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Great Plains Quarterly Great Plains Studies, Center for

Winter 1983

Competition For Settlers The Canadian Viewpoint

James M. Richtik University of Winnipeg

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Richtik, James M., "Competition For Settlers The Canadian Viewpoint" (1983). Great Plains Quarterly. 1737. https://digitalcommons.unl.edu/greatplainsquarterly/1737

This Article is brought to you for free and open access by the Great Plains Studies, Center for at DigitalCommons@University of Nebraska - Lincoln. It has been accepted for inclusion in Great Plains Quarterly by an authorized administrator of DigitalCommons@University of Nebraska - Lincoln. COMPETITION FOR SETTLERS THE CANADIAN VIEWPOINT

JAMES M. RICHTIK

Many aspects of Canada's relationship with Settlers coming to the North American con­ the United States were summed up by Canada's tinent tended to look at North America as a Prime Minister Pierre Elliot Trudeau when he unit, but in many ways there was always a told an American audience in Washington, recognition of the importance of the political D.C., "Living next to you is in some ways like border. In the early nineteenth century the sleeping with an elephant. No matter how British North American colonies could count friendly and even tempered is the beast ... one on attachment to the British Crown to bring is affected by every twitch and grunt."l Canada in significant numbers of settlers from Britain has always lived next to this generally friendly at a time when huge quantities of land were elephant and Canadian policy makers have still available in the United States. In addition, never been able to shake off the need to con­ at one stage southern Ontario received large sider what has happened or may happen south numbers of American settlers who seem to of the border. Although the context was dif­ have treated Ontario as merely part of the ferent in the nineteenth century, the need to American frontier. However, by the middle take the United States into account was equally part of the nineteenth century the frontier important, particularly in policies relating to had passed west of Ontario and the movement the settlement of the Canadian West, where for of settlers was from Ontario into the American many years there was direct competition for Midwest. Ontario continued to attract settlers settlers. from Britain, but their numbers were not great and most British overseas migrants went to the United States. As long as the Canadian West was viewed as too isolated for settlement, Professor of geography and chairman of the department at the University of Winnipeg, British North America had no significant James M. Richtik received his doctorate from amount of available good agricultural land and the University of Minnesota. He is the author had little incentive to try to attract agricultural of articles in Agricultural History, New Zealand immigrants. Ontario, or Canada West, as it was Geographer, Regina Geographical Studies, and called before 1867, looked to western British other scholarly publications. North America as a potential destination for

39 40 GREAT PLAINS QUARTERLY, WINTER 1983

Canadian migrants, but until 1870 the litera­ the only thing keeping settlers from going ture was mostly concerned with establishing a to the United States was the "security of Canadian presence to prevent the area from property" and "good laws, as compared to the becoming part of the United States and to pro­ insecurity on the American side.,,4 vide a possible destination for those wishing to Because the Canadian West is a northward remain loyal to the Crown.2 extension of the American West, the two are During this period of Canadian inactivity, the virtually identical near the border and not American government gradually became more greatly different for some distance. Only in active in attracting agricultural immigrants to those states more than one hundred miles south the United States. In 1854 Congressman Ben­ are the winters significantly shorter and less jamin Wade of Ohio supported a free homestead cold. Nonetheless, nineteenth-century inhabi­ bill as a way to attract poor Europeans to take tants of the entire American West, including advantage of America's regenerative powers. North Dakota, viewed western Canada as a land Nine years later, after free homesteads had been of extremely long, cold winters. Western Cana­ established, President Lincoln recommended dians pointed out, largely in vain, that blizzards additional encouragement of immigration. The were in fact more frequent and severe farther next year the Republicans began overseas adver­ south because of the larger quantities of snow tising, followed shortly by use of ambassadors there, but fear of the cold Canadian winters as immigration agents. These efforts were and short summers that barely allowed time for supplemented by the agents of states and wheat to ripen were factors that worked against territories and of railway and land companies Canadian settlement throughout the nineteenth wishing to provide settlers for the land and century. traffic for the railways. The "western fever" Canadian soils in the areas open to settle­ that periodically swept large areas of the settled ment at anyone time were generally as good as frontier led the agents of states and land com­ those in areas available for homesteading in the panies to concentrate on American targets, but United States at the same time, but compari­ similar agents on steamboats and railways did sons of soil quality were based more on rhetoric not discriminate against foreigners, so that, than on fact. Even today it is almost impossible once in the United States and on their way to to compare the land that was available because the frontier, all immigrants ran the gauntlet of the individual settler usually had an enormous hucksters and promoters for numerous differ­ range of land to choose from. Some settlers in ent settlements. By 1870 the Americans were the Canadian West in the 1870s still preferred already well experienced in promoting their forest soils, but most western settlers preferred frontier and attracting immigrants-activities the deep black prairie soils that seemed to them that were intensified after 1870 as more states to be capable of producing wheat forever. The and land companies became' involved. 3 westward migration of the frontier led settlers to the thinner brown soils of the short-grass CANADIAN AND prairies. AMERICAN WEST COMPARED Perhaps more important as a physical factor was the presence or absence of trees. By the In 1870, Rupert's Land, including virtually 1870s the American frontier was pushing all of present-day Canada west of Ontario, was through wooded margins of the prairies and transferred to Canada, providing a Canadian onto the treeless grasslands. Canadian settlers, alternative to the American West. This Cana­ on the other hand" could choose between dian West was in many ways comparable to its prairie lands nearer the American border and American counterpart of the period, but as the wooded lands extending in an arc from near early as 1857, Captain John Palliser, sent out Winnipeg to Edmonton along the north edge by the British Colonial Office, had warned that of the prairies. The presence of some trees was COMPETITION FOR SETTLERS 41 considered an advantage in both countries, but American system of survey is that which ap­ most settlers wanted only a small acreage of pears best suited to the country except as to trees and a preponderance of easily broken the area of the sections." Colonel J. S. Dennis, prairie. The presence of wooded areas in the the surveyor delegated to select a survey sys­ Canadian West did little to attract settlers. tem, attempted to choose one "under which The most important advantage of the Amer­ the country would be rapidly and accurately ican West was its transportation system. The divided into farm holdings" for "the future American railroads were always ahead of their welfare of the country." His original plan was Canadian counterparts, offering incoming to use 800-acre sections so each settler would settlers easier access, more dependable and receive the standard Ontario farm of 200 acres, cheaper supplies, and a market for their pro­ but two years later this was changed to the duce. The first Canadian railway was completed American standard of 640-acre sections and to Winnipeg via the United States in late 1878. farms of 160 acres. The change was brought in Over the next few years branch lines were built because "half a continent" had already been in settled areas and in 1885 the Canadian laid out that way and the system was "known transcontiental was completed, but available all over the world to the emigrant classes"; land near the new railway suffered from drought because it might also prove more effective in during the mid-1880s and the partly wooded attracting American immigrants; and because lands to the north lacked rail access. This it would provide 25 percent more farms with factor, more than any other, served to make the the same amount of land. Because Col. Dennis American West more desirable. found it was "generally conceded the American system is faulty in making no appropriation OPENING THE CANADIAN WEST for public roads," an allowance was added around each section for public roads.6 The ease The transfer of Rupert's Land to Canada in of survey was to allow the surveyors to sub­ 1870 gave the Canadian government the poten­ divide land before it was needed and to avoid tial for control of agricultural settlement that some of the excesses of the American pre­ the American government had enjoyed for emption system. almost a century. The Canadian government Treaties were signed with the Indians start­ undertook to settle the West rapidly and sys­ ing in 1871. According to James Wright, these tematically, partly to forestall American poli­ treaties were designed to clear potential agri­ cies of manifest destiny for the area and partly cultural land of roving Indian bands so that because of new-found beliefs that the area Canada could compete with western states for would help make Canada a world power like settlers. The Canadian government rejected the the United States. The government seems to American frontiersman's maxim that "the only have been of one mind with William J. Patter­ good Indian is a dead Indian" and worked to son, who suggested Canada should imitate "in establish good relations between the races. In its details, as far as may be possible, the policy spite of the miserly reserves allocated to the of the United States."S The policies promul­ most Indian bands and their steady loss of tra­ gated in the first few years were not all aimed ditional hunting and gathering privileges, the directly at potential settlers, but included a relationships between Indians and whites were system of survey, the extinction of Indian peaceful, if not always cordial. Canadians could rights, and provision for improved access by an claim this was the result of fair treatment and all-Canadian route. of the establishment of the North West Mounted The survey system adopted in 1871 was Police to prevent the exploitation of Indians essentially identical to the American township by settlers that had occurred in the United and range system. The minister of public works, States.7 As a symbol of authority and fair William McDougall, suggested in 1869 that "the play on the part of the Canadian government, 42 GREAT PLAINS QUARTERLY, WINTER 1983

the force did help provide a peaceful frontier of the preemption. The American version, also for agricultural settlement. called squatters' rights, had existed under the Even before the first Indian treaties were Hudson's Bay Company and was continued by signed, the Canadian government had estab" order-in-council in 1871, but the 1874 land act lished the right of free homesteads. It seems to permitted a homesteader to reserve a quarter have been taken for granted that Canada would section next to his homestead to be paid for follow the precedent set in the provinces and in after the homestead had been patented.10 The the United States and offer free quarter-section only comparable American provision was that homesteads. When the legislation reached Par­ passed in the 1850s-contrary to federallegisla­ liament, it passed without opposition and tion-by the Kansas and Nebraska territorial almost without debate. "To offset the attrac­ legislatures, giving squatters preemption rights tions of the United States," the Canadian to 320 acres and thereby improving the success homestead act allowed patent to be attained of later settlers in homesteading one quarter sec­ after only three years of residence and land tion and paying for a second as a preemption at cultivation. For the same reasons consideration the same time.ll What the Americans permitted was given to making the entry fee only five for the earliest frontiersmen, the Canadian dollars, but this was changed to ten dollars in government made available for all. the actual legislation. Originally, homesteaders had to be twenty-one years of age, but in 1874 COMPETITION FOR FOREIGN SETTLERS the limit was lowered to eighteen to attract young adults and farmers with older sons who Although no Canadian legislation was passed might otherwise see more advantages in the offering reserves for foreign settlers, many such Onited States. Similarly, in 1874 homesteaders reserves were created. An order-in-council of were allowed a second entry if the first entry 18 September 1872 authorizing such a reserve was given up. Thus a homesteader who made a for Swiss settlers explained that the Swiss gov­ poor first choice would not be forced either to ernment was prepared to allow those wishing stay on the poor land or to go to the United to emigrate to do so "upon sufficient assurance States.8 that its subjects would be properly cared for An 1875 adjustment of regulations for the in the countries in which they settled" and grasshopper infestation illustrates that Canada added that "Dr. W. Foos, a member of the was sometimes overcompetitive. According to National Council ... visited the United States Mary Wilma Hargreaves, the American govern­ with the object of ascertaining if he could ob­ ment allowed homesteaders to leave their tain suitable tracts of land free for Swiss settle­ claims during the infestation but extended the ment." Although only Canada offered such a time limits for getting patent. The Canadian reserve, the Swiss nonetheless went to the government, however, had a different version: United States. Similarly, reserves were created The Minister states that he has learned for Swedish, Scottish, English, Welsh, and that the United States Government has German settlers with no more success.12 found it necessary, for the same reasons, to More important to western Canada were the allow settlers in the neighbouring territory Russian Mennonites. In 1871 they had begun of Dakota, to absent themselves from their investigating Canada and the United States as homesteads until next year, such period to possible fields of emigration. The prospect of be counted as part of the term of residence fifty thousand farmers settling in western required by law to ensure free title to the Canada led the Canadian authorities to agree land. "to grant them all their demands-exemption Canadian settlers were given the same privilege from military service, free land-160 acres to the cabinet believed the Americans enjoyed.9 each head of a family, reserved in large compact A Canadian innovation was a special version areas in Manitoba, freedom of religion, their COMPETITION FOR SETTLERS 43 own German language, control of their own Icelanders from the United States and most schools-practically all the privileges which had of the newcomers from Iceland for the next been granted them by [Czarina1 Catherine in two or three years. Canada's "New Iceland" 1787." The American government, despite reached a population of 1,029 by 1879 be­ pressure from western states, was not prepared fore economic problems and agitation by a to grant them military exemption or to reserve minister from Minnesota caused a majority to blocks of land for them. However, individual move to North Dakota in the next two years.14 states did offer exemptions from militia duty Thus temporary success against American and railway companies sent immigration agents competition did not guarantee long-term to Russia. Subsequently, a delegation of twelve success. Mennonites were sent to look at Manitoba, In addition, Canada made strenuous efforts North Dakota, Minnesota, Nebraska, and to increase the current of immigration from Kansas. One of them claimed, "to most of us other countries, but "in the face of the compe­ Manitoba country was not to our liking"; tition of ... the United States" it was neces­ nonetheless the most conservative group chose sary to spend money. In 1873 special agents Canada because the reserved blocks of land and were established in most areas of Britain, in other guarantees seemed less of a threat to their many European countries, and in the United religious way of life. Approximately eighteen States, and subsidized fares and other forms of thousand Mennonites left for North America, aid were offered to prospective immigrants. most of them before 1878. Of the total, eight Millions of pamphlets were distributed. How­ thousand settled in Manitoba, five thousand in ever, except for the Mennonites and Icelanders, Kansas, and the rest in Minnesota, the Dakotas, few immigrants went directly to western Can­ Nebraska, and Iowa.13 In a head-to-head com­ ada in the 1870s. James Biggar, an English petition for settlers in which the American farmer, explained in 1879 that "so many people government refused to offer any special induce­ have been deceived.. by overdrawn and highly ments, Canada still attracted less than half of colored pictures of Western States, published the group. by land companies, railway companies, specu­ In the competition for Icelandic settlers, lators, and others, that . . . suspicion and dis­ Canada was initially much more successful. trust of emigration agents generally has arisen." Abysmal climatic and economic conditions in To overcome this, "the Canadian Government Iceland had prompted the Icelanders to look therefore decided on asking the farmers of this for possible new colonization sites before 1870, country to send delegates from amongst them­ ahd as many came to Ontario as went to the selves whose report would be received at home United States. In 1875 Canada offered both with more confidence.,,15 The result was a groups a reserve on the west shore of Lake marked increase in the number of British settlers Winnipeg exclusively for Icelanders, but those thereafter. in Ontario were in such dire financial straits that they asked the Canadian government to COMPETITION FOR finance the move. Originally the government MIGRANTS EN ROUTE refused on the grounds that it did not assist moves within Canada, but soon five thousand There was also a continued competItlon dollars in aid was provided to establish a suc­ with the United States for settlers already cessful colony that would "attract as settlers in North America. Until 1882 virtually all to Canada a considerable portion of the inhabi­ settlers for western Canada had to come via the tants of Iceland ... and also probably attract United States. On the way, many were tempted the Icelanders now in the United States." That by the promises of railways, land companies, decision plus others supplying more aid had states, and territories. Others, traveling west the salutory effect of attracting some of the with trainloads of settlers going to American 44 GREAT PLAINS QUARTERLY, WINTER 1983 destinations, reconsidered en route and chose the "unhappy and shameful efforts" of such an American destination instead. Canadians hard to counteract: "These people, The first Canadian response was to estab­ for the sake of a small commission from certain lish the all-Canadian Dawson route to Manitoba. railway companies in the south-west, sought to It led from Lake Superior to Winnipeg via a establish a current of emigration to Kansas. rough trail that connected several waterways on They retailed most stupid, unfavourable asser­ which steamerboats provided transport. The tions, and in some cases I had to devote several Minister of Public Works claimed that "the days to the counteracting of the effects of their opening of the Canadian line has had the effect false diatribes." Tetu also found that "certain of causing the rates on foreign [American 1 parties, who pretend to perform the duties of routes to be greatly reduced" and that it "pro­ [Canadian 1 agents, being stationed at Moor­ vided good arrangements for immigrants." head, Duluth and Fisher's Landing, succeeded, Winnipeg papers recommended greater use of by false representations, in keeping back a the route to reduce the loss of settlers to good number of our immigrants." The extent American agents on alternate routes. However, of American agents' propagandizing is hard to one of the few settlers who ever used the Daw­ assess. Contemporary Winnipeg newspapers and son route described it as "the worst piece of available settlers' journals and diaries make business I ever saw or heard of anywhere," only occasional references to the agents. Fur­ and by 1876 it was abandoned. 16 thermore, W. C. Grahame, special agent for The second response was to build an all­ Canada, claimed that American agents diverted Canadian transcontinental railway. The 1872 only 5 percent of those intending to go to Can­ charter reserved land for the Canada Pacific ada in 1878.18 Railway Company to sell in order to pay for Because the American agents were most the railway, but Canadian capitalists claimed successful wherever immigrants spent time in the company "intended to cooperate with transit in the United States, it was expected parties in the United States interested in the that completion of an all-Canadian railway Northern Pacific Railway!' who would want would ensure less loss to the United States. "to get control of the Canadian lands, and to Even the completion of direct railway connec­ retard settlement until their own are disposed tions through the United States to Winnipeg of. ,,17 The issue helped bring down the govern­ was expected to "check these so much per head ment and delayed railway construction for agents in their work, as it will give them but years. short time to confer with the immigrants on the Ontario was the main source of settlers for road," because the newcomers would not have western Canada almost to the end of the cen­ "to wait hours and sometimes days for the Red tury, and it was this migration stream that the River Transportation Company's boats at American agents attempted to divert. J. E. Fisher's Landing or Grand Forks, where the Tetu, the immigration agent at Emerson, re­ mischief was generally done." The connection ported that "this diversion of our immigrants was made late in 1878, but the Canadian agent to Manitoba into the United States is due ... complained about continued loss, particularly to the inducements offered by great land own­ of English capitalists when settlers were forced ers through their numerous and active agents." to wait for a change of trains in St. Paul. A Charles Lalime, another agent, accused "high Mr. Drake, land commissioner of the St. Paul civil and religious authorities" and "several and Sioux City Railroad, attracted their atten­ western railway companies holding lands along tion in St. Paul with "a very large British flag their lines" of using "every possible means ... stretched across the street from his office" and to create an immigration movement towards then subtly lured them out to look at the com­ Kansas, Arkansas and Minnesota," including pany's land. appointing Canadians as their agents. He found In 1879 efforts were renewed to build an COMPETITION FOR SETTLERS 45 all-Canadian railway, and half the remammg grants he had talked to who refused to come to public land on the prairies was reserved to pay Manitoba cited the higher fares and that "to re­ for it. The next year, to speed construction, establish the fares ... would give [our 1 agents the government transferred control of the rail­ an equal advantage with the agents of other way to a private corporation, adding a very corporations.,,21 In spite of his claim that this generous version of the land grant and cash was the chief cause of reduced immigration subsidy that had been used and abandoned by from the United States, the Canadian govern­ the Americans.19 As had been the case in the ment was not prepared to back down. United States, the railway became another During 1879 Macdonald reported he had purveyor of propaganda for its hinterland, but even considered "a policy of altogether exclud­ settlers had no choice but to travel via the ing free-grants" along the railway, as had been United States until late 1882, when the Cana­ done in 1874. Instead he decided to do what dian Railway was finished to Port Arthur, a the Americans were doing-to allow only eighty­ point served by steamers on the Great Lakes. acre homesteads and preemptions within the belt where the railway received alternate sec­ REMOVAL OF CONCESSIONS tions and to charge more for land near the railways. Because the government had reserved TO SETTLERS alternate sections within 110 miles of the The decision to rush railway construction railway for sale to pay for government con­ was expected to make concessions to settlers struction of the railway, this meant that all unnecessary. R. W. Prittie and Archibald Young homesteads in western Canada would be eighty of Toronto, with government encouragement, acres. This reduction was occurring at the same brought more than seven thousand settlers time that the Americans were in the process of from Ontario to Manitoba, helping them through doing away with the eighty-acre homestead. the intricacies of customs landing and changes Even before publication of the new regulations, of railways, but the government refused to the Deputy Minister, J. S. Dennis, alerted Mac­ reward these services, claiming that Prittie and donald to what the Americans were doing and Young did not get the required agreements warned: from their settlers. John A. Macdonald argued It is evidently desirable to effect a cor­ that there were enough coming that they responding alteration in the area of Domi­ "should be left to work [their 1 own way with­ nion Lands proposed to be homesteaded out any stimulus whatever from the Federal within the zone embracing Canadian Pacific Government." No further reserves were made Railway Lands, otherwise the manifestly for migrants within Canada until December superior advantages of the United States 1881, and even then all the promoters got was over the Canadian policy would result in the right to buy alternate sections.20 securing to the Western and North-Western Another evidence of this confidence was the States and Territories of the American 1879 elimination of refunds to immigrants Union all European and other immigration for years to come. from the western states for part of their fare. Grahame claimed that "the refund was a set­ Dennis's fears were proven well founded when off to the offers of American railway com­ homestead entries almost ceased as soon as the panies, and its stoppage has placed us at a new regulations came into effect. Large numbers disadvantage .... These companies are enabled of immigrants stopped in Dakota to get larger to give, and they do give, heavy discounts ... homesteads, while some made it to Manitoba and thus secure, through the bait of cheap before deciding the 80-acre homesteads were travel, a great many whom we now lose because inadequate. American agents took advantage of the high rates from any of the Western States of the discrepancy in homestead sizes and to Manitoba." He added that most of the immi- "depreciated without scruple the advantages 46 GREAT PLAINS QUARTERLY, WINTER 1983 which the Canadian North West presented for steaders the option of living near their home­ emigration." Two and a half months after the stead while improving it or of holding it for two new regulations were introduced, Canada not years without even being anywhere near it and only returned to the 160-acre homestead and then fulfilling residence requirements. There­ the 160-acre preemption but also lowered the after, Canadians could claim "that the land price of most railway lands.22 Canada could laws of the Dominion are in every respect more not offer less than the Americans. liberal than those of the United States." Lack The 1879 regulations had classified all odd­ of branch line railways, higher implement prices numbered sections as railway lands closed to due to high import duties, and wheat prices homesteading but had allowed squatters in ad­ that were often lower than in the United States vance of survey to homestead such lands. In also worked against Canada, even though Cana­ early 1880 there were so many squatters south dians could sanctimoniously point to American of the railway line that the government posted problems of unfair grain grading, drought, notices that appeared to end squatters' rights. elevator monopolies, excessive freight rates, and So great were the protests and the movement of mortgages getting first claim on money brought settlers to Dakota as a result that the govern­ in for wheat sales. There was recognition that ment first pointed out it was intended only that prospective settlers from eastern Canada who those on odd-numbered sections would not be had returned home discouraged warned others, protected and finally informally reinstated "Oh, don't go to Manitoba; the bottom has squatters' rights almost completely. However, dropped out of things there." Doug Owram from mid-1882 to the end of 1883, all lands argues that, in fact, most westerners blamed south of the transcontinental railway were eastern Canada, but the Nor West Farmer withdrawn from homestead entry, with even claimed that "our jealous American cousins" more disastrous results.23 were distributing "the most barefaced and insinuating pamphlets" in England and Ontario. YEARS OF LOw IMMIGRATION There were also complaints that Americans TO CANADA could offer cheaper fares, that they paid their agents better, and that they had a better system The boom in Canadian prame settlement of advertising. Most of all, there was also a that began in 1879 peaked in 1882 and col­ constant recognition that until the late 1880s lapsed the following year. By October of 1883, the western states continued to attract large settlements near the American border reported, numbers of settlers, while western Canada at­ "Every day settlers can be seen going south to tracted few.25 Dakota.,,24 For the next three years, emigra­ In 1882, to help stop the flow to the United tion from the Canadian prairies almost equaled States, successful homesteaders who had al­ immigration, and even until 1890 the Canadian ready received patent were being allowed a West did not attract many settlers. second entry. The rationale was that "the The causes were mostly the frequent failure applicants are usually those who by fitness and of wheat crops in Canada and the low prices inclination make the best pioneers" and that obtaining for wheat, but there were other the regulation would prevent the movement of factors. The initial out-migration was mostly such valuable pioneers to the United States. No related to the failure to protect squatters' doubt there was considerable popular pressure rights and the "vacillating and unjust laws for such a regulation; during early 1882 there relating to the lands and settlers thereon" were several references in Winnipeg newspapers that drove settlers "off to Dakota in droves." to settlers going to Dakota because they cOllld This was not overcome until the new regula­ not get second homesteads.26 In 1889 the tions of 1884, reflecting the government's privilege was rescinded, a tribute to its failure desire for "settlement at any price," gave home- to achieve its objective. COMPETITION FOR SETTLERS 47

By about 1890 the movement onto free land lure of the American West. As one member of in the United States had slowed considerably. Parliament put it, "If we wish to turn aside this There was still free land, but drought condi­ tide ofimmigration and compete advantageously tions forced even the promoters to recognize with our neighbours, if we wish to have some that until climate improved the American Great immigrants to go to our vast prairies, we must, Plains had been occupied almost to their agri­ and no one can deny it, offer conditions at cultural limits. At last western Canada had no least equal to those offered by the United competition. Although Canada opened more States.,,29 His statement was made in 1881, but immigration offices in the United States and could have been made at any time between railway propaganda was increased, Americans 1870 and 1890. The American image makers resisted for reasons of nationalism and con­ ensured that whatever advantages the American tinued fear of cold Canadian weather. Although West possessed would be known to potential Norwegians, Icelanders, and other Europeans migrants throughout Europe and North Amer­ were less hesitant, Canada still attracted few ica. The image was polished to an ever-brighter settlers during the early 1890s.27 sheen at the same time that the reality of the quality of available land was becoming more RENEWED SETTLEMENT IN CANADA marginal. Although Canada mounted an image­ making campaign of its own, it was done with When settlement did pick up after 1896, the recognition that Canada would have to the largest group of immigrants to western Can­ offer more than the Americans did or do with­ ada were Ukrainians direct from Europe. A out settlers until there was no more free land in Mr. Missler, who had organized a colony in the United States. Georgia, gave Ukrainians "an awful description of Canada" and warned them not to come, but NOTES failed to dissuade them. In fact, Canada was having success attracting Ukrainians who had 1. Pierre Elliot Trudeau, address to the spent time working in Pennsylvania and could National Press Club, Washington, D.C., 26 speak English. The Canadian government spon­ March 1969, in Columbo's Q.i,otations, ed. by sored and subsidized the settlers, but American John Robert Columbo (Edmonton: Hurtig, land agents in Canada were still trying to sell 1974), p. 237. 2. See, for instance, Doug Owram, Promise them land, apparently with some success. A of Eden (Toronto: University of Toronto Press, "North Dakota emigration agent" persuaded 1980), pp. 38-79; Norman Macdonald, Canada, a number of Ukrainians to settle near Dickin­ Immigration and Colonization: 1841-1903 son, North Dakota. To prevent such interfer­ (Aberdeen, U.K.: Aberdeen University Press, ence, security was tightened at the immigration 1966), pp. 30-32, describes the pre-1870 adver­ hall, and William Macreary, the Winnipeg immi­ tising campaign for immigrants as "tentative." gration agent, is reported to have locked one 3. David M. Emmons, Garden in the Grass­ carload of Ukrainians in their boxcars until lands: Boomer Literature of the Central Great they were west of Winnipeg and beyond the Plains (Lincoln: University of Nebraska Press, reach of agitators and American agents.28 Even 1971), pp. 17-120; Roy M. Robbins, Our when the Americans could offer free land only Landed Heritage: The Public Domain, 1776- 1936 (Lincoln: University of Nebraska Press, on the drought-prone areas, Canada still had to 1962), pp. 25-138; Everett Newton Dick, The compete for settlers. Lure of the Land (Lincoln: University of Ne­ braska Press, 1970), pp. 120-39; idem., The Sod House Frontier: 1854-1890 (Lincoln: Johnsen, Throughout the fIrst two or three decades of 1954), p. 11. See also Paul W. Gates, History settlement in western Canada, policy makers in of Public Land Law Development (Washing­ Canada were constantly concerned with the ton, D.C.: GPO, 1968); idem., Fifty Million 48 GREAT PLAINS QUARTERLY, WINTER 1983

Acres: Conflicts over Kansas Land Policy, Harvard University Press, 1957), p. 33; Privy 1854-1890 (Ithaca, N.Y.: Cornell University Council Order (hereafter cited as PCO), 25 June Press, 1954); Benjamin H. Hibbard, A History 1875. . of Public Land Policies (New York: Macmillan, 10. Canada, Statutes, 37 Vict., Cap. 19; 1924); Thomas Donaldson, The Public Domain; PCO, 26 May 1871. Its History (Washington, D.C.: Government 11. Robbins, Our Landed Heritage, pp. Printing Office, 1884); James Frederick Ham­ 237-38; Dick, Sod House Frontier, pp. 23-28; burg, "The Influence of Railroads upon the Gates, History of Public Land Law, pp. 244- Processes and Patterns of Settlement in South 46,393-99. Dakota" (Ph.D. diss., University of North 12. PCOs of 18 September 1872; 13 Octo­ Carolina, 1969). ber 1872; 3 March 1873; 2 June 1873; 14 4. John Palliser, Papers Relative to the Ex­ August 1874; 20 September 1875; 1 January ploration of British North America (London: 1876. Queen's Printer, 1859), p. 8. 13. Charles Henry Smith, The Story of the 5. Owram, Promise of Eden, pp. 101-3; Mennonites (Berne, Ind.: Mennonite Book Con­ James F. C. Wright, Saskatchewan: The History cern, 1941), p. 446-48; John Warkentin, "The of a Province (Toronto: McClelland and Stuart, Mennonite Settlement of Southern Manitoba" 1955), p. 60; William J. Patterson, Some Plain (Ph.D. diss., University of Toronto, 1960); Statements about Immigration and Its Results the Winkler Papers, Public Archives of Mani­ (Ottawa: Queen's Printer, 1872), p. 1. See also toba, Manuscript Group 8, files 2967-2985; Chester Martin, Dominion Lands Policy (1938; Manitoba Gazette and Trade Review, 19 Febru­ reprint, Toronto: McLelland and Stuart, Carle­ ary 1873, quoting the St. Paul Press; Cornelius ton Library, 1973). J. Dyck, ed., An Introduction to Mennonite 6. McDougall to Dennis, 10 July 1867, in History (Scottsdale, Pa.: Herald Press, 1967), Canada, Sessional Papers (hereafter cited as pp. 154-55; James Urry, "The Closed and the CSP), 1870, no. 12, p. 36; J. S. Dennis, "A Open: Social and Religious Change amongst Short History of the Surveys Made under the the Mennonites in Russia" (Ph.D. diss., Oxford Dominion Land System, 1869 to 1889" in CSP, University, 1975), pp. 703-84. 1891, no. 13, pt. 6, sec. 1, p. 1; CSP, 1871, no. 14. PCO, 13 September 1875; Fridjon 5, p. 8; Martin, Dominion Lands Policy, p. 140; Friduksson to Jon Bjarnson, 6 June 1880 and Dwayne Converse Tway, "The Influence of the 27 March 1881, Public Archives of Manitoba, Hudson's Bay Company upon Canada: 1870- Manuscript Group 8, No. A6-7; CSP, 1880, 1889" (Ph.D. diss., University of California, no. 10,p. 80; 1880-81,no. 12,p.60. 1962), p. 101; Don W. Thomson, Men and 15. CSP, 1874, no. 9, p. vii; Burrows, North Meridians (Ottawa: Queen's Printer, 1967), vol. Western Canada, p. 45. See Macdonald, Canada: 20, p. 32. Immigration and Colonization, especially pp. 7. Treaty No. 1 allowed 160 acres per 30-49 and 121. family of five or in that proportion. Later 16. CSP, 1873, no. 6, pp. 38, 128; The treaties raised this to 640 acres. See the reports Manitoban, 12 February 1872; William Taylor of the Department of Indian Affairs in CSP, to the editor, Brampton Times, 29 August especially 1872, no. 22, p. 22, and The Mani­ 1874, Public Archives of Manitoba, Manuscript toban, 5 August 1971 and 15 August 1971; Group 8, no. B68. Wright, Saskatchewan, p. 64; Acton Burrows, 17. Minutes of Interoceanic Railway Com­ North Western Canada: A Practical Guide to pany, 28 September 1872, in CSP, 1873, no. the Habitable Regions of Manitoba and the 13, p. 31. North West Territories (Winnipeg, 1880), p. 18. CSP, 1879, no. 9, p. 59; 1880, no. 10, 34; Owram, Promise of Eden, pp. 132-41. p. 76; 1878; no. 9, p. 75; 1877, no. 8, p. 40; 8. Martin, Dominion Lands Policy, pp. 100- 1879, no. 9, p. 34. 144; Canada, Statutes, 35 Vict., Cap. 23; 37 19. CSP, 1879, no. 9, p. 59; 1881, no. 12, Vict., Cap. 19. pp. 52-53; Memo, Dennis to Minister, 9 May 9. Mary Wilma Hargreaves, Dry Farming in 1881, Public Archives of Canada, Record the Northern Great Plains (Cambridge, Mass.: Group 15, file 18909 (hereafter cited as PAC, COMPETITION FOR SETTLERS 49

RG 15, followed by the number); Martin, vol. 9, January 1890, p. 369; C. Cliffe, Mani­ Dominion Lands Policy, pp. 244-76; see also toba and the Canadian Northwest as a Field id., "Our Kingdom for a Horse: The Railway for Settlement (Brandon, Manitoba: Brandon Land Grant System in Western Canada," Re­ Mail, 1884), pp. 45-63; Tyman, By Section, port of the Annual Meeting . .. 1934, Canadian Township, and Range, p. 20; Pearce MS, p. 26; Historical Association (Toronto: University of J. L. Swainson, Our Ancestors Arrive in Mani­ Toronto Press, 1935), pp. 73-79. toba (Winnipeg: de Montford, n.d.), p. 2; Ow­ 20. Manitoba Free Press, 12 April 1879; 25 ram, Promise of Eden, pp. 172-78; Clifford October 1879; John L. Tyman, By Section, Faulkner, Pen and Plow (Winnipeg: Public Township, and Range (Brandon, Manitoba: Press, 1976), p. 7. Assiniboine Historical Society, 1972), p. 93; 26. Tyman, By Section, Township, and Memorandum of 10 February 1879, attached Range, p. 20; Pearce MS, p. 26. to PCO, 17 February 1879; PCO, December 23, 27. Bradley H. Baltensperger, "Agricultural 1881. Adjustments to Great Plains Drought: The Re­ 21. CSP, 1881, no. 12, p. 54. publican Valley, 1870-1900" in The Great 22. Memorandum of 25 June 1879, at­ Plains: Environment and Culture, ed. by Brian tached to PCO, 28 June 1879; see also PCOs, W. Blouet and Frederick C. Luebke (Lincoln: 1 March 1871; 20 December 1874; 9 November University of Nebraska Press, 1979), p. 45; 1877; Donaldson, The Public Domain, p. Hugh A. Dempsey, "Local Histories as Source 349; Memorandum of 3 July 1879, attached to Materials for Western Canadian Studies" in PCO, 9 October 1879; Winnipeg Free Press, 13 Prairie Perspectives, ed. by A. W. Rasporich September 1879; R. H. Little, Reminiscences of and H. C. Klassen (Toronto: Holt, Rinehart, my Pioneering Experiences (Treherne, Mani­ 1973), 2: 175; Walter Jacobson Lindal, The toba: Treherne Times, 1921), p. 10; Elie Tasse, Saskatchewan Icelanders: A Strand of the The North West (Ottawa: Queen's Printer, Canadian Fabric (Winnipeg: Columbia Press, 1880), p. 25; Regulations, 14 October 1879. 1955), p. 90; W. Weston Webb, "Immigration 23. Tyman, By Section, Township, and and Colonization Aspects of the Canadian Range, pp. 73-75; William Pearce, manuscript Pacific Railway," unpublished manuscript in on file at the Manitoba Provincial Library, pp. John L. Tyman research collection, Geography 28, 39; Manitoba Free Press, 26 June 1880; Department, Brandon University. 19 August 1881; Nor West Farmer and Mani­ 28. B. Karlsberg to D. C. MacIver, 12 Febru­ toba Miller, vol. 2, November 1883, p. 276; ary 1897, PAC, RG 76, no. 34762; Oleskow to March 1884, p. 73; September 1883, p. 234; Department of the Interior, 17 August 1896, PCOs, 5 July 1882,29 November 1883. PAC, RG 76, no. 32288; Ottawa Evening 24. Manitoba Free Press, 4 October 1883. Journal, 17 June 1897; Fargo Forum, 25 May 25. Manitoba Daily Free Press, 4 March 1898; Anna Farion, "Homestead Girlhood," 1880; Nor West Farmer and Manitoba Miller, in Land of Pain, Land of Promise, ed. by vol. 2, September 1883, p. 234; October 1883, Harry Piniuta (Saskatoon: Western Producer, p. 252; November 1883, p. 276; March 1884, 1978), p. 85; McCreary to J. A. Smart, 18 May p. 73; May 1884,p. 103; vol. 3, October 1884, 1898, PAC, RG 76, no. 59570; Dr. John C. p. 194; vol. 4, September 1885, p. 210; vol. Lehr, personal communication. 5, July 1886, pp. 535-36; vol. 6, December 29. Canada, House of Commons, Debates, 1887, pp. 1035-36; vol. 7, January 1888, p. 1880-81 (Ottawa: Queen's Printer, 1881), p. 11; April 1888, pp. 96-97; July 1888, p. 178; 738.