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PAKHTUNS AND THE WAR ON TERROR: A CULTURAL PERSPECTIVE Submitted by: ABDUL SHAKOOR PhD SCHOLAR DEPARTMENT OF INTERNATIONAL RELATIONS UNIVERSITY OF PESHAWAR (DECEMBER 2012) PAKHTUNS AND THE WAR ON TERROR: A CULTURAL PERSPECTIVE Submitted BY ABDUL SHAKOOR PhD SCHOLAR Supervised By PROF. DR. NASREEN GHUFRAN A dissertation submitted to the DEPARTMENT OF INTERNATIONAL RELATIONS UNIVERSITY OF PESHAWAR, PESHAWAR In partial fulfillment of the requirements for the DEGREE OF DOCTOR OF PHILOSOPHY IN International Relations December 2012 Dedication Dedicated to my wife Naila. DECLARATION I hereby declare that this dissertation is the outcome of my individual research and it has not been submitted to any other university for the grant of a degree. Abdul Shakoor APPROVAL CERTIFICATE Pakhtuns and the War on Terror: A Cultural Perspective Dissertation Presented By Abdul Shakoor To the Department of International Relations University of Peshawar In Partial Fulfillment of the Requirements for the Degree of Ph.D. in International Relations December 2012 We, the undersigned have examined the thesis entitled “Pakhtuns and the War on Terror: A Cultural Perspective” written by Abdul Shakoor, a Ph.D. Scholar at the Department of International Relations, University of Peshawar and do hereby approve it for the award of Ph.D. Degree. APPROVED BY: Supervisor: ___________________________________ PROF. DR. NASREEN GHUFRAN Professor Department of International Relations University of Peshawar External Examiner: ………………………………………………. Dean: ________________________________________ PROF. DR. NAEEM-UR-REHMAN KHATTAK Faculty of Social sciences University of Peshawar Chairman: _______________________________________ PROF.DR. ADNAN SARWAR KHAN Department of International Relations University of Peshawar i CONTENTS Contents i Acknowledgement iv List of Maps v Acronyms/Abbreviations viii Abstract x Chapters Title Page No Introduction 1 Literature Review 1 Statement of the Problem 10 Importance of the Study 11 Objectives of the Study 12 Research Questions 12 Methodology 13 Setting 13 Tools of Data Collection 14 Participant Observation 15 Limitations of the Study 16 Scheme of the Study 16 Chapter-1 Theoretical Framework 22 1.1 Introduction of the Concepts 22 1.2 Theoretical Framework 43 1.2.1 Culture Reductionism 43 1.2.2 Social Engineering 45 1.3 Reductionism, Social Engineering and the Pakhtuns Culture 49 Chapter-2 The Rise of Terrorism in the Pakhtun Region: The Role of Culture 66 2.1 Introduction 66 2.2 Historical Background 68 2.2.1 Akhund Abdul Ghafoor and his Jihad 70 2.2.2 Syed Ahmad of Rai Bareilly 72 2.2.3 Haji Sahib Turangzai 74 ii 2.2.4 The Faqir of Ipi 77 2.2.5 Darul Ulum Deoband and Religious Mobilizations in the Pakhtun Land 79 2.3 Jihadi Discourse after the Creation of Pakistan in 1947 82 2.3.1 Afghan Jihad and the Rise of Religious Militancy 85 2.3.2 The Rise of Tehrik-e-Nifaz-e-Shariat-e-Muhammadi (TNSM) 93 2.4 9/11 and the Rise of Pakistani Taliban 97 2.4.1 Tehrik-e-Taliban Pakistan (TTP) 102 2.4.2 Maulana Fazlullah in Swat 105 Chapter-3 Nature of the Current Insurgency in the Pakhtun Region 112 3.1 Introduction 112 3.2 Current Militant Landscape of the Pakhtun Region 114 3.2.1 Al Qaeda 115 3.2.2 Islamic Movement of Uzbekistan (IMU) 117 3.2.3 Pakistani Taliban 118 3.2.4 Punjabi Taliban 126 3.2.5 Non-Taliban Militants 130 3.2.6 The Haqqani Network 131 3.2.7 Hafiz Gulbahadar 132 3.2.8 Mullah Nazir 133 3.2.9 Non-Taliban Militants in Khyber Agency 134 3.3 Objectives of the Militants in the Pakhtun Region 136 3.4 Talibanization of the Pakhtun Society 141 3.5 Current Insurgency in the Pakhtun Region 148 Chapter-4 Pakhtun Cultural Values, Terrorism and the Contextual Meaning of Violence 157 4.1 Introduction 157 4.2 Violence and Terrorism 160 4.2.1 Distinguishing Terrorism from other Forms of Violence 165 4.3 Violence in other Cultures 169 4.4 Violence in the Pakhtun Culture 179 4.4.1 Honor 179 iii 4.4.2 Badal (Revenge) 181 4.4.3 Vendetta (Fatna) 182 4.4.4 Tarburwali (Agnatic Rivalry) or Syali (Competition) 183 4.5 Causal Relationship between Violence and Terrorism in the Pakhtun Society? 190 4.5.1 Taliban Recruitment: The Role of Culture 190 4.5.2 Taliban Activities: The Role of Culture 195 Chapter-5 The War on Terror and its Effects on Pakhtuns and their Culture 206 5.1 Introduction 206 5.2 Rationale behind the War on Terror 209 5.3 The US Tactics and its Implications 215 5.4 Pakistan’s Tactics and its Effects 218 5.5 Peace Deals as a Tool of Counter-insurgency 222 5.6 Cultural Distortion 226 5.7 Recourse to Badal 233 Chapter-6 Conclusion 239 6.1 Recommendations 247 Glossary 253 Bibliography 267 Annexure I Questionnaire 285 Annexure II Profiles of Militant Commanders in FATA 287 Annexure III Pakistan’s Peace Deals with the Militants and the Resulting Measures 300 Annexure IV FCR Reforms 303 iv Acknowledgement The first and foremost person who deserves my greatest gratitude is my supervisor Professor Dr. Nasreen Ghufran. Her initial guidance in choosing my topic, her timely checking of the manuscript and the subsequent important and relevant suggestions, and most importantly her strong belief in me enabled me to successfully carry out the difficult task of writing this thesis. I am also grateful to the Higher Education Commission (HEC) for providing me the scholarship for the entire Ph.D. program. I am extremely indebted to Professor Dr Ijaz Khan, professor at the department of IR for his intellectual guidance. I am also grateful to Professor Dr Adnan Sarwar Khan, Chairman Department of IR, for his facilitation and encouragement throughout the Ph.D. program. I owe a great deal to my best friend Mr. Zafar Khan, Lecturer department of Sociology, University of Peshawar, for his valuable suggestions, emotional help and encouragement, and above all the enormous amount of data collected by him. My friend, Mr. Raza Khan, Ph.D. scholar at the department of IR also deserves my sincere thanks for his help in the theoretical framework of the study. I am also indebted to my friends Mr. Muhammad Ayub, Mr. Gul Marjan and Mr. Ihsanullah for their valuable help in getting my thesis done. Mr. Habib-ur-Rehman at the Central Library, University of Peshawar also deserves my thanks for helping me getting access to some of the rare data. Supporting staff at the department of IR, Mr. Ameenullah, Mr. Zahoor Shah, Mr. Liaqat Khan, and Mr. Shabbir helped me during my course as well as research work. I am thankful to them all. Lastly, I am grateful to my parents for their care and love. My elder brother Mumtaz Khan and my father-in-law Iqbal Khan deserve my gratitude for their emotional help and financial support during my entire educational career. Above all, I am thankful to my wife Naila for her care, patience and perseverance. Abdul Shakoor v List of Maps Maps Title Page No. Map 1. Map of the Federally Administered Tribal Areas (FATA) vi Map 2. Map of the Province of Khyber Pakhtunkhwa vii Map 3. Combined Map of FATA and Khyber Pakhtunkhwa 21 vi 1. Map of the Federally Administered Tribal Areas (FATA) Source: http://www.nrdf.org.pk/maps/131-map-of-fata. vii 2. Map of Khyber Pakhtunkhwa Source: http://www.nrdf.org.pk/maps/132-map-of-kpk viii Acronyms and Abbreviations ANP Awami National Party ASS Anjuman-e-Sipah-i-Sahaba CAOCL Centre for Advanced Operational Cultural Learning CIA Central Intelligence Agency COIN Counter-insurgency DNA Deoxyribonucleic Acid FATA Federally Administered Tribal Areas FCR Frontier Crimes Regulation GDT Global Dependent Target GIF Global Independent Factor HTS Human Terrain System IDP Internally Displaced Person IED Improvised Explosive Device IMU Islamic Movement of Uzbekistan IR International Relations IRA Irish Republican Army ISI Inter-Services Intelligence JI Jamma-e-Islami JUI Jamiati Ulema-e-Islam LeJ Lashkar-e-Jhangvi LT Lashkar-e-Taiba MCIA Marine Corps Intelligence Activity ix MMA Muttahida Qaumi Movement NAR Nuclei Armati Revolutionari NATO North Atlantic Treaty Organization NGO Non-Governmental Organization NWFP North West Frontier Province PDMA Provincial Disaster Management Authority PDT Piecemeal Dependent Target PIF Piecemeal Independent Factor PMAP Pakhtunkhwa Milli Awami Party PML-N Pakistan Muslim League Nawaz PML-Q Pakistan Muslim League Qaid-e-Azam PPP Pakistan People’s Party RPG Rocket Propelled Grenade SAW Swallallaho Allaihi Wassallam SSG Special Services Group SSP Sipah-i-Sahaba Pakistan TB Tuberculosis TNSM Tehrik-e-Nifaz-e-Shariat-e-Muhammadi TTP Tehrik-e-Taliban Pakistan UK United Kingdom UN United Nations UNHCR United Nations High Commissioner for Refugees USA United States of America x Abstract The war on terror, starting in October 2001, instead of stemming terrorism from the region, has further radicalized the Pakhtun society. The prevailing terrorism in the shape of Talibanization in the Pakhtun region of Pakistan has not been a result of the normal functional social change; rather, it has been the product of a conscious policy of social engineering in the Pakhtun society. The combination of culture reductionism and policy of social engineering produce a distorted picture of the Pakhtuns’ culture. Analysis of the history of religious mobilizations, nature of the current militant uprising, and the phenomenon of violence in the Pakhtun culture demonstrates that the Taliban form of terrorism, whose ideology transcends national boundaries, has no causal relationship with the socially controlled and limited-in-scope violence in the Pakhtun society. State institutions are weak to the point of non-existence mainly due to a limited government writ, especially in the Federally Administered Tribal Areas (FATA).
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