The Muslims PresentOrgena Geoffrey Lokke

America’s introduction to the (NOI) was a television documentary called The Hate That Hate Produced (Wallace and Lomax 1959). Its broadcast helped propel both and his national spokesman onto the national stage. The episode of Newsbeat opens with a few words from host and coproducer . He calls it “a story of the rise of black racism, of a call for black supremacy.” The scene cuts to a crowd of thousands of black Muslims. They are listening to a man proclaim: I charge the white man with being the greatest liar on earth. I charge the white man with being the greatest drunkard on earth. [...] I charge the white man with being the greatest gambler on earth. I charge the white man, ladies and gentlemen of the jury, with being the greatest murderer on earth. [...] I charge the white man with being the greatest adul- terer on earth, I charge the white man with being the greatest robber on earth. I charge the white man with being the greatest deceiver on earth. I charge the white man with being the greatest troublemaker on earth. So therefore ladies and gentlemen of the jury I ask you to bring back a verdict of guilty as charged. (in Wallace and Lomax 1959)

They cheer. Wallace explains that the scene is from a morality play called The Trial (1956): “The plot, indeed the message of the play, is that the white man has been put on trial for his sins against the black man. He has been found guilty. The sentence is death. The play is spon- sored and produced by a Negro religious group who call themselves the Muslims” (in Wallace and Lomax 1959).1 , in his 1992 filmMalcolm X, begins with this same “I charge the white man” speech; as does C. Eric Lincoln in his book The Black Muslims in America ([1961] 1994:1). Lincoln tells us the play is by Louis X, a young minister from Boston, now known as .2 Lincoln says The Trial typically appears in the same program as a work called Orgena (1959). Lincoln calls them “propaganda pieces designed to show the cupidity of the white man and the depths to which the Negro has fallen in trying to be like him” (108). Devised alongside his fellow artists from Mosque No. 11 in Boston, the musical pageant Orgena was an

1. It is unclear when and where this performance of The Trial took place. In a 2016 article, Fredrik deBoer says it was recorded in Washington, DC (deBoer 2016). If so, then it might have been the rally at Uline Arena on 31 May 1959 (Marable and Felber 2013:xxxi). Between seven and ten thousand were present that day. Marable and Felber’s chronology also notes The Trial was performed on 1 January 1959 that year at Mosque No. 7 in New York (xxxi). 2. Farrakhan has led the Nation of Islam since 1978.

Geoffrey Lokke is a writer and director. His recent work is published or forthcoming in Adaptation, African American Review, and PAJ. As a director, his work has been sponsored by the East Central European Center at , the Harriman Institute, and the Václav Havel Library Foundation. He lives in . [email protected]

TDR: The Drama Review 62:2 (T238) Summer 2018. ©2018 78 New York University and the Institute of Technology

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have managed have managed The Trial and around the east coast between around the is part of a larger mainstreaming of NOI is part of a larger mainstreaming 1960a; 1960b). I came across this audio recording in an an in recording audio this across came I 1960b). 1960a; Figure 1. From left: Malcolm X, Elijah Muhammad, and Louis X, ca. 1960. 1960. ca. X, Louis and Muhammad, Elijah X, Malcolm left: From 1. Figure Images) Lions/Getty Yearwood/Three Lloyd by (Photo 3 have gone largely unstudied partly because of the scarcity of recordings and the fact the the fact the and recordings of partlyunstudied largely gone scarcity the of because have Trial The Orgena toured Orgena (as they were billed) The Muslims and

Muhammad Speaks Speaks advertorials ( Muhammad (Fanusie 2001:162; Hitchens 1986:136). Other discussions of the pageant are based on brief descrip- brief on based are pageant the of discussions Other 1986:136). Hitchens 2001:162; (Fanusie Orgena

Orgena Orgena By this time Walcott was Walcott By this time theatre history its place in black considering , by analyzing Orgena I remedy this scripts remain unpublished. By my count, only Fatimah Fanusie and Christopher Hitchens reference recordings recordings reference Hitchens Christopher and Fanusie Fatimah only count, my By unpublished. remain scripts of in found synopses detailed more the use (2014) Rega Joseph and (2001) Fanusie Only Lincoln’s). (typically tions the online catalog from the Messenger Elijah Muhammad Propagation Society at www.memps.com. Society Propagation Muhammad Elijah Messenger the from catalog online 3. enamored with calypso. Around enamored with calypso. his friend John Bynoe 1947, organized a fundraising con- cert for a local football team for which he invited Joe Clark told him, Walcott In the middle of their set perform. to York and His Calypsonians from New calling He started playing Roxbury nightclubs at 16, (in Magida 1996:21–22). “I can do that” The Charmer and the Mosque The Charmer and was born Walcott Louis Eugene When in the Bronx in 1933. he was five his Barbadian-born mother Mae (née Clark) moved Alvan to him and his brother Roxbury in Boston where she had them take music lessons Mae worked (Gardell 1996:119). multiple jobs to afford a piano Alvan and a violin for Louis for Young (Levinsohn 1997:183). sang in the choir at Walcott St. Cyprian’s Church, Episcopal where he also gave recitals. According to Mattias Gardell, he was playing with the Boston College Orchestra by age 12 he appeared In 1949, (1996:119). playing on national television, Original Mack Ted violin on The Amateur Hour (Levinsohn 1997:205). , or rather a shortened version of the play was performed as Part Two of Two as Part of the play was performed a shortened version or rather , of The Trial expansion the pageant. 1959 and 1961. They sold out Carnegie Hall twice (in 1960 and 1961). Despite Farrakhan’s Despite Farrakhan’s (in 1960 and 1961). out Carnegie Hall twice They sold 1959 and 1961. both Orgena singing in a musical, the novelty of his notoriety and dedicated study. to evade any The Star of pageant, Du Bois’s 1913 W.E.B. most obvious antecedent, its relationship to its I pay particular attention to how early years as a calypso , Noting Farrakhan’s Ethiopia. Orgena black spirituals. repurposes traditional Orgena and liter music, art, its signs and mythology into black revolutionary an infusion of culture, in Boston as it was performed relies on a rare 1961 recording of Orgena My research ature. (Farrakhan 1961). Downloaded from http://www.mitpressjournals.org/doi/pdf/10.1162/DRAM_a_00749 by guest on 29 September 2021 Downloaded from http://www.mitpressjournals.org/doi/pdf/10.1162/DRAM_a_00749 by guest on 29September 2021

80 Geoffrey Lokke often leftbemusedbyits “sterile andarid” services, wonderinghowtheCharmercould choosea installed asitsminister. ManywhohadknownCalypsoGenevisitedoutofcuriosity. They were the mosque’scaptaininFruitofIslam(theNation’sparamilitary wing), hewaseventually rible state,” splitbetweeninfightingministers (in J. Muhammad2006:349). Afterservingas there arenoaccountsofitsearlyperformancesinNew York. in front(Gardell1996:121). Itwouldhavebeenaround thistimethathewroteTheTrial, but the doorbehindaveil(convenientlylabeled “Islam”) instead oftheonewithapilediamonds morning todiscussthedeal(Marshall1996:38). Hesays thatnighthehadavision lucrative contracttotourasBaileyandDaniels’sopeningact. Louisagreedtomeetthenext night bythemanagerofBroadwaysingersPearlBaileyandBilly DanielswhoofferedLouisa ing aseriesoffinalshows(Gardell1996:120). movement. Farrakhansayshemadeuphismindatonce, butdecidedtospendthemonthplay- ultimatum fromElijahMuhammad. Hewasgiven30daystochoosebetweenhismusicandthe the nameLouisX. Hecontinuedtoplaycalypsogigsdowntownuntilhereceivedwordofan Walcott soonmovedtoNew York tostudyunderMalcolmatHarlem’sMosqueNo. 7, taking talk likethat. Iwasconvincedthiswherewantedtobe” (FarrakhanandGates1996:148). (Magida 1996:30). Around thistime, hefirstheardMalcolmXspeak. “Ineverheardanyman ing outtheformletterthatwasusedbyrecruitstoconvert/registerasaMuslimwithNOI ten toElijahMuhammadspeak. Walcott agreed, andwhenhegothomethatnightstartedcopy- old friendwhohadrecentlyconvertedtoIslamandinvited Walcott tocomewithhimlis- songs fromOrgena. ter withtheplayfulcalypsosonTrinidad’s Newest Sensation thantheoftenpained, nationalist its whitesailorsdesertingpregnant “island” mothers(TheCharmer1999). Still, itstonefitsbet- recorded astheCharmerhavenopoliticaledge. “Brown SkinGal” mightbeanexception, with probable amalgamofGarveyismandblackresentment” (1996:26). That isfine, butthesongshe Gates 1996:146). Arthur J. Magidasaysthis “hints at Walcott’s pre–NationofIslampolitics:a and Istartedwritingacalypsosongcalled ‘Why (Farrakhanand America IsNoDemocracy’” away fromasegregatedmovietheatre. Herecalls: “I wasvery, very, veryangrywith America, down southbeforestartingcollege, hehadalayoverin Washington, DC, wherehewasturned Bostrox Records. 2011b). All hismusicastheCharmerwasreissuedin1999CalypsoFavorites on 1953–1954 Charmer isontwovolumesof50’sCalypsoMusicfrom Trinidad (BlackRoundRecords2011a; ble Caribbeanaccent(presumablyeasytolearngrowingupwithamotherfromBarbados). The “Female Boxer” isaboutawomanwhopuncheslikeman. Walcott singswithanentirelycredi- some recurringthemestothesongs; “Is SheIs, OrIsShe Ain’t” ridiculesatranswomanand “Fire Down There” and “Ugly Woman.” The albumwasreleasedbyMonogram. Boys”). Hehadonefullalbum, Trinidad’s Newest(1954), Sensation whichfeaturedsongslike sized sensation” inNewEngland, andtouredtheMidwest(22–29). of school, heresumedhiscalypsocareer. PerformingasCalypsoGene, Walcott became “a mid- never settledin, apparentlyembitteredbyHarryBelafonte’snewfoundsuccess. Droppingout himself The Charmer(24). Walcott brieflyattendedateacherscollegeinNorthCarolina, but

4. In 1957, MalcolmsentLouishometoBoston. Farrakhan saysMosqueNo. 11 “was inater Farrakhan sayshislastnightwasataclubupstate. Hewasapproached attheendof In February1955, Walcott wasinChicagoheadlininganeight-weekrevue. Heranintoan Farrakhan hasdescribedhowapoliticalmilitancyenteredhismusicearlyon. Onhisway Walcott putoutanumberofsinglesastheCharmer(sometimeswith “His CalypsoRhythm out “Is She Is, Or Is She Ain’t.” Monogram released his records in the States. British singles were on Melodisc, and Rhythm, a Jamaican label, put 4 There are There — he chose - The Muslims Present Orgena 81 - toTrial The , as Farrakhan Farrakhan as , Orgena that whether we — in 1956 when he was in in the Church but that the Church has be in the Church but that Many of the longer-serving followers were also followers were also longer-serving Many of the 5 In 2012, Farrakhan tweeted, “One of my most memorable moments Farrakhan tweeted, In 2012, 6 (in McCloud 2004:89), as does the Carnegie Hall program (Carnegie Hall 1961). Hall (Carnegie program Hall Carnegie the does as 2004:89), McCloud (in Orgena

NOI services were not entirely bereft of music. Louis E. Lomax recalls that some “progressive” musicians musicians jazz “progressive” some that recalls Lomax E. Louis music. of bereft servicesNOI entirely not were frustrations, their out play men jazz accomplished these sits audience the “As meeting: one before stage” the “set Muslims the and chord, some strikes that shading a or beat a on come musicians the Sometimes silence. cold in a somewhere and applauds, congregation the [...] done is music the When another. one at nod and slightly smile Islam’s American African of discussion a For (1963:18). Allah!” to due praise “All say, to heard be can voice male Curtis (2010). Chase see [2005]), on (building jazz on influence partas of shortenedconsidered its be should but version work, distinct a is (1956) Trial The does, and as indicated in the publicity and programming for the pageant. Aubrey Barnette considered considered Barnette Aubrey pageant. the for programming and the publicity in indicated as and does, partbe of As shrewd as he was talented, Minister Louis capitalized on the creative energy of tal- Minister Louis capitalized on the creative energy of As shrewd as he was talented, While ambiguity shrouds community. ented individuals within the Nation of Islam that the impetus for the theatrical projects the genesis of the play (evidence suggests role it is certain that Minister Louis played a leading stemmed from several individuals), (2001:112) of the two plays. and producing writing, in the brainstorming, are Muslim or Christian, whether we’re in the mosque or the church, those houses could church, whether we’re in the mosque or the are Muslim or Christian, and Gates 1996:145) (in Farrakhan enlightenment for our people. be places of reform and case study for the unique role “a 11 in Boston as Mosque No. Fatimah Fanusie describes Muhammad’s temple was set up like the Church, but he disallowed music, and his min- he disallowed music, but like the Church, temple was set up Muhammad’s from igno- our people are suffering it was his feeling that because lecture, isters had to would dispel that ignorance. the proper feeding of the word of God and that only rance, correctness that should He demanded a moral not always demanded of its parishioners. And so, as a protest, I decided that what was as a protest, And so, of its parishioners. not always demanded church I wanted to bring back to the or temple, good in the mosque 5. as Louis X was my writing of a play called ‘Orgena,’ ‘A Negro’ spelled backwards” (Farrakhan Negro’ spelled backwards” ‘A ‘Orgena,’ as Louis X was my writing of a play called of Mosque who interviewed members Fanusie, But this is complicated by a few sources. 2012). she states: In her thesis, . did not write Orgena ultimately claims Farrakhan 11, No. scripts written by a local Boston educator “Utilizing Fanusie revises this: In a later version, (2007:62). Minister Louis helped produce the plays” who had embraced the NOI’s teachings, Call states that Don Muhammad (Donald X) offered Louis a recent article in The Final Further, 6. The Trial Farrakhan says he wrote The Trial views with Jabril Muhammad, (in ” “added to it other scenes and things and it became Orgena and years later York, New 2006:352). J. Muhammad No Black Church, No Black Music No Black Church, No Black a collection of inter In Closing the Gap, ’s authorship. There is some uncertainty over Orgena faith that banned his music (Magida 1996:65). his music (Magida faith that banned of local musicians as both transporters and innovators of twentieth century religious and cul- both transporters and innovators of twentieth of local musicians as Ahmadiyya Islam engaged with She notes that Boston jazz musicians (2007:49–50). tural ideas” “a cli- engendering with the faith, familiarizing the city’s black population as early as the 1940s, other musicians and musically was conducive to Islamic growth among mate and culture that were among York musicians from New According to Fanusie, (66). Americans” African inclined in Boston was cul- American Islam African Thus, (54). the first to bring NOI thought to Boston It is in this climate that Louis X introduced jazz. turally vibrant and heavily associated with musicians began he and his fellow Boston Before long, 11. music into worship at Mosque No. into a musical pageant. expanding his play The Trial vexed by these prohibitions. Farrakhan has since said he decided to bring music into Mosque music into Mosque said he decided to bring Farrakhan has since prohibitions. vexed by these Muhammad’s edicts: against “protest” a 11 as No. Downloaded from http://www.mitpressjournals.org/doi/pdf/10.1162/DRAM_a_00749 by guest on 29 September 2021 Downloaded from http://www.mitpressjournals.org/doi/pdf/10.1162/DRAM_a_00749 by guest on 29September 2021

82 Geoffrey Lokke Sharrieff aboutplagiarizingTheTrial. the pageant. FarrakhanhimselfrecallsbeinginterrogatedbyElijahMuhammadandRaymond Speaks mentionsaplaywright. Soitisdifficulttosaywithanyconfidencewhowrotewhatin Additionally, neithertheCarnegieHallprogramnorextendedcoverageinMuhammad 2016a). Yet onlyLouisXisgivenawritingcreditonthesingles(45s)ofsongsfromOrgena. two songsforOrgena , andthemencollaboratedon “Chains” and “Black Gold” (A. Muhammad

you” (inJ. Muhammad2006:353). wrote accuser hadaweakclaim:shejoinedtheNationin1958, twoyearsafterLouissayshe brought Yet itseemshedevelopedOrgena withoutanydispensationfromMuhammad. In1961, LouisX base usingtheteachingsofHonorableElijahMuhammad” (inJ. Muhammad2006:352). West writes: to hisdistrustofblack-whiteculturalsyncretism. In “Malcolm XandBlackRage,” Cornel from thetradition. ElijahMuhammad’saversiontothe blackchurchandmusicwasdue celebrates itsmusic. The pageantincludesseveralspirituals, anditsoriginalsongsalsodraw face critiqueofChristianity, drawsdeeplyfromtheculture oftheblackchurchand, aboveall, actors orwantingayoungministertoliveuphisspiritualpotential. Orgena, despiteitssur and slaves: ing upmusicagain, butalsowasdisturbedbyhisfollowersplayingprostitutes, homosexuals, formance, calledLouisinthenextday. MuhammadnotonlyhadaproblemwithLouistak- 8. 7. (Carnegie Hall 1961). credited on the Louis X records: K. Husband (bass), M. Isaroon and W. Brewster (bongos), and G. Civil (guitar) alongside Louis X are the Shabazz Jazz-Tette with Alvan X on piano. The other musicians might have been those X Van Leesten was the As to other contributors, Fanusie names two of the actors: Arlene Walker played a “streetwalker” and Hendricks Sharrieff was Supreme Captain of the of Fruit Islam (Lincoln [1961] 1994:184). Farrakhan sayshismosque “was blessedtobeableintroducemusicbutonanIslamic tinctive abouttheBlackchurchandmusic:theircultural hybrid character inwhich the Malcolm Xseemstohavehadalmostnointellectualinterest in dealingwithwhatisdis- Elijah Muhammad’sproblemwiththepageantwasmorethanafearofmoralrelapsein 2006:370) The HonorableElijahMuhammadrespondedwith: “Oh, OkBrother.” (inJ. Muhammad it up, Dear Apostle. ButIwantedtoputitinatapesothatwecanhaverecordofit.” you sent himatapeofsongsthatIhadsunginthestudioandhewasangry. “Did notItell my greateststrengthisinthespiritualeventhoughmusicaltalentgreat. Then I Now forthesecondtimehe’saskingmetogiveupmusic. He’spointingouttomethat word, Dear Apostle. Iwon’tdothisagain.” Hesays, “Thank youBrother. Thank you.” as oftoday. Iwantyourwordtomethatyouwillnotdothisagain.” Isaid, “You havemy man.” Hesaid, “But yourgreatesttalentisinthespiritual. SoIwantyoutogiveupthis wipe awayalltheirtears.” Sohesaid, “Now Brother” hesays, “You areaverytalented stern andHelookedatmesaid, “Brother don’tmakemypeoplecryforIcameto part anditcouldleadthembackintosuchlife.” [...]Hesaid, “Brother” hisfacegotvery life, theyhavetogobackintothatlifeintheirmindorderplayandportraysuch part ofaprostitutethesisterwouldhavetothinklikethatorplaysuchasold tinue tofloparounduntilitfallsbackinthewater.” Hesays, “Inordertoplaysuch[a] He said, “Brother, whenyoucatchafishdon’tleaveitonthebanks, asitwillcon- The Trial. ElijahMuhammad: “I wastryingtogetyousaythatshestoleherplayfrom — Orgena toChicagofortwoperformances. Muhammad, whosatinonthesecondper you toldmethatweregoingtogiveitupBrother?” Isaid, “Yes sir. Ididgive mu’adhin (2001:113). In the Carnegie Hall program, the only contributors mentioned 8 7 After questioninghim, theyrevealedthoughthis - - The Muslims Present Orgena 83 - In Closing the Gap, 9 is not a simple refusal to give up you’re out of your mind. you’re out of your mind. — , “initiated the trans-Atlantic slave trade in 1564” 1564” in trade slave trans-Atlantic the “initiated , Lübeck of Jesus

That Spears’s book, with its defense and appreciation of the spirituals, appears to be with its defense and appreciation of the spirituals, That Spears’s book, 10 appears to draw heavily upon. appears to draw heavily

According to Joseph Rega, Hawkins’s ship, ship, Hawkins’s Rega, Joseph to According (2014:3). (2014:3). liberation. black and spirituals of study a for (1972) Cone H. James See complex mixture of African, European and Amerindian elements are constitutive of something of something constitutive elements are Amerindian European and African, of complex mixture Malcolm X feared Black Nationalists, Like most . in the modern world and Black that is new hybridity X’s fear of cultural [...] Malcolm of Black life. hybrid character the culturally character of downplayed the vicious that cultural hybridity political claims: rested on two white people destinies of Black and intimately linked the and that it so white supremacy (1996:143–45) was unimaginable. of Black freedom that the possibility struggles with publicly accommodating analysis speaks more to Malcolm’s West’s However, it points out that one of the in which by Spears, The [T]here’s a book called Trade Slave and named John Hawkins, here was piloted by an Englishman first slave ships to come The slaves had an old [...] the good ship Jesus. was called Jesus, John Hawkins’s ship think that they You steal away home.” “Steal away to Jesus, sang: spiritual which they whereas thousand years ago, man that got hung on the cross two were talking about some wanted to steal away and get on board that ship that They they were talking about a ship. African the so that they could go back home on the mother continent, was named Jesus, a song, They used to sing [...] where they had been tricked and brought from. continent, everything they sang in those notice, If you a Chariot Is Coming.” “Good News, All those songs that the [...] from here. spirituals was talking about going to get away what was had wrapped up in them some of and called spirituals, or sang, slaves talked, realized that it couldn’t hear its mother pray any And when the child happening to them. or the song “I Couldn’t Hear Nobody Pray,” the slaves would come up with a song, more, mother Father gone, a motherless child. I feel like “Sometimes, “Motherless Child”: They pretended that they were singing [...] motherless child sees a hard time.” gone, “old weren’t talking about Moses and telling They Moses.” “Go Down, about Moses in to talk some kind of talk to each other, They were trying Pharaoh to let my people go.” and Moses,” “Go down, I hear you singing Yes, [...] over the slave master’s head. years ago you’re still talking about Moses four thousand (X 1970:40–46) Both men, like the artistically inclined Muslims of Mosque No. 11, shared an apprecia- 11, Muslims of Mosque No. like the artistically inclined Both men, 9. Muhammad’s edicts than it is an account of his personal attitudes toward black music. Calling toward black music. than it is an account of his personal attitudes Muhammad’s edicts length about the meaning of the spir Malcolm once spoke at freedom,” “designed toward them from the several months after his break in 1964, Malcolm made these remarks Admittedly, Malcolm’s Yet to its theology and aesthetics. Nation of Islam; he was no longer beholden Moses” “Go Down, particularly its use of , Orgena speech reads like a thoughtful exegesis of . and the slave ship Jesus and the pageant’s depiction of John Hawkins by John Randolph Spears (1900), a history book (1900), by John Randolph Spears The American ituals in reference to Slave-Trade Orgena a touchstone for Elijah’s doctrine, speaks to the difficult relationship between NOI and the speaks a touchstone for Elijah’s doctrine, American spirituality. African Christian legacy of was so well received by Muhammad’s followers despite That Orgena tion of the spirituals. Orgena Interestingly, Muhammad’s trepidations speaks to this. parts of African American heritage. It is rather a creative response to NOI revisionism, finding It is rather a creative response to NOI revisionism, American heritage. African parts of

10. Hawkins were the inspiration for writing The Trial Farrakhan says Muhammad’s lessons about uses Elijah’s black his- Louis in Orgena later, As Malcolm did years Muhammad 2006:353). (in J. of the spirituals’ overarching theme of lib- tory narrative of Hawkins alongside a demonstration eration. Downloaded from http://www.mitpressjournals.org/doi/pdf/10.1162/DRAM_a_00749 by guest on 29 September 2021 Downloaded from http://www.mitpressjournals.org/doi/pdf/10.1162/DRAM_a_00749 by guest on 29September 2021

84 Geoffrey Lokke (Boyer 1964:6). (Tribe and Tribe 2005:172). Hewent ontowriteanumberofsongsforGraham’sservices Hamblen firstrecordedsacredmusicafterhisconversionataBillyGraham “Crusade” in1949 ish waltz” trend” thatsparkedabrief in “‘religioso’ American popmusic(Mooney1974:68). tion ofStuartHamblen’s1956gospelhit “It IsNoSecret(WhatGodCanDo),” a “country- Somebody,” and “The Messenger.” The outliersaretheadhan(thecalltoprayer)andarendi- Another threeareoriginals, likelybyLouisXorDonaldX: “Look atMyChains,” “We Need gram of “white nationalism” Hinder Me” (thelattertwoadaptedas “Go Down, Elijah” and “Elijah isLeadingUsOn”). tuals: “I Want toDieEasy, When IDie,” “Go Down, Moses,” and “If You Don’tGo, Don’t by theBoston1961recording, eightsongsappearinPartOne. Three aretraditionalspiri- and dialogue Part Oneproceedslikeatraditionalpageant “Go Down, Elijah.” Moses.” Rather, theysawthemanconsideredtheirliberator. Sotheychangedthewordsto and hiscollaboratorsonOrgena Muhammad’s theology(andMuhammadhimself)intheveryslavesongsheabhorred. Louis X 13. 12. 11. Muhammad Speaksdedicatedseveralpagestotheperformanceof Orgena at Town Hallin dant, JohnDoe, followedbyhisconviction. social-climbing puppetsofracistwhites. The playends withthetestimonyofwhitedefen- Greene, awealthyministerfromblackchurchinBoston. The prosecutorrevealsthemtobe a collegegraduateandmemberofboththeNAACP andtheUrbanLeague, andBishop play considerscomplicitinwhitesupremacy. The witnessesforthedefenseareSadieCulpepper, an indictmentofsegmentstheblackcommunity, particularly thosemiddle-classblacksthe an American Indian;and Thelma XGriffen, amemberoftheNationIslam. The playisalso (often playedbyLouisX)callsthreewitnesses:JomoNkrumo, an African; CharlieStrongbow, The Trial depictsaprosecutionof “the whiteman” forhiscolonialcrimes. The prosecutor White Devils songs wouldhavetakenupthe20minutesallottedLouisXinCarnegieHallprogram. Given “A White Man’sHeaven” clockedinatover10minutes(Fanusie2007:63), thethree “Let UsUnite”)fromtherecording, whichwerenonethelessadvertisedinMuhammadSpeaks. of threeoriginals(“A White Man’sHeavenIsaBlackHell” [1960], “Let UsGo,” and longer programliketheoneperformedatCarnegieHall. the sameyear, onlyfeaturespartonefollowedbyTheTrial . However, itwaslikelypartofa original musicbyLouisX, beforeafinalewiththeentirecast. TherecordingofOrgena, made Alvan’s bandbeforeTheTrial (billedastheparttwoofOrgena). After thiscame20minutesof This wasfollowedbypartoneofOrgena. After theintermissioncameanother10minutesof performance bytheShabazzJazz-Tette, whichfeatured(Louis’sbrother) Alvan Xonpiano. In termsofstructure, PartOneofOrgena isfollowedbyashortenedversionofTheTrial. In collatingvarioussourcestherearecluestotheplay’sdevelopment. InDecember1960, in all likelihood for the same performance on the recordingin all likelihood for the same performance (Locus Solus Rare Books 2013). Solus Rare Books in 2013. The description is sparse, but it mentions the Shabazz Jazz-Tette was on the bill. It is A program at Donnelly for a 1961 Boston performance Memorial Theatre was listed for sale ($1,250) by Locus 2005:172). Wayne told him that sounds like a song. it were Hamblen had been true saved. Hamblen replied, “It’s no secret what God can do” (in Tribe and Tribe Hamblen got the idea for “It Is No Secret” from a conversation he had with John Wayne. The actor asked if To consult traditional renderings of these spirituals, see Johnson and Johnson (1977) and Reagon (2001). According tothe14May1961CarnegieHallprogram, theeveningbeganwithahalf-hour — 12 interspersed withsongsvariablyperformedbyLouisXandothers. Going ItisalittlestrangetofindHamblensonginOrgena, givenGraham’spro-

— Malcolm’s words, notmine(X1965:42). did notsee “Moses fourthousandyearsago” in “Go Down, — a nationalisthistorywithdidacticnarration 13 This wouldexplaintheabsence 11

The Muslims Present Orgena 85 Katherine Pierce, then a student Katherine Pierce, — uses the term dozens of times, at least in the chapters written before his break uses the term dozens of times, their history and politics particularized. They are King-loving, educated blacks, educated blacks, They are King-loving, their history and politics particularized. —

The UNMASKED DEVIL then taunts the Negroes for having willingly followed then taunts the Negroes for having The UNMASKED DEVIL goes ringing in his ears the audience the beast,” kill “kill the beast, shouts of With whiteness is abstracted away; its nuances are irrelevant. Black identity, on the other hand, on the other hand, Black identity, whiteness is abstracted away; its nuances are irrelevant.

- have the curious effect of making the play as much an indict The revisions to The Trial Admitting that he is THE REAL DEVIL, Mr. White-Man, defiant to the end brags how defiant to the White-Man, Mr. DEVIL, THE REAL that he is Admitting years [...] for the past 6000 World African-Asian entire deceived the he had successfully his real identity would blind, and dumb, robbed them all deaf, and having so thoroughly divinely missioned by the Supreme Being Muhammad had not been still be a secret if Mr. to uncloak him. He blame themselves. to blame him for their troubles but to telling them not him, for he had no real power present plight is really their own fault, reminds them that their they came. never compelled them; he only called and He had over them. African-Asian is led away by two huge White-Man, Mr. white devil, wild as the shrieking Bishop Greene slinks as the goodly the LAKE OF FIRE [...] and, guards to be cast into (Muhammad Speaks 1960b) to crawl into. away looking for a hole Confess! PROSECUTOR: [...] but and this trial has forced me to admit it I am the Devil, Yes DEFENDANT: (Muhammad had not unmasked me. I would still be under the veil if Muhammad Speaks 1960b) is given a more considered approach, in light of the NOI aversion to Martin Luther King’s and in light is given a more considered approach, civil rights organizations. “establishment” the other at Brown University, remembers she and her father being the only whites in Carnegie Hall remembers she and her father being the only whites in Carnegie at Brown University, (Goodman 2012). the In the later version, ment against integrationist blacks as it is against white supremacy. becomes “John Doe” some supernatural being; “The Real Devil,” white defendant is no longer defense witnesses, the Culpepper and Greene, On the other hand, faceless racist. a generalized, are named In The nuanced barbs rooted in contemporary politics. his attacked by the prosecuting Louis X, , Trial The above is too detailed to be fanciful additions on the part of the newspaper. The rest of on the part of the newspaper. The above is too detailed to be fanciful additions Alongside photographs of the prosecutor’s the synopsis maps nicely onto the 1961 recording. absent from the synopsis also includes this dialogue (also cross-examination of the defendant, the recording): That Hate Produced is in the speech from The Hate “I charge the white man” None of the particularly the whiteness, the most vitriolic dialogue against Surprisingly, either. recording, Elijah Muhammad and NOI leadership was taken out of the play by 1961. devil rhetoric, 1930s onwards (openly spoke of whites as devils from the Malcolm’s 2006:28). Muhammad J. Autobiography Muhammad Farrakhan was only told by Elijah from the Nation (X and Haley [1965] 1999). told him to Muhammad in the 1970s; and even then, sometime “devil” to stop using the term Muhammad (Elijah’s son) told W.D. instead ( In 1977, “Satan” Muhammad 2006:28). use J. “because the old script referred Orgena the that Farrakhan was rewriting but the script still had the devil references, Maybe (in Payne 1977:8). to whites as devils” the It is unclear what would have prompted not. the production recording from 1961 does It was not as was accepted NOI rhetoric at the time. “white devils” given the term change, if there were any such devils in the audience to offend - as well as a detailed syn of the performance dozen photographs It includes over a York. New the appears in The Trial from “stirring climax” none of this Notably, pageant. opsis of the Boston recording: Downloaded from http://www.mitpressjournals.org/doi/pdf/10.1162/DRAM_a_00749 by guest on 29 September 2021 Downloaded from http://www.mitpressjournals.org/doi/pdf/10.1162/DRAM_a_00749 by guest on 29September 2021

86 Geoffrey Lokke eant to “get peopleinterested in thedevelopmentofNegrodrama,” teach “the coloredpeople engender awhiteacceptanceof blackculture(Lokke2017). DuBoisstatedhewantedthepag - for hisunpublishedPlaythings oftheNight(1931), weredesignedto bothinstillblackprideand their reaction. DuBois’s foraysintodrama, includinghispageantsandplaysthathe collected black church Star ofEthiopiaandOrgena werebornoutofreformationorsecessionistmovementsfrom the speaking Africans, providedtheideologicalframework forthepageant(87). Notably, bothThe West” (88). The tradition, whichemergedoutofpoliticaland religiousexperiencesofEnglish- to promoteamysticalbeliefthat Africa’s redemptionwould be accompaniedbyadeclining fold purpose: “to retain African culturalvaluesforblacksworldwide, toinstillracialpride, and ularly the African MethodistEpiscopalChurch(Krasner2002:87). The movementhadathree- late-19th-century movementoriginatedbyreligioussecessionists fromtheblackchurch, partic- with EuropeangoldandBantushieldsastrophies. to theEnglish, Dutch, Portuguese, andSpanish(Burroughs 1914). The Muslimsleavethestage director CharlesBurroughs, DuBois’sMuslimsconqueraBantupeoplebeforesellingthemoff agree andtheNegroesareenslaved” (DuBois1925). According tothecontinuitywrittenby faith. Rather, IslamiscomplicitwithChristianity. Fromtheprogram: “The CrossandCrescent However, DuBois’spageantdoesnotdepictIslamasablackreligion, letalonethe “original” musical score, thepageantalsointroducesMuslimsintoplaywithanadhan(DuBois1915). enslavement atthehandsofwhiteEuropeans. JudgingbyafragmentfromtheStarofEthiopia’s and instructsthemthatslaveryhadrobbedofit. The pageantthendepictsMuslim mu’adhin of Islam’sroleintheslavetrade. Orgena openswithanIslamicprayer, theadhansungbya today” (inFarrakhanandGates1996:154). Ghana. “All ofthesegreatmenthatprecededus, Dr. Gates, wearestandingontheirshoulders 2006:332). FarrakhanoncetoldHenryLouisGatesthathewenttovisitDuBois’stombin J. Muhammad his debttoDuBois, sayinghegrewupreadingDuBois’sarticlesinTheCrisis( two worksrevealsthislineage. Although notinreferencetothepageant, Farrakhanexpressed the StarofEthiopiagleamsforever” (83). Orgena followsasimilarnarrative. Comparingthe American slavetrade. Itendswith “the blackracewrith[ing]backtolifeandhope[...]onwhich led by “Ethiopia, MotherofMen” (Krasner2002:83). The pageantthendepictshorrorsofthe five differentepochsof Africanhistory, includingasuccessionofglorious Africankingdoms, militant andseparatistversionofDuBois’pageant” (2011:204). TheStarofEthiopiadepicts developing the worksmakeitprobablethatthoseatMosqueNo. 11hadTheStarofEthiopiainmind and activist W.E.B. DuBoisresponded withTheStarofEthiopiain1913. The parallelsbetween national reconciliation” (131–32). portrait; whatlittletheyknewofblackhistorysimply “obliterated intheefforttopromote immigrant groups” (Glassberg1990:285). The “pageant masters” didnotincludeblacksinthis audiences, setoncontriving “a coherentpublicoutofahodgepodgeclasses, interestsand of culturalnationalism” (2002:85). Pageantsweretypicallymadebywhite Americans forwhite through historicreenactmentsofmajoreventsandactivelyparticipatedinaburgeoningspirit 1990:287). According toDavidKrasner, pageants “extolled thevirtuesof American history until the’30s, losingouttofilm, radio, professionalsports, andotherattractions(Glassberg Orgena Black Pageants Unlike DuBois, LouisX wasnotconcernedwiththewhiteattendanceathispageant, nor The strainofblacknationalismputforwardbyDuBois, knownasEthiopianism, wasa A notabledifferencebetweentheDuBoisandNOIpageantsaretheirdepictions Aware ofthis, andseeinginhistoricalpageantryapotentialforblacknationalism, thescholar is ahistoricalpageant, ararethingforitstime. PageantswerepopularintheUSup (Fanusie 2007:63). The narratortellsthe(black)audience, Arabic “is yourlanguage,” Orgena. HenryD. Millerisofasimilarmind, notingOrgena — as FarrakhanhimselfhasdescribedtheNation(Gates1997:25). “appears tobeamore The Muslims Present Orgena 87 , ca. 1915. (W.E.B. Du Bois Bois Du (W.E.B. 1915. ca. Ethiopia, of Star The Figure 2. Actor from from Actor 2. Figure of University Archives, University and Collections Special 312]. [MS Papers Libraries) Amherst Massachusetts (1870). Conversely, Conversely, (1870). between black and

The only reconciliation 14 Aïda

On 17 May 1993, at a black church in , Farrakhan performed Mendelssohn’s 1844 Violin Concerto at Violin 1844 performed Mendelssohn’s Farrakhan Chicago, in black church a at 1993, May 17 On featur- Orchestra, World New the called he what accompanied by was He birthday. 60th his to celebrate event an the of director assistant then Morgan, Michael conductor with Orchestra Symphony Chicago from musicians ing interviewsin length at spoken also has He 1993). of (Holland positive were Reviews (Levinsohn 1997:185). CSO 2006:144). Muhammad J. 1996:162; Gates and (Farrakhan music classical for appreciation his - The Star of Ethiopia “con Orgena Orgena in white musical traditions, at least white musical traditions, is in from a NOI point of view, However, its use of spirituals. there is the appropriation among black nationalists of histori- a form previously cal pageantry, America for white reserved in In Du Bois’s nationalist aims. the prior to his efforts, words, American Pageant Association if not actu- “been silent, had ally contemptuous of efforts to like Du Bois before him, Louis X, 1990:132). (in Glassberg use pageantry as black folk drama” ­co-opted a white medium for his own nationalist purposes. 14. ceived in ceived Black Nationalism this is (87); European terms” selec- seen in Du Bois’s musical According tions for the pageant. Angeles program, to the Los “26 selections from it featured Negro Composers and Negro “9 Selections and Folk Songs” from White Composers” Spirituals and (Du Bois 1925). traditional African rhythms appeared alongside extracts from Verdi’s Louis X did not include any (of his beloved) classical music in . Orgena themselves the meaning of their the meaning of their themselves their rich emotional history and but a new theatre,” life through the Negro to the “reveal also feel- as a human, white world (in Krasner 2002:82). ing thing” was on the other hand, , Orgena disaf- geared exclusively toward - particu , The Trial fected blacks. rhetoric, larly with its white devil loved was not looking to be by whites. Downloaded from http://www.mitpressjournals.org/doi/pdf/10.1162/DRAM_a_00749 by guest on 29 September 2021 Downloaded from http://www.mitpressjournals.org/doi/pdf/10.1162/DRAM_a_00749 by guest on 29September 2021

88 Geoffrey Lokke addict” shares: deemed expressionsofself-love andeconomicself-sufficiency. Asthepageant’sreformed “dope 19). This isexhibitedin Orgena, althoughcelebrationsof NOIfollowers’materialsuccessare grandeur, thathasalwaysbeen atthenostalgicheartofNationIslam’screed” (1997:18– Levinsohn isdescribingwhatGatescalls “the visionofblack-bourgeois respectability, andeven speeches, shesuggestsOrgena (1997:249). However, giventhe “bourgeois ridicule” shefindscommoninFarrakhan’slater would haveused “such smug, bourgeoistermsfor[...] a widerangeofordinaryblacks” Levinsohn, withoutaccesstotheplay’stext, thinks itunlikelythat “a popularcalypsosinger” Lincoln talksaboutthepageantgenerally: opsis ofOrgena inhisBlack Muslimsin America. FollowingabriefdescriptionofTheTrial , as definedinthepageant. Conference (SCLC), withitsrootsintheblackchurch, areatcross-purposestoblackliberation People (NAACP), theUrbanLeague, andinparticulartheSouthernChristianLeadership in integrationistorganizationsliketheNational Association forthe Advancement ofColored comparative comfortaredepictedasnaïvecollaborationists. College-educatedblacksandthose Muhammad’s NOI roles assigned(anddefined)bywhitesociety. Infact, anysuccessinsociety common whiteenemy. Irrespectiveof “quality oflife,” areconsignedto in hismaster’shouseasafreeslave.” poor alike, havetakenthe “familiar road” prescribedforthem, asthenarratorlaments, “liv[ing] imposed materialismbenefitingthecoffersofwhitesociety). Allthesepeople, middleclassand tion areeitherdomestichelpinwhitehomesortheysitaboutobsessingovertheirclothes(an Gene”), soldier, and “Cuban Pete, figures suchas “thepreacher,” “theNegrostuckincollege,” “[the]Negrolawyer,” Bill, ablack 1961,” followedbythecharacters’psychicandreligiousconversions. Alongside moreprivileged political schisms. on thispoint. InOrgena , diversityintheblackpopulationisusedtodemonstratereligiousand doctors, teachers, artists, reporters, etc. (2002:89). DuBoisismoreoptimisticthanLouisX within the African American population, withstagedirectionscallingfortheportrayalofblack As Krasnerwrites, oneoftheachievementsTheStarEthiopiaisitsdepictiondiversity Bantu. Neitherpageantpresentsahomogenizedvisionofcontemporaryblacklifein America. In Neither offersacomplexvisionofthedifferent African culturalgroupsthatwereenslaved. lar tacticstoengendernationalisminablackpopulacedisintegratedfromwithoutandwithin. ent public,” toeschewdifferencesbetweenculturalgroups. Bothblackpageantsusesimi- Orgena, my ownlittlehome. Ihavealittle automobile. Myfamilyrespectsme. Ihaveanewfound BROTHER SAMUEL:Ifindmyselfnowabletodoalittle businessofmyown. Ihave their owngreatcivilization. (Lincoln[1961]1994:2) Muhammad restoretoblacksthetraditionaldignityandintelligence theyonceenjoyedin dred yearsago.” Neartheendofplay, theMuslimfaithand theteachingsofElijah have madeofthemsince “kidnapping themfromtheir ancientculturesthreehun- holics, flashilydressedbusinessmen, educatorsandthe “400set.” Thisiswhatthewhites Orgena satirizes “Americanized” blacksinsuchstereotypedrolesasdopeaddicts, alco- In herbiographyLookingforFarrakhan ,- FlorenceLevinsohntakesissuewithLincoln’ssyn Louis Xusesthepageanttocontriveablack “coherent public” bydefiningitagainsta Part oneofOrgena presents, inthewordsofnarrator, “the Negroashestandsintheyear At theheartofhistoricalpageantrywasa(sometimestroubling)desiretograft “coher Orgena all African Americans wereinitiallyMuslim;inDuBois’spageant, allareinitially also parades “the dopeaddict” and “the wifebeater.” The womeninthissec- — is portrayedassuspect. As mentionedearlier, middle-classblackslivingin King oftheMamboBeat” (likelyaself-consciousdigat “Calypso could havebeenhis “first publicdisplayofthatattitude” (249). — outside Elijah - The Muslims Present Orgena 89 - - - 15 Orgena, like the pageant of Orgena, sold for over $2.5 million in 2010 (Gleadell 2010). 2010). (Gleadell 2010 in million $2.5 over for sold Orgena adds to our understanding of African American Islamization, par American Islamization, African adds to our understanding of and The Trial Orgena

institutions and arts that are syncretic. To convert was to separate from white culture, convert was to separate from white culture, To institutions and arts that are syncretic. —

is also the name of a 1998 painting by Chris Ofili. It was part of the Tate exhibition that made him the the him made that exhibition Tate part was It the of Ofili. Chris by painting 1998 a of name the also is Orgena tradi- in woman a black depicts which painting, The 1998). (Glaister Prize Turner artist black first the win to dung. elephant of balls atop sits dress, African tional Afrocentric “an celebrates years those from work his says he pageant, the reference not does Ofili Although 2009:237). (Ofili 1970s” and 1960s the from stemming life to approach dignity. But Brother James, that’s not all. Above all, I have a newfound pride. I’m proud I’m proud pride. a newfound I have all, Above that’s not all. But Brother James, dignity. things of that sort. my history and man today after learning to be a black The use of “A Negro spelled backwards” as the title expresses the NOI contempt for the as the title expresses the backwards” Negro spelled “A The use of reveals a tension between Elijah surrounding Orgena the controversy As noted earlier, Malcolm X would draw a difference between “field negroes” and “house negroes,” or “the bour or negroes,” “house and negroes” “field between would draw a difference Malcolm X geois type who blinds himself to the condition of his people” and “the masses of Black people masses of Black people “the and people” the condition of his who blinds himself to geois type (in Kelley country” that exist in this and the conditions suffer the brunt of brutality who really of the NOI mirrored those of the moral and economic values same time, At the 1998:419). Elijah (424). colleagues attacked” uplift organizations Malcolm and his “black middle-class the on both theological and became fractured after his death in 1975, Muhammad’s movement broadly followed main- which American Society of Muslims, Muhammad’s W.D. class lines. the reformed Conversely, generally consisted of middle-class followers. stream Sunni practices, had its base NOI beliefs, which preserved many idiosyncratic Farrakhan, Nation of Islam under “jihad” there were rumors of writes, Mamiya Lawrence H. the early ’80s, By in the lower class. within NOI culture: berat- exemplifies this dissonance Orgena (1982:149). between the factions values. at the same time as sharing many of their ing middle-class blacks “so- would speak of the as black, encouraging others to refer to themselves Malcolm, term. not one blacks chose for themselves indicating that the epithet was assigned, called Negro,” it means to be also signifies the pageant’s understanding of what “Orgena” (see Martin 1991). Research reveals another instance of America. the required response by black and “A Negro,” Chester Grundy was in a black student During the mid-1960s, the neologism from the era. Although he is certain the group was not Orgena. group at the University of Kentucky called saw them- he says the name demonstrates how he and his fellow students referencing Louis X, we talk I mean, [...] there to give us a social outlet. “just Orgena was selves (Grundy 2016). but [laughs] that’s what we had of backwards Negroes, it’s like we were a bunch about it now, group was sup- The (in Fosl and K’Meyer 2009:199). and that’s where we were in our thinking” Student Union in 1968. planted by a more politically minded Black both coming out America, was evidence of the need to revise black identity in the same name, rise to the movement. of the same climate that would soon give ticularly the imaginative and synthetic means by which many African Americans came to iden- African by which many ticularly the imaginative and synthetic means It is also significant as an overlooked and rare example of NOI-sponsored tify as Muslims. part of a larger the pageant was Finally, leadership. polemical art under Elijah Muhammad’s that led to the infusion of Nation of Islam imagery and program of mainstreaming NOI culture Amiri Baraka particularly in the work of literature, mythology into black revolutionary art and Arts Movement in the 1960s and ’70s. and others associated with the Black Muhammad and his followers over the cultural value of the black church and black music comparable assumptions concerning conversion to Islam Interestingly, syncretic or otherwise. Cummings notes Islamic con- William The historian pervaded scholarship only until recently. an act of replacement per change in beliefs, “a fundamental version was intended to make (2001:559). fect and complete when all pre-Islamic beliefs disappear in favor of Islamic tenets” 15. Influence and Appeal Studying Downloaded from http://www.mitpressjournals.org/doi/pdf/10.1162/DRAM_a_00749 by guest on 29 September 2021 Downloaded from http://www.mitpressjournals.org/doi/pdf/10.1162/DRAM_a_00749 by guest on 29September 2021

90 Geoffrey Lokke in themovementwithLouisXreleasingfoursongsassingles. “I Believe”/“Without aSong” found awideraudiencethanthosewhosawthepageant. SongsfromOrgena Christel N. Templediscusses likely analogoustothenegotiatedidentitiesofmostNOIconvertsinearly1960s. acceptance oftheirleader’sasceticismandaesthetics. The pageant’ssyntheticnarrativeisvery ined andnegotiatednatureofitscreators’Muslimidentity, whichavoidedanindiscriminate logical andpoliticalimplicationsofElijahMuhammad’steachings. Orgena performstheimag- pageant negotiatesbetweentheculturesignsofblackchurch, classicalIslam, andthetheo- expresses aparticularblackhistorynarrativeconstructedbyartistsfromMosqueNo. 11. The churches, andtherestorationofblacks’ “original” religionandculture(666–68). Further, Orgena ratives, suchasblackchosennessandtheExodus, thedisempoweringinfluencesofChristian allowed African Americans to “explore, debate, anddisputewhatitmeanttobeMuslim” (680). ratives were “imagined space[s][...]thatlocatedcommunalauthenticityinasharedpast” and in theproductionandcirculationofso-called “black historynarratives” (2005:661). These nar Moorish Science Temple, theUniversalIslamicSociety, andtheStateStreetMosque and identityformation. HearguesthattheNOI African American culturalsigns. inal beliefs” (559). ElijahMuhammaddemandedthathisconvertsrejectwhatwaswhiteamong fying asMuslims, “emptily performIslamicritualswhileretainingbehindthisfaçadetheirorig- Cummings surmisesthatscholarscouldthenweedout “nominal” convertswho, despiteidenti- 16. (63). effect onlocalChristianministerswhosawit, inspiring themtomakeservices “less spooky” recruitment inthecity(inFanusie2007:62–63). OneMuslimclaimsthepageantevenhadan eant “sent shockwaves” throughBoston’sblackcommunityandhadalargeimpactonNOI ing theBostonperformances(2001:114). A memberoftheoriginalcasttoldFanusiepag- speak toitssuccess. Fanusie, inherstudyofMosqueNo. 11, saysmembershipincreasedfollow- packed audiencesinmajorcitiesandvenueslike Town HallandCarnegieinNew York selections inaunitonMuslim American literature(124). in asamplesyllabusforcourseonIslamthe Africana literarytradition, includesMarvinX’s tive bridgedancientandmodernIslamicliteraturein America” (in Temple 2016:120). Temple, Amiri Baraka, andpoetrybySoniaSanchez, MarvinXarguestheir “neo-enslavement narra- and diasporicperspective. CountingthemalongsideMalcolm’sAutobiography X, wholiststheLouisXworksaspartof Africana literarytradition, frombothan African her chapterinAfricanaIslamicStudies(2016). Temple quotesthepoetandplaywrightMarvin McCloud 2004:87–89). had joinedtheNOItohandlenationalpublicityforpageant attherequestofLouisX(see (2001:118). In “The BlackMuslims Are aFraud” (BarnetteandLinn1965), Barnetteclaimshe he witnessedOrgena “dramatizing theimportanceandvalueofeducationthroughout thecity” ically lefttheNationwithanapostateexposéin1965, waspersuaded tojointheNationafter As such, thepageantcanbesituatedamidst Africana andIslamicliterarytraditions. Orgena articulatessomeofthecommonthemestheseMuslimgroups’blackhistorynar Edward Curtisoffersacounternarrativefor20th-century African American Islamization Although itisdifficulttocaptureOrgena’s effectivenessasarecruitingtool, descriptionsof Him whom Jesus prophesied would come after Him. He who is alive and not a spook” (3). 1992:2). He writes, “God is in person,” and one should “stop looking for a dead Jesus for help,” and “pray to has made black people believe in, “a (unknown) or is some invisible spook somewhere mystery in space” ([1965] the Blackman in America, first published in 1965. Elijah refers to an unknowable “spook” God that the white race Presumably, this follower is using the word “spooky” in the same sense Elijah Muhammad uses it in In additiontotheninepagesofadvertorialinMuhammadSpeaks , afewelementsofOrgena 16 Fanusiealsowritesthat Aubrey Barnette, themiddle-class collegestudentwhodramat- Orgena and “A White Man’sHeavenIsaBlackHell” in — alongside contemporarymovementslikethe became well-known (1965), playsby Message to — engaged - - The Muslims Present Orgena 91

-

To this day, this day, To 18 2016). It is unclear if this Salaam is the the is Salaam this if unclear is It 2016). rerecord the song in 1979, and 1979, rerecord the song in (1971) (see Dale 2015). 2015). Dale (see (1971) to assess what risk “the cult” posed to cops (119). cops (119). posed to “the cult” to assess what risk , and “A White Man’s Heaven Is a Black Man’s Hell” earned earned Heaven Is a Black Man’s Hell” White Man’s “A and , Orgena The other Louis X singles, “A White Man’s Heaven Is a Black Man’s Hell,” Is a Black Man’s Hell,” White Man’s Heaven “A Louis X singles, The other 17 blacks” stateside (1996:70). “A White Man’s Heaven Is a Black Man’s Hell” was the Hell” Is a Black Man’s White Man’s Heaven “A (1996:70). stateside blacks” Arizona. Magida says these songs were picked up by a Cuban radio station and a Cuban radio station were picked up by says these songs Magida Arizona.

Gold,” and “Chains,” were on A Muslim Sings, a label distributed by Mosque No. 32 by Mosque a label distributed Sings, A Muslim were on “Chains,” and Gold,” Creation.

The single was produced by the prolific R&B writer-arranger H.B. Barnum. His credits include , Franklin, Aretha include credits His Barnum. H.B. writer-arranger R&B prolific the by produced was single The (Discogs others many among Payne, Freda and Sinatra, Rawls, Frank Lou sought-after Al-Fatihah Trio’s Unity Black out put that label same comes verse key its says He song. the of recording live a discusses Farrakhan, on profile 1986 his in Hitchens, frequently he whom with Jesus, “Like adding, before revenge,” and redemption “promising 15:13–14, Gen. from (1986:136). Testament” New the read not has Farrakhan himself, compares The pageant and its music clearly contributed to the national prestige of Louis X within music clearly contributed to the national The pageant and its The Hate That Hate Produced begins the popular documentary The Hate As previously mentioned, begins with a slightly altered version of the begins with a slightly altered version of the Spike Lee’s film Malcolm X More famously, In 1992, was later at the center of an actual trial. the speech from The Trial Incredibly, in Phoenix, in Phoenix, , The Trial the movement. him celebrity status in the NOI. Levinsohn posits the real reason Elijah Muhammad opposed Levinsohn posits the real reason the NOI. him celebrity status in better known than he, stop one of his lieutenants from becoming and its music was to Orgena by At any rate, (1997:249). to explain Muhammad’s rift with Malcolm citing a similar theory 7 and later as national No. over Malcolm’s remit (as Imam at Mosque the time Louis X took he was familiar to followers throughout the country. spokesman), and is often quoted in reference , from The Trial invective “I charge the white man” with the Rickford 2003:119; Rucker 2006:21; Smith to the piece (see Banks 2006:52; Gibson 2012:44; and by Lomax, Wallace as it was by The speech is typically used, 2016:67). Tischler 2015:198; the San Jose Police a black member of Brown, P. Lee In 1965, to demonstrate black rage. result of a research project on Negroes aid[ing] the “the wrote an article that was Department, published in book form for the use of police officers” Police in the State of California [...] to be He uses the speech from The Trial (1965:119). In a book on group defamation, Thomas David Jones used it to help define racially defamatory Thomas In a book on group defamation, language (1998:118). flag and 1991 footage of LAPD officers assault- speech played over a montage of a burning Perhaps he thought it was Lee gives Louis’s words to Malcolm. Surprisingly, ing Rodney King. I imagine Instead, better at talking Malcolm’s talk). Malcolm speaking (I doubt he found Louis with a nod to first-time viewers of the documentary, Lee wanted to recreate the experience of particu- the speech now gets misattributed to Malcolm, At any rate, that moment in NOI lore. Thompson 2015; Karikari 2012; Shawki 2006:173; larly online (see Doherty 2000:39; Holmon 1991:27). two white police Budzyn and Larry Nevers, Walter by was beaten a black man, Malice Green, ripping off a piece of his clubbed Green dozens of times, Budzyn and Nevers officers in . Green was Budzyn claimed he thought At trial, to fail. causing Green’s heart and lungs scalp, Both officers were convicted of mur holding a knife or razorblade (they were just his car keys). The City of 8 to 18 (Bedi 2003:190–92). Nevers was sentenced to 12 to 25 years; Budzyn, der. 1992). Detroit quickly reached a settlement with Malice Green’s family for $5 million (Walsh “beamed to “beamed to 17. 18. the song is considered the NOI anthem (Rega 2014:9; Temple 2016:120; A. Muhammad 2016b). A. Muhammad 2016b). 2016:120; Temple the NOI anthem (Rega 2014:9; the song is considered over with the record selling , record were common in Muhammad Speaks ads for the For years, ­ Farrakhan would (Goldberg 2001:166). 10,000 copies by 1960 performed it at the in 1995 (Lei 1995; Rega 2014:11). Man March in 1995 (Lei 1995; Rega performed it at the Million came out on Salaam Records, an NOI label that also released a single by a group called The The by a group called released a single an NOI label that also Salaam Records, came out on New “Black best-known recording. Writing in 1963, Louis Lomax said the song was the closest thing the the closest thing the said the song was Louis Lomax 1963, in Writing recording. best-known at services (1963:18). “as a solo” and was often performed NOI had to a hymn, Downloaded from http://www.mitpressjournals.org/doi/pdf/10.1162/DRAM_a_00749 by guest on 29 September 2021 Downloaded from http://www.mitpressjournals.org/doi/pdf/10.1162/DRAM_a_00749 by guest on 29September 2021

92 Geoffrey Lokke and enduringcontribution(and challenge)toNOIcultureandblacktheatreoftheearly1960s. Orgena. Perhapsthealbumwill bringnewlistenerstoFarrakhanandhiscollaborators’unique (A. Muhammad2016a). The articlealsostatesthecompilationwillrereleasesome songsfrom Common), alongside “performers fromsomeofthecountry’s premiersymphonyorchestras” will featureoriginalmusicbypopularblackartists(likeStevie Wonder, ChakaKhan, and In 2016, heannouncedthathadanewcompilationalbum intheworks.World Change This Farrakhan hassincereleasedtheoccasionalrecordtohisfollowers andalsoperformedlive. forming again: But thismanisdead” (143). FarrakhantakesthistomeanElijah wastellinghimtostartper sion MuhammadpointedtoFarrakhan’soldshowbusinessphotos, saying, “This manisalive. Farrakhan toplaytheviolinforhiminhishome(inJ. Muhammad2006:143). Onanotherocca- Elijah MuhammadhadbroughtOrgena andhismusiccareertoanend, theleaderwouldinvite that canbeexpressedthroughmusic” (Lei1995). InClosingtheGap, Farrakhansaysyearsafter and culture. the “missionary” elementsoftheNationthatweresubsumedbygreater African American art and While thepageanthadnowherenearreachandinfluenceofMalcolmXinhisspeeches sumed workingfamiliaritywithIslamonthepartofaudience” (McAlister1999:641–42). Plays forBlack Theatre (Bullins1969) plays andessaysintheBAM-associatedanthologiesBlack Fire (BarakaandNeal1968)New 6,000 yearsago(seeFarrakhan2013;E. Muhammad[1965]1992:2). McAlisternotesthatthe ily ontheNOImythof Yakub, theblackscientistwhocreatedwhite “devil” raceover and and MarvinX, andnewlyfoundedpublicationslikeJournal ofBlack Poetry, Arts Movement(BAM), intheworkofartistslike Amiri Baraka, BenCaldwell, SoniaSanchez, quite seriously” (1999:634). Shewritesthat “NOI mythology” infusedtheburgeoningBlack operated asboth “a culturalsourceandresource,” and “took cultureandmediarepresentation ally beganwithLouisFarrakhan’splays” (2011:204). MelaniMcAlisterwritesthattheNOI Nationalist concernstraditionallyidentifiedwiththeriseofBlack Artsmovementactu- died in2013(see AP 2000;Burns2013;Chandler2012). lished amemoir, GoodCops, Bad Verdict: HowRacialPolitics ConvictedUsofMurder (2006). Nevers oped cancerandwasreleasedin2001toservetherestofsentenceathome. Helaterpub- eventually reducedtoinvoluntarymanslaughter. Budzynwasreleasedin1999. Neversdevel- prosecution (seePeople v. Budzyn1997;Nevers v. Killinger 1997). Bothofficers’convictionswere this injustice” (192). The convictionsweresuccessfullyappealed, aidedbyLouisX’simaginary view theinstantcrimeaspartofapatternpolicebrutality, effectivelyaskingthemtoredress (1997:192). Further, thewordsandaccompanyingRodneyKingfootage “invited [thejury]to ity [...,]focusing[their]attentioninaveryemotionalwayontheracialelementofcrime” found thefilm “underminedthejury’sabilitytoexamineimpartiallydefendant’scredibil- ing ofSpikeLee’sMalcolmX. CitingthewordsfromTheTrial , thecourtinPeople v. Budzyn reversed thedecision, holdingthejuryhadbeenprejudiced, inpart, byacourt-approvedview- ers; totheentirefamilyofourplanet. (143) universality ofthemissiontotakemessageGent[i]les; tothekings, totherul- would beexpandedthroughtheplayingofviolinthat nowpreparemeforthe He wasplantingtheseedthentoraisemealevel, again, wheremyheartandbreast “People reallydon’tknowFarrakhan, theydon’tfullyknowthesoulofaman In Budzyn andNeversappealedtheirconvictions. In1997, theSupremeCourtofMichigan Autobiography, orthewidelyreadMuhammadSpeaks, Black Theatre (636). ShesinglesoutBaraka’splayABlack Mass(1966), whichreliesheav- Theorizing Black Theatre,Theorizing HenryD. Millerclaims “[t]he separatist, militant, andBlack “were eitherdirecttranslationsofNOIideology” or “pre- Orgena should becountedamong Black BooksBulletin, — and Ithink - The Muslims Present Orgena 93 .

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