Death As Archaeology of Transition: Thoughts and Materials

Death as Archaeology of Transition: Thoughts and Materials

Papers from the II International Conference of Transition Archaeology: Death Archaeology 29th April – 1st May 2013

Edited by Leonor Rocha Primitiva Bueno-Ramirez Gertrudes Branco

BAR International Series 2708 2015 Published by

Archaeopress Publishers of British Archaeological Reports Gordon House 276 Banbury Road Oxford OX2 7ED England [email protected] www.archaeopress.com

BAR S2708

Death as Archaeology of Transition: Thoughts and Materials Papers from the II International Conference of Transition Archaeology: Death Archaeology, 29th April –– 1st May 2013

© Archaeopress and the individual authors 2015

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PREFACE...... v

DEATH IN THE CAVE. HUMAN REMAINS FROM THE UPPER PALEOLITHIC IN THE IBERIAN PENINSULA...... 1 Rodrigo de Balbín Behrmann

A LAPA DO SONO (SESIMBRA, PORTUGAL) – NEWS ABOUT A NEOLTIHIC FUNERARY CONTEXT ...... 29 Rosário Fernandes, Pablo Arias, Mariana Diniz, Frederico Tátá, Paulo Rodrigues, Leonor Rocha

LE MÉGALITHISME ATLANTIQUE : UNE ILLUSOIRE TENTATIVE DE DOMESTICATION DU TEMPS ET DE L’ESPACE ?...... 35 Luc Laporte, avec la collaboration de Yan Bernard

GRAPHIC PROGRAMMES AS IDEOLOGICAL CONSTRUCTION OF THE MEGALITHS: THE SOUTH OF THE IBERIAN PENINSULA AS CASE STUDY...... 51 P. Bueno Ramirez, R. de Balbín Behrmann, R. Barroso Bermejo

TIEMPO Y PAISAJE EN LA NECRÓPOLIS MEGALÍTICA DE GUADANCIL (CÁCERES)...... 71 Enrique Cerrillo Cuenca, Raquel Liceras Garrido, Jairo Naranjo Mena, Alicia Prada Gallardo, Ivo Santos

ANTHROPOMORPHIC IMAGES AS ORIGINS OF ANCESTOR’S “CAVES”. THE STELE-MENHIR OF ANTA DO TELHAL, ARRAIOLOS. EVORA. PORTUGAL...... 83 P. Bueno Ramirez, R. de Balbín Behrmann, L. Rocha, J. Oliveira

SITES DE PASSAGE (3). LA REPRÉSENTATION DE L’ARC AU COURS DU VE MILLÉNAIRE D’APRÈS LES STÈLES DE BRETAGNE, DES ÎLES ANGLO-NORMANDES ET DE L’ALENTEJO ...... 95 Serge Cassen, Laurent Lescop, Valentin Grimaud, Pedro Alvim, Philip de Jersey

THE ROLE OF CHILDREN IN LATE NEOLITHIC. MULTIPLE BURIALS IN RATZERSDORF/AUSTRIA...... 127 Karin Wiltschke-Schrotta

LES PRATIQUES MORTUAIRES DU NÉOLITHIQUE RÉCENT EN ALSACE: L’EXEMPLE DU SITE DE GOUGENHEIM (FRANCE, BAS-RHIN)...... 131 P. Lefranc, H. Réveillas, Y. Thomas

DES TRIBUS AUX CHEFFERIES DANS LES ÎLES ORCADES (ECOSSE)...... 145 Christophe Sévin-Allouet

ENTERRAMIENTOS INDIVIDUALES Y ENTERRAMIENTOS COLECTIVOS EN NECRÓPOLIS DEL MEGALITISMO AVANZADO DEL INTERIOR: LA CUEVA 9 DE VALLE DE LAS HIGUERAS. TOLEDO...... 165 Rosa Barroso Bermejo, Primitiva Bueno Ramírez, Antonio Vázquez Cuesta, Armando González Martín, Leonor Peña Chocarro

i CHILDREN OF THE GRAVE: CONTRIBUTION OF NON-ADULT INDIVIDUALS IN SOME HUMAN OSTEOLOGICAL SERIES FROM COLLECTIVE BURIALS IN THE LATE PREHISTORY OF THE IBERIAN PENINSULA...... 177 Claudia Cunha, Ana Maria Silva, Daniela Pereira, Tiago Tomé, Joana Paredes, Catarina Cabrita

“AJUARES A LA MUERTE DE LOS NIÑOS”: EVOLUCIÓN DE LAS OFRENDAS FUNERARIAS EN LAS TUMBAS INFANTILES ENTRE EL NEOLÍTICO Y EL CALCOLÍTICO DEL INTERIOR PENINSULAR...... 189 Ana Mercedes Herrero-Corral

DÓLMENES, CISTAS Y MENHIRES EN LA ESTACIÓN MEGALÍTICA DE GORBEIA (PAÍS VASCO): DISTRIBUCIÓN GEOGRÁFICA Y SECUENCIA FUNERARIA...... 197 Juan Carlos López Quintana

THE FUNERARY MEGALITHIC OF HERDADE DAS MURTEIRAS (ÉVORA, PORTUGAL): THE (RE) USE OF THE SPACES...... 221 Leonor Rocha

THE FUNERARY SETTINGS OF SEZIMBRA´S NATURAL CAVES (ARRÁBIDA, PORTUGAL)...... 231 Rosário Fernandes

FUNERARY PRACTICES AND ANTHROPOLOGICAL DATA FROM THE NEOLITHIC HIPOGEA FROM OUTEIRO ALTO 2 (PRELIMINARY RESULTS)...... 239 Ana Maria Silva, Ana Isabel Fernandes, António Valera, Vítor Filipe

LATE NEOLITHIC PIT BURIALS FROM PERDIGÕES ENCLOSURE (PORTUGAL): PRELIMINARY RESULTS OF THE PALEOBIOLOGICAL ANALYSIS OF THE EXHUMED HUMAN BONES ...... 245 Ana Maria Silva, Inês Leandro, António Valera, Daniela Pereira, Cristina Afonso

LA NECRÓPOLIS DE CUEVAS ARTIFICIALES DE LOS ALGARBES (TARIFA, CÁDIZ). ALGUNAS REFLEXIONES SOBRE ARQUEOLOGÍA FUNERARIA EN EL ÁMBITO DEL ESTRECHO DE GIBRALTAR...... 251 Vicente Castañeda Fernández, Iván García Jiménez, Fernando Prados Martínez, Yolanda Costela Muñoz

VARIABILIDAD FUNERARIA EN LAS SOCIEDADES DEL III MILENIO EN EL SECTOR SEÑORÍO DE GUZMÁN DE VALENCINA-CASTILLEJA (SEVILLA)...... 257 Pedro Manuel López Aldana, Ana Pajuelo Pando, Juan Carlos Mejías-García, Mª Rosario Cruz-Auñón Briones

LA NECRÓPOLIS DEL III MILENIO DE “EL SEMINARIO” (HUELVA). ORGANIZACIÓN ESPACIAL, CONTEXTOS Y PRÁCTICAS FUNERARIAS...... 275 José Antonio Linares Catela, Juan Carlos Vera Rodríguez

THE TUMULI OF SELADA DO CAVALO (SERRA VERMELHA, COUNTY OF OLEIROS, DISTRICT OF CASTELO BRANCO)...... 291 João Carlos Caninas, Fernando Robles Henriques, José Luis Monteiro, Francisco Henriques, Mário Monteiro, Emanuel Carvalho

ii CONSIDERATIONS ABOUT BURIALS AND FUNERARY PRACTICES IN GEOMETRIC ARGOS, GREECE (FROM CA. 900 TO 700 B.C.E.)...... 307 Camila Diogo de Souza

PRATIQUES ET MONUMENTS FUNÉRAIRES PROTOHISTORIQUES EN ALGÉRIE: UN PATRIMOINE PLURIEL EN PÉRIL...... 319 Hocine Rassoul, Mohamed Dahli

THE OLIVAL DO SENHOR DOS MÁRTIRES NECROPOLIS (ALCÁCER DO SAL, PORTUGAL) IN THE CONTEXT OF THE IRON AGE FUNERARY PRACTICES OF THE SOUTHWESTERN IBERIAN PENINSULA...... 327 Francisco B. Gomes

THE PREFERENCE FOR INHUMATION AT THE ROMAN NECROPOLISES FROM THE THIRD AND FOURTH CENTURIES A.D. IN PENAFIEL MUNICIPALITY (NORTH OF PORTUGAL)...... 343 Teresa Soeiro

CIMETIÈRES ET PRATIQUES FUNÉRAIRES DES COMMUNAUTÉS JUIVES MÉDIÉVALES : CONFRONTATION DES DONNÉES ARCHÉOLOGIQUES ET TEXTUELLES...... 357 Philippe Blanchard, Patrice Georges

ARCHAEOLOGY OF THE DEATH PENALTY IN ALENTEJO - PORTUGAL...... 367 Jorge de Oliveira, Ana Cristina Tomás

iii DEATH IN THE CAVE. HUMAN REMAINS FROM THE UPPER PALEOLITHIC IN THE IBERIAN PENINSULA Rodrigo de Balbín Behrmann1

ABSTRACT1

Burials, being complete or partial, are some of the most indicative cultural manifestations of social behaviour. Therefore they can bring us to a closer understanding of what characterises us, as people. If we add graphics to this, we have got the best possible documentation in order to reconstruct the history of thought.

Paleolithic bone remains are scarce and tend to be fragmentary. Nonetheless, they can help us in the making of some important reconstructions. Our objective is to make the most of existing documents in order to find out what selection people made in that time. This includes not only various body parts, but also their connection with the surrounding space, which can be filled with, or lacking, other cultural manifestations.

Therefore, this is not meant to be a rigurous anthropological study of human remains from the Peninsula’s last glaciation. This type of study has been carried out in each one of the mentioned cases, with various degrees of success. We, on the other hand, intend to study the meaningful content of burials, regarding their materialisation and the selected space which can contain other important expressions, for example artistic ones.

In the Iberian Peninsula few Upper Paleolithic remains have been found, and most of them are partial. We have got teeth, cranial fragments, remains from postcranial skeletons and proper burials. The smallest elements are also the most abundant ones. Possibly they were left behind by chance or transported and preserved over time to finally end up in living spaces. The whole group’s life takes place in these places. That life includes artistic representations and, for as far as we know, death.

We have no more than 4 proper burials because Morín, Balma Guilanyá and Cova Fosca are problematic. The reasons why they are considered to be problematic vary from the mere acceptation of a burial as such in the case of Morín, to chronology, in the case of the last two sites.

The sites that are said to be tombs are neither free from problems. El Parpalló and Nerja were excavated a long time ago and their documentation does not permit a proper reconstruction. El Mirón, which is still missing its final publication, and Lagar Velho were studied using current and reliable methods.

Most of the partial remains are parts of the head, most frequently teeth. Some of them contain manipulation marks or were deposited on purpose and in a prepared manner.

There is no preferred geographical area for the deposition of bones, even though the North and Levant seem to have special concentrations. Although this special feature cannot be denied, we think that it can be explained by a stronger or weaker research development. In the inland research has been very poor, a bit better in Portugal and the South, and in the Levant, above all Cantabria, investigation has been more concentrated.

It is difficult to talk about rituals and deposition procedures or, in the best case, burials. However, even if the human remains were not deposited in specially selected spaces, in the Iberian Peninsula they tend to be partial and surface alongside other signs of symbolical thought. These can be artistic, decorative or graphic, which is the case in 60% of the cases.

A work like this brings up more questions than answers. The first one would be about the very definition of a burial, which can be polemic given the variety of existing deposits. We are dealing with the preservation of certain hard parts of the human body, for reasons unknown to us, but they are surely linked to persistence. Why is it preserved? Is there any religious ideology to the corpses’ deposition?

This type of theological behaviour does not seem to be necessary for preservation. It is likely that the alive owner of those bones was appreciated, probably because of a family connection, respect or a position in the group that stands out. Close human connections are more understandable than ones that are distant and lack precision. Religion is a superstructure, requiring a superior being, an inferior one and latria between the both, manifested in positive or negative actions.

It is not easy to discover and maintain this complexity in the behaviour of Paleolithic societies.

1 University of Alcalá de Henares. Mail: [email protected]

1 DEATH AS ARCHAEOLOGY OF TRANSITION

INTRODUCTION This is the reason for a title like the one we chose, imitating David Lewis-Williams (2005), which proposes the usual There are few funerary remains from the Upper Paleolithic environment for Upper Paleolithic human remains in the in the Iberian Peninsula, perhaps even fewer than the ones Iberian Peninsula. But not only human remains, also any from the Middle Paleolithic. And even when we have got other cultural manifestation, such as evidences of daily life, a complete burial, such as Lagar Velho, it is not possible to symbology and belief, have been preserved better in these properly discuss ritual or belief. In the best-case scenario surroundings. Caves are not inhospitable or unpleasant, on we can assess bodies without excessive gravegoods or the contrary, they are the centre of a varied life, rich in ornaments. Usually they are bodies which have been all human aspects, as we have already stated in an earlier deposited in the living area, with food remains which also work. (Balbín, Alcolea 1999). appear around the dwelling. This work has got several precedents. The first one, written Our remains are mainly found in caves. Therefore we know by M.A. de Blas (1997), was already a reference for what little of the life outside of it and its organisation within we did in 2005 (Balbin , Alcolea). A research work, carried our Peninsula. Were caves specifically elected to bury the out with our tutelage (Perez Iglesias, 2007) extends the deads? No more than to live, eat, cohabit or defecate. The catalogue of human remains in the Upper Paleolithic and fact is that our data have usually been found inside caves. Epi-Paleolithic of the Iberian Peninsula. For all of the cited Inevitably that means that it is the site of everything that has works M.D. Garralda Benajes’ publications are essential been found from this period. We know that in Central and (1978,1980,1982,1986, 1989, 1992, 2006, Garralda et Eastern Europe exterior rooms provide diverse behavioural alii.1992, 1994). evidences, including decorated objects and occasionally burials, like the ones found in Sungir, Ukraine. (Alexeeva, To organize the description, we have grouped the remains Bader 2000; Bader 1998; Pettitt, Bader 2000) Similar in relation to their size or amount, starting with the most evidences have not been found in our area, but our lack of limited, to finish in that we call burials, with the reserves knowledge does not mean the exterior was not used similarly relatives to conservation and publications , generally to the interior for decoration and burials. If the burials are deficient. found alongside material sites, it must have been like this outside as well as inside .

Figure 1. Human palaeolithic sites with human remains in the Iberian Peninsula , clearly differentiating peripheral areas from the less investigated of the interior.

2 Rodrigo de Balbín Behrmann: DEATH IN THE CAVE

CATALOGUE OF REMAINS

Given the dispersed data and the lack of uniformity in publications it is difficult to establish a body of data. The small catalogue we present here is based on existent literature. We have used the smallest to the most complete indications to make this catalogue. The sites have been included according to their geographical position within each sub-epigraph: North to South and West to East. (FIGURE 1)

TEETH

This is one of the most frequently preserved human remains, it is also the one that provides the least information, as its origin can be very varied.

LAS CALDAS. San Juan de Priorio, Asturias.

This cave has been excavated thoroughly by Soledad Corchón’s team, finding mobile art and some remains of engravings. The human finds consist of two milk teeth found in room II and another one outside of the cave. The teeth found in room II were situated in Magdalenian strata, dated to 13.185 ± 155 BP and 13.400+-150 B.P. In the exterior site 1 deciduous molar has been found in level II. It is from the Upper Solutrean, dated back to 19.390±260 BP for Corridor 1’s level 9 and 18310±260 BP for Corridor 1’s level 7. (Corchón 1981, 1990 y 1992).

TITO BUSTILLO. Ribadesella, Asturias. Figure 2. Female anthropomorphic figure at the ensemble V of Tito Bustillo Cave, dated by uranium This site was discovered in 1968 and archaeological series (Photo R.de Balbín) fieldwork started in 1970. During A. Moure’s excavations a living space was discovered in ensemble XI, which is At this site a human molar was discovered by H. Obermaier considered to be the old cave’s entrance. Here, three teeth (1916). The tooth was found together with a decorated appeared, 1 canine in level 1b and in level 1c an incisor burin from the Magdalenian. and a premolar. Dating level 1c has provided the dates 13.870+ 220 BP and 13.520 ± 220 BP. Level 1b has been COBALEJOS. Puente Arce, Cantabria. dated back to 14.930 ± 70 BP (Garralda 1976,1978; Moure and Cano 1976) The living space and the rest of the cave At this site a human molar was discovered by H. Obermaier contain abundant graphic indications, mobile as well as (1916). The tooth was found together with a decorated cave art have been found. burin from the Magdalenian.

In 2001 and 2002 we excavated the Gallery of the MORÍN CAVE. Villanueva de Villaescusa, Cantabria. Antropomorphs, and found a fosse with many crushed bones and colouring remains within the cave’s ensemble In H. Obermaier’s classical book El Hombre Fósil this cave is V. We cannot be sure the bones are human but the whole mentioned as the finding place of a molar, from a Magdelenian was dated by 14C in 32.990 ± 450 BP. Nearby paintings level (Garralda 1992). Other disputable remains, which we of masculine and feminine antropomorphs were found, will discuss later, have been found too. covered by a translucent calcite layer. (FIGURE 2)(Balbín et al. 2003). This calcite layer was dated using uranium- SANTIMAMIÑE. Cortézubi,Vizcaya. series dating, obtaining dates associated to the red colouring of 30.800 + 5.600 and 29.650 + 550, and other, Originally it was studied by J.M Barandiarán (1962, 1976) below the painting, of 36.200 + 1.500 and 35.540 + 390 and later it was the subject of a monography by J.C.Lopez (Pike et alii 2012). This, perhaps funerary deposit, dates Quintana (2011) and a work regarding its important rock back to the beginning of the Cantabrian Upper Paleolithic. art (González, Ruiz 2010).

The only Upper Paleolithic human remain that was found is a molar from the excavation’s level IV, probably from

3 DEATH AS ARCHAEOLOGY OF TRANSITION the recent Magdalenian, mentioned by J. M. Barandiarán. Valente carried out a research regarding the site’s fauna Existing datings fluctuate between 14.650 ± 80 BP for in 2006. a Late Lower Magdalenian and 12.790 ± 70 BP for the Superior-Final Magdalenian. In the site’s level 9 Roche found 1 incisor and 1 premolar, both eroded, which could belong to the same individual. Other human remains present in the cave belong to Post- Roche called the teeth’s finding place Magdalenian soil, paleolithic periods. (Herrasti, Etxeberría 2011). later Zilhao thought it to be Solutrean and Bicho restored it to its original condition. This level has been dated back ERRALLA. Cestona, Guipúzcoa to 12.590 ± 80 BP. Roche interpreted

Excavated by the Altuna, Baldeón and Mariezkurrena team, the association of human teeth, perforated shells, lynx this site inspired a monographic volume of the Munibe canines, ashes and ochre as a possible intentional human magazine, nº 37, where every aspect of the cave is treated. burial. Chapter 12 of the monograph, written by Concepción de la Rua, describes the human remains : an upper right molar TEETH AND VARIOUS CRANIAL FRAGMENTS. and an upper right canine. LA PALOMA. Soto de las Regueras, Asturias. A year earlier (1984) the authors published a paper regarding certain ritual deposits in that cave. The human In the Magdalenian level 8 two upper jaws and three remains were dated to the Upper Magdalenian 12.310 ± indeterminate teeth were found. In the levels 8I and 4P, also 190 BP, level III-IV. They do not seem to be connected to Magdalenian, two indeterminate teeth and a molar were the ritual deposits, which are from the Lower Magdalenian found. All this surfaced during E. Hernández Pacheco’s and are thus three thousand years older. (Altuna et al. excavations, in collaboration with the Count of Vega del 1985) Sella, J. Cabré and P. Wenert. The cave is also an important site for mobile art. (Barandiaran 1971; Hoyos Gómez et LAPA DO SUAO. Bombarral, Portugal. al. 1980).

For a long time this has been a site of reference for the LA RIERA. Posada de Llanes,Asturias. Portuguese Upper Paleolithic. Research on the site was carried out first by Roche (1982) and later it was analysed This site was excavated by the Count of Vega del Sella and by Zilhao (1995 and 1997) and Bicho (1994). Haws and H. Obermaier in 1917 and 1918. In the 80s excavations

Figure 3. Engraved plaquette with a zoomorphic motif from La Riera Cave (Photo M.R.González Morales)

4 Rodrigo de Balbín Behrmann: DEATH IN THE CAVE were re-started by L. G. Strauss and G. Clark. In the A. García Guinea. During this project a fragment of an Solutrean levels they found 3 cranial fragments, two of upper jaw with 4 teeth, a fragment of a lower jaw with 1 them fit together, and 1 molar. (Chapa 1975 ; Garralda tooth and two isolated molars were found in Magdalenian 1986 ; Martínez Navarrete 1976; Straus, Clark 1986; VI levels. (González Echegaray, et al. 1963). The found Straus et al. 1983)between cave’s Solutrean chonology is remains do not belong to the same individual. dated back to 20.970+620 and 16.900+200 BP, including the outstanding mobile art pieces. (FIGURE 3). LA PASIEGA. Puente Viesgo, Cantabria.

CUETO DE LA MINA. Posada de LLanes,Asturias. A small cave, part of the El Castillo site, that opens towards the south of the mountain. In 1913 a monograph This important site includes levels of almost the whole about its important rock art was written by H. Breuil, H. Upper Paleolithic and Epipaleolithic. It contains several Obermaier and H. Alcalde del Río. This was a necessary deep, non figurative, engravings which seemed to be reference for Paleolithic rock art studies. Then, in covered, at least, by level A (Asturian culture). This level 1951 J.Carballo and E.García Lorenzo carried out was excavated by Vega de la Sella. (FIGURE 4) [González reconditioning work which led to the finding of material Morales 1981; Rasilla et alii 2010; Vega del Sella, 1916]. that would be published by J González Echegaray and E.Ripoll Perelló in 1954. (González Echegaray , Ripoll Recently, excavations were carried out by M. de la Rasilla. Perelló 1954). The material was found in the entrance of In the Solutrean level V a hand phalanx was found. The gallery B and include 1 superior maxillary and a second datings for this site are 19.100±205 BP for the Upper implanted molar from the Magdalenian level. Located Solutrean and 17.545±205 BP for the Middle Solutrean above these finds is gallery B’s most important rock art (Hoyos, Rasilla 1994; Rasilla 1990) panel (FIGURE 5).

LA CHORA. San Pantaleón de Aras, Cantabria. In 2009 samples of the calcite layers from the cave walls were taken for the U-Series Dating of Paleolithic Art in In 1955 this site was discovered, and in 1962 it was 11 Caves in Spain programme. The objective of this excavated by a team led by J. González Echegaray and M. programme was to obtain absolute chronologies for the

Figure 4. External engravings in Cueto de la Mina, covered by levels at least from Asturian time. (Rasilla ,M. de la, et alii, 2010)

5 DEATH AS ARCHAEOLOGY OF TRANSITION

Figure 5. Horse and deer megaceros in the vault above the bones of La Pasiega. (Photo R.de Balbín)

Figure 6. Bird mobile figure in the cave of El Buxu ( Photo Mario Menendez)

6 Rodrigo de Balbín Behrmann: DEATH IN THE CAVE paintings. However, the datings were mainly negative or a female individual aged 35-40. Its absolute radiocarbon out of range, except for three cases. In gallery C a layer, dating is 15.988±193 BP. Perhaps the possibly female superimposed over a red dot was dated 12.580 ± 140 B.P. , remain was manipulated post mortem. in Pasiega C a layer, superimposed over a red triangle, was dated 18.468 ± 94 and another layer, superimposed over a In the Magdalenian level V a central upper incisor of a red reindeer was dated to 11.890 ± 450 B.P. These dates probably masculine individual, aged 45-50, was found. The are not directly associated to the bone remains, but they are absolute radiocarbon dating of this tooth is 16.433±131 linked to the paintings nearby. (Pike et al. 2012). BP. (Barandiarán 1981;González Echegaray, ; Guerrero, Lorenzo 1981) FRAGMENTARY CRANIAL AND POSTCRANIAL REMAINS COVA FORADADA. Xábia, Alicante.

EL BUXU. Cangas de Onís, Asturias. This cave was excavated since its discovery in 1992 until 2003. Excavations were carried out by J. Casabó’s team Initial research was carried out by Obermaier and Vega del from Valencia University. In the Aurignacian level II 1 Sella, later the site was studied by Olábarri and Menéndez. infantile parietal fragment, 1 femur, 1 middle phalanx of 1 phalanx and 1 human molar were found among the site’s a foot and 1 tibia belonging to an adult individual were Upper Solutrean remains in an area filled with mobile found. The, not very well established, chronology of art. This art is closely connected to the important parietal these remains suggests they are from the initial Upper remains (FIGURE 6). Paleolithic, from approximately 30.000 BP. (Casabó 2001: 409) 18 other remains surfaced in level 1. They are mainly (Dams, Dams 1977; Obermaier,Vega del Sella,1918; inferior and superior extremities of immature and adult Soto 1984;Menéndez 1984, 1992 , 1999) individuals (Villaverde 2001: 300). This level’s dating provided the following dates; 310 ± 40 BP and 2.820 ± 80 RASCAÑO. Mirones, Miera, Cantabria. BP, which is why they are, for now, labeled as uncertain. (Casabó 2001: 409). In the 70s of the last century this site was excavated by González Echegaray and Barandiarán, who published LA CARIGÜELA or CARIHUELA. Piñar, Granada. their results in 1981. The publication included an anthropological study of the scant human remains. In the This cave has been known since Obermaier’s era (1934). In Magdalenian level IV 1 small cranial fragment was found, 1954 J.C. Spanhi started excavating the La Carigüela and La consisting of 1 parietal and 1 occipital bone. It is probably Campana caves. In the first he found human remains, which

Figure 7. Human mandible from La Carigüela ( García Sánchez,M.,1960)

7 DEATH AS ARCHAEOLOGY OF TRANSITION were published by García Sánchez in 1960. Excavations 1988, when interesting, fragmentary but abundant, human were taken up again in 1960 by a team led by H.T. Irwin, R. remains were found in the Middle and Upper Solutrean Fryxell and M. Almagro. (Almagro et al- 1970). and the Magdalenian levels. In the Upper Solutrean an engraved plaque was found. There are many remains of Later the Complutense University team, led by G. Vega decorative elements such as perforated deer canines, Toscano, continued research on this site, which is of great shells, etc. importance for the Iberian Peninsula. The found remains consist of the following: The preserved remains are: Level Fc. Fragments of a Solutrean adult upper maxiliary 1 small right parietal fragment with with 2 molars (Caldeirao 1). Level dating: 18.840 ± 200 parallel artificial grooves on its inside. BP. 1 jaw of a masculine individual, approximately 25 – 30 years old, with 5 molars. Level H. Fragments of a Solutrean young individual’s jaw with a milktooth (Caldeirao 2). Level dating: 19.900 ± 260 1 right tibia from a probably female individual. The tibia is BP. missing its distal extremity. Level Fb. 1 incisor, 1 fragment of a proximal radius, 1 All of the remains have been attributed to homo sapiens. metacarp and 1 hand phalanx from a Solutrean adolescent However, they were found in association with typical individual. (Caldeirao 3, 7, 8 and 9) . Mousterian industry. Unit IV, where the human remains were found, was dated using thermoluminescence, Level Fa. 3 young individual’s incisors (Caldeirao 4, 5 and providing the following dates: 6). The found remains belong to two Solutrean adolescents. Level dating: 20.400 ± 270 BP. B52 19.300 ± 500 IV 16-17. B6 20.200 ± 1200 IV 16. B47 20.950 ± 1200 IV 16. B43 21.100 ± 1300 V-IV 16 Level Eb. 1 incisor and 1 milktooth (Caldeirao 10 and 11). The remains belong to a Magdalenian child and adolescent. CALDEIRAO. Tomar, Portugal. Level dating: 14.450 ± 890 BP. In the upper part of this level an engraved plaque with an antropomorphic motive A cave located few kilometres from Tomar, in the centre of was found. Portugal. It was excavated by J. Zilhao between 1979 and

Figure 8. Engraved plaquette and mandible fragments from Caldeirao (Trinkaus, E., Bailey, S., Zilhao, J. 2001)

8 Rodrigo de Balbín Behrmann: DEATH IN THE CAVE

Assuming that levels Fa to H have not been moved, the EL CASTILLO . Puente Viesgo,Cantabria. Caldeirao remains form a series including 1 child, 2 youths, 1 adolescent, 2 youths and 1 adults. (Trinkaus et al. 2001) It was discovered by H. Alcalde del Río in 1903 and Zilhao proposes that the site was used continuously for excavated between 1910 and 1914 by Breuil, Obermaier funerary purposes, above all the Solutrean levels, which and Wernert. This site is one of the most important sites contain remnants of decorative elements. (FIGURE 8) of the Iberian Peninsula, an obligatory reference for this period’s Paleolithic and art studies (Alcalde et al. 1911). MORE COMPLETE CRANIAL REMAINS. The rock art on this site is extraordinary and, on top of that, the archaeological levels are filled with mobile art. LA LLOSETA. Ribadesella, Asturias. Originally, the excavations were not published adequately, this is until V. Cabrera did so in 1984. After the main entrance of this cave had been excavated by F. Jordá it has been neglected in research. In 2000 The preserved remains are the following: the study of the cave was taken up again by the Alcalá University team, documenting a cranium that was found Level 8. 2 Magdalenian III frontal bones. They are before the Civil War by an amateur. We surveyed the considered to be skull cups by H. Obermaier (1916). inferior room, where we found small bone fragments on Masculine and feminine. the spot where the cranium must have been found, which was photographed. Level 18. 1 child’s lower maxiliary bone and 1 adult molar, both Aurignacian. These fragments were dated back to 11.830+50 BP. Considering the context we can assume that these remains Undefined level. 1 skull, consisting of 1 frontal, 1 are from the Magdalenian. occipital and 1 parietal bone. The individual is placed in a Magdalenian chronology and is probably feminine. Also, The cranium itself has not been studied as its current there are grooves of possible manipulation. owner, José Antonio Sánchez Feliz, denies us access to it. (BALBÍN BEHRMANN, R. de, et alii 2005 a and b)- Undefined level. 1 human fibula, found in the collections of the American Museum of Natural History, New York, The cave is completely decorated, starting at the upper USA. (Tejero et alii 2010) gallery, but above all in the lower one, where the cranium was found, and inwards. (FIGURE 9) (Basabe, Bennasar 1980;Cabrera et 2005; Cabrera 1978, 1984; Garralda Garralda et al.1992;Obermaier et al. 19)

Within the U-Series Dating of Paleolithic Art in 11 Caves in Spain programme several datings have been obtained from the cave, some of them remarkably old. Above one of the discs from the Disc Gallery 34.250 +170 BP, underneath this disc 35.720 + 260 BP. Above a negative hand from the Hand Panel 37.630 + 340 BP, and a disc from the same Hand Panel to 41.400 + 570 BP (Pike et al. 2012). These are the oldest datings from all Paleolithic art, they even exceed a limit that has traditionally been set for Paleolithic art. Naturally, these were not the only datings from the cave. The cave has got 14 different datings, of which 8 fall into the Paleolithic range, from the already cited 41.400+570 until 15.060 ± 990 BP. Some other datings continue in immediate Post-paleolithic times and other are even more recent. All this indicates a long tradition of graphic use in the cave, a use that also left behind physical human remains from the beginning (level 18) until the end of the Paleolithic series. The dates outside the Pleistocenic range are not necessarily unusual, they could prove that the occupation of site was not disrupted at the end of the colder times. On the contrary, it shows that the site’s occupation continued, and therefore, why not the cultural tradition too. (FIGURE 10) Figure 9. The Skull of La Lloseta (Photo R.de Balbín)

9 DEATH AS ARCHAEOLOGY OF TRANSITION

Figure 10. Skulls-cup and wall decoration of the cave of El Castillo (Photo R.de Balbín)

SANTIÁN .Puente Arce, Cantabria. EL PENDO. Escobedo de Camargo, Cantabria.

The cave has been known since the end of the 19th The cave’s excavations were published by González century. Thanks to its outstanding rock art it was included Echegaray in 1980, containing an impressive collection of in the work carried out for Les Cavernes de la Région mobile art. In the 90s of the last century the archaeological Cantabrique by Alcalde del Río, Breuil and Sierra in 1911. activities were taken up again, led by Montes Barquín. In 1953, when engineer García Lorenzo was preparing the During this research the rock art played an important cave for a visit he found a cranium with 2 premolars and role. When the cave was first studied by Carballo and 1 molar. Larin in 1933 an apparently Magdalenian level was found, containing a splanchnocranium and part of the The anthropological study was carried out by V. Andérez neurocranium consisting of sfenoids, ethmoids and the (1954). He proposes that the individual is masculine and of lower part of the frontal bone. Basabe and Bennasar an advanced age. Part of the remains are coloured because carried out the anthropological study, concluding the of a fire that was made near them.The chronology of the individual was approximately 10 years old, regarding the human remains is difficult to establish. teething (permanent first molar, 3 temporary molars and 1 appearing canine). Also, they concluded the individual Generally this chronology has been based on painted years old, regarding the teething (permanent first molar, elements on the walls of the cave. However, the moment 3 temporary molars and 1 appearing canine). Also, they when these paintings were created is also unclear, within concluded the individual was probably of the male sex, the Upper Paleolithic, perhaps in the oldest stages. given the strength of some muscular insertions and the size of the molars. (Basabe, Bennasar 1980; Carballo, Thanks to the U Series Dating of Paleolithic Art in 11 1933;Garralda 1992; González Echegaray Montes et al. Caves in Spain programme we have a date above one of 1998; Montes 2003). the signs of 6.552 ± 50 BP (Pike et al. 2012). This dating is not especially helpful as it only indicates that the painting The rest might have been manipulated, cutting the frontal is anterior to mentioned date. (FIGURE 11) bone above the eye sockets, one of which could have been perforated intentionally.

10 Rodrigo de Balbín Behrmann: DEATH IN THE CAVE

1993; Iturbe, Cortell 1982). Beneito 1 shows a series of intentional fine lines or marks on the bone.

POSSIBLE BURIALS

EL MIRÓN. Ramales, Cantabria.

This cave, known since 1903, was found by Hermilio Alcalde del Río and Lorenzo Sierra below the other caves they discovered, Covalanas and La Haza. (Alcalde del Río 1906, Alcalde del Río et alii, 1911).

During the last years excavations were carried out by a Spanish-American team led by M. González Morales and L. G. Straus. This team discovered important finds dating from the Mousterian to the Bronze Age, among them a probable secondary burial from the Lower Cantabrian Magdalenian.

The burial’s bones were bare when they were deposited. It was found directly on top of a rock with many Paleolithic parietal engravings. Also, the mobile art from that period’s levels is abundant and important. The remains are currently being studied and consist of at least 1 jaw, 1 incomplete tibia, 4 fibula fragments, 2 collarbone fragments, 15 vertebra fragments, 8 rib fragments, foot and hand bones and 2 possible pelvis fragments. The bones possibly

belonged to a young adult. Therefore we are dealing with a partial burial with red-painted bones. In the excavation of 2011 more fragmentary human remains were found below Figure 11. Skull and paintings of Santian (Straus et al.2011). (Andérez, V. 1954) The site has been dated using radiocarbon dating, providing LES MALLADETES, Barx,Valencia. a date of 15 740+40 BP and 18 940±18 770 cal BP for the human remains. During the 1948 excavations, carried out by Pericot and Jordá, a human infantile occipital bone was found together EL PARPALLÓ. Gandía, Valencia. with bone and charcoal remains in a small niche underneath a block. The level has been dated to the Gravettian by Ever since L. Pericot’s excavations, published in 1942, this the charcoal remains, in 25.120±240 BP. (FIGURE 11) cave has been a classical reference for Spanish Prehistory. (Arsuaga et al. 2001) This site has got the most and quality-wise best Paleolithic mobile art from the Iberian Peninsula. Apart from that it COVA BENEITO. Muro de Alcoy, Alicante. also contains rock art, which has been discovered recently. (Alcobé 1942; Bubner 1975 ;Garralda;1975 ;Villaverde In the Solutreogravettien level B2 2 cranial fragments 1994). were found. Beneito 1 consists of 1 frontal, 1 occipital and 2 parietal fragments. It seems to be a young female adult During Pericot’s excavations a very complete Solutrean, and the cranium has got manipulation marks on its external probably young female, cranium was found. In the same surface. Beneito 2 consists of small fragments of 1 parietal level a human humerus appeared, which certainly belongs bone and belongs to a young individual. According to to the same individual. the researchers this is clearly a secondary burial, with a possible burial pit where the cranial remains, two ochre- The jaw was found in the National Museum of Archaeology stained cores and a percussor we found together. A big amongst the materials from the Vilanova and Piera stone with ochre on its upper face and side, strongly put collection. Also, in the same collection 4 independent into place, closed the possible burial together with three molars appeared. In total there are 1 jaw, 2 parietal bone small stones. Between the stones a blade with ochre, a fragments, 1 canine, 2 femurs, 1 humerus, 2 tibias, 1 perforated shell, a big ball of ochre and, a little bit aside, lumbar vertebra, several vertebra fragments and 5 molars. a scraper were found. (Garralda, Vandermeerch 1994) The level has been dated to 16.650±480 BP (Carrión et al.

11 DEATH AS ARCHAEOLOGY OF TRANSITION

This site’s remains were gathered from at least two Base NV8 18.420+530 BP. archaeological projects, and from the discovery of certain pieces found in the Museum of Prehistory in Valencia and (Aura 1986; Aura et alii 1998 a, b; Aura alii 2006; Jordá in the National Museum of Archaeology. The pieces from Pardo, Aura 2008) the Vilanova and Piera collection seem to be Magdalenian. The other remains are Solutrean and seem to be linked to LAGAR VELHO. Lapedo , Leiria ,Portugal. eachother,for as far as it has been possible to reconstruct them as some components lack positional references. The site was found by chance in 1998 during construction Pericot’s observations could confirm that it is a burial, work. The remains of a child were found and this burial although the manner in which it was dug up voids any of would be the most complete and best studied Upper the required scientific guarantee. These observations are Paleolithic burial from the Iberian Peninsula. The body mainly that stones and slabs were found near the cranium was placed sideways under a shelter, facing the wall and and there were remains of a fire underneath it. Moreover, belonged to a 4-5 year old child. There is no directly there were many bones belonging to a young individual associated industry. What has been found as grave goods and none of them were repeated. are four deer canines and two Littorina Obtusata shells, which are a certain type of winkle of decorative value. There are two datings for the Solutrean in this cave; 20.490 Remains of fire were found at the feet of the burial, which + 900 BP for the Lower Solutrean and 18.080 + 830 BP for has been carbondated to 24.860+200 BP. Cal BP 23.480 the Upper Solutrean. (Fullola 1976) -25.300. dating the accompanying bones and charcoal . The corpse itself did not permit a direct dating. CUEVA DE NERJA, Nerja, Málaga Rabbit bones were found next to the skeleton, possibily In 1963 the cave’s Vestíbulo room was excavated. 4 this was an offering as no indications of discarnation or burials were found during these works; 1 feminine A, consumption were present on the bones. Moreover, they 1 masculine B, 1 undetermined C and 1 infantile D did not alter the infant’s position. These remains and the (Gimenez 1964;Fusté 1964). Supposedly the remains human remains were coloured by red ochre, probably from were destroyed by a fire in the Anthropology Laboratory clothing. of the Barcelona University in 1969. However, it has been possible to recover them almost completely. (Turbon Although there have been discussions regarding the burial’s et al.1994). Nevertheless, the first datings are much too cultural chronology it has finally been considered to be recent and must have been contaminated by said fire. Gravettien, regarding most importantly the radiocarbon datings. The infant is assumed to be a physical mixture Between 1982-1984 F. Jordá started new excavations of between sapiens and neanderthal. Near the body, but not the Vestíbulo room. He found a human foot whose bones directly associated, peculiar micro-stone industry was were still attached in anatomical connection. It must have found. (Arias, Alvar Duarte 2002 ; Duarte et al. 2009; belonged to individual C found in the previous excavations. Zilhao, 1999)

There are several interesting facts which were regarded DIFFICULTLY ASSIGNABLE HUMAN REMAINS. only laterally. For example the presence of a big stone between cranium B and C, another stone next to B’s MORÍN CAVE. Villanueva de Villaescusa, Cantabria. extremities and an ochre remain or stone ball next to C’s head. Near the infant’s remains big stones were found. In the sixties of the last century a Spanish-American team The body must have been laid to rest on these stones. The led by J.González Echegaray and L.G.Freeman excavated infant most probably comes from Magdalenian levels this cave. They found interesting cultural elements and and the other three corpses from Solutrean levels. As no four possible burials which were preserved in a peculiar, actual burial pits have been found it is not possible to pseudomorphic, manner (Morín I). Whether or not it is strictly define these remains as burials, above all because real has been much debated as the real element would be of the conditions of the excavation. However, regarding destroyed and then preserved in a piece that is difficult to the bones’ preservation there must have been burials. This observe. would prove a diachronic use of the cave as a necropole. Therefore we include it here as a doubtful possibility that The archaeological levels have been carbondated usually is not included. It would be a complete corpse, its abundantly and the datings that are directly connected to soft parts preserved as a mould. the burials are the following: Another structure was named Morín II, according to the Layer NV 7 12.130±130 BP. Solutrean. researchers this was another burial although nothing tangible was found inside. Level NV8 17.940±200 BP. Solutrean, here at least three from the four burials were found.

12 Rodrigo de Balbín Behrmann: DEATH IN THE CAVE

Morín III was also a mould, according to the researchers of stone which was later covered by stones all the way to the the corpse’s lower part. other side. No ornaments were found, but there was a goat horn on top of the stone bed. The site is located in an area Morín IV consists of fragments of a burial mound and a with an outstanding concentration of Levantine rock art. burial pit. BARRANC BLANC. Rótova, Valencia. The assumed burials provide the following carbondatings; 28.435 ± 556 BP for I, and 28.515 ± 1324 BP for III. During the 1953 excavations Pericot and Alcobé found 1 (González Echegaray, Freeman1971, 1973,1978) adult masculine frontal bone and a fragmentary cranium of a young individual between the age of 15 and 18. BALMA GUILANYÁ. Navés, Lleida. (Arsuaga et al. 2001). Apart from this, 9 other cranial fragments surfaced: 1 frontal bone, 2 left parietal bones, 4 This rock-shelter site at the Pyrenean foothills in Catalonia right parietal bones, 1 small parietal bone and 1 temporal was discovered in 1992. It contains a sequence from the bone. These remains indicate the presence of at least 5 Upper Paleolithic to the Mesolithic. Level E, Tardiglacial individuals. and AMS carbondated, contains human remains. 3 hand phalanxes, 1 radius and a radius diaphysis, 14 isolated No other archaeological material or C14 chronology have teeth and 19 cranial fragments were been found. Due to this it is not possible to clearly establish what period or periods the remains are from. Regardless, found on the site. The cranial remains probably belonged they tend to be placed in the Upper Paleolithic. to 1 infant and 2 adults. The post-cranial remains can be attributed to the same person, possibly a young woman. In LES CENDRES. Moraira-Teulada, Alicante. total we can speak of three individuals; an infant, a young female adult and an older adult. The remains were found in a mixed context within Pleistocene levels but lacking any stratigraphical The remains appeared within an archaeological unit guarantee. They were found in the 1995 excavation and without any apparent funerary structure, although they consist of 1 lower left canine and 1 proximal foot phalanx were located underneath a piece of stone that had fallen belonging to a young individual. (Arsuaga et al. 2001). down. Also a decorated plaque and decorative shells were found. Above we have shortly described the remains we know of and that have been published. However, most of said The culture seems to be a continuation between the Final publications are not useful according to current criteria Magdalenian and the Azilian. The carbon datings are and they neither permit a detailed analysis. 13.380-12.660 cal BP and 12.830-10.990 cal BP, and were obtained directly from the human remains. They suggest First of all, the boundaries between Glacial and Postglacial a continuity from the Upper Paleolithic to at least the moments should be put into perspective. Many of the Epipaleolithic and later Mesolithic. This is not the only datings we get fit into the Paleolithic or Epipaleolithic, case in which it is difficult to establish set boundaries according to their use, without having any actual differential between on the one hand the remains and behaviour and categories. In other words, we often give things with the on the other hand the Pleistocene-Holocene limit. This same date different names. difficulty can surely be attributed to the small cultural difference between both periods. (Casanova et al. 2007 ; Another reflection, linked to the previous one, is that we García Guixé et al.2009; Martínez Moreno, Mora 2009; talk about Paleolithic, Epipaleolithic or Mesolithic burials Parcerisas et al. 2003, Ruiz et al.2006) as they are characterised by materials. Neverteheless, often these materials were produced in the same way, COVA FOSCA. Ares del Maestre, Castellón. seen from a deeply cultural point of view. That is to say, individuals were buried in similar ways and accompanied This cave has been studied by the Castellón team from the by the same products and graphics. Therefore we 70s. Human remains, still in anatomical connection were created a section called difficulty assignable remains found. It is a clear documentation analysis burial which is where, apart from Morín, the remains which lack a clear still being studied. (Olaria 1988, 2003). attribution are included. Remains that were assigned to the Mesolithic or Epipaleolithic after having been studied Although the level’s carbon dating clearly places it in and have calibrated carbon datings that point to the Upper the Upper Paleolithic, 12.130+-100 BP = cal. BP 15.310- Paleoltihic range. We also included the Les Cendres and 14.650, it was classified as Early Epipaleolithic. The burial Barranc Blanc remains here as they have got a complicated is found in levels below the Mesolithic sequence, in supine chronology. Although perhaps it is not more complicated position, with a small fire on the chest. The cranial cavity than others’. Finally, this section also includes the Morín and a part of the splanchnocranium are damaged. The cave that, although it provokes some serious doubts, has eastern part of the burial pit was covered by a wall of dry been included in literature and dealt with repeatedly.

13 DEATH AS ARCHAEOLOGY OF TRANSITION

Figure 12. Calvaria of Les Malladetes (Villaverde Bonilla,V.,ed.2001)

Another point is that the chronological attribution of of 11 out of 25 sites, without counting the problematic fragmentary remains is not always precise. Not only ones. 10 out of these 11 are Cantabrian. because of the above-mentioned reasons but also because they are found in contexts that are difficult to delimit, the Usually they are isolated evidences, without any mortuary stratigraphies and cultures present complications in terms context or spatial preparation, mixed among the material of their connection or even because they were found or remains from living spaces. studied in poor conditions. At the Erralla site (Altuna et al. 1985) certain ritual The remains were categorised according to their depositions are mentioned, although they are not complexity or quantity. This was done because although connected to the teeth in time or stratigraphical level. In many might have been preserved in a similar manner they the case of Lapa do Suao, Roche (1982) considered two can not be treated in the same way as this is a different teeth to belong to an intentional burial because of the indicator. Therefore we started with the teeth, probably accompanying elements. the simplest and best preserved remains, and ended with the more complete remains which are more similar to an Taking into account that cranial bones are conserved authentic burial at first glance. Does this mean that the better and more abundantly we thought it adequate to more complete remains are intentional burials and the include a special section for the remains that included rest are not? We are not able to confirm or deny this, but not only cranial but also postcranial elements. Within this theoretically we are not in favour of this version. The group we included El Buxu, Cueto de la Mina, Rascaño, reason why will be explained below. Cova Foradada, La Carigüela and Caldeirao. Therefore 6 out of the total 25 sites, alongside the previous 11, form We do not mean to carry out a rigurous anthropological the fragmentary majority of our study. Three sites are analysis of the remains. Among other reasons because of Cantabrian, one Levantine, one Southern and another one the lack of a proper training. We mean to use these scarce Portuguese. documents to learn about behavioural ways and cultural meanings. This is done by connecting them with the They are also incomplete evidences that are difficult to manners of deposition we know of and their environments, assign spatially. However, the degree of difficulty varies. which are often, but not always, characterised by graphical The first four are poor and the last two are slightly more expressions. indicative, with possible manipulation marks at El Rascaño and La Carigüela and possibly continued use at Caldeirao. Isolated remains form the least varied and indicative section. However, it is not the least abundant one as these We also included this section because the cranium seems remains make up the majority of the preserved material. to be the protagonist of intentional differential preservation and the remains frequently appear accompanied by other Teeth have been found at Las Caldas, Tito Bustillo, corporal remains. This section includes La LLoseta, El Cobalejos, Cueva Morín, Santimamiñe, Erralla and Lapa Castillo, Santián, El Pendo, Les Malladetes and Cova do Suao. Teeth with cranial fragments surfaced La Paloma, Beneito. The remains in this group have been preserved La Riera, La Chora and La Pasiega. This makes for a total better and possess more general documentation. Four of them are Cantabrian and two Levantine.

14 Rodrigo de Balbín Behrmann: DEATH IN THE CAVE

Some of them are very complete, such as La Lloseta and The documentation of El Parapalló and Nerja is old and El Castillo, and the rest are more fragmentary. There deficient, although they could have provided the best are no signs of intentional preparation in the first two documentation. cases although traditionally the opposite was believed of Castillos. At the time Obermaier (1916) interpreted the Without any doubt the best studied case at the moment is the remains as beaker skulls. Having the information we have Portuguese Lagar Velho. It does have some problems, which nowadays, this interpretation is very arguable. is normal, but it offers up to date and manageable information.

Santián appeared next to remains of fire which coloured DEPOSITION SYSTEMS part of the cranium. However, there is nothing more to be said about this remain of questionable chronology. El These systems can tell us more about the deepest cultural Pendo’s frontal bone and eye sockets might have been principles, norms of conduct and similarities between manipulated although this interpretation would seem to be groups as long as they contain enough common descriptive a reflection of Castillo’s traditional interpretation. elements or reflect similar ideas. All this assuming that human conduct can rarely be codified mechanically and At Les Malladetes a human occipital bone was found. It varieties are not only frequent but also necessary. seems to have been deposited intentionally in a niche, together with charcoal and bone remains. About isolated elements such as teeth there is little to say. They surface among the settlement and food remains, Cova Beneito is better documented. Thanks to this it has been forming part of the habitual deposit. Therefore they could possible to confirm its organization as a secondary burial. have fallen on the floor casually, from a bigger human remain, or they could be part of something that was In the case of possible burials we find the most complete transported. As they are small and not very notorious they evidences, most abundant and best preserved components have not been treated with any special attention, simply and a superior information capacity. Nevertheless, the noting their presence and nothing more. In some cases, such documentation is not up to date as several excavations are as in Lapa do Suao, they can be interpreted as intentional old or incomplete and in another case the definite study deposits or even burials thanks to their association to has not yet been carried out. decorative elements such as perforated shells, deer teeth, ashes or ochre (Roche 1982). This interpretation is made The most recently found grave is El Mirón, which is still possible by rigorous observation during the fieldwork, being studied. However, it already suggests the existence which has not always been the case. of a secondary burial with bones that were not connected at the moment of their deposition and were placed The same can be said regarding cranial remains and intentionally on an engraved slab. The remains are from a fragmentary postcranial remains. Their deposition has single individual. rarely been interpreted taking into account the other present elements. Most of the cases did not go further than anthropological studies of varied depth. This is especially visible in the Carigüela case, where the human remains are sapiens and the accompanying industry is Mousterian. This is a very important fact which, positive or negative, should be treated in a special way. Unfortunately we do not have any evidences to further assess this due to the way the remains were excavated, the absence of an original report and the poor reconstruction by those who finally did publish the excavations (Almagro et al. 1970).

The repetition and abundance of fragmentary remains at Caldeirao permit Zilhao and others (Trinkaus 2001) to propose a continued funerary use of the site. Above all in Solutrean levels, with accompanying decorative elements but nothing else that would permit a complete reconstruction of the deposition.

Strictly speaking, craniums are more indicative as they are a fundamental body part and also indicate a clearly secondary burial deposition in which the head was separated. Given that no other resistant bones or cervical vertebrae associated to the cranium are preserved. It is not always possible to confirm that they were deposited Figure 13. Cova Beneito Skull (Museum of Valencia) separately but this does seem to be the case of La Lloseta,

15 DEATH AS ARCHAEOLOGY OF TRANSITION

Figure 14. The engraved rock of El Miron , mandible and engraved shoulder blade (Photos R.González Morales) the two craniums from level 8 at the El Castillo cave, was found contained elements permitting a complete and Santián, Malladetes and Cova Beneito. The state of reconstruction. A stone accompanied the cranium and preservation varies, but this is not hardly surprising as the below the corpse, apparently in supine position, remains of complete preservation of secondary burials is problematic. fire were detected. As far as the photographs permit us to interpret the skeleton it seems to be in anatomical position. Without a doubt, the actual burials provide the most This indicates its primary deposition. The preservation information regarding human behaviour in that period. is good and the remains have been subject of repeated Nevertheless, as we have seen before, these cases are anthropological studies, although no cultural studies were less frequent than we would like them to be and their performed. documentation is usually insufficient. In Nerja we find another faulty burial. It is a multiple The most recent discovery is the one from the El Mirón cave burial as four bodies were found in anatomical position, in Cantabria. It is so recent that it has still not been published indicating it is probably a primary deposit. The completely. It is another secondary burial containing reconstruction was very complex and praiseworthy. It was bones that were bare before being deposited, coloured red, carried out by Aura Tortosa’s team, who were able to assess gathered in a deposit next to a rock and at a depth which a series of important elements linked to the corpses, whose has been changing during successive excavations. It is a placement had been treated laterally according to the habit, package, we do not know whether it was a bundle or not, unfortunately. The bones were accompanied by big stone whose components do not appear in anatomical position blocks and ochre fragments, without any other offerings or or in any ordered manner. It is accompanied by bone and accompanying elements we know of. D, an infant, belongs stone instruments and objects which have been interpreted to a Magdalenian stratigraphical chronology and the other as offerings (Straus et al. 2011). Its ochre colouring, three were placed in the Solutrean by carbon dating. This possible offerings and placing on an engraved stone near indicates a large funerary continuity in the cave. According other engraved and painted surfaces does not leave any to Gimenez Reyna’s sketch the first three burials A, B doubt regarding its interpretation as an intentional burial. and C would be in supine position and the infant, D, in a We will learn more when the final publication is finished. huddled lateral position.

The remains from El Parpalló were published by Pericot The last complete burial is Lagar Velho. It represents in 1942, including scarce photographical references another way of dealing with funerary remains, a good and no setting or drawing. This was a normal course one in this case. Everything that has been found so far of events then. As a consequence this very important, was found in the cave, a preferential preservation space. apparently primary, deposition has not been documented Moreover, in the Iberian Peninsula the excavated Upper adequately. The bones were dispersed over several centres Paleolithic sites are almost exclusively found in caves. and belonged at least to the Solutrean and Magdalenian. This proposes a diversity or variety of the elements. The But every rule has got its exception, and in this case unit where the cranium, a young individual’s cranium, that is Lagar Velho, found almost on the surface of a

16 Rodrigo de Balbín Behrmann: DEATH IN THE CAVE

Figure 15. Old photo of El Parpalló burial (Photo L.Pericot).

Figure 16. The skull and depictions from El Parpalló (Photos Museum of Valencia). rock-shelter. It is a child whose head was detached, due according to the authors it is associated to the corpse. to the construction of a road, and later reconstructed. The child is considered to be a possible mixture between This complete deposition was placed in a burial pit in a neanderthal and sapiens, which is reasonable regardless slightly lateral position, accompanied by offerings such the many arguments against this possibility. as animal bones, perforated shells and perforated deer teeth. A peculiar industry of microstones was found in a Obviously we do not have the best documents necessary slight stratigraphical interruption from the burial, though for the reconstruction of a possible burial ritual. They are

17 DEATH AS ARCHAEOLOGY OF TRANSITION

Figure 17. Burial and depictions from Nerja Cave (Photos E.Aura y R.de Balbín)

Figure 18. Lagar Velho burial and ornaments. (Zilhao, J., Trinkaus, E. 2002). not all the same, not in their preservation, documentation, Parpalló, Nerja and Lagar Velho. Secondary remains or way of deposition. The dominant deposition method is seem to be preserved fragmentarily, even when all of their the supine position, which in Lagar Velho’s case becomes elements seem to form a complete body. an extended lateral position. Most of the complete burials we know of seem to be primary depositions, such as El At Morín all findings have been scientifically questioned, and in general they are currently not admitted. Among

18 Rodrigo de Balbín Behrmann: DEATH IN THE CAVE

Figure 19. Context and dating of the human remains

19 DEATH AS ARCHAEOLOGY OF TRANSITION

Figure 20. Human remains distributed by zones.

Figure 21. Skeletal remains and art. others because of the contradiction the presence of this Balma Guilanyá or Cova Fosca is another case of peculiar fossilization presents in a level where bones a secondary deposit and a proper burial with good have also appeared in normal conditions. Such an original reconstruction possibilities and a complete attribution. Its preservation should be the same for all of the remains from researchers assign an Epipaleolithic cultural chronology the same time in the same level. In any case, this type of to both, but absolute chronologies indicate an Upper fossilization does not have any known parallels from this Paleolithic range. This case is too difficult to discuss here period . Also it lacks artistical associations. as the border between the two periods is very subtle and even arguable. This goes for material remains, funerary and even artistic manifestations. This is the moment when

20 Rodrigo de Balbín Behrmann: DEATH IN THE CAVE

are always religious, like ours, is a simplistic transposition from what we know now and the behavioural elements we establish in order to organise the reality that surrounds us. Paleolithic reality was different, and so were the answers to it. They were probably anterior to strictly religious behaviour and at least varied. It did not strictly depend on a cult or a relation with higher beings or the afterlife. The bodies are preserved, entirely or partially, which means that it was something intentional. The act was repeated and that what was preserved possessed value for the ones who did it. The possible motive behind it could be the easiest, most understandable and close one familiar proximity, ancestors.

Why do some bodies appear buried in their entirety, and other times there are only some parts of it? This is another question we can not reply to with certainty. Nevertheless, Cauwe’s (1997 and 2001) proposal of moving skeletons is rather suggestive. He describes the transport of certain body parts that would finally become a secondary burial. Were parts of the head selected specifically? If we look at the statistics of the remains we would have to say that this is indeed the case. Figure 22. Percentage of skeletal remains with or without accompanying art The preserved more complete bodies, or at least some of them, can be associated with burial pits or spaces where they are surrounded by stones and leave depositions which our style V was developed, which is another important we call ritual. But, are there specific spaces to deposit bodies indication of cultural continuity, not rupture (Bueno et alii apart from the spaces used in daily life? If we look at the 2009). statistics we would have to say no. Even proper burials are placed in living spaces where people eat, sleep, work, live CONSIDERATIONS AND SUGGESTIONS. together and defecate. There are no cementeries.

This small summary of Upper Paleolithic human remains And regarding the fragmentary remains that appear in offers more questions than answers, among others because living spaces, are they intentional deposits, remains of an of the incomplete documentation. But even if this would not accidental fall in the teeth’s case, food remains? It has to be the case we would still have many questions we can not be said that cannibalism is one of the first social human answer yet. behaviours that is recognised in the human context. Therefore it is not completely rejectable to interpret the Firstly, the definition of a burial. This can be polysemic presence of some bones as food remains. But, if they are due to the variety of existing deposits and the lack of a food remains, is this a daily meal or is it the consumption general norm of conduct. The more complete the skeleton of a respected something or somebody? Cannibalism has is, the more obvious this becomes. We are dealing with got many possible motives, one of them is the obtaining of the preservation of certain hard parts of the human body, proteins. But there is also the obtaining of the deceased’s for reasons unknown to us, but they are surely linked to qualities through their ingestion. In this case, the person persistence. Why is it preserved? Is there any religious being eaten was one worthy of respect or affection. The ideology to the corpses’ deposition? Christian communion, when the body and blood of Christ are ingested, could be a memento from this custom. Aimed A teleological behaviour of this type does not need to at unifying divinity and the rest of the believers. seem necessary for the preservation. It is beyond any doubt that the life in those bones is appreciated, probably Human remains are being deposited, but not in a very marked because of a family connection, respect or a position in the way, as far as we can tell. This is a peculiar fact as specific group that stands out. Close human connections are more spaces are created for the dead from the ending of the ice ages. understandable than ones that are distant and lack precision. Then burials are indicated and even deposited in outstanding, Religion is a superstructure, requiring a superior being, big spaces such as megaliths. Paleolithic burials lack external an inferior one and latria between the both, manifested in visibility, which could have an explanation. positive or negative actions. Not all sites contain human remains. This is a problematic We are not quite sure why human bodies are preserved, but statement as not all sites we know have been excavated we know even less about the ideological condition of the completely, or according to current menthods. Therefore group carrying out the burials. To assume that the motives there must be more remains than the ones we know of.

21 DEATH AS ARCHAEOLOGY OF TRANSITION

Moreover, we need to take into account that the fossilization because of the space where they were placed, but also of remains from that period presents difficulties. Thus, our because they are accompanied by objects and images from possibilities are limited. their life, within a space that was frequented by the group. As we said earlier, rock art is found at places that were Not all sites contain human remains. Is their presence an used for living, without any spatial selection that would indication of special places? If the site contains decoration separate it from daily life. This is also the case for the apart from burials, is this an indication it is a special deposition of corpses and other human remains that are place? Could it be said that the accumulation of cultural results of human activity. manifestations makes the site special? Is this related to the so- called aggregation sites? Could this be the reason why there Rock art is not always found at living- or burial-spaces, neither are no external indications found at Paleolithic burial sites? are they always directly linked. However, human remains have been found in decorated caves frequently. Sometimes, Paul Pettitt (2011) proposes the existence of a mortuary as at El Mirón, the connection between the buried body operational sequence which starts when the tomb is and the rock art is immediate and consciously established. excavated, continues when the body is placed in it and ends Decorations are a part of many outstanding places, and at with the covering or closing of the burial site. It is a way some of these places human bone remains are present too. of describing a complicated behaviour which is not always We would like to highlight this accompanying presence. carried out in this way, according to us. Even we do not wish to apply this procedure universally the steps seem to A vision of the remote future is not necessary in order be more complex. It should start with the abandonment, or to decorate caves. What is important is the necessity in the case of secondary burials exposition, then a posterior of transmitting something important for an unknown deposition, with or without burial pit, with or without period. It is not necessary to believe in the eternity of the offerings, with or without covering, always aimed at the afterlife in order to preserve human remains. Nonetheless, preservation of the remains. These to be preserved remains the accompaniment of the two manners of action and were selected entirely or specific parts of them. The most thought is frequent and seems to comprise a way of group problematic step is the generalisation of a system, which communication and a collective understanding. in our opinion is not applied universally, or at least not homogeneously. It offers different possibilities regarding BIBLIOGRAPHY the corpse’s position, the offerings, the preparation of the tomb and the preservation of body parts, being a primary ALCALDE DEL RÍO, H. (1906). Las pinturas y grabados or a secondary burial. de las cavernas prehistóricas de la Provincia de Santander. Altamira, Covalanas, Hornos de la Peña y THE DECORATION, THE DECEASED AND THE El Castillo. Blanchard y Arce. Santander. SURROUNDING ALCALDE DEL RIO, H.; BREUIL, H.; SIERRA, L. (1911). Les Cavernes de la Région Cantabrique. A. We started by talking about burials and graphics as Chêne, Mónaco. cultural manifestations, of the utmost importance in order ALCOBÉ, S. (1942). El cráneo de Parpalló. En Pericot,L: to understand the world of Paleolithic even though their La cueva del Parpalló (Gandía) CSIC,Madrid, pp: 272- deeper meaning might be lost to us. We have tried to 274. analyse the remains and to link them to their immediate ALCOBÉ, S. (1954). 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