Board and published ongoing processes, the framework and the together in September, 1991. In 1997, an approach that underpins it cannot be eighth guideline, Guidelines for the regarded as static. New historical studies are Implementation of National Frameworks, being produced all the time, and relevant was added by the CHR Board. The analysis older ones may yet come to light. River of these policies, and in particular the environments and the people who value selection guidelines (see section 3.1 below), them are also not static; what are described was followed by: today as “contemporary assets” may be the cultural resources of later generations. It C comparison with previous historical also seems likely that the personal and frameworks designed for provincial and professional perspectives of those who apply territorial historic resource management this framework to future nomination systems, for Parks Canada, and for the documents and management plans may also United States National Parks Service; lead to further refinements. C analysis of provincial and territorial CHRS systems studies and CHRS nomination documents; C research in scholarly sources in the fields of Canadian history and historical geography, and studies of water use, river history, and cultural landscapes; C consultation with specialists in cultural resource management disciplines; C development of a draft framework comprising a comprehensive list of river-related activities, combined and split into various themes, sub-themes and elements; C review of drafts by the CHR Board members; peer review; C testing of themes, sub-themes and elements against information contained in nomination documents; C modification, splitting and combining

______A Cultural Framework for Canadian Heritage Rivers - 5 - Introduction ______A Cultural Framework for Canadian Heritage Rivers - 6 - Introduction 2.0 FRAMEWORK THEMES AND NARRATIVES

The taxonomy developed for this framework Canadian history and variations in is a classification of the ways in which geography. For example, irrigation, which people use rivers and their resources, and the might be a theme or sub-theme in many ways in which rivers affect human activities. countries, is only part of an element in The framework consists of a hierarchical set Canada, while evidence of fishing, which of themes divided into sub-themes, which elsewhere might be an element within the are then divided into elements. Like themes, riparian settlement theme, is of such sub-themes are based on types of, and importance in this country that it comprises influences on, river-related human activities, most of a sub-theme on its own. However, so the most concrete level of description is whether or not the framework components provided by the framework’s sixty different are of equal weight should not detract from elements. These elements can be the overriding concept that the themes, sub- represented by cultural resources, which are themes and elements are primarily a means defined here as in situ evidence of valued of providing a logical taxonomy for the tangible evidences of past human activity or range of uses and activities associated with belief. Canadian rivers.

Every effort has been made to devise a comprehensive set of themes, sub-themes THEME NARRATIVES and elements, and to keep overlaps and arbitrary divisions to a minimum. It is While the themes, sub-themes and elements acknowledged that with the passage of time of this framework are essentially generic, the and changing views about the past, different following narratives are intended to provide river-related human activities will be essential information about what resources identified as significant, particularly those of and values might be considered to represent recent origin, and new items will be added to them at the element level. The narratives the list of elements. should give some direction on how to draw the difficult distinctions between activities The five themes which comprise this that are river-related, and similar activities framework are: that are not. They are designed to help river 1. Resource Harvesting managers recognize where specific sites or 2. Water Transport artifacts fit in the framework as an aid to 3. Riparian Settlement organizing research studies and nomination 4. Culture and Recreation documents. Some of the following theme 5. Jurisdictional Use descriptions offer examples of regional and The themes and their sub-themes are chronological variations to help managers designed to be of approximately equal associate sub-theme elements with the weight, based on the peculiarities of cultural heritage of the rivers they manage,

______A Cultural Framework for Canadian Heritage Rivers - 7 - Theme Narratives and to judge whether or not associated cultural resources should be included in assessments of a river’s potential for inclusion in the CHRS. The narratives may also help to classify new elements as they are identified in the future.

To help those who undertake this research make these distinctions, abstract themes used elsewhere such as “resource utilization,” “industrialization and urbanization,” “regionalisation” (Gentilcore. 1978:3) have been avoided as much as possible partly because these aggregate a number of different human activities, some of which are river-related and some of which are not. The human activities on which the framework is based may not be intrinsically river-related, but it is intended that there be minimal difficulty in identifying whether or not possible representations of these activities are functionally or physically connected to rivers. Each theme narrative is followed by a list of exceptions that should eliminate most ambiguities in the assignment of cultural resources to specific sub-theme elements.

The Selected References at the end of each theme description include titles of some national overview studies, as well as local works that are particularly good examples of how historians can sketch the relationship of rivers to human activity. A fuller bibliography, including many excellent works not mentioned in this chapter, can be found at the end of this document.

______A Cultural Framework for Canadian Heritage Rivers - 8 - Theme Narratives THEME 1: RESOURCE THEME 1. RESOURCE HARVESTING HARVESTING 1.1 Sub-theme 1: Fishing The concept of “harvesting” river resources Elements: offers a way to summarize many ancient 1.1.1 Aboriginal prehistoric fishing. activities that are central to subsistence and 1.1.2 Historic domestic fishing and processing. commercial uses of water in many countries. 1.1.3 Commercial fishing. In the past, a considerable amount of the 1.1.4 Collection of shellfish. nation's food has come from flowing water and from wetlands. The harvesting of fish 1.2 Sub-theme 2: Shoreline Resource has been and continues to be the single most Harvesting important such activity in Canada, but a Elements: number of aquatic or amphibious animals, as 1.2.1 Trapping of fur bearing animals. well as birds and plants, have helped make 1.2.2 Collection of aquatic plants. rivers a source of commodities of various 1.2.3 Hunting of birds and land animals. 1.2.4 Mines and quarries in bed or kinds including foodstuffs and materials for banks of river. domestic use. In this theme, river water itself is also considered to be a resource that 1.3 Sub-theme 3: Extraction of Water is harvested, both as a consumable liquid Elements: and as a source of gravitational inertia that 1.3.1 Direct drive power generation. can be converted into usable power. 1.3.2 Human consumption. 1.3.3 Agricultural extraction. Sub-theme 1.1: Fishing 1.3.4 Industrial extraction. The extraction from the river of in-stream riches is a longstanding tradition of whom (Aboriginals or Europeans), and why Aboriginal and early European peoples. (domestic or commercial purposes). The activity of fishing has involved Because of the large number of possible numerous species and types of fish, many of combinations of these characteristics, the which exhibit regional and temporal patterns four elements of this sub-theme have been that are beyond the scope of this framework, assessed as combining the most significant although nevertheless valid representations sets of characteristics which are most likely of the elements of this sub-theme. Fish have to have significant in situ representative been harvested by both Aboriginal peoples evidence. and Europeans through a great variety of mechanisms (hooks, traps, weirs, nets, Aboriginal prehistoric fishing (1.1.1) and spears, etc.) for both domestic and historic domestic fishing (1.1.2), while commercial consumption. distinguished by different time periods, may be represented by similar types of cultural The elements of this sub-theme therefore resources. Besides vestiges of mechanisms focus on what types of fish were harvested for catching fish that may still be in situ, (fin or shellfish) when fish have been common representations of these elements harvested (prehistoric or historic times), by include sites where fishing habitually

______A Cultural Framework for Canadian Heritage Rivers - 9 - Theme Narratives occurred, and where in situ artifacts may be muskrat and other river-dwelling mammals, excavated, processing facilities such as and these activities, mainly carried out by smoke houses and fish processing plants, Aboriginal people away from the trading and, in the case of ice fishing, huts and other posts, may be represented by trap-lines and artifacts which have historical significance. related artifacts and sites associated with fur Commercial fishing (1.1.3) is a relatively processing. recent activity and sometimes not easily distinguished by artifacts from non- Some shoreline resources are almost commercial fishing. Where in situ resources delivered up for human use by rivers, and are not fully revealing, independent need only be gathered. These would include documentary evidence may have to be the subject of the second theme element, consulted. collection of aquatic plants (1.2.2), which, like fishing, has ancient origins and The fourth sub-theme element is specific to contemporary examples. Notable plants a type of fish, rather than the nature of the include wild rice for food, reeds and willows fishermen, their historical period or purpose. for housing, and various plants for medicinal The collection of shellfish (1.1.4) is an purposes. Relevant plants need not be activity pursued since time immemorial and growing in the river water, provided that still exists on many rivers, particularly they are clearly dependent on the river and estuarine rivers such as the Hillsborough. would not survive in another environment. Shell middens are clear evidence of prolonged Aboriginal habitation of shoreline The third theme element reflects shore-based sites and, with more contemporary in situ hunting of birds and land animals (1.2.3). artifacts and tools, serve as excellent This activity is distinct from trapping in that representations of this element. different techniques are used to capture the animals and the purpose was food, not pelts. Sub-theme 1.2: Harvesting Shoreline While the hunted animals may not be Resources aquatic, the hunting of them frequently Other biotic resources provided by rivers occurred in relation to rivers and shorelines. include mammals and birds which inhabit A staple for Aboriginals, and the means of shorelines and aquatic environments and are survival of many explorers and fur traders, procured for different reasons in a variety of ducks, geese and other birds found near ways by Aboriginal peoples and by rivers, along with their eggs, were an Europeans. The sub-theme shoreline important food source, although few resource harvesting includes a number of artifacts remain. activities related to well-known aspects of Canadian history. Cultural resource representations associated with shoreline hunting are often not obvious: The first theme element reflects Canada’s many sites are evident mainly because they most important early “staple trade,” the fur are located at distinctive natural features, trade. The historic Canadian fur trade relied such as wetland habitats where waterfowl heavily on trapping of fur bearing animals were hunted, bluffs and cliffs where buffalo (1.2.1) to harvest the skins of beaver, and other large mammals were forced to

______A Cultural Framework for Canadian Heritage Rivers - 10 - Theme Narratives jump to their deaths, narrowing gullies and Both the technology used to generate man-made pits used for deer hunting, or the hydraulic power and its influence on ancient barren-land caribou trails that Canadian life, particularly on economic life, converge on crossing places on rivers such have changed dramatically in the past 150 as the Kazan and Thelon rivers. years. At one time direct drive mills sprang Occasionally, there may be some physical opportunistically near farms and woodlots, evidence of hunting, such as bones, doing work that might otherwise have been arrowheads and spearheads, or even the done by wind, man, or animal power. Later, hiding places of hunters such as duck blinds. hamlets, villages, and towns grew up at developed mill sites where transport routes and raw materials came together with labour In this Version 2 of the framework, this sub- and capital (see also Sub-theme element theme is expanded to include a fourth 3.2.3). element, the harvesting of the river's abiotic resources from riverside mines and Direct-drive water power, exploited at the quarries (1.2.4). These resources are edge of a river, usually makes a visible chiefly mineral resources exposed in impact on the stream, the banks, and marketable concentrations either by the surrounding areas. Water mills were erosive action of flowing water, or by frequently built at the mouths of tributaries making deposits accessible by rivers for the joining a larger river; others were built at transport of miners and minerals. Gold is the falls along the course of rivers and streams most famous of these, gravel and sand the of various sizes. These are traditionally most abundant. Others could include almost classified by the commodity they any underground resource located adjacent processed— wood, wool or paper. to a river and extracted by Aboriginals, such Hydraulic power was also exploited along as soapstone and ochre, or by Europeans, improved navigable waterways such as the such as coal and ores mined through valley- Welland and Lachine canals. Mill-ponds, side horizontal shafts, and building stone. flumes, dams, water-wheels and turbines, and mill buildings are the principal Sub-theme 1.3: Extraction of Water structures or features of these sites. Also grouped under this theme is the use of water itself as a resource. Representations Representations of the sub-themes may of this sub-theme reflect many of the reflect both the purpose and scale of the European uses of rivers in the more densely mills and hence their impacts on both river populated parts of Canada and refers to environments and related human activities, removal of the water itself from the as organizing criteria. The scale of watercourse for direct drive power development depends on a number of factors generation, urban, agricultural and industrial including the size and regime of the river. uses. Small-scale developments may be significant in themselves, or interesting as Temporary extraction for direct drive regional variants of the theme. power generation (1.3.1) for mills was perhaps the first instance of water diversion. Humans have always taken water from

______A Cultural Framework for Canadian Heritage Rivers - 11 - Theme Narratives rivers for domestic consumption and the Of all modern industrial uses, hydroelectric ubiquity of this activity reduces its heritage power generation is perhaps the most value. Large scale extraction of water for significant. The power takes two main human consumption (1.3.2) is a recent forms: direct current and alternating current. phenomenon which has cultural value only if Of these, alternating current is far more the structure, such as a purification or important. Direct current suffers from the filtration plant or water tower, is original same disadvantage as direct-drive water and old, or pioneering in some way. Some power; it cannot be transmitted a long water was also taken from rivers in historic distance from the place where it is times in the form of ice for domestic generated. In the 1890s the development of purposes. However, representations of this AC current, which can be transmitted long activity may only be significant where they distances, allowed industry and settlement to occurred on a commercial scale. flourish away from the sources of hydraulic Representations of the activity of extracting power. This technology brought dramatic water to process sewage, while an important changes to rivers far from the centres of contemporary use of rivers, should not only concentrated settlement and intensive be of historical value but also should not industry. The Toronto market, for example, result in the discharge of contaminated water draws its hydro power from as far away as into a river. Pioneering attempts to improve the Niagara River to the south and the upper water quality are also acknowledged under Ottawa River to the northeast. To ensure a Theme 5 Jurisdictional Use. focus on the heritage value of this human activity, representations of hydroelectric Agricultural extraction (1.3.3) of water power generation should be locally normally involves stock watering and consumed and have redeeming innovative irrigation, both fairly recent phenomena and connotations in a Canadian context which may entail its mixture with fertilizer residues and animal wastes, before returning EXCEPTIONS: the water to the stream. Representations C Fishing that occurred for pleasure rather should have some historical value by virtue than for food is considered a part of the of age or originality. Culture and Recreation theme (Theme 4). Industrial extraction (1.3.4), such as for C Many of the more capital-intensive (and pulp and paper manufacturing, brewing, or labour-intensive) aspects of the fur hydro-electric power generation may not trade used rivers in ways that are only consume water in its original form but covered under other framework themes: also use it to flush away wastes into holding Water Transport (Theme 2) was an ponds, and sometimes back into the river important aspect of the early fur trade. itself, at various stages of the manufacturing C Seasonal or permanent fur trade posts process. All representations of this element and forts illustrate early patterns of therefore must be involve the industrial use Riparian Settlement (Theme 3). of water itself and have value in terms of C Water diversions are not included under antiquity or originality, not be the cause of this theme. Any representations of these environmental degradation. cases having heritage value should be

______A Cultural Framework for Canadian Heritage Rivers - 12 - Theme Narratives assigned thematically according to the Ojibwa Production of Wild Rice," in Abel purpose of the transfer, whether an early and Friesen, Aboriginal Resource Use, pp. hydro-electric project (theme element 71-80. 1.3.1 Direct Drive Power Generation) or, like the Grand River's historic Morton, James W. 1970. Capilano: The supply to the Welland Canal, for Story of a River (historical survey of the purposes of Water Transport (Theme City of Vancouver's principal public water 2). supply.) C A number of other modern harvesting activities may not have heritage value Den Otter, A.A. 1988. "Irrigation and e.g. for depositing waste water, factory Flood Control,” in Norman Ball, Building effluent and municipal sewage. These Canada, pp. 143-68. are dealt with under Theme 5, Jurisdictional Use if any heritage value Robertson, B. R. 1986. "Saw power; can be assigned. Making Lumber in the Sawmills of Nova Scotia. (Halifax: Nimbus Publishing and the Nova Scotia Museum).

SELECTED REFERENCES: Roos, A. 1988. "Electricity", in Ball, Building Canada, 169-94 Anderson, Letty. 1988. “Water-Supply,” in Norman Ball, Building Canada, pp. 195- 220.

Eastern Irrigation District. 1985. Tapping the Bow, Brooks, AB.

Holzkamm, Tim E., Victor P. Lytwyn, and Leo G. Weisberg. 1991. “Rainy River Sturgeon: An Ojibway Resource in the Fur Trade Economy,” in Abel and Friesen, Aboriginal Resource Use, pp. 119-40.

Leung, F. n.d. "Direct Drive Waterpower in Canada, 1607-1910". (Ottawa: Parks Canada Microfiche Report No. 27).

McClelland, Catherine. 1987. A History of the Yukon Indians: Part of the Land, Part of the Water.

Moodie, Wayne. 1991. "Manomin: Historical-Geographical Perspectives on the

______A Cultural Framework for Canadian Heritage Rivers - 13 - Theme Narratives THEME 2: WATER THEME 2: WATER TRANSPORT TRANSPORT 2.1 Sub-theme: Commercial This theme is defined as the movement of Transportation goods and passengers by water, either as Elements: floating bulk (timber, notably) or more 2.1.1 Prehistoric trade. 2.1.2 Historic human-powered freight. commonly in watercraft, using both natural 2.1.3 Powered commercial freight. streams and modified channels. The 2.1.4 Surface bulk transportation. associated in situ resources are any in-stream or riverside structures that were installed to 2.2 Sub-theme: Transportation serve travellers and ease navigation and the Services flow of that traffic, to build or service the Elements: craft, or to help control floating bulk goods. 2.2.1 Fur trade posts. Surviving artifacts are numerous, including 2.2.2 Navigational improvements. the rivers and remains of watercraft 2.2.3 Shipyards. themselves, and the many sites associated 2.2.4 Facilities for loading and provisioning passengers. with the maintenance and operation of boats and their contents. 2.3 Sub-theme: Exploration and Surveying Sub-theme 2.1: Commercial Elements: Transportation 2.3.1 French exploration. River navigation was once the most 2.3.2 British exploration. important means of travelling around 2.3.3 Migration and settlement. Canada, using, from time immemorial, 2.3.4 Surveying expeditions. canoes or, more recently, other human powered craft such as York boats. These Many of Canada's major rivers are craft are intrinsically associated with navigable by powered commercial freight Canada's evolution and represent a very (2.1.3) vessels, either in the river’s natural significant part of Canada's river heritage. state or after the installation of structures to Artifacts associated with prehistoric trade control water levels and circumvent falls and (2.1.1) times are rare and usually comprise rapids. A distinctive pattern, particularly in only the route itself. Representations of the north and west, has been fleets of stern- river use for historic human powered wheelers plying broad, flat rivers—notably freight (2.1.2) by voyageurs are relatively the Mackenzie, the Saskatchewan, and the numerous, in both original and replica form, Yukon—during a short but critically and may include trade goods some of which important summer season of open water. are in situ by virtue of spills and accidents These routes, some the direct descendants of such as occurred on the French River. The the canoe routes and York boat brigade routes themselves are well documented in routes of the fur trade companies, offer records of explorers, fur traders, military much of the colour and interest attached to men and immigrants. the transport theme at a national level. Artifacts associated with these vessels can

______A Cultural Framework for Canadian Heritage Rivers - 14 - Theme Narratives be found in the form of a few surviving spring freshets. This project, the only ships and shipwrecks or drowned cargos. federally managed one in Canada outside of Quebec and Ontario, proved too costly to However, in a practical sense, many rivers operate and was abandoned in 1911. that were once navigable for commercial purposes are now used only for recreational Sub-theme 2.2: Transportation Services purposes or are not navigated at all. For Passengers and freight carried in river example, two centuries ago canoes on the commerce are ultimately land-based Ottawa River carried most of the trade goods “commodities” and must at some points on and fur returns of Montréal's trade with the their journeys on Canada’s rivers come Prairies and the Athabasca basin. For some ashore. Prehistoric use of rivers did not years after Confederation, politicians and reach a stage of specialization that created other dignitaries habitually travelled the commercial and land-based services of between Ottawa and Montréal by river European commerce and there are no known steamers. Navigation along the Ottawa River prehistoric representations of this sub-theme. is now almost entirely recreational. On the other hand, the European Not all freight on Canada's rivers has been representations of this sub-theme virtually carried in watercraft; an important Canadian epitomize Canada’s early European history activity has been the surface bulk through the progressive proliferation of fur transportation (2.1.4), primarily of logs. trading posts (2.2.1) through the country Hallett (1987) documents federal over a period of three centuries. Some posts government investment in improving were mere log shacks thrown up in the waterways for floating logs in bulk. The woods for a single winter; other were major Wright family built the first Canadian timber fortified settlements housing hundreds of slide at the Chaudiere Rapids in 1829. Other people. Depending on their scale, these private works followed but were taken over posts served many purposes not only for and supplemented by the government Board collecting, warehousing, trading, packaging, of Works after 1843. By the 1880s, there loading and shipping furs and other freight, were 83 separate works on the Ottawa and but also for ancillary needs such as shelter, its major tributaries, the Madawaska, food, defence, governance, jurisprudence, Gatineau, Coulonge, Black, Petawawa, and recreation and medicine. Those parts of fur Dumoine rivers. Next in importance were trade posts and forts which were used for the works on Quebec's St. Maurice River, onshore services, such as wharves and begun in 1851 and still, uniquely, in use warehouses, would represent this theme, but today. Other substantial investments were also of interest in this sub-theme are the made on the Trent and the Saguenay, with small posts whose primary function was the smaller establishments on the Richelieu and provision of on-shore services to fur traders. the Spanish River. In 1909, a project was attempted 125 miles above Edmonton on the On occasion, fur traders would pause long North Saskatchewan; this was an attempt to enough to make their journey easier on the create a storage pool and sluice gates at a next occasion through navigational point where logs were often lost during improvements (2.2.2). Original Aboriginal

______A Cultural Framework for Canadian Heritage Rivers - 15 - Theme Narratives portages along some of the most difficult winched ashore after their final season. parts of the main fur trade route, such as the upper Ottawa River and the Mattawa River, Facilities for loading and provisioning were modified by clearing and widening, passengers (2.2.4), were relatively rare, and sometimes using logs, stones to level the remnants of, for example, waiting rooms, path and create firm steps, and in some cases rest-houses, hitching posts, and occasionally rudimentary rails were laid on which to roll hotels would not be as common as the sites or skid their craft. On the Hayes River, where this activity is known to have small dams were constructed to raise water occurred in the past. Within larger forts and levels and shorten portages. early settlements, however, it may be possible to identify particular buildings and These were the precursors to major dams, structures that were associated with weirs, channels, locks and even lighthouses passenger transport, as opposed to freight constructed in the 19th century to create transport or other activities. canals. In addition to the extensive and well known canal systems of this era in eastern Sub-theme 2.3: Exploration and Canada, the Rideau, Trent-Severn, Chambly, Surveying there are other small single-lock canals Many of the early uses of navigable rivers scattered along Canada’s major rivers, can be closely associated with significant including the Red, Ottawa and Yukon rivers. Euro-Canadian exploration and route Next to modern locks such as the “Soo” on surveys. While few of the routes were the St. Mary’s River, are often the original, unknown to Aboriginal people, the smaller wooden locks in various states of contribution of the explorers or route preservation but nevertheless representing surveyors was to link together various this sub-theme. segments of older routes, and to make these routes better known in order to establish or In addition to navigational improvements to strengthen a territorial claim by a colonizing the rivers themselves, river transportation in power and to open up routes for migration Canada depended on the provision of and settlement. onshore services for both passengers and freight. The earliest European exploration of the country by river, other than what may have Shipyard (2.2.3) services for craft and been attempted by Vikings, was by the cargoes were numerous. Vessels were intrepid French explorers (2.3.1) and typically constructed beside large rivers, and coureurs du bois. Their legacy, built over taken onshore for repairs (rather than into two centuries prior to the end of the Seven dry docks). Important transhipment points Years War in 1763, extends over much of and industrial waterfront sites frequently had Canada in the form of archaeological sites wharves, ramps and other services for and more frequently in place names. loading vessels whose remains today attest Subsequent British explorers (2.3.2) are to the importance of river boats as carriers of perhaps better recognized for their western freight. River boats themselves can still be exploration of the Athabasca country and the viewed slowly deteriorating where they were quests of David Thompson and Alexander

______A Cultural Framework for Canadian Heritage Rivers - 16 - Theme Narratives Mackenzie for a route to the Pacific through bottoms and lower slopes. The influx of the Rocky Mountains in particular, although United Empire Loyalists in the late 18th their legacy also extends around Hudson century followed established river routes, Bay and the north. and created unique settlement patterns along the Saint John River valley and other rivers Surveys for commercial and transportation in eastern Canada (see element 3.1.4 in purposes are also included under this Riparian Settlement). element. This is perhaps epitomized in the Palliser and Wheeler survey expeditions The opening of western Canada by which led to the construction of two Trans- exploration and survey expeditions led to the Canada railways through the river valleys of immigration of Europeans to the Prairies but the Rocky Mountains. Apart from railway this area was settled primarily by overland infrastructure which could indirectly routes. Most settlements on the Pacific represent this element, the cultural resources coast, on the other hand, were founded by which best illustrate it are the routes overland migrants, first as a trickle by themselves, often recorded in detail in parties such as the Overlanders, then a flood, journals and traceable along valley bottoms, using the rivers, passes and valley routes across shallow rivers, along portages, down discovered by the 19th century explorers. valley sides and over interfluves. Sites of documented events and incidents, such as While the significance of this sub-theme to that of the Wheeler’s near death experience Canada’s development and the important due to a kicking horse beside the river of the role of rivers in this cannot be doubted, same name, are also representations. Other representation of this entire sub-theme is toponymic cultural resources include "La highly subjective. Apart from some Chine" near Montréal and the "Committee campsites and a toponymic legacy, it is only Punch Bowl" in the Rocky Mountains, and the documented routes themselves that must monuments and historic markers erected by be counted as representations of the intrepid later generations. exploration, surveying and migration activities of early Europeans. Rivers were used for migration and settlement (2.3.3) in all parts of Canada. The first immigrants to Canada arrived by EXCEPTIONS: boat, although few ventured up rivers to land C Certain aspects of travel on water have their human cargoes. Small groups and been classified elsewhere in this individuals later moved along rivers to take framework. Travel for recreational possession of their new holdings. Acadian purposes, including yachting and settlements in the three Maritime provinces recreational canoeing, is included with were mostly located on river estuaries, Theme 4, Culture and Recreation. which were modified through digues to hold C Military travel is an element of Theme back tidal water and provide pasture and 5, Jurisdictional Uses. hayfields. British immigrants went further C Types of river crossings, used for inland and opened up forests along river transportation across rivers, are valleys, creating new farmland on valley included in Theme 3, Riparian

______A Cultural Framework for Canadian Heritage Rivers - 17 - Theme Narratives Settlement. Settlement patterns resulting from immigration movements are also included under this theme.

SELECTED REFERENCES:

Barris, Theodore. 1978. Fire Canoe; Prairie Steamboat Days Revisited (Toronto: McClelland and Stewart).

Passfield, Robert. 1988. "Waterways,” in Ball, Building Canada, 113-42.

______A Cultural Framework for Canadian Heritage Rivers - 18 - Theme Narratives THEME 3: RIPARIAN THEME 3: RIPARIAN SETTLEMENT SETTLEMENT 3.1 Sub-theme: Siting of Dwellings Shoreline dwellings, singly or in clusters, Elements: form part of the cultural landscape of many 3.1.1 Shoreline seasonal dwellings. rivers, particularly in southern Canada. They 3.1.2 Riverside homesteads and farms. 3.1.3 Permanent riverside dwellings are essentially a land-based means of using sited with respect to rivers. rivers for economic, social and other needs. 3.1.4 Dispersed dwellings in settlement The siting of dwellings, and their design, patterns. location, spacing, and arrangement are often manifestations of the influence of rivers on 3.2 Sub-theme: River-based economic and social activities. Communities Elements: As this framework evolved, many of the 3.2.1 Permanent shoreline Aboriginal practical reasons people settled beside rivers settlements. 3.2.2 Fortification-based communities. were recognized in other themes. For 3.2.3 River industry-based example, water travel and resource communities. harvesting are all river-dependent activities 3.2.4 River crossing-based that in turn influence individual decisions communities. and the growth of settlements. In this sense, "settlement" is often a consequence of some 3.3 Sub-theme: River-influenced other human activities that are more directly Transportation or more obviously associated with the way Elements: people use the river itself. 3.3.1 Ferries and fords. 3.3.2 Road bridges. 3.3.3 Rail bridges. The focus of this theme, therefore, is on the 3.3.4 River-influenced roads and strikingly direct influence of rivers on the railways. landscape of the settled shoreline, including types of individual dwellings and rivers; and the adjustment of transportation community adaptations to rivers. Rivers systems to respect rivers. frequently determined how agricultural land was divided up through major land surveys Sub-theme 3.1: Siting of Dwellings and, as mentioned above, transportation Aboriginal peoples rarely ventured far from patterns and river industries often influenced rivers and lakeshores. To do so was the direction, style, and pattern of all types hazardous and without incentive, as few of buildings, not just dwellings. needs could not be met from being close to rivers. Many native groups migrated The three sub-themes used here categorize seasonally from one part of a river to representations on the basis of three another, their patterns decided upon on observable manifestations of human climate, fish runs, migrating herds, and tribal practicality: individual decisions to live competition. They established seasonal beside rivers; communities developed beside campsites (3.1.1), which they abandoned

______A Cultural Framework for Canadian Heritage Rivers - 19 - Theme Narratives and established according to need. The shakes, shingles, clapboard and various archaeological record is particularly rich in combinations. A great variety of these, or these sites on most sizeable rivers. Where their foundations, still exist as valid they are not known to have existed they can representations of this aspect of river often be predicted by site characteristics. heritage.

However, there can be few more definitive “Settlement patterns” are identified in the manifestations of the impact of rivers on the CHRS Selection Guidelines as a potentially lives of humans than an isolated homestead major theme in Canada’s river history. or farm (3.1.2) and associated buildings When this framework was prepared, the located beside a river, a landing place, and choice had to be made whether to entitle this nearby livestock grazing by the water. entire theme "settlement patterns" or to Frequently, such buildings were built in the define its scope to fit this framework. Using earliest European times by pioneering the term riparian (riverbank) allows the families. These still numerous buildings definition of this theme to be restricted to comprise one of the readily recognized settlement patterns functionally related to components of Canada’s river heritage. rivers and within the sub-theme of Siting of Dwellings, restricts representations to Later permanent riverside dwellings residential and related structures physically (3.1.3) also took advantage of the many close to rivers. benefits provided by rivers, food, water, and transportation but were not always farms. Settlement patterns of interest here are Some were built by wealthy individuals on essentially dispersed dwellings (3.1.4) that choice sites, others were simply built by are visibly organized according to some labourers or descendants of pioneers. overall strategy or formal plan. Thus, Riparian residences and buildings might be buildings constructed within the seigneurial significant because of their particular owner system in Quebec, with their narrow river or occupant, or because of a highly lots which each have water access and a specialized special function. These minimum hectarage, basically a dispersed buildings are located beside the river planned community, would be an example. primarily because of the choice of their The uniformity of architecture in Loyalist owner, although the functional relationship farmsteads and other dwellings and their with the river may be weak. Some house evenly spaced distribution along river facades would face the river, and the path to valleys, such as the Saint John River, would the river would lead from the front door. qualify this as a cultural landscape. On the Usually high ground was selected to avoid Upper Saint John River buildings flooding. characteristic of Madawaska Acadian culture can also be seen. Other examples can be Building materials for farms and residences seen on major rivers in western Canada, reflected contemporary styles, material notably the Red River. In some cases, availability and financial situations. The however, cultural landscapes can be seen earliest European dwellings were almost all where there is no overall lot plan or log. Later dwellings made use of stone, settlement strategy, yet the area has

______A Cultural Framework for Canadian Heritage Rivers - 20 - Theme Narratives homogeneity due to the ethnic or religious Sometimes the two coincided, as rapids are similarity of settlers, such as Mennonite and often be found in conjunction with narrows. Hutterite communities in Manitoba and The founding of a mill beside rapids was Saskatchewan. frequently the signal for community development. Thus although the various Sub-theme 3.2: River-based Communities types of mills themselves are recognized Communities begin with the construction of elsewhere (Sub-theme 1.3 Water Extraction) a single building that is sited in a particularly as representations of harvesting water itself advantageous site. For natives, such a site as a resource, residences and other structures might be a place that was close to fishing and components of settlements which reflect and hunting grounds, sheltered, not subject their origins as river industry-based to flooding, relatively free of summer communities (3.2.3) are recognized here. insects, and comfortable during the winter. Such sites may or may not be near a river, This element may also be used to contain but could become permanent Aboriginal representations of early buildings and settlements (3.2.1). structures in settlements which developed as a result of other river-based industries, such A priority of the very earliest first European as breweries, foundries, factories, and even settlements in Canada was security. Hostile early hydro-generation. Again, however, natives and occasional endangerment from representations must, however, not only wildlife led the first traders and settlers to have historical value but also must not be seek security of fortified stockades. Some damaging to heritage values through, for fur trade posts were referred to as “forts” example, waste disposal and other forms of because of their defensive capabilities which pollution. would serve regionally based trappers and traders. Later fortifications were often much Similarly, communities whose origins can more substantial and were constructed to be traced to the presence of a bridge, ferry or protect people and property from rival ford are a significant component of Canada’s European powers. In both cases, these forts river heritage. While bridges or remnant were invariably constructed beside rivers for structures of bridges, ferries and fords, are means of access to markets and munitions. included under the following sub-theme Fortification-based communities (3.2.2) which deals directly with river crossings, often developed in the shadow of this residences and other buildings associated security and, while few exist today in their with the early development of the original form, the heart of many Canadian community, are important representations of cities contains the preserved remnants of this river crossing-based communities (3.2.4). origin. Sub-theme 3.3: River-influenced “European” communities developed where Transportation certain key features were found along rivers. Rivers do not present only resources and These were most often places where a river advantageous benefits to humans. For the could be crossed or where the speed of the land-based travellers who succeeded the river provided a source of power. coureurs du bois and fur traders, rivers also

______A Cultural Framework for Canadian Heritage Rivers - 21 - Theme Narratives comprised obstacles that had to be crossed. Classic examples can be seen beside the This somewhat anomalous aspect of river Kicking Horse River where both the Trans heritage cannot be commemorated as part of Canada Highway and the CP Railway were the water transport theme as it reflects land- constructed primarily to accommodate the based movement and a departure from the course of the river. There is an enormous essence of this theme. amount of infrastructure that could potentially represent this sub-theme and The earliest means of crossing rivers was to caution is needed to ensure that what s find a location where water was sufficiently identified is significant by virtue of its age, shallow to allow pedestrian or horse traffic design or originality. to cross. Where this could be achieved at most times of the year the location might become known as a ford (3.3.1). Some still EXCEPTIONS: exist, but most are now superseded by This theme excludes many of the more bridges or abandoned. Where rivers did not general aspects of settlement, such as allow for fords, enterprising pioneers set up pioneer agriculture and the development of ferries (3.3.1) and made livelihoods by population centres away from rivers. collecting crossing fees. Settlement activities that are either not river- related, have no heritage significance, or are There abound in Canada examples of related to the river through some more bridges which cross rivers, most dating from specific activity are excluded. Examples the 20th century. Of interest in this sub- respectively would be: theme are the early examples of various C Bridges that do not cross rivers, types of road bridges (3.3.2), described communities based on land-based according to age, building materials and resources such as mining, are not river- structure. Design terminology would related. include features such as wood, stone and C Modern road and rail bridges, and all steel, and single span, multiple span, arch, tunnels under rivers, are considered to box, bow-string, trestle and so on. Similar have no heritage significance. characteristics may be used to describe rail C Water extraction for irrigation is dealt bridges (3.3.3) over rivers. with under Theme 1, Resource Harvesting. Sites for various types of river crossings, C Facilities developed where bulk is especially bridges, not only influenced the broken e.g. at portages and harbours, or original choice of location for villages and which were used for shipbuilding, are towns, but also the consequent patterns of dealt with under Theme 2, River development of road and rail networks. Transport. Thus, the final sub-theme element, river- influenced roads and railways (3.3.4), is exemplified by the innumerable early roads SELECTED REFERENCES and railways that follow river valleys and which hug the sides of river valleys, and Dunham, B. Mabel. 1947. Grand River which cross rivers at opportune sites. (Toronto: McClelland and Stewart).

______A Cultural Framework for Canadian Heritage Rivers - 22 - Theme Narratives Fisher, Sidney Thornton. 1985. The Merchant-Millers of the Humber Valley; A Study of the Early Economy of Canada (Toronto: NC Press).

Hargrave, Joseph James. 1871. Red River (Montréal: John Lovell); see especially Chapter 12, "Annual Routine in Red River Settlement", 155-73.

______A Cultural Framework for Canadian Heritage Rivers - 23 - Theme Narratives THEME 4: CULTURE AND THEME 4: CULTURE AND RECREATION RECREATION

Rivers provide both a reason and a place for 4.1 Sub-theme: Spiritual Associations artistic expression, spiritual life and leisure. Elements: To many people who live near rivers or 4.1.1 Sacred or spiritual sites. 4.1.2 Ritual or ceremonial structures travel to them often, the cultural connections and sites. between people and waterways may be more 4.1.3 Aboriginal burial places. important than the physical or economic 4.1.4 European burial places. uses that dominate most of this framework. Manifestations of this theme take many 4.2 Sub-theme: Cultural Expression different forms, perhaps more so than other Elements: themes. They also demonstrate the 4.2.1 Riverside museums, art galleries occasional possibilities of claiming river- and commemorative structures. relatedness where there is little or no 4.2.2 Culturally associated sites. functional relationship of features to rivers 4.2.3 River-based cultural landscapes. 4.2.4 Architectural responses to river themselves. locations.

Because such values are so culturally 4.3 Sub-theme: Early Recreation conditioned, there is some risk of neglecting Elements: the importance of art and spirituality when 4.3.1 Recreational boating. these human activities are combined 4.3.2 Angling. thematically, as they are here, with 4.3.3 Land-based touring. recreation. Many devotees of wilderness 4.3.4 Organized river recreation recreational canoeing in Canada see facilities and clubs. educational and spiritual value in their activity; some even find in it important Sub-theme 4.1: Spiritual Associations images of national culture and identity. The Much of what is regarded as spiritual is, by late canoeist Bill Mason's real passion was definition, intangible and ubiquitous. This for painting landscapes he saw from his sub-theme is, however, concerned with the canoe. Likewise, Aboriginal pictographs are in situ physical manifestations of spiritual apparently works of artistic expression but associations with rivers. While not denying often express spiritual beliefs or values as the importance of the ethereal and remote well. While there are reasons to split culture components of belief systems and and recreation into one or more themes, not spirituality, among both Aboriginal and only are the connections between them Europeans, the management imperative of probably too close to allow this but in situ the CHRS program requires that opportunities to represent them are not representations of sacred or spiritual sites sufficiently common to justify separate (4.1.1) can be located, described and themes. protected. These can therefore vary greatly according to global and local belief systems. For Aboriginals, certain natural features such as cliff faces, river rocks or springs

______A Cultural Framework for Canadian Heritage Rivers - 24 - Theme Narratives may have sacred properties, and some have themselves, these buildings and sites have been commemorated with pictographs and no intrinsic heritage value, this framework petroglyphs. For Europeans, sites where recognizes the significance of these to the miracles or tragedies occurred may become cumulative value of a river’s heritage. sacred, often commemorated with simple crosses. In both cases representations would Thus, riverside museums, art galleries be of places which are judged through a (4.2.1) and other structures which are belief system to be naturally sacred. located in the river environment and which contain cultural artifacts associated with the Quite separate from spiritual sites are those river are valid representations of this sub- places which have no intrinsic sacredness theme. Valid representations would also but where rituals and ceremonies occur. include reconstructions or animations of Such representations would include both historic sites and events. A very common ritual and ceremonial structures and sites cultural expression that would represent this (4.1.2). Structures will be predominantly of sub-theme is the historic site marker, whose European origin, notably churches, while establishing organization can often be used sites may be both Aboriginal and European. to determine the significance of the site. In both cases there must be a relationship Plaques erected by the Historic Sites and with a river either through location or Monuments Board of Canada are one of the function. few representations of this framework that can be determined to commemorate an Of importance in all cultures are spirit event, person or site of national significance. dwelling places, usually where the dead are buried. In Canada, these are almost entirely Since not all significant events, persons or simple burial places (4.1.3 and 4.1.4), sites are commemorated by historic markers, either individual graves or groups of graves; the framework allows for their inclusion rarely is there any major structure associated through the theme element culturally with the burial ground, such as a mound, associated sites (4.2.2). This element does although sites will often be marked by not, however, permit the inclusion of sites tombs, gravestones, fences, memorial unless they have cultural associations with artifacts, and in the case of northern graves, the river. Thus, the event must have rock piles. The major distinctions between occurred on or near the river, or the person Aboriginal (4.1.3) and European (4.1.4) must have had some longstanding or cultures requires that their burial sites be otherwise significant relationship with the separated into two theme elements. river. Examples could include the homes of famous artists, authors, politicians and so Sub-theme 4.2: Cultural Expression on, or buildings which housed significant Nominations of Canadian heritage rivers events or were the focus of important frequently make reference to buildings such movements or beliefs in Canadian history as museums which contain artifacts related may be considered representations of this to river heritage, and to sites which sub-theme element. commemorate historic events and people associated with the river. While, in A rather special expression of culture is the

______A Cultural Framework for Canadian Heritage Rivers - 25 - Theme Narratives concept of river-based cultural landscapes century. These later structures would also (4.2.3) and regions. The term cultural represent theme element 4.3.4 below. landscape includes designed waterfronts that have aesthetic appeal, but it also Sub-theme 4.3: Early Recreation encompasses industrial and commercial The recreation component of this theme is river-fronts. An important type of not meant to duplicate or replace the representation are regions of cultural evaluation of a candidate river's recreational significance having no built component, values, which forms a key part of virtually such as the Aboriginal homelands of the all CHRS nominations. By addressing Ojibwa in the St. Mary’s River area and the particularly the pioneering or early nature of Caribou Inuit of the Kazan River recreational activities, these sub-theme barrenlands. It has been noted above that elements recognize that both commercial rivers themselves may be cultural resources, and private recreational pursuits can give and as such can be considered as parts of rise to, over time, a heritage character cultural landscapes. beyond their mere practical enjoyment; and the recreational value of rivers, particularly Haslam (1991:153) has noted that human wild rivers, has a place in Canada's river activities rarely develop uniformly on heritage and culture that needs to be opposite sides of a river. Towns that face accommodated in this framework. each other across water compete, and one side will usually dominate the other. Often Of all recreational activities pursued on these towns not only play different roles in rivers, two stand out as having heritage the regional economy, but are considered to value in terms of their longevity and the have different characters. Whether the river- heritage associated with their equipment. boundary is international or merely Thus recreational boating (4.3.1) routes municipal, contrasts in the cultural followed by early tourists, primarily by landscapes or practices on opposite banks of canoe, are in themselves of cultural value rivers are often of considerable historical and can be represented through this and social interest. framework. Some canoe routes were made popular among early canoeists by Finally, this sub-theme allows for the publications such as Paine’s 1907 account of inclusion of structures that contain canoeing the Shelburne River. Campsites architectural responses to river locations and portages that are known to have may (4.2.4). These responses might be small have been used by these people are more features such as landscaping or facades and specific representations. doorways which face rivers, or raised foundations, provided that they are of some Similarly, sites along a river course historical value in terms of age or associated with early angling (4.3.2), originality. Alternatively, representations pursued strictly for recreational purposes, may be entire buildings, such as lodges and are valid representations. Representation of cottages whose design typifies a style of such sites could include placenames or riparian residence, such as those built along numbers assigned to salmon pools, or even the Restigouche River in the early 20th entire river sections, or camps and lodges

______A Cultural Framework for Canadian Heritage Rivers - 26 - Theme Narratives specifically constructed for anglers, or even historical value. Private and public camps, ice-fishing huts that have some historical lodges, cottages and other overnight significance. accommodation sites built for participants of river recreational activities or built beside a While not claiming that recreational boating river may also be incuded. On a larger scale, and angling are the only aquatic forms of hotels such as Jasper Park Lodge beside the recreation pursued on rivers, they are by far Athabasca River, represent this element. the most significant from a heritage standpoint. Another river-related form of EXCEPTIONS: recreation that may have significant cultural C The serendipitous location of a historic value is land-based touring (4.3.3) of river marker near a river, with no functional valleys. Early forms of this recreation were relationship to the river, would not in three main activities: hiking, horseback enable its inclusion as a representation riding and motoring. There are numerous of the Cultural Expression sub-theme. accounts of early hikers travelling up the C Most of the themes in this framework valleys of the Rocky Mountains. The Alpine describe activities that create cultural Club of Canada was established to provide landscapes. Even Resource Harvesting hiking information, construct shelters and to (Theme 1) contributes to the creation of rescue stranded hikers. Horseback riding cultural landscapes, since river-front was once the only effective means of industrial sites are among the reaching certain passes and valleys, and phenomena to which this term can be national park wardens still use this means of applied. transport. In recent years, driving for C Fishing for domestic or commercial pleasure has become the most popular consumption would be considered outdoor recreational activity in North Resource Harvesting (Theme 1) rather America. Scenic roads and parkways have than a recreational activity. been built along river valleys to accommodate this activity since the early 1920's, when the Banff-Jasper Highway, SELECTED REFERENCES now called the Icefields Parkway, was constructed. Hodgins, Bruce W. and Margaret Hobbs 1985. Nastawgan: The Canadian North by This sub-theme also allows for recognition Canoe & Snowshoe. A Collection of of organized recreation facilities and Historical Essays (Toronto: Betelgeuse clubs (4.3.4) constructed to house clubs and Books). other organizations with river recreational purposes. The facilities could include local Landscape and Urban Planning. 1988. canoe and angling clubs or internationally Special Issue: The Landscape of Water, Vol. significant organizations such as the Atlantic 16, Nos. 1-2 (October). Salmon Club at the mouth of the Restigouche River. Club facilities for Manz, David, ed. 1993. Water and the participants in canoeing, rowing, and sailing Wilderness: Development, Stewardship, may also be included where they have Management; Proceedings of the 46th

______A Cultural Framework for Canadian Heritage Rivers - 27 - Theme Narratives Annual Conference of the Canadian Water Resources Association, Bandy, Alberta June 16-19, 1993 ([Cambridge ON]: Canadian Water Resources Association).

Paine, Albert Bigelow. 1907/1982. The Tent Dwellers (London: Outing Publishing; reissued by William Macnab and Son, Halifax).

______A Cultural Framework for Canadian Heritage Rivers - 28 - Theme Narratives 2.3.5 THEME 5: THEME 5: JURISDICTIONAL USE JURISDICTIONAL USE 5.1 Sub-theme: Conflict and Military The use of rivers by governments is a natural Associations result of their vital importance to the Elements: economic, political and social development 5.1.1 Aboriginal internecine conflict. 5.1.2 Aboriginal/European conflict. of any politically organized group. Rivers 5.1.3 European internecine conflict. both focus and divide different kinds of 5.1.4 Military expeditions. human activity, including cooperation and rivalry. Rivers can be used for purposes of 5.2 Sub-theme: Boundaries state both physically e.g. as routes of Elements: invasion, or symbolically as boundaries. 5.2.1 International borders. The concept of rivers as boundaries may 5.2.2 Interprovincial and inter-territorial have been familiar to Aboriginal peoples, as boundaries. they were often the sites of prehistoric 5.2.3 Land use boundaries. 5.2.4 Transboundary rivers. conflict between rival Aboriginal groups, although records of actual bloodshed are 5.3 Sub-theme: Environmental scarce. Regulation Elements: In European times, rivers have themselves 5.3.1 Flood control. been employed as tools in government 5.3.2 Improvements in water administration as boundaries and for military management. purposes, as military supply and invasion 5.3.3 Improvements in aquatic routes, natural moats, and “lines in the ecosystem management. sand”. In peacetime, their significance as 5.3.4 Regulation of river access and use. important natural ecosystems as well as sources of renewable resources has more recently been recognized through massacres, pitched battles and other government intervention to protect rivers outbreaks of hostilities that occurred near or and their associated natural ecosystems. in relation to rivers.

Sub-theme 5.1: Conflict and Military Often, military confrontations occurred Associations beyond the scope of fortifications, The topic of military associations with rivers particularly those that occurred between has arisen in this framework in Theme 2 warring Aboriginal (5.1.1) peoples, in Water Transport in regard to fur trade forts, prehistoric and historic times. European and in Theme 3 Riparian Settlement in conflicts with Aboriginal (5.1.2) and other regard to settlements developed around European powers (5.1.3) were more fortifications. Neither of these themes frequently settled in or near the confines of a address actual conflicts that occurred at fortification. Because of the importance of these sites and elsewhere near rivers. This rivers as foci for settlements, and means of sub-theme includes sites of skirmishes, transportation, and other necessary elements of early Canadian life, rivers were almost

______A Cultural Framework for Canadian Heritage Rivers - 29 - Theme Narratives always involved in the conflicts that using rivers are recognized in this sub- occurred. Some battles actually occurred on theme. Canada’s international borders rivers and estuaries, such as the Battle of (5.2.1) with the United States comprise a Restigouche and several major British- sub-theme element on its own because of the French naval confrontations on the St. significance of this border in Canadian Lawrence River and the mouth of the Hayes history and the considerable number of River. rivers that are presently used to supplement the straight lines of the 49th parallel and the The mounting of military expeditions Alaska border, as well as a number of other (5.1.4), particularly in inland parts of rivers which temporarily marked the Canada, required that troops were international border. Any of these rivers or transported efficiently and quickly to the sites on these rivers which currently or once conflict site. Until the advent of railways, represented the border itself, events related the only method of transportation was via to its negotiation, or its surveying and river systems, normally using available marking are valid representations provided water craft, but sometimes involving long that there is some historical value. marches over the frozen surface. The European historical record clearly A large number of rivers have been used in documents the use of rivers for such Canada’s past to mark interprovincial and purposes, campsites that were used and other inter-territorial boundaries (5.2.2). While temporary structures. many are straight line boundaries, many others, especially in eastern Canada, follow Sub-theme 5.2: Boundaries rivers or watersheds. Any of these are Boundaries are delineated in order to appropriate representations where some separate nations, parts of nations, and historical value, such as a local impact on various subdivisions of these parts. While early settlement, sites of border disputes or the infinitely variable North American negotiations, can be documented. landscape is criss-crossed by a patchwork of artificial straight line boundaries, some Boundaries between privately owned boundary delineators recognized the natural properties are innumerable in Canada and advantages offered by rivers in making unless they represent heritage value and are spatial divisions more rational. The obstacle associated with rivers in some way would that rivers pose to human movement made not normally be considered representations them a convenient marker, particularly of this sub-theme. Historic land use where topography was uneven or vegetation, boundaries (5.2.3), often between public climate, or accessibility a limiting factor. and private lands, used rivers as convenient Depending on these factors, and negotiated boundaries in the absence of formal surveys. settlements between governments and These may sometimes be of significance, private landowners, boundaries were set in particularly where public land uses differ mid-stream or along high water marks, or at significantly from private land uses, as in the a set distance from shorelines. case of military bases, Indian Reserves and protected areas. An example that already Three types of administrative boundaries exists within the CHRS would be the

______A Cultural Framework for Canadian Heritage Rivers - 30 - Theme Narratives Kicking Horse River which marks part of Sub-theme 5.3: Environmental the boundary of Yoho National Park Regulation established in 1887. However, the use of the The pervasive use of rivers as boundaries Tatshenshini River to mark part of the has been insinuated into almost all aspects Kluane National Park boundary dates from of jurisdictional land organization. But, the 1960's and has less heritage value. from an ecological standpoint, since rivers are actually the heart of ecosystems, river Rivers have not only comprised boundaries, basins are the natural ecumene, and but have also been the means of crossing watersheds are the natural dividers, not them. These transboundary rivers (5.2.4) rivers. Perhaps in recognition of this type of have been the subject of jurisdictional “abuse” of rivers, jurisdictions have in conflict as well as a means of transportation. modern times acted to mitigate the actions Particularly where boundaries are straight, as and threats that our own activities pose to in western Canada, some rivers, by their river environments on which plants, animals very nature, must at some point cross them. and human economic activities depend. In some cases, considerable river traffic, legal and otherwise, used the means of We, as jurisdictions, also defend ourselves, passing across borders, such as on the Red our works, and landscapes that we value River between North Dakota and Manitoba, against natural forces, such as wave action, or the Yukon River between Yukon and tides and, especially in the case of rivers, Alaska. Examples abound of movement floodwater. This sub-theme therefore has between provinces, although because of the two quite distinct aspects: management of freedom of this movement from tolls and the river itself in order to protect the official requirements, there are few property of riparian land users, and the interesting examples. regulation of river uses in order to protect the river. Representations of this sub-theme element could include not only the rivers themselves Estuarine dykes date back to Acadian times, but more importantly, structures built to and remnant examples can still be seen in accommodate the movement of passengers Maritime Canada. The earliest river flood and freight across borders, such as customs control (5.3.1) structures date from the late houses or structures known to have been nineteenth century, when they were often used by smugglers, provided that there is associated with canal building. However, some historical significance to the site or because of the impact of these structures on activity. the natural integrity of rivers, they may result in the systemic exclusion of rivers Rivers which cross provincial, territorial or possessing them. A canalized river system, land use boundaries may also have heritage such as the Rideau or Trent-Severn Canal, value, especially if they were used for could qualify a river to become a Canadian transportation. Such rivers would also be heritage river if its control structures or valid representations where the river valley associated buildings possess significant was an important factor in the construction cultural or historical value. Thus, dams, roads or railways of historical significance. diversions, impoundments, and even dredges

______A Cultural Framework for Canadian Heritage Rivers - 31 - Theme Narratives may be representations of this sub-theme if SELECTED REFERENCES: they have historical value. Andrew, Jeanne, ed. 1993. Flooding; There is a considerable range of human Canada Water Book, (Ottawa: Environment activity, mostly recent, associated with Canada, Ecosystem Sciences and Evaluation improving river values, or mitigating Directorate). damage already done. Some of these activities have been aimed directly at Bankes, Nigel D. 1991. "The Board of improvements to water management ( Investigation and the Water Rights of Indian 5.3.2) others at improvements in aquatic Reserves in British Columbia, 1909 to ecosystems (5.3.3). Sites associated with 1926"' in Abel and Friesen, Aboriginal legislation, advocacy movements, and in situ Resource Uses. mitigative structures such as early fish ladders, fish hatcheries, and water quality Bradley, Cheryl, et al, eds. 1990. Flowing monitoring stations are some of the tangible to the Future; Proceedings of the Alberta's representations of this theme. For these to Rivers Conference May 1-13, 1989 be considered under this theme, however, (Edmonton: University of Alberta Faculty of they must be of significance from the Extension). This is large collection of short standpoint of being early or original in essays on different aspects of river Canada, or both. management, from "multi-purpose use" to heritage river management. Regulation of river access and use (5.3.4) includes two components: the introduction Denis, Leo G. 1916. Water Works and of regulations to control river use, and the Sewerage Systems (Ottawa: Commission of wholesale dedication of river basins and Conservation). Brief descriptions of the age, parts of basins as protected areas. Of consumption, and other quantifiable interest are sites where early water access attributes of 396 municipal and 132 and use regulations were implemented and privately owned water supply systems in parks and reserves which were established in Canadian municipalities in 1915. Supersedes the late 19th century and the early part of the Denis' earlier work (without sewage data) of 20th century when the conservation 1912. movement was in its infancy. Dene Cultural Institute. 1989. Dehcho: EXCEPTIONS: "Mom, We've Been Discovered!" C While many of explorers and surveyors (Yellowknife: Dene Cultural Institute). were sponsored by governments to explore and claim new territory, the use Harvey, Andre. 1983. "Promising Steps of rivers for these purposes is included Toward a New Ottawa River Regulation", in under Theme 2, Water Transport. Mitchell and Gardner (eds.), 99-108. This C Use of rivers located in protected areas paper includes a good historical summary of for recreational purposes is included water management in a section titled "A under Theme 3, Culture and Task Molded by History." Recreation.

______A Cultural Framework for Canadian Heritage Rivers - 32 - Theme Narratives Hooper, Thomas. 1967. "The Royal Navy Station at Ile-aux-Noix (1812-1839)", in Manuscript Report Series No. 167 (Ottawa: Parks Canada) 49-100.

Lee, David. 1976. "The Battle of the Windmill: November 1838," in History and Archaeology, No. 8, 102-08 (Ottawa: Parks Canada).

______A Cultural Framework for Canadian Heritage Rivers - 33 - Theme Narratives ______A Cultural Framework for Canadian Heritage Rivers - 34 - Theme Narratives 3.0 CONSIDERATIONS IN DESIGNING THE FRAMEWORK

The design of this framework required the way in which the framework and consideration of many factors including the selection guidelines can be applied together basic parameters outlined in Section 1.3 of must be explained. this document. Primary among these factors was harmonization with the CHRS Selection A river environment is judged to possess Guidelines which are used in deciding which outstanding Canadian human heritage value rivers may be included in the System. Four if it meets one of the following four of these guidelines are applied to the cultural selection guidelines. References to human resources of potential rivers and some of activities and potential framework themes these have direct reference to historical are highlighted below. themes. CHRS SELECTION GUIDELINES In addition to CHRS selection guidelines, outside of the program's own policies, each Guideline 1: [The river environment] is of participating government has its own outstanding importance owing to its policies and priorities, all of which take influence, over a period of time, on the precedence, when necessary, over the historical development of Canada framework. In many cases these policies and through a major impact upon the region priorities are based not only on in which it is located or beyond; this governments’ heritage conservation policies would include its role in such significant but also on their own CHRS systems studies historical themes as Native people, settlement patterns, and transportation. which have developed their own thematic classifications. Guideline 2: [The river environment] is strongly associated with persons, events, 3.1 Adaptation of Framework movements, achievements, ideas or Themes to CHRS Selection beliefs of Canadian significance; Guidelines Guideline 3: [The river environment] contains historical or archaeological The CHRS selection guidelines for human structures, works or sites which are heritage values (Parks Canada. 1984:14) unique, rare or of great antiquity; name several examples of historical activities and themes with which a river's Guideline 4: [The river environment] outstanding cultural resources could be contains outstanding examples or associated. These have been used in concentrations of historical or provincial systems studies and in organizing archaeological structures, works or sites which are representative of major themes many nomination documents. This in Canadian history. framework does not use the same themes, so

______A Cultural Framework for Canadian Heritage Rivers - 35 - Design Considerations 3.1.1 Interpretation of “Native Peoples” The first guideline provides specific direction for the definition of themes. In The first guideline lists “Native people” as a particular, the reference to Native peoples historical theme whose representation might required elaboration of Aboriginal activities be a justification for conferring outstanding in the framework. Canadian value on a river. This framework’s themes are defined as activities while the The second guideline lists certain types of term “Native people” encompasses a potential theme representations rather than spectrum of Aboriginal people's activities actual themes or types of human activities. It and therefore potentially a complex range of is therefore of value primarily in guiding the themes. Cultural resources associated with implementation of the framework at which Native peoples' history and historic places time the phrase “strongly associated” must can therefore be assigned at many places in be interpreted (see section 4.6 below). the framework.

The third guideline contains no direct Two significant current trends in Native implications for theme definitions referring, history are “inclusiveness” and Aboriginal as in the case of the second guideline, only authority over Aboriginal cultural resources, to types of potential theme representations. including traditional knowledge. In this It has implications for implementation of the regard, the following interpretation of the framework and it may be noted that the selection guidelines was made in framework is helpful in defining the elusive formulating the framework. It is consistent qualities: “unique” and “rare”. A simple with important principles of Canadian public count of the number of existing policy towards Aboriginal culture that have representations of any element (or arisen since the CHRS selection guidelines regional/temporal variations) enables a were adopted. quick assessment of rarity within the CHRS; a total of one will indicate uniqueness. Until recently, social scientists and cultural program managers assumed that Aboriginal The fourth guideline contains direct and Euro-Canadian history were separate; reference to “major themes” of Canadian the most noteworthy events in Aboriginal history but does not define what these are. history were thought to have occurred before The framework attempts to do precisely this contact with Europeans, and reliable and a discussion of how they might be documentation of pre-contact history (“pre- defined is presented below in section 3.1.4. history” and “proto-history”) was sought through archaeology. Textbooks and This chapter thus discusses how themes and regional histories contained an obligatory sub-themes were derived from Guidelines 1 first chapter on Native people and then and 4 (sections 3.1.1 to 3.1.4), including an largely omitted them from the narrative once explanation of how the guidelines were Europeans were well-established in their interpreted in developing the framework. former territories.

______A Cultural Framework for Canadian Heritage Rivers - 36 - Design Considerations Academics and public agencies now of those shores. In northern Canada, where recognize the continuity of Aboriginal the present inhabitants use the land in many experience; they acknowledge that First of the same ways as their ancestors did for Nations preserve crucial elements of the centuries, nomination documents assert with culture and traditional knowledge of their particular emphasis on the importance of ancestors, and that “contact” is no longer an traditional knowledge to an inventory of absolute demarcation between two special places. watertight categories of Canadian history, an Aboriginal history and a Euro-Canadian one. In this thematic framework, the river-related Much traditional knowledge and many activities of Aboriginal people are ancient values have endured to the present, accommodated under all five themes. The and Native people's understanding of methodology for detecting and defining archaeological sites needs to be respected. Aboriginal in situ representations of these themes on particular rivers will include the For many Canadian cultural resource usual documentary and archaeological managers, the Report of the Federal research, combined with consultation with Cultural Policy Review Committee traditional knowledge-bearers and other (1982:11) offered a first exposure to this Aboriginal decision-makers. new approach to Native culture and history. The so-called Applebaum-Hebert Report 3.1.2 Interpretation of “Settlement argued for “a special place in cultural Patterns” policy” for Aboriginal people. It asserted that “the cultural traditions of the original The first selection guideline also identifies peoples are uniquely rooted in this country” “settlement patterns” as an example of a and that “the original cultural traditions have significant historical theme that may be a set of values and aesthetic standards which river-related. In Canada, there are two have not been easily accommodated within overlapping senses of what settlement the usual structures and practices of federal means. In some uses, the term seems cultural institutions.” synonymous with surveying and clearing land and bringing it into production. The All of this is important to the Canadian term also has a more European sense which Heritage Rivers program. In the past 10 includes the development of villages and years, many systems studies and nomination more densely populated places, in documents have given special weight to connection with many economic activities archaeological evidence of pre-contact besides agriculture. As a theme, “settlement Aboriginal use of rivers. Some, however, patterns” could encompass practically all of also deal with the recent past and present the more sedentary kinds of human activity, (such as the Mohawk presence in the Grand swallowing up many related thematic areas. River Valley) or with old sites of enduring In addition to that drawback, the phrase does significance, such as the continuous not help to distinguish which settlement- knowledge and use of healing springs along related activities are most closely related to the Hillsborough River through periods of rivers. Mi'kmaq, Acadian, and Scottish occupancy

______A Cultural Framework for Canadian Heritage Rivers - 37 - Design Considerations In this framework settlement patterns are 4.2.4), methods of cultivation, animal addressed in sub-theme 3.1 Siting of husbandry or woodlot maintenance that are Dwellings: Dispersed Dwellings in found near rivers are examples. For Settlement Pattern. The main examples are riverside locations in more urban settings, survey systems, land-granting policies, and building styles, cultural events and exhibits, water resource allocation schemes that have and even ghettoes, are examples. been most strongly affected by the characteristics of adjacent rivers. The 3.1.3 Interpretation of “Transportation” distinctive narrow-fronted river-lots of Quebec and Red River form one type of The first CHRS selection guideline also example, and the extensive irrigated districts identifies “transportation” as an example of of southwestern Alberta provide another. a significant historical theme which could justify nomination of a river to the CHRS. A settlement is considered here to be river- This framework also includes transportation related if river transport was essential to its as the second of the five river-related themes early development and survival or if it grew of Canada's past. It is included under the as a result of the existence of a crossing of theme title Water Transport. This title is some type. Settlement patterns themselves, intended to be inclusive of the conveyance such as the Nova Scotian grants to Loyalists of people and their baggage, the movement or the Ontario grid system, are not of goods in bulk, and the provision of automatically river-related phenomena. ancillary services, and is organized Within a grid system, however, irregular- according to the purpose of these activities. shaped lots and roads that follow rivers can Often the routes and the technology of be viewed as river-related. As a rough rule transportation were very closely related as in of thumb, a settlement activity has been the case of fur trade routes which were used accepted as river-related if the presence of a by canoes and York boats. This close river led people to design land-holdings that relationship of location, activity and clearly departed from regional norms. mechanism, and the numerous potential representations of them that exist in Canada, A distinction should be made between this is reflected in the decision to make Water sub-theme element and sub-theme element Transport a separate theme. 4.2.3 Cultural Landscapes. The latter are not usually the result of a survey system or 3.1.4 Interpretation of “Major Themes” over-reaching system of original land settlement visible from the air. Cultural The fourth human heritage guideline states landscapes are considered in this framework that a river environment may be recognized to be any outward signs of uniformity among when it contains structures, works or sites dwellings or other structures or any land that are representative of major themes in uses that have a large scale visible impact Canadian history. The expression “major on the landscape. Thus, particular themes” is not defined. architectural styles, sometimes ethnically associated and not necessarily responding to There may be as many interpretations of the a riverside location (sub-theme element term “major themes” as there are

______A Cultural Framework for Canadian Heritage Rivers - 38 - Design Considerations jurisdictions in Canada. When the CHRS accelerate research to fill niches in existing was created, many jurisdictions had already priorities, not to supplant old national adopted thematic approaches to their priorities with new ones. Recent trends in programs of historical commemoration. In grants and conferences are therefore not Parks Canada's case, two approaches have necessarily an indication of a consensus on been considered. Seven major themes what are “major themes” for Canadians to proposed by Gentilcore (1978) provide a study today. thoughtful presentation of past human activity within the national parks system. So far as the Canadian Heritage Rivers His emphasis, however, was strongly System is concerned, “major themes in economic, and cultural patterns in particular Canadian history” can only be defined were (at best) accorded sub-theme status. subjectively by people working from time to The National Historic Parks Systems Plan time within the system. The present (1981) is problematical for the opposite framework is one such attempt. If it seems reason: its 79 themes are not weighted for more at home among the scholarly priorities their actual importance to Canadian history, of the years before 1970, this is because that as they were meant to be as theoretical and period was more preoccupied than the inclusive as possible. 1990's with the material expressions of human activity, which can more easily be In looking for definitions of the term represented by in situ tangible resources. In “major”, Canadian historians, not other respects the framework, particularly surprisingly, do not offer a consensus view through Theme 4, Culture and Recreation, of the difference between major and minor acknowledges the results of more abstract themes. In the early 1930s, for example, influences such as culture and spirituality to there seems to have been a broad agreement the extent that those themes are reflected in that governance, settlement, staple resource tangible representations of Canadians' past industries and economic development were use of river environments. the most important things to study and to teach. In the 1990s, many historians are using the concepts of class, gender, ethnicity 3.2 Examination of Related and region to organize their efforts. These Documents themes of the new social history are not, in themselves, independent of the earlier 3.2.1 Other Cultural Frameworks themes of governance, settlement and economic development, but they are thought Framework approaches are not common in of as better lenses for examining the causes historical commemorative or conservation and effects of changes in past human systems; they are exclusively found in the behaviour. domain of public agencies which manage a complex program of protection and In the research community, strategic grants commemoration over quite a broad area. For programs and special-interest conferences obvious reasons, national framework studies give some indication of changing priorities are even more rare, and often employ a in research, but many of these are efforts to

______A Cultural Framework for Canadian Heritage Rivers - 39 - Design Considerations different methodology from approaches facet level. In 1987, the revised thematic developed for smaller regions. framework split activities much more finely Between 1977 and 1981, Parks Canada into themes — some 34 of them. commissioned two detailed thematic Subsequently, the USNPS in 1995 adopted a approaches to Canadian history. The first, new thematic framework offering eight written by Gentilcore (1978), was designed categories of historical action of a highly to help national park interpreters address the generalized nature (e.g. “Peopling Places”), most appropriate national themes as well as with the additional consideration that each obvious local ones when they presented the of these themes is cross-cut by three human history of their parks. The second, historical building blocks: time, place, and the National Historic Parks (NHP) Systems people. Plan, was assembled by a team of historians and planners over several years and was For this framework, use was made of both approved in 1981; it guides research and the Topical Organization of Ontario planning for new national historic sites. History, (n.d. 1975?) and Alberta's Master Plan: Prehistoric and Historic Resources Gentilcore (1978) identified seven key (n.d. 1982?). A draft plan for historic themes in Canadian history and identified resources in the Northwest Territories was the ones that were most pertinent to each of also consulted. On balance, Ontario's the 39 natural regions of Canada, as Topical Organization had more influence established for national parks purposes. The than the other frameworks, because it NHP Systems Plan divides all of Canadian focused on human activities rather than history into three categories, Social, institutions or abstract concepts, and because Economic, and Political, and further it grappled most openly with the difficulty of subdivides these into 79 themes and 339 showing continuity while acknowledging sub-themes. Very few themes in the NHP temporal and spatial diversity. In addition, Systems Plan are specific as to time or place. like the Topical Organization, in the present The document encourages an analytical framework each theme is introduced by a approach in which historic persons, places, narrative section. or events may be “slotted” into one or more themes, which are distinguished from each 3.2.2 Provincial and Territorial Systems other chiefly by categories of human Studies and Nomination Documents behaviour, as distinct from place or time. Seven provinces and both territories have Two frameworks devised by the United prepared systematic approaches to help States National Parks Service (USNPS) guide their participation in the Canadian [1982, 1987] offer divergent approaches to Heritage Rivers System. As of the end of the practices of combining and splitting sub- 1999, some 35 sections of 32 rivers had been themes and elements. In 1982 all the nominated to the system by provincial and dominant themes in United States history territorial river managers. While systems were compressed into nine themes. As a studies and nomination documents serve result, many activities or institutions that are different purposes, they collectively central to an understanding of U.S. history comprise a body of applied research were represented only at the sub-theme or literature that describes what local river

______A Cultural Framework for Canadian Heritage Rivers - 40 - Design Considerations managers in Canada might regard as the agencies' past decisions. cultural heritage of rivers. The present version of the framework differs from the C Consider cultural frameworks to be original version in that it addresses only secondary to natural frameworks. As manageable components of river heritage mentioned earlier, some CHRS that are normally identified in management documents approached natural resource plans. In the sense that the CHRS comprises issues with greater sophistication than river heritage representative of each cultural ones. In some cases, this even constituent political entity of Canada as resulted in overlooking potential independent components, this is true. cultural resources. In the case of the However, if most Canadians perceive Alsek River nomination, longstanding Canada’s river heritage from a national activities of First Nations on the river perspective, their expectation will be that the were ignored, in part because the CHRS comprises a nationally balanced set pristine nature of the river appeared to of rivers and river sections. indicate an absence of human occupation and therefore of cultural Provincial and territorial CHRS systems value. This framework will be plans take different approaches to the task of implemented in concert with the natural classifying human works that relate to the framework. heritage of rivers. While a general debt to the authors of these documents is C Identify actual rivers. The decisions acknowledged, this framework departs from on which rivers will be nominated to approaches that were found in many of the the CHRS may be guided by this systems studies and nomination documents framework but not dictated. No rivers in three ways. Many provincial and are identified as potential candidates. It territorial approaches: is anticipated that river managers will seek to nominate rivers which first meet C Allow for the inclusion of all human the priorities identified in their own history. Some CHRS nominations and systems studies and second rivers which systems documents treat all of the also fill gaps identified in the national human history found near a river as part system by this framework. of the cultural heritage values of the river. Some nomination documents Furthermore, examination of some of these borrow heavily from systems plans that documents indirectly illustrated the do this, and others imitate the past importance of research on specific rivers. In commemorative activities of a variety some nomination documents, the of other non-river-oriented programs. significance of a river's history were The risk in these approaches is that exaggerated, while in others, significant rivers might be selected which duplicate values were missed. In lone, a river of great terrestrial, or at least non-river-related, historical interest was left on the sidelines protected and commemorated sites. In because its history, though illustrated by addition, these documents may outstanding river-related historic resources, introduce into the selection process the represented few themes as defined and biases or inconsistencies of other counted by the provincial systems study.

______A Cultural Framework for Canadian Heritage Rivers - 41 - Design Considerations For the development of the cultural In the United States, a "traditional cultural framework, the value of these systems property" must be used for a ritual or social studies and nomination documents lies in purpose by a cultural group for 50 years their varied inventories of the cultural before it can be nominated to the National resources of specific rivers and the thought- Register of Historic Properties. This provoking diversity of their approaches to framework does not propose arbitrary defining river-related history. chronological tests of eligibility, but such criteria may need to be developed in future. 3.3 Compatibility with Other Although they resist systematic Heritage Policies classification, questions like “How old is it?” or “How long did it last?” are often used Ideally, CHRS member agencies will find to answer the more fundamental question, that this framework works well alongside “How important is it?” The narratives of cultural resource management policies in some of the above theme descriptions, place in their jurisdictions. For Parks notably Hydraulic Power Generation (Sub- Canada, the approaches advocated in this theme 1.3.2) and Jurisdictional Use (Theme framework are felt to be compatible with the 5) briefly discuss the relevance of potential “Cultural Resource Management Policy,” representations from the standpoint of their part of Parks Canada's Guiding Principles age, both absolute and relative to others of and Operational Policies. In effect, their type. application of the framework would correspond to the first two of the four practices of cultural resource management outlined in that policy (1994:106-07). First, there must be an inventory of resources that appear to be river-related; and second, there needs to be an evaluation of their historic value in order to decide on which ones to include. It is expected that these general policies will not conflict with those of other governments that implement the framework.

On the important issue of determining the significance of cultural values and theme representations, policies of heritage agencies differ or are moot. This framework is no different. There is no “magic number” for determining the length of time for which a place or object must have cultural meaning to be considered a river-related cultural resource. In Canada, the Federal Heritage Buildings Review Office will evaluate buildings if they are more than 40 years old.

______A Cultural Framework for Canadian Heritage Rivers - 42 - Design Considerations 4.0 IMPLEMENTING THE FRAMEWORK

4.1 Potential Framework Users 4.2 Limitations in Applying the Framework Some of the cultural frameworks examined for this study were designed to be This cultural heritage framework will be implemented by a permanent staff of useful if it is applied to real choices in the historians, archaeologists, and historic site process of identifying, assessing and planners. The approach adopted in this managing the cultural resources of rivers. It cultural framework for rivers is more general is intended to be used as a tool with which to than these because its application will be the recognize and classify river-related human responsibility of planners with training and heritage. However, it does not address the experience primarily in management of various means of commemoration, natural resources. Historians or protection or management of rivers, nor does archaeologists might not become involved it address any actual rivers, sites and until it is time to implement management resources that may represent its themes. plans for individual rivers. In fact, historians have a vital contribution to make The framework will help the CHR Board to to the identification, evaluation, identify what pieces of Canada’s river presentation, and monitoring of cultural heritage are and are not represented by rivers resources connected with rivers (as well as currently in the system. For those elements with other environments). that are not already represented in the System, the framework allows river The framework is therefore intended to be managers to identify the values each new detailed and analytical enough to ensure that nomination might bring to the system as a the complexity of the past is being respected. whole. However, the framework does not History is the social science that analyses dictate subsequent selection decisions. A change over time, and change, or the lack of single example should make this clear. The it, is central to any understanding of the long-distance canoe routes from Montréal to cultural heritage of rivers. In addition, the the Mackenzie River, or from Montréal to framework must also be readily understood the mouth of the Columbia, are among the and applied by a range of professional most historic waterways in their respective disciplines. regions. Several links in this route are already in the CHRS. Whether or not In short, this framework should satisfy the additional elements of this route are worthy professional requirements of historians, of inclusion will be a matter for the Board to archaeologists and protected area planners decide. The framework will not dictate a alike. The present version is intended to be judgement about whether this is unnecessary more suited to planners, who are accustomed duplication, or just a good start. to focusing their attention on tangible in situ resources. A further limitation in applying the

______A Cultural Framework for Canadian Heritage Rivers - 43 - Implementing the Framework framework can be observed in its use as a familiar sense of human history. Among means of providing for a balanced professional bodies and agencies concerned representation of Canada’s river heritage. with heritage, the term “cultural resource” While the present framework attempts to has recently come into vogue to describe define elements which are of roughly equal things that have “human heritage value.” importance in Canada’s river heritage, users Parks Canada defines a cultural resource as may have to address the fact that not all “human work, or a place that gives evidence elements described in this framework are of human activity or has spiritual or cultural likely to be of equal "weight", particularly meaning, and that has been determined to be when it is applied across all regions of of historic value” (Parks Canada 1994:101). Canada. Some themes may, for example, So far as physical objects and places are need to be represented more than once, concerned, the CHRS term “human heritage especially where there are distinct regional value” is interchangeable with the term or historical “variations on a theme.” “cultural resource.” An object or place that Adequate theme representation is determined not to be of historic value is may—indeed, often will—require more by definition not a cultural resource. complex judgements than a simple count of which elements have any representation and A human heritage value is a human which have none. work, or a place that gives evidence of human activity or has spiritual or 4.3 Interpreting Key Terms cultural meaning, and that has been determined, by any agency that has According to the CHRS Objectives, appropriate jurisdiction, to be of Principles and Procedures (1984), historic value. In situ physical evidence “outstanding human heritage value will be of remote and intangible things such as recognized when a river environment meets travel accounts, stories, songs, one or more of the ... guidelines”. Neither traditions, beliefs and information may “human heritage” nor “river environment” is also be considered as human heritage defined in existing CHRS policy documents values. sufficiently clearly to enable the practical recognition of which values located near 4.3.2 “River Environment” rivers, or elsewhere, are relevant and which are not. As a logical minimum, the river environment (for cultural or any other 4.3.1 “Human Heritage Values” purposes) cannot be defined as a smaller area than the bed of the river at the time of “Heritage” is one of several terms used to minimum flow in summer. And in keeping describe tangible and intangible inheritances with the CHRS Objectives, Principles and from the past that are judged to be worth Procedures (Parks Canada. 1984:3) the protecting and transmitting to future river's “immediate environment” obviously generations. Serving as both noun and does not reach beyond the watershed of the adjective, “heritage” has in many contexts river and all its tributaries. Within these simply displaced the word “history,” both in limits, the river environment might be the sense of natural history and the more defined according to rigid physical criteria

______A Cultural Framework for Canadian Heritage Rivers - 44 - Implementing the Framework or variable physical criteria, or according to by it. Spatially, this “environment” does not conceptual criteria, which are inherently necessarily consist of adjoining areas: subjective and therefore flexible: functional links would be more important than physical ones. Conceptual criteria were in fact adopted. A definition of “river environment” has been The following definition of a river developed which provides some guidance in environment therefore includes the river determining which cultural resources are itself, activities in the stream and on the related to rivers and which are primarily banks, and allows for explaining to related to the land. Even though certain Canadians how their forebears used and land-based activities might have great valued rivers in their natural state, and how historical interest, they and their related they altered them in the past. heritage values do not help represent the themes of this framework, and it should be A river environment includes the river recognized that the CHRS is not the within its normal course, and all nearby appropriate vehicle to recognize or protect sites where human activities have affected them. the river or have been directly affected by the river. In spatial terms, the river environment includes only those areas that are in physical 4.3.3 “Historic Period of Outstanding proximity to the river and which can be Importance” managed through traditional protected area management or alternative stewardship and The CHRS Objectives, Principles and other forms of land management Procedures (1984) contains a historical agreements. integrity value guideline which must be considered in order for a river’s nomination Also of concern, in both the design of the to be judged acceptable. framework and its application, is the need to exclude human activities that occur within In every case consideration should be river environments, and even on the banks given to the state of preservation of the of rivers themselves, that are irrelevant to river environment relative to its visual the river, as the river is to the activity. Many appearance during the historic period in of these activities could easily be performed which the waterway is considered to be of elsewhere. Moreover, while some more outstanding importance. distant activities, such as transmission of hydroelectricity or original paintings of Difficulties may arise in meeting this rivers, are functionally related to the river, guideline if, for instance, a river's historical these are not potential representations importance coincided with degradation of its because they are not in situ. natural values. For example, the busiest period of historic transport activity on the These considerations suggest an approach to Yukon River led to the stripping of timber defining “river environments” in terms of along its banks. It may also be noted that on the sites and other evidence of human some rivers, several periods contribute activity that affect the river or are affected equally to historical significance, and the

______A Cultural Framework for Canadian Heritage Rivers - 45 - Implementing the Framework fact that in situ resources decay. The sub-themes and elements of this In general, most activities that can be called framework reflect either (1) human uses of river-related have declined, or have become the river or (2) influences of rivers on concentrated at fewer locations, with the human activity. The two facets — uses and development of technology. Before 1830, influences — are present throughout the for example, most of the trade of Ontario's framework. Although it proved too difficult Grand River communities was carried on the to organize the framework around this river. Development of roads in the 1830s distinction it may be useful for users of the and railways in the 1840s made those framework to be able to observe communities less dependent on waterways. duplications and overlaps that would have Motor vehicles and better roads have shrunk occurred if such a division had been made. even further the number of communities that depend on rivers. 4.4.1 Human Uses of Rivers

In two respects the economic and Human uses of rivers provided the basis for technological development of the 20th the formulation of key themes and sub- century have made more visible marks on themes described in this document. Uses rivers than the activities of earlier centuries. include: The first is hydroelectricity, with its ever- C in-stream and shoreline harvesting of larger dams and reservoirs. The second is resources, especially biotic ones; the rapid growth and urbanization of C moving people and goods on the Canada, which increased the amount of surface of rivers; water taken by municipal water supply C impounding river water or diverting systems and the discharge of human wastes. its course for hydraulic power ; In all other respects a technologically C extracting water from rivers; advanced society is likely to make less direct C as natural defenses; use of rivers. Haslam (1991:204) cites C defining borders along rivers examples of rivers whose economic C recreational touring. importance has fallen off, with an accompanying decline in the quantity and The tangible evidence of these uses takes quality of the water: pollution, aquifers, and many shapes—boats, wharves, dams, locks, substitute technologies or commodities mills, irrigation channels, the infrastructure allowed the rivers to become redundant. for municipal and industrial water supply, Villages and towns may be river-dependent fortifications, or cairns and survey markers. at one time in history and then cease to need Sometimes old activities themselves the river as economic development continue as a reminder of historic use—low proceeds. “That which is needed by man is impact activities like fishing are an example. maintained; that which is not may easily be lost.” In this vein, another in-stream use, wilderness canoeing, takes place on the river 4.4 Types of River-related but has a complex relationship with the river Human Activities and its environment. Canoeing is widely ascribed a role in education, character-

______A Cultural Framework for Canadian Heritage Rivers - 46 - Implementing the Framework building, and self-discovery (Hodgins. Public parks and private gardens are 1985:141-62), but the river is not so much developed along rivers, exploiting the the paddlers’ objective as the means of river's scenic values for aesthetic delivering them to their real Grail, reasons. Aspects of river-use, notably “wilderness.”Thus, early routes travelled for the allocation of rights to use water this activity can be included within element powers, may strongly influence the 4.3.1 Recreational Boating. social structure of a town for several generations or give rise to distinctive 4.4.2 Influences of Rivers on Human forms of civic governance (see Activities Akenson. 1984:286-88, discussing the evolution of l9th-century Gananoque, There are numerous activities that are river- Ont.). A river may be the site of rituals related but do not actually employ the water or other activities which have spiritual or resources found in streams. These value for participants or observers. activities are functionally river-related and Many of these spiritual values are reflect some form of compromise in human Aboriginal ones, but some are not. activities: Where there is in situ evidence, these offer appropriate representations of C Physical activities influenced by elements of this framework. rivers. Bridge-building is a prime example of a human activity that is Human activities which demonstrate the connected to rivers but makes no direct influence of rivers on human activities use the river's resources. Functionally, include: bridges belong to the land and its network of road and rail C fords, ferries, bridges, causeways and communications, not to the river or its tunnels water. Fords, ferries, causeways, and C land survey and settlement patterns tunnels likewise look for ways to influenced by rivers overcome rivers, not to use them. In the C evidence of activities based on spiritual same vein, floodways and dykes are beliefs and rituals human responses to rivers as threats. C in situ cultural and artistic expressions Even though in these cases the river is C evidence of issues of governance, such not an asset but an obstacle or a threat, as boundaries that follow rivers these activities are all intimately bound C evidence of efforts to protect natural up with the human activities involving river environments from degradation rivers and are suitable for inclusion in this framework's themes. All of these activities can result in the creation of cultural resources representing a C Evidence of the influence of rivers on relationship between people and rivers, and intellectual activities. Many other all are included in the elements of this cultural, economic, and recreational framework. However, while spiritual beliefs activities are closely related to rivers and rituals, such as baptism; often have a but do not involve the physical use of physical aspect as well as a strong symbolic water or other in-stream resources. one, these activities do not easily fit into the

______A Cultural Framework for Canadian Heritage Rivers - 47 - Implementing the Framework categories of the framework. Many of them Along Canadian rivers, these resources are therefore assigned to Theme 4, Culture range in size and purpose from flint and Recreation, a very broad category of arrowheads to paddlewheel steamers. cultural phenomena. Some may be in situ; others may have been removed to nearby museums or 4.5 Types of Potential Theme other locations but these may still be Representations considered representative of the framework if they are still within the Cultural resources or “human heritage river’s immediate environment. values” may be classified in various ways, but the system used in this framework is iii) The river itself must also be particularly appropriate to rivers. considered as a cultural resource — a linear site of special associative i) In situ resources are the physical significance. For many Aboriginal remains of past human activity that peoples, the river itself, provider of remain in their original places. These transport, food, water, and sometimes may exist below-ground, or above- medicine, embodied much of their ground as entire structures or as ruins. culture. European explorers and Submerged objects, including the surveyors, to whom a considerable debt remains of structures that once rose is owed for opening Canada to above normal water levels, are also in immigration, left few tangible signs of situ cultural resources, though it is their journeys, and the routes recognized that their management may themselves must be considered pose special problems. representations of elements 2.3.1 French Exploration and 2.3.2 British The CHRS integrity guidelines Exploration. Moreover, each Canadian (Guidelines. 1991:29) speak not only of heritage river today has a small corps of the integrity of river environments but advocates and enthusiasts for whom also the importance of cultural protection of the river's heritage values resources in their original places. The is of cultural and at times spiritual long-term manageability of all kinds of importance. cultural resources is an important consideration, and the most complex Excluded from Version 2 of this framework questions will revolve around in situ are intangible cultural resources including resources. These contribute strongly to beliefs, associations, stories, and legends. the sense of place that distinguishes While these are sometimes the basis upon many cultural sites. which the cultural value of wilderness rivers is asserted and recognized, particularly in ii) In situ moveable cultural resources terms of Aboriginal history, they are only are objects whose physical integrity is relevant where they can substantiate the unharmed if they are taken out of the presence of in situ cultural resources in the context where they are found, although river environment. they might lose some of their value. Close relationships may exist between

______A Cultural Framework for Canadian Heritage Rivers - 48 - Implementing the Framework intangible values and in situ and moveable and described from any of these perspectives ones. Tales and memories of Sir Alexander is likely not a river-related human activity. Mackenzie's cross-Canada travels are an example. A copy of his published Narrative C Midstream perspective: As well as provides detail of the route itself as well as observing activities being carried on in numerous sites of important events that midstream, such as fishing, this occurred during the journeys. These are in perspective also looks towards the situ representations of the journey. banks to see how the river is incorporated into, or neglected by, the 4.6 Determining River- activities of local populations. Relatedness C Riverbank perspective: Human Not all theme representations are created actions viewed from this perspective equal. The historical significance and include the harvesting of shoreline condition of cultural resources will be a resources, diversion of water to mills major factor when considering the degree to and riverside industries and the which a sub-theme element is represented in extraction of water for activities such as the system but is also of importance in irrigation and municipal water supply. deciding whether or not a particular cultural Activities such as the return of used resource should be considered as water and the conversion of tributaries representative of an element of this into drains become highly visible from framework. this perspective. C All values identified through this framework Remote Perspective: The third must be river-related, but as Haslam perspective consists of looking, so to (1991:113) observes that in Britain “New speak, over the shoulders of people who industrial estates ... often develop on the old use the river for cultural or governance [riparian] industrial site.... They are not purposes, to see how their relationship related to the river, they just happen to be with the river produces in situ evidence put by it.” Industrialization often used to be of beliefs and rituals as well as a river-related phenomenon, but much recent jurisdictional uses, public buildings, or industrialization uses electricity for power demarcations of boundaries. and on highways and railways for transport. It uses neighbouring rivers for little more 4.6.2 Functional River-relatedness than a cheap water supply and, perhaps, for waste disposal. As the framework is applied to cultural resources across Canada, one of the most 4.6.1 Physical River-relatedness challenging exercises will be to determine the functional association between the river In applying the framework it is useful to and each of the cultural resources and consider that relationships between people human activities within its environment. The and rivers can be seen from three physical nature of this issue is best illustrated by two perspectives. An activity that cannot be seen examples: agriculture and built heritage.

______A Cultural Framework for Canadian Heritage Rivers - 49 - Implementing the Framework C Agriculture: Farming is closely sites which are unique, rare or of great associated with flowing water; it rarely antiquity.” The fourth guideline also exist far away from it. Moreover, recognizes “outstanding examples or terrain and soils that are suitable for concentrations of historical or agriculture are frequently concentrated archaeological structures, works or sites in the floodplains of larger valleys; which are representative of major uplands and tributary valleys are often themes in Canadian history.” These less suitable for crops or even for two guidelines seem to imply that such grazing. Rivers and streams provide cultural resources can be a basis for water for crops and animals and also river nomination even if the sites carry off surplus water. While Canada themselves are not related to the river. has many rivers without agriculture, The relevance of such sites to this practically all agriculture is conducted framework therefore needs to be spelled in close proximity to a river system. out carefully.

Paradoxically, this makes it more No problem arises where river-side difficult to assign a place to agriculture structures or archaeological sites are in the framework, for it is essentially a functionally river-related, such as the land-based activity. Soil quality and industrial complexes on the middle slope (as well as precipitation and reaches of Ontario's Grand River. Pre- temperature) govern people's ability to contact Aboriginal fish-weirs will be make a living from the land, and it is dealt with in the same way — as difficult to offer an “outstanding” cultural resources that effectively representation of the functional illustrate element 1.1.1 Aboriginal relationship between water and farming Prehistoric Fishing. The when the connection is so ubiquitous. archaeological remains of a water-mill can represent sub-theme element 1.3.1 For these reasons, river-related Power Generation, while the agricultural activity is rather narrowly submerged cargo of an overturned fur defined in the framework, to be limited trade canoe, a distinctive form of to a minority of farms which archaeological site (Wheeler et al. demonstrate in an unusually clear way 1975), would illustrate element 2.1.2 the relationships that can exist between Historic Human Powered Freight. In flowing water and agriculture. this framework these sites are important Therefore the related elements (1.3.3 to Canadian river heritage because of and 3.1.2) are mainly associated with their testimony to a human use of the irrigation and pioneer settlement. river, not because of its significance to the discipline of archaeology or chance C Built Heritage: As discussed in the location near a river. previous chapter, the third CHRS human heritage selection guideline Less clear-cut situations can be found in (Parks Canada, 1991:29) states that the built heritage whose function is heritage values of a river environment primarily land-related, but which is may include “... structures, works or sometimes sited on waterways for

______A Cultural Framework for Canadian Heritage Rivers - 50 - Implementing the Framework aesthetic or practical reasons: 4.8 Conclusion

C Churches: Churches are found in all The significance of cultural heritage values of Canada's settled places. often cannot be measured, but ought to be Sometimes the builders of churches identified and described. It is central to the have taken advantage of dramatic application of this framework that the river-front sites to enhance the human heritage of a river is best interpreted structure's impact or its beauty. Less and learned through its cultural resources. frequently, churches are on rivers An inventory and analysis of rivers' cultural because their congregations often resources and an evaluation of their travelled by water; for example, the significance are important steps towards Stanley Mission on the Churchill giving protection to the parts of Canada's River in Saskatchewan. Often a rivers that most deserve it. This framework church is on a river simply because provides a detailed methodology for the the habitations it serves are strung inventory and analysis, and a starting point out along water. In a departure from for the evaluation of significance. the first version of this framework, Version 2 allows for the inclusion of such sites under the theme of Culture and Recreation.

C Public Buildings: Similar observations can be made about legislative buildings. Their functions are land-based. In Halifax and Charlottetown, legislatures face bodies of water but are sited well back from the shores, aloof from the wharves and commercial districts that crowd around the harbours. In Ottawa, Edmonton, and Winnipeg,

legislatures occupy imposing river- front sites and although they face away from the water embody architectural features which reflect the riverside location, and are thus admissible representations of element 4.2.4 Architectural Responses.

All of these sites may be river-related to some degree if their designers, or later users, have deliberately incorporated the river into the appearance or use of the building or site.

______A Cultural Framework for Canadian Heritage Rivers - 51 - Implementing the Framework 5.0 BIBLIOGRAPHY

5.1 Commentary river history. Much has been written about the sense of place and about the Most of the published literature on Canadian management of special places, but the rivers deals with their natural resources; the special problems of identifying and number of books on the cultural history of managing linear sites like rivers form only a rivers is small. Of the works that are worth small part of the literature. noting, many deal with wilderness canoeing. Most of the surveyed literature on cultural The most eloquent studies of Canadian landscapes and on the management of rivers are novelist Hugh MacLennan's Seven cultural resources has little to contribute to Rivers of Canada (1960) and his copiously

______A Cultural Framework for Canadian Heritage Rivers - 52 - Bibliography illustrated Rivers of Canada (1974), which Not surprisingly, though, general histories of updated the original book with six new Canada take the role of rivers for granted. chapters to represent the provinces he had The best river histories are local histories omitted from the 1960 version. MacLennan (e.g. Fisher. 1985 and Dunham. 1947). Even wrote deeply and sensitively about the so, much regional history passes quickly history of some of Canada's most famous over the pioneer period when river transport river valleys; he both reflected and and hydraulic power were decisive to contributed to a sense that rivers are communities' fortunes. This introductory intertwined with the record of expansion by period was often brief, for as F.C. Hamil European societies into the northern half of wrote in his book on the Lower Thames North America. MacLennan set out to do for (1973:viii), "The present study closes with seven rivers what historian Donald the early 1850s, when the first railroad was Creighton achieved in The Commercial completed and the Thames River began to Empire of the St. Lawrence (1934) — to lose its importance as the main unifying draw a picture of the nation's history with influence of the region." the river at its centre. MacLennan's treatment was uneven, however, and in some Among the specialized studies dealing with chapters — notably the one on the in-stream human activity should be Saskatchewan — his history had far more to mentioned three thematic studies for the do with the land than with the river. Historic Sites and Monuments Board of Canada: Robert Passfield's Waterways of Canada (1988), Felicity Leung's Direct Historians other than Creighton have noted Drive Water Power in Canada: 1607–1910 the role of rivers in Canada's development. (1986) and E.F. Bush's History of A quick check of most indexes under the Hydroelectric Development in Canada heading "Waterways" (not "rivers") will (1986). As the purpose of these studies was usually turn up a number of perfunctory to chart the major economic and mentions of the importance of navigable technological changes in these industries on lakes and rivers to pioneer economies, as a cross-Canada basis, their conclusions lend well as more detailed analysis of the first themselves well to framework building. bout of canal-building that improved Canada's inland navigation routes between Much of the best writing on Canadian rivers 1820 and 1845. Robert Leggett's Canals of can be found in studies of canoe travel. For Canada (1976) deserves particular notice emotional power and fine writing Rugge and among studies of navigable waterways. Davidson's Labrador exploration story Great Rivers are well represented in histories of Heart (1989) is outstanding, while the dozen Canada's forest industries — squared timber, essays in Hodgins and Hobbs' Nastawgan lumber and pulp and paper — and the long- (1985) sketch the range of human reactions distance canoe routes and York Boat routes to the physical, competitive, spiritual and of the fur trade have received their due from character-building potential of paddling on historians. Likewise, publications on Canada's rivers. Hodgins and Hoyle's hydroelectricity are inevitably preoccupied Canoeing North into the Unknown (1994) is with rivers. a record of pioneer route-finding on many northern rivers, 1874–1974. Eric Morse's

______A Cultural Framework for Canadian Heritage Rivers - 53 - Bibliography Canoe Routes of Canada, commissioned by fifth edition. By no means all of the sheets Parks Canada in 1967 and still in print, is a in these two major undertakings deal with first-rate reference work for major pre- rivers, or with the human dimension of river industrial commercial waterways, while the history, but both these series offer same author's canoeing memoirs, published suggestive approaches and hard data from in 1987 as Whitewater Saga, are a reflective which this framework benefited. addition to the literature. Users of this framework will have their own favourite Among international sources, Sylvia canoeing books; the point to be made here is Haslam's The Historic River: Rivers and that on a shelf of non-scientific books about Culture Down the Ages (1991) was a Canadian rivers, a disproportionate amount constant source of insights even though none will be found to deal with self-propelled of her examples are drawn from North travel on rivers beyond the range of America. Tim Palmer's 1986 survey of settlement. Endangered Rivers and the Conservation Movement (Berkeley: University of Reference has already been made to Hodgins California Press) is of equal interest. A and Hobbs's (1985) Nastawgan; the broader international perspective (though a Canadian North by Canoe & Snowshoe. In more eclectic one topically) can be found in fact the 15 essays in this book deal far more the October 1988 special issue of Landscape with wilderness canoe travel than with any and Urban Planning, which deals with "The other theme, with particularly useful essays Landscape of Water". on the development of a philosophy and a business surrounding northern canoe A very different collective work deals with tripping (e.g. Benidickson, and two by Alberta rivers, often from a strong Hodgins) and an article on the business of environmentalist perspective. Bradley et al. canoe-building by Marsh. The article on the (1990), Flowing to the Future; Proceedings Kawartha Lakes regattas, however, of the Alberta's Rivers Conference, May emphasizes a more urbane type of river 11–13, 1989 repays careful reading from a recreation, as well as acknowledging the role cultural perspective: the articles express an of water sports as secular rituals. Hodgins understanding of the importance of rivers and Hoyle's Canoeing North into the from a number of viewpoints. The best Unknown includes brief regional treatments historical study is a favourable view of which constitute a fine summary of northern multipurpose water management, and is mineral exploration before the advent of the therefore, in spirit, untypical of the book as a bush plane, and the remoter developments of whole (Melnychuk 1990). recreational canoeing. Nevertheless, more such conferences, and Among noteworthy historical studies are the more books of this type, will encourage the three volumes in the Historical Atlas of view that environmental preservation and Canada published by the University of cultural heritage preservation are part of the Toronto Press, and the National Atlas of same movement—and that in the 20th Canada, including both the last bound century environmental degradation and loss edition (the Atlas's fourth) and the separate of cultural heritage are also related sheets published seriatim and unbound as a (Environment Canada 1993; McMahon and

______A Cultural Framework for Canadian Heritage Rivers - 54 - Bibliography Watson 1993). 5.1 Select Bibliography

Because rivers have attracted so much Abel, Kerry and Jean Friesen. 1991. human effort in the past, they will be an Aboriginal Resource Use in Canada: obvious focus for studies that cross this Historical and Legal Aspects (Winnipeg: boundary between natural and cultural University of Manitoba Press). history. The methodologies for both fields of study and activism need to be the same—a Akenson, Donald H. 1984. The Irish in careful inventory of heritage values at each Ontario; a Study in Rural History (Kingston point along a waterway, an understanding of and Montréal: McGill-Queen's University these values in a regional and national Press). context, and due acknowledgment of the complexity of the interactions between Anderson, Letty. 1988. "Water-Supply", in human communities and other natural Ball, Building Canada, 195–220. phenomena. Andrews, Jeanne ed. 1993. Flooding; Canada Water Book (Ottawa: Environment Canada, Ecosystem Sciences and Evaluation Directorate).

Assembly of First Nations and Canadian Museums Association. 1992. Turning the Page: Forging New Partnerships Between Museums and First Peoples (Ottawa: Task Force Report on Museums and First Peoples).

Ball, Norman, ed. 1988. Building Canada: A History of Public Works (Toronto: University of Toronto Press).

Baldwin, Douglas. 1988. "Sewerage" in Ball, Building Canada, 221–44.

Bankes, Nigel D. 1991. "The Board of Investigation and the Water Rights of Indian Reserves in British Columbia, 1909 to 1926", in Abel and Friesen, Aboriginal Resource Use, 219–47.

Barris, Theodore. 1978. Fire Canoe; Prairie Steamboat Days Revisited (Toronto: McClelland and Stewart).

______A Cultural Framework for Canadian Heritage Rivers - 55 - Bibliography Bradley, Cheryl, Albert A. Einsiedel Jr., Tim Davidson, James West, and John Rugge Pyrch and Kevin Van Tighem, eds. 1990. 1983. The Complete Wilderness Paddler Flowing to the Future; Proceedings of the (New York: Vintage Books). First published Alberta's Rivers Conference May 1–13, in 1975. 1989. (Edmonton: University of Alberta ---. 1989. Great Heart: The History of a Faculty of Extension). Labrador Adventure (Harmondsworth: Penguin). Canada. Canadian Heritage. 1994. Parks Canada Guiding Principles and Operational Demayo, Adrian. 1993. Glossary of Water Policies. (Ottawa: Minister of Supply and Terms, English-French [not located] Services). Dene Cultural Institute. 1989. Dehcho: Canada. Environment Canada. n.d. The "Mom, We've Been Discovered!" Nature of Canada: A Primer on Spaces and (Yellowknife: DCI). Species. (Consultation Edition. Ottawa). Denis, Leo G. 1916. Water Works and Canada. National Atlas Information Service. Sewerage Systems (Ottawa: Commission of 1983. MCR 4069: Canada— Electricity Conservation). Brief descriptions of the age, Generation and Transmission (1:5,000,000). consumption, and other quantifiable attributes of 396 municipal and 132 Canada. Water Resources Branch. 1959. privately-owned water supply systems in Proceedings of Symposium No. 1; Spillway Canadian municipalities in 1915. Supersedes Design Floods (Ottawa: Northern Affairs Denis's earlier work (without sewage data) and National Resources). Includes historical published 1912. survey of the development of the hydrometric survey programme since 1894. Dunham, B. Mabel. 1947. Grand River (Toronto: McClelland and Stewart). Canadian Heritage Rivers Board Secretariat 1991. Canadian Heritage Rivers System Duquemin, Colin K., and Daniel J. Glenney Guidelines, Ottawa (mimeographed). 1991. The Grand River Canal. Rev. ed.. (Fonthill: St. John's Outdoor Studies Canadian Heritage Rivers System. 1984. Centre). Niagara South Board of Education Objectives, Principles and Procedures Outdoor Studies Pamphlet No. 111. (Ottawa: Parks Canada for the CHRS). Eastern Irrigation District. 1985. Tapping Canadian Water Resources Association. the Bow (Brooks, Alta.: Eastern Irrigation 1988. Managing Ontario's Streams, eds. J. District). Fitzgibbon and P. Mason (Cambridge, Ont.: CWRA). Fisher, Sidney Thornton. 1985. The —. 1992. Resolving Conflicts and Merchant-Millers of the Humber Valley; A Uncertainty in Water Management. Study of the Early Economy of Canada Proceedings of the 45th Annual Conference, (Toronto: NC Press). Kingston Ont.

______A Cultural Framework for Canadian Heritage Rivers - 56 - Bibliography Gossage, Peter. 1985. Water in Canadian Books). History: An Overview (Ottawa: Environment Canada, Inquiry on Federal Water Policy). Hodgins, Bruce, and Gwyneth Hoyle 1994. Canoeing North into the Unknown; A Gresswell, R. Kay. 1958. The Physical Record of River Travel: 1874 to 1974 Geography of Rivers and Valleys (Andover, (Toronto: Natural Heritage/Natural History Hants: Hulton Educational Publications). Inc.).

Hallett, Brian. 1987. "Timber on the Holzkamm, Tim E., and Victor P. Lytwyn, Rivers", in The Archivist 14:5 (Sept.–Oct.) and Leo G. Waisberg. 1991. "Rainy River 4–5. Sturgeon: An Ojibway Resource in the Fur Trade Economy", in Abel and Friesen, Hamil, Fred Coyne. 1951. The Valley of the Aboriginal Resource Use, 119–40. Lower Thames, 1640–1850 (Toronto: University of Toronto Press). Hooper, Thomas. 1967. "The Royal Navy Second edition published 1973. Station at Ile-aux-Noix (1812–1839)", in Parks Canada Manuscript Report Series, No. Hargrave, Joseph James. 1871. Red River 167 (Ottawa: Parks Canada) 49–100. (Montréal: John Lovell). See especially Chapter 12, "Annual Routine in Red River Hoyt, William G., and Walter B. Langbein Settlement", 155–73. 1955. Floods (Princeton: Princeton University Press). Harris, Gerry. 1989. Vancouver's Old Streams (Vancouver: Public Aquarium Landscape and Urban Planning. 1988. Association). Illustrations, descriptions, and Special Issue: The Landscape of Water, Vol. map of streams, now mainly underground, in 16 Nos. 1–2 (October). what has become the City of Vancouver. Lee, David. 1976. The Battle of the Harvey, Andre Windmill: November 1838, in Parks Canada, 1983. "Promising Steps Toward a New History and Archaeology No. 8, 102–08 Ottawa River Regulation", in Mitchell and (Ottawa: Parks Canada). Gardner (eds.), River Basin Management, 99–108. Includes a good historical summary Legget, Robert F. 1976. Canals of Canada of water management in a section titled "A (Vancouver: Douglas; English ed. Newton Task Molded by History." Abbott: David and Charles). ---. 1975. Ottawa Waterway: Gateway to a Haslam, Sylvia. 1991. The Historic River: Continent (Toronto: University of Toronto Rivers and Culture Down the Ages Press). (Cambridge: Cobden of Cambridge Press). ---. 1955, 1972. Rideau Waterway (Toronto: University of Toronto Press). Reprinted Hodgins, Bruce W., and Margaret Hobbs. 1962; rev. eds. 1972, 1986. 1985. Nastawgan; The Canadian North by ---. 1979. The Seaway: In Commemoration Canoe & Snowshoe. A Collection of of the 20th Anniversary of the Seaway and Historical Essays (Toronto: Betelgeuse the 150th Anniversary of the first Welland

______A Cultural Framework for Canadian Heritage Rivers - 57 - Bibliography Canal, 1829, 1959, 1979 (Toronto: Clarke, 16–19, 1993. ([Cambridge, Ont.]: Canadian Irwin). Water Resources Association). ---. 1988. Ottawa River Canals and the Defence of British North America (Toronto: University of Toronto Press). Melnychuk, Peter. 1990. "Multi-purpose Management of Alberta Rivers", in Bradley Leung, F. n.d. "Direct Drive Waterpower in et al., Flowing to the Future, 63–70. Canada, 1607–1910". (Ottawa: Parks Canada Microfiche Report No. 27). Mitchell, Bruce, and James S. Gardner, eds. 1983. River Basin Management: Canadian MacLennan, Hugh. 1961. Seven Rivers of Experiences (Waterloo: University of Canada (Toronto: MacMillan of Canada). Waterloo, Faculty of Environmental Studies). Includes A. Harvey, q.v. Marsh, James H. 1985. Editor in Chief. The Canadian Encyclopedia. 3 volumes. Moodie, Wayne. 1991. "Manomin: Hurtig Publishers. Historical-Geographical Perspectives on the Ojibwa Production of Wild Rice", in Abel McCalla, Douglas. 1993. Planting the and Friesen, Aboriginal Resource Use, Province: The Economic History of Upper 71–80. Canada 1784–1870 (Toronto: University of Toronto Press, for the Ontario Historical Morse, Eric W. 1969. Fur Trade Canoe Studies Series). Routes of Canada / Then and Now (Ottawa: Queen's Printer for National and Historic McClelland, Catherine. 1987. A History of Parks Branch). the Yukon Indians: Part of the Land, Part of ---. 1987. Freshwater Saga; Memoirs of a the Water (Vancouver: Douglas and Lifetime of Wilderness Canoeing in Canada McIntyre). (Toronto: University of Toronto Press).

McMahon, E.T., and A.E. Watson. 1993. Morton, James W. 1970. Capilano; The "In Search of Collaboration: Historic Story of a River (Toronto and Montréal: Preservation and the Environmental McClelland and Stewart). Movement", in History News 48:6 (Nov.–Dec.) 26–27. Oglesby, Ray T., Clarence A. Carlson, and James A. McCann, eds. 1972. River McNeely, Jeffrey. 1992. "Nature and Ecology and Man (New York and London: Culture: Conservation Needs Them Both", Academic Press). in Nature and Resources; Different faces of World Heritage (28:3) 37–43. Ontario. Department of Planning and Development. 1945. River Valley Manz, David, ed. [1993]. Water and the Development in Southern Ontario; Papers Wilderness: Development, Stewardship, and Proceedings of the Conference on River Management; Proceedings of the 46th Valley Development in Southern Ontario Annual Conference of the Canadian Water held at London, Ontario, October 13th and Resources Association, Banff, Alberta June 14th, 1944 (Toronto: King's Printer).

______A Cultural Framework for Canadian Heritage Rivers - 58 - Bibliography Den Otter, A.A. 1988. "Irrigation and Flood R. Woolworth, and Douglas A. Birk Control", in Ball, Building Canada, 143–68. 1975. Voices from the Rapids; An Underwater Search for Fur Trade Artifacts Paine, Albert Bigelow. 1907. The Tent 1960–73 (St. Paul: Minnesota Historical Dwellers (London: The Outing Publishing Society). Company; reissued by Wm. Macnab & Son, Halifax, 1982). Wisner, Paul. 1984. "History of Flooding in Canada" (unpublished). Palmer, Tim. 1986. Endangered Rivers and the Conservation Movement (Berkeley: University of California Press).

Passfield, Robert. 1988. "Waterways", in N. Ball, Building Canada, 113–42.

Robertson, B. R. 1986, Sawpower; Making Lumber in the Sawmills of Nova Scotia (Halifax: Nimbus Publishing and the Nova Scotia Museum).

Roos, A. 1988. "Electricity", in Ball, Building Canada, 169–94.

Rutherford, Ian. 1991. Brief from Parks Canada to the Task Force on Museums and First Peoples convened by the Assembly of First Nations and Canadian Museums Association; 31 March 1991.

Shrubsole, Dan, ed. 1992. Resolving Conflicts and Uncertainty in Water Management; Proceedings of the 45th Annual Conference of the Canadian Water Resources Association Kingston, Ontario (Cambridge Ont.: Canadian Water Resources Association).

Washburn, Owen V. 1985. The Saint John River: Deterioration and Restoration (Fredericton: Washburn and Gillis Associates). Research paper #13 for the Inquiry on Federal Water Policy.

Wheeler, Robert, with W.A. Kenyon, Alan

______A Cultural Framework for Canadian Heritage Rivers - 59 - Bibliography APPENDIX A: Notes on Consultations During the Development of the Framework

Framework documents, particularly ones discussions: "Where should the line be like this which cross disciplinary drawn between sites or structures that are boundaries, cannot develop in isolation, and river-related and those which are ordinarily this one has benefited from peer review and or primarily related to the land?" Many from consultations with numerous experts. argued vigorously for a broad and inclusive definition of the "river environment" for The relationship of people to rivers is a cultural purposes, while others considered subject which many heritage professionals that narrower criteria would better direct proved anxious to discuss. Most attention to the most outstanding consultations were spontaneous and representations of the various themes. informal, with two exceptions. In February, 1994 this project was explained to a meeting The answer lies somewhere in the middle. of the National Historic Sites systems plan This framework stops well short of ascribing review task force. Mr. Brian Woolsey and to rivers a dominant influence over all the his colleagues helped to bring a number of cultural processes that occur in their issues into focus at that early stage. watersheds; but it does acknowledge that a Acknowledgement is particularly due to seemingly land-based activity such as Parks Canada staff involved in the erection of buildings may reflect strong management planning process for the responses to nearby rivers. For example, the Rideau Waterway. They have already influence of adjacent waterways on built wrestled with many of the issues that were heritage has been acknowledged in the central to this framework, and their framework, even where the function of the suggestions were stimulating and influential. building is unconnected to the river.

More formal meetings were held in April While colleagues were very helpful in 1994 with two dozen heritage professionals defining the "river environment" and in whose backgrounds include planning, making the list of river-related activities management and research. At these comprehensive, they were comparatively meetings, participants explained and less interested in suggesting new ways to discussed the mandate, basic approaches, combine or divide these activities into and tentative conclusions of the projected by "themes". Nevertheless, they were quick to the participants. Although the advice we identify gaps and inconsistencies, and the received at these meetings was far from framework has benefited from these unanimous, participants may recognize the discussions. influence of information they contributed and should see that an effort has been made to incorporate in the framework many of their more subjective concerns. One question dominated most of these

______A Cultural Framework for Canadian Heritage Rivers - 60 - Appendix A APPENDIX B: Notes on Applying the Framework to Nominations

This framework document was developed prepared, two further steps will help define from a Canada-wide perspective, and the relationship of the cultural resources to deliberately avoids referring to specific the objectives of the Canadian Heritage rivers. However, to ensure that the Rivers System: framework would be useful, efforts were made while it was being developed to look 5. Which of the cultural resources has ahead and consider how it might in practice been recognized by heritage specialists be used to classify the river-related cultural as having exceptional significance, or as heritage already represented in the CHRS, being an outstanding representative of and to organize data for future nominations. its type, in its locality, its region, or in Canada as a whole? The framework offers considerable guidance on ways to classify the cultural heritage 6. Which of the cultural resources values of specific rivers that are being associated with the river in question considered for nomination. This guidance would make a distinctive or unique can be summarized in four steps: contribution to the Canadian Heritage Rivers System, considering the cultural 1. What are the physical structures, sites resources of other rivers with and evidences of human activity in the comparable values already within the immediate environment of the river? System?

2. Which of these is a: In the past, some nomination documents • cultural resource; gave equal weight to different themes, or • contemporary asset; or listed cultural resources in the same order in • other object without historical value? which related concepts appear in the CHRS Selection Guidelines. In future, nominations 3. Which of the identified cultural could clarify the case for including a river in resources are physically or functionally the System in the following sections: river-related, according to the analysis in Chapter 4, reflecting human uses of • Role in the System could be used to the river or human activity that is highlight the outstanding cultural influenced by the river? resources and new theme representations that a river brings to 4. To which of the framework’s theme the CHRS; elements can each cultural resource be • Resource Description sections could assigned? describe the cultural resources themes in order of their occurrence After preparation of a structured inventory in this framework; of river-related cultural resources has been • Appendices could be used to tabulate

______A Cultural Framework for Canadian Heritage Rivers - 61 - Appendix B the occurrences of similar theme representations elsewhere in the System.

______A Cultural Framework for Canadian Heritage Rivers - 62 - Appendix B