Mortuary Paraphernalia: A Case Study of Roma Catholic and Anglican Cemeteries, 1800- 2000
Kheera Victoria Daly Univeristy of the West Inides, St. Augustine
Abstract: Mortuary paraphernalia refers to the combined usage of various forms of motifs and infrastructure to decorate the graves of the dead. There is a glossary of cemetery art and symbolism that can express ethnic identity, religious affiliation, association membership, or simply the predilection of the time or of the community. Various motifs on cemetery monuments, combined with the meticulous use of inscriptions, have helped to show the feelings of the bereaved. This aspect of mortuary studies serves as a key that unlocks the secrets in analyzing various attitudes to death across cultures. It is an aspect of socio-cultural anthropology that examines the various ways in which learned techniques, values, and beliefs are transmitted from one generation to the next and acted upon in different situations. Another vital aspect of this research is identifying essential structural or behavioral properties of human society. This study intends to identify trends and differences in the ways the Roman Catholic and Anglican faiths execute their funerary practices. In order to further illustrate their functions, I will examine four major cemeteries in Trinidad: (i) Lapeyrouse Cemetery; (ii) St. Joseph Roman Catholic Cemetery; (iii) St. Mary’s Anglican Church Cemetery and (iv) Gran Chemin Roman Catholic Cemetery. These sites are largely untapped repositories of research, which will add considerably to the growing body of data on mortuary studies in Trinidad and the wider Caribbean.
Résumé: « Articles mortuaires » se réfère à l’utilisation combinée de différents types de motifs et d’infrastructure pour décorer les tombes des morts. Il existe un glossaire d’art et de symbolisme funéraires susceptibles d’exprimer l’identité ethnique, l’affiliation religieuse, l’adhésion aux associations ou simplement la prédilection de l’époque ou de la communauté. Divers motifs sur les monuments funéraires, associés à l’utilisation méticuleuse d’inscriptions, aident à exprimer les sentiments des endeuillés. Cet aspect des études funéraires sert de clé qui ouvre les secrets dans le cadre de l’analyse des différentes attitudes devant la mort à travers les cultures. C’est un aspect de l’anthropologie socioculturelle qui examine les différents modes de transmission des techniques, valeurs et croyances apprises d’une génération à l’autre et leur application dans des situations diverses. Un autre aspect vital de cette recherche consiste à identifier les propriétés structurelles ou comportementales essentielles de la société humaine. Cette étude vise à identifier les tendances et différences dans les manières dont les religions catholique et anglicane exécutent leurs pratiques funéraires. Afin d’illustrer davantage leurs fonctions, j’examinerai quatre principaux cimetières à la Trinité : (i) Lapeyrouse Cemetery; (ii) St. Joseph Roman Catholic Cemetery; (iii) St. Mary’s Anglican Church Cemetery et (iv) Gran Chemin Roman Catholic Cemetery. Ces sites constituent des mines de recherche largement inexploitées, qui contribueront considérablement au réservoir croissant de données sur les études funéraires à la Trinité et dans l’ensemble de la Caraïbe.
Resumen: La parafernalia mortuoria hace referencia al uso combinado de diferentes formas de motivos e infraestructuras que tienen como fin decorar las tumbas de los difuntos. Existe un glosario de arte y simbolismo en cementerios capaz de expresar la identidad étnica, confesión religiosa, pertenencia a una asociación o simplemente los gustos del momento o de la comunidad. Varios motivos presentes en monumentos de cementerios, combinados con el uso meticuloso de inscripciones, han contribuido a expresar los sentimientos de los deudos. Este aspecto de los estudios mortuorios constituye la clave para descifrar secretos al momento de analizar las distintas actitudes que diversas culturas adoptan ante la muerte. Se trata de un aspecto de la antropología sociocultural que analiza las diferentes formas en las que las técnicas, los valores y las creencias que se aprenden son transmitidos de una generación a otra y son afectados en diferentes situaciones. Otro aspecto vital de esta investigación es la identificación de propiedades estructurales o de comportamiento esenciales de la sociedad humana. El presente estudio tiene como objeto identificar tendencias y diferencias en las formas en las que la fe católica y la fe anglicana llevan a cabo sus prácticas funerarias. A fin de ilustrar sus funciones con mayor profundidad, procederé a analizar cuatro cementerios importantes de Trinidad: (i) el Cementerio de Lapeyrouse; (ii) el Cementerio Católico de St. Joseph; (iii) el Cementerio Anglicano de St. Mary’s y (iv) el Cementerio Católico de Gran Chemin. Estos sitios son, en su mayoría, repositorios no explotados de investigación, por lo que contribuirán a ampliar de forma considerable el creciente cuerpo de datos sobre estudios mortuorios en Trinidad y el Gran Caribe.
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The data supplied in cemetery studies have been classified as ‘gravestone iconography’ which Gorman and DiBlasi (1981) refer to as motifs that were carved on gravestones.1 These classifications have come from studies done by various scholars, which in turn is an indication of the increasing popularity of the mortuary paraphernalia theme in archaeological circles. This notoriety is further fuelled by the light that such a perceivably dark topic, like death, can shed on other scholarly fields. For instance, in the absence of public records, gravestones can provide important demographic information in age, gender, denominational faith, and in some instances, more personal facts like the cause of death and occupation. Gravestone iconography can also shed light on religious values and the evolution of faiths with the passage of time. In addition to motifs, there is also the use of various inscriptions that are carved onto the gravestone as a form of private sentiment and this is usually chosen by the deceased or members of his/her family. Field observations were carried out on both private and public cemeteries in order to obtain a sample of mortuary paraphernalia used among the Roman Catholic and Anglican religions as part of their funerary rites. For instance, the St. Joseph Roman Catholic Cemetery, the Gran Chemin Roman Catholic Cemetery and the St. Mary’s Anglican Church Cemetery are all private cemeteries, maintained by the respective parishes in which they are located, while the Lapeyrouse Cemetery is a public cemetery maintained by the government of Trinidad and Tobago. The differences between public and private cemeteries are limited but it proves to be an important factor in determining the rationale for choosing the observation sites. The private cemeteries are stratified based on religion and thereby it becomes easy to identify specific Roman Catholic and Anglican trends in gravestone iconography as it is not a practice to bury any person outside the faith in these respective cemeteries. In the study of the four cemeteries, a bi- centurial division was used in order to classify the motifs to a particular time frame. This was important to determine whether certain motifs are specifically used in a particular religion or whether it was a more a trend at the time. Furthermore, field observations of the gravestones were studied based on eight variables- (1) religious denomination; (2) type of motif; (3) date of birth; (4) date of death; (5) age; (6) gender; (7) material composition of the grave enclosure; and (8) the use of inscriptions. A reappearing motif among many of the graves, in both the Roman Catholic and Anglican cemeteries, is the cross. More precisely, the following figures were extracted: at the St. Joseph Roman Catholic Cemetery, there were sixty-nine crosses fund from a total of one hundred and seventy graves; one hundred and thirty-six crosses out of five hundred and thirty- nine graves at St. Mary’s Anglican Church and at Gran Chemin cemetery, there were fifty-four out of two hundred and fifty-six. Crosses are a longstanding Christian symbol considered to be sacred. Crosses are grouped into the following main categories: • crux immissa • crux simplex • crux decussata 2 • crux commissa
1 Frederick J. E. Gorman and Michael DiBlasi, “Gravestone Iconography and Mortuary Ideology,” Ethnohistory 28.1 (1981): 79. 2 “The Cross, An Emblem of Christianity,” 16 March 2009
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Among these, the crux immisa is the most commonly used form of cross in the Christian faith. It usually consists of two beams inserted at right angles. In this regard, there is the distinction between a low cross (crux humilis) and a tall cross (crux sublimis). An example of a crux humilis would be the Greek cross, which resembles a plus sign. The Greek cross has all four members the same shape and form and usually suggests the Church of Christ rather than a symbol of Christ’s suffering.3 A crucifix is any cross with a superimposed figurine usually representing crucified Jesus.4 The crucifix has been strongly linked to the Roman Catholic Church as a reminder of Christ’s sacrifice. On the other hand, Protestant religions prefer the use of a plain cross to reinforce the occurrence of Christ’s resurrection. In the survey of the St. Mary’s Anglican Church Cemetery, however, the popular belief that the crucifix is restricted to the Roman Catholic Church has been disproved. On the tombstone of Baron Dr. Henrico Castel (see Fig. 1 and Fig. 2) there is a small image of a crucifix that has been decorated in shiny silver paint. Apart from symbolizing Christ’s sacrifice, the crucifix highlights the fact that death is inevitable, even for the son of God. It is also a symbol of piety that assumes respect across cultures. Crucifix crosses were also found in the St. Joseph Roman Catholic Church Cemetery on the gravestones of the Clark family.
Table 1 Distribution of Crosses on Gravesites at St. Joseph, St. Mary’s and Gran Chemin Cemeteries
TOTAL NUMBER OF CEMETERY GRAVES WITH CROSSES GRAVES St. Joseph Roman Catholic 69 170 Church St. Mary’s Anglican Church 136 539 Gran Chemin Roman Catholic 54 256 Church Source: Archaeological Surveys (Daly: 2007).
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Fig. 1 A crucifix gravestone at Fig. 2 A larger image of the crucifix St.Mary’s Anglican Church Cemetery motif
The Latin cross is an example of the plain crosses used in Protestant faiths, like the Anglican religion. It was once considered a pagan symbol, reflective of the human form, with a head, arms and feet. Nevertheless, the Latin cross can also be interpreted as a Christian symbol. As a representation of the Trinity, the three shorter sections represent the Three Persons of the Trinity and the longer, lower portion signifies the One Divinity.5 Latin crosses are in abundance at all four cemeteries surveyed. There are a variety of sizes, ranging from small carvings on tombstones, to medium and large stone structures. At the St. Joseph Roman Catholic Church Cemetery the nineteenth century graves of Francisca Josefa Hernandez (see Fig. 3) and Saint Yves Joliclerc have small Latin crosses on them, barely four inches in length. There is a simplistic variation to the Latin cross located in the Gran Chemin Roman Catholic Church Cemetery whereby the plain edges are cut out with a decorative pattern with a rhombus-like shape carved in the middle. This grave, however, has no identifying marks such as the name of the deceased, their date of birth or year of death. Other examples of the Latin cross can be found on the graves of Amy and Ernest Courthope located in the St. Mary’s Anglican Church Cemetery but in addition to this motif, the tomb structure of this grave is unique as it is moulded in the form of a gable roof and the Latin cross placed on top of it. The largest replicas of the Latin Crosses were found at the Lapeyrouse Cemetery but there were extremes in that some crosses were highly decorative and others truer to the plain form of the Latin cross. At the same cemetery, there is a specimen of a more elaborate version of the Latin cross where a stone structure, towering over six feet, is carved in the image of Mary, the mother of Jesus, holding up a Latin cross (see Fig. 4). At St. Mary’s Anglican Church Cemetery, there is a sharp contrast to the Latin crosses identified there, which are more simplistic than the specimens at Lapeyrouse
5 “The Latin Cross,” 16 March 2009 < http://www.seiyaku.com/customs/crosses/latin.html>
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(see Fig. 5). A variation of the Latin cross is the Calvary cross, which has three steps at the base of the beam. In this symbol, the three steps leading up to the cross represent the mound at Calvary or, more often, in descending order they represent Faith, based upon Hope, based upon Love.6 A number of these types of crosses were found in a cluster at the St. Mary’s Anglican Church Cemetery.
Fig. 3 Latin cross on the gravestone of Francisca Josefa Hernandez
Fig. 3.10 Elaborate variation of a Latin Fig. 3.11 Plain Latin Cross at St. Mary’s Cross at Lapeyrouse Cemetery Anglican Church Cemetery
6 “The Calvary Cross,” 16 March 2009
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Another type of cross is the Celtic cross, which is a cross with a circle (see Fig. 6). The cross is so named because early examples are found in the Celtic land of Ireland, when in the 8th century (or possibly earlier), missionaries erected these stone crosses to mark preaching stations and monasteries.7 At the Anglican Cemetery, there is a metal version of a Celtic cross on the nineteenth century grave of Charles Bruce Alleyne, with added decorative artwork where stencils, in the shape of clubs, are cut out throughout the cross. Larger nineteenth century Celtic crosses are also found at the Lapeyrouse Cemetery but these vary in that they are much larger, towering over ten (10) feet, and they are carved from stone. The ring in the Celtic cross has been interpreted as a symbol of eternity in that a ring is round and has no end. Other interpretations of it include a celestial translation as a halo, or the simplistic conclusion that it is a structural support for the extended beams of the cross. This type of cross usually has fanciful artwork engraved on it. These etchings can be explained as representations of the ongoing culture and customs at any particular time.
Fig. 6 A 19th Century Celtic Cross at Lapeyrouse Cemetery
Field surveys of the cemeteries revealed that the cross is a universal symbol for both the Anglican and Roman Catholic faiths. Evidence also indicates that the crucifix is not restricted to the Roman Catholic faith, even though Protestant faiths may prefer to use a plain, or Latin cross as a symbol of their church. However, some motifs did appear in the St. Mary’s Anglican Church Cemetery that was not found in the Roman Catholic cemeteries. These include the shield, bird, sun and a scroll statue. There is no definitive interpretation of a shield but in analysing it we can conclude that it is used for protection, particularly in battle. This begs the question as to why
7 “The Celtic Cross,” 16 March 2009 < http://www.seiyaku.com/customs/crosses/celtic.html>
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would a dead person need protection? Any religious person would contend that human beings cannot compete with celestial beings, such as angels and demons, as they have supernatural powers. The logical interpretation of a shield is that this emblem symbolizes the occupation of the deceased, in which case could have been a soldier. It is important to note that this motif appears on a twentieth century grave and is an indication of an evolution in cemetery symbolism away from the traditional sacred symbols (such as the cross) used to decorate gravestones. The symbolic meaning of the bird and the sun can be grouped under eternal life and mortality. The bird is an indication of resurrection, which is a major theme in the Christian religion, where after Jesus died on the cross, he was brought back to life. The idea of resurrection can affect the emotional reactions to death by comforting the deceased, reassuring them that death is not final. The sun has a similar meaning. It is a universal symbol of light, warmth and new beginnings. Motifs such as the sun are tribal in nature as many Mesoamerican groups, such as the Mayans, Incas and Aztecs, had sun gods and often made sacrifices to them. Given this information, it can be deduced that this symbol may have been chosen because of a personal likeness, and not necessarily for any religious value. Despite this, the sun is a symbol of hope, hence the saying “Look to a brighter day”. Apart from the differences identified above, there were many shared features in gravestone iconography present at the Roman Catholic and Anglican Cemeteries. These are the heart, books, floral art, wreath, arches, praying hands and cup-like vessels (urns). According to Pam Reid (2000), the heart refers to the suffering of Christ for our sins.8 The meaning of this symbol is very similar to the Catholic impression of the crucifix but Reid argues that this symbol is usually found in Catholic cemeteries. This theory is contested in the data collected as there is evidence, from the cemeteries surveyed, to prove otherwise. The Anglican grave of Louisa Lovell has a heart, cast out of iron, which is further hinged on a cross. The appearance of what Reid terms a Catholic symbol in an Anglican cemetery can be explained through the evolution in religious values. Lovell’s grave is dated in the twentieth century and it is a clear indication of a symbol that once had a sacred meaning, but has traversed into secularism. This reinforces the theory developed by Brian Turley (?) that the meaning of symbols changes with time. Sociologist Emile Durkheim observed that, as they become collectively aware of divergences between profane and sacred objects, societies establish their own religious symbols.9 Like the shield, the image of a book can indicate a person’s profession. An open book is representative of a teacher, while a Bible gives the impression that the deceased was a Minister. The Anglican grave of Henry Rupert Bhagan, dated in the twentieth century, is decorated with an open book statue and it clearly indicates that he was a priest. Floral art varies in its symbolism depending on the type of plant. Fruits, like the small, round stone balls that look like grapes on the gravestone of Hubert Wallace Barnard (see Fig. 7) at the St. Mary’s Anglican Church Cemetery, are reminiscent of the fruit of life and eternity. The roses on the graves of Hamilton Chandler and Ella Liverpool at the Gran Chemin Roman Catholic Cemetery, ‘signify completion and the brevity of earthly existence”10 whereas a full blown rose means that the person died in the prime of their life.
8 Pam Reid, “Cemetery Art and Symbolism,” 27 January 2009
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Fig. 7 Fruits carved on the gravestone of Fig. 8 Praying hands on display at Hubert Wallace Barnard St. Mary’s Anglican Church Cemetery
The arch is an architectural feature that is commonly used in the design on churches. Its shape is indicative of a portal that separates the profane from the sacred. This iconic feature helps to transform the sorrow of death with the promise of eternal life. Praying hands, like those found on the twentieth century gravestone of Lionel Kangalee at the St. Mary’s Anglican Church (see Fig. 8) and one other grave at the St. Joseph Roman Catholic Church Cemetery represent someone asking God for eternal life. Five urns were identified in the three denominational cemeteries surveyed and can be considered a rare feature when considering that close to one thousand graves were analysed based on their gravestone iconography. The urn is a well understood symbol of death as this is the required vessel to house ashes of those persons cremated but in cemetery symbolism, the urn represents ‘undying remembrance’.11 Like the Anglican cemetery, unique motifs can also be classified in the Roman Catholic graveyards where stars and angels were used to decorate tombstones. More specifically, in the two Roman Catholic cemeteries where a complete field survey was conducted, one grave with a star motif was identified, in addition to two graves with the images of angels. The occurrence of angels at the Lapeyrouse Cemetery was more apparent due to the size of some of the statues, often exceeding seven feet in height. However, because of the large size of that graveyard, and the complex cluster of graves, it became difficult to record the accurate number for the placement of angels on tombstones. According to Pam Reid (2000) in her discussion on cemeteries, the star is a symbol that “death could not overpower the Light of the Spirit which still shines in the darkness.”12 It may be
11 Ibid.
12 Ibid.
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argued that the use of the star may not fall within the precepts of secularism given the sacred connotation is has attained. A study of astrology has allowed many religious sects to identify parts of the year to carry out religious duties. The Muslims, in particular, use the position of the stars and moon to determine the holy month of Ramadan and Eid-ul-Fitr. Furthermore, the star has been documented throughout various scriptures in the Holy Bible. A case in point is the Three Wise Men, who followed the brightest star in the sky to Bethlehem, to find Baby Jesus in a manger. In addition, the Jews often refer to the Star of David, which is a religious symbol used for guidance, protection and a further expression of faith. In essence, even though the star is not as pervasive as the cross in the Christian faith, it has transcended secular boundaries to convey sacred messages. Stars are a form of light and are present even when we cannot see them. These characteristics folds in well with the Christian belief in that the light conveys a felling of hope, and a belief in something that cannot be seen epitomizes what it means to have faith. The other motif that appears to be unique to the Roman Catholic cemetery is the angel. The angels are represented throughout the Bible13 as a body of spiritual beings intermediate between God and men.14 This creature demands a lengthy discussion to highlight their importance in the Christian religion, with a focus on the phenomenon of death. The importance of angels is not due to any exclusivity to the Christian denomination. Angels in Islam, or malaikah, play an essential role as intermediaries from Allah to the World.15 There is also a belief in angels in the Hindu religion, but the unlike the Christian faith, where the image of an angel is established as a winged creature that appears peaceful due to its glowing light qualities, their impression of an angel is more of a spirit being. One example is the minor gods, or devas, literally “shining ones”, who inhabit the higher astral plane.16 While the image of an angel can vary among the world religions, their purpose tends to be universal, as messengers, doing the will of God/Allah/Brahman, as the case may be. With reference to the Christian faith, there is one scripture that answers the question concerning the importance of angels in death, and the rationale behind using this figure in gravestone iconography. It is argued that God is so omnipotent that he cannot be approached by human beings. In this regard, we are not worthy to be in his presence and this is highlighted in 1 Timothy 6:16 (KJV), which states:
“who alone has immortality, dwelling in unapproachable light, whom no man has seen or can see, to whom be honor and everlasting power. Amen.”
Angels do not have man’s shortcomings and can therefore act for God and represent Him when communicating with men and women. They bridge the huge gap between the holiness and
13 Additional information of angels acting as messengers can be obtained from Bible scriptures. In the King James Version reference of angels in this capacity can be identified in Exodus 23:20, Matthew 1:20 and Luke 2:9-10, to name a few. 14 “Angels,” Catholic Encyclopedia, 19 March 2009
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perfection of God in heaven and the shortcomings of dying people on this planet.17 This further explains why angels are venerated in the Roman Catholic Church, and are often prayed to for various mercies. For example, Saint Michael the Archangel is the patron saint for protection, and this image is captured in a statue at Lapeyrouse (see Fig. 9). The statue is moulded in a commanding demeanour with a sword in hand, but yet exhibits a peaceful evanescence. Other angels include Saint Raphael who is a healer and Saint Gabriel, who is the patron saint for communication workers. He is popular in the Bible for bringing prophecies to mankind. The general idea of angels is that they were made to help humans and this is expressed in the gravestone iconography at the Lapeyrouse Cemetery. A stone carving on top of a family tomb monument highlights angels carrying a visibly limb body.
Fig. 9 An angel at Lapeyrouse
Images of the Virgin Mary also appear more frequently at the Lapeyrouse Cemetery but the exact number has not been determined due to limitations that have already been identified. Like angels, the use of Mary as a form of gravestone iconography, can be linked to her importance in the Christian religion, but more so, in the Roman Catholic faith. Opponents to the Roman Catholic faith, and the subsequent founders of Protestant religions, such as the Anglican faith, have claimed that there is too much focus on the Virgin Mary in that it can be deemed idol worship. However, Catholics have vigorously rejected these ideas, instead providing a rationale behind the presumed deification of Mary. There are many women with the name Mary in the Bible, but Jesus’ mother stands apart from the rest due to her Immaculate Conception. The son of
17 “Why Did God Create Angels?,” 17 March 2009 169 God was born into this world without sin (i.e. intercourse). The Virgin Mary’s importance is further highlighted in the sacrifice Jesus made at Calvary, when he died for our sins. Only God- made-man could pay the price of the redemption of humanity. Only a woman, by Divine Decree in accordance to the Universal Laws of Nature, could generate God-made-man.18 Thus, Mary is seen as the gate through which Christ entered the world and she is also considered the keeper of the gate to Heaven. Another symbolic feature representing a return to the gothic style of cemetery architecture is the use of metal enclosures on graves in the nineteenth century. This style is defined as gothic due to the elements that make up the structure. Under the gothic architectural styles, buildings and structures cease to have simplicity in the form of plain walls. Instead, these walls may be separated by a number of cluttered columns, which may be connected to a series of pointed arches, vaults and flying buttresses. Another definitive feature of the gothic style is in the measurements whereby things appear to be much taller than they are wide. The number of graves encountered with metal enclosures at the three denominational cemeteries include: eighty-four at St. Mary’s Anglican, seven at St. Joseph and seventeen at Gran Chemin. The reason for the disparity in the statistics can be attributed to the century in which they appear. Twenty-three of those graves identified with metal enclosures at the Anglican cemetery were dated in the nineteenth century and only two others, dated in this same time frame, were located at Gran Chemin. The skill of dealing with metal and iron works was known by many of the African slaves and indentured labourers brought to Trinidad. In the nineteenth century, their knowledge of this craft would have allowed them to earn a living, whether it be repairing a sugar mill, or making these metal fences. Some of the tomb monuments have been used as a site for family burials as in the case of the Hernandez Family Tomb, which houses twenty-two different burials of both adults and children (see Fig. 10). From the study of the two Roman Catholic and one Anglican cemeteries, and the nine hundred and eighty-five (985) combined graves identified from the dates of survey, this example of burial in large family plots is a featured characteristic of the nineteenth century. Later on in the twentieth century, this does not appear to be a retained trend in mortuary studies as the size of plots granted to families has now become restricted due to an increasing number of deaths and the limited space available in graveyards. In addition, in the later decades, alternative forms of burial were being utilized, such as cremation. Other family graves were identified in the Gran Chemin Roman Catholic Cemetery and the St. Mary’s Anglican Church Cemetery, but these were mainly comprised of two to three burials, which are nothing compared to the scale of the Hernandez family plot. 18 “Why is the Virgin Mary Considered So Important?,” The MGR Foundation, 19 March 2009 170 Fig. 10 The Hernandez burial plot at St. Joseph Roman Catholic Church Cemetery Unique gravestone motifs have been identified based on religion. However, at the Lapeyrouse Cemetery, there existed certain structures that were not found in the three denominational cemeteries surveyed. One aspect is the meticulous detail applied to stone carvings. Another unique feature is the more imposing forms of gravestone iconography found at the Lapeyrouse Cemetery, such as obelisks, which are categorised under the label of ‘Tomb Monument’ in the tables documenting the description of graves surveyed. An obelisk is a four- sided shaft that tapers to its top into a pyramidal apex.19 Obelisks are imposing because of their height, which sometimes exceeds fifteen feet (see Fig. 11). 19 Tricia Ward, “A Survey of the Architectural Forms and Ornaments within the Lapeyrouse Cemetery in Trinidad,” diss., UWI, 2003, 28. 171 Fig. 11 An obelisk at Lapeyrouse The large size of the gravestones appear to be commonplace at the Lapeyrouse Cemetery and it can be further acknowledged that the mortuary paraphernalia identified there are more elaborate when compared to similar motifs found at the other cemeteries. The factors for the variation in the types of motifs used, such as angels, flowers, sun, stars and book statues were centered on family sentiment and possibly compliance with the wishes of the deceased. However, the emotions do not fully explain why some of the motifs identified in the Lapeyrouse Cemetery are so much larger. A logical deduction is that social status is to blame. Lapeyrouse is located in Port-of-Spain, which was once inhabited by Trinidad’s elite, the French Creoles. The importance of maintaining class and superiority in society was deemed so important that it was considered acceptable for first cousins to marry in order to ensure the ‘purity’ of the family line. It is important to note that not all the graves at Lapeyrouse are large and elaborate. Some grave markers are quite simple with a concrete tombstone bearing the name, date of birth and death of the deceased. The more elaborate structures, however, are dated in the nineteenth century when Trinidad was considered a plantation society. The plantation society encouraged social stratification, where the whites were at the top of the social hierarchy and the blacks were treated as sub-humans to justify the slave system. These attitudes were reflected in the magnitude and intricacy of some grave markers in the Anglican and Roman Catholic cemeteries surveyed, but more so at Lapeyrouse. A unique motif in the Gran Chemin cemetery is the coffin-shaped concrete enclosure of graves (see Fig. 12). In this cemetery, a total of four coffin-shaped enclosures were identified, with one having a date in 1919. The other three did not have any identifying marks in accordance with the variables used to study the gravestones. These concrete coffins were small in dimension, 172 measuring no more than three feet by one foot. It can be speculated that given the size of the enclosure, a child was buried there. However, it the size and simplicity of the grave enclosure can be linked to social standing and the location of this cemetery in south Trinidad, which is further classified as rural and limited in social and infrastructural development. In this instance, the family of the deceased may not have been able to afford a coffin and opted to carve one out of stone and concrete. By doing this they accomplished two things- (i) they fulfilled their duty of providing their loved one with some sort of vessel to house their bones, thereby completing the rites of a proper burial; and (ii) they prevented any health problems by sealing the decaying corpse in a grave through the use of concrete. The use of social status as a reason for the coffin- shaped concrete burial is also reinforced by the positioning of three of these graves, which are identified as Grave No. 61, 62 and 64 in the description of graves for Gran Chemin. The close position implies a family burial. Fig. 12 A coffin-shaped grave enclosure From the archaeological record contained within cemeteries, gravestone iconography is an important field in identifying demographic patterns. In the absence of records, the names, age, gender, occupation and even cause of death can be determined from a gravestone that is properly labelled. It is important to note that mortuary paraphernalia is not always used in the marking of graves. The choice to place symbols on a gravestone is dictated by private sentiment, religious duty and, to some extent, to differentiate social standing. 173