Quadrumvirate: Pacific Theater of the Cold War 1949 — Japan Chair: Victoria Li JHUMUNC 2018
Quadrumvirate: Pacific Theater of the Cold War- Japan
Topic A: Ensuring Economic Growth and Internal Social Stability in Japan with a New Political Structure
Topic B: Allying with the United States to Safeguard Japan’s Influence and Territory in Asia
Committee Overview a speaker’s list and having moderated and unmoderated caucuses. However, there will be a It is June 1949, and the great nation of variety of crises that will require the use of Japan finds itself in the wake of great turmoil. directives, communiqués, press releases, and Four years after the Hiroshima and Nagasaki portfolio requests. The committee may use the bombings and two years after a radical four tools listed in order to promptly implement democratization process, our country is at a solutions. It is extremely important to remember turning point which will determine its future role that each and every delegate represents a in Asia and the world at large. It is facing character, or historical individual, rather than a fundamental changes in its previously specific country. Every directive, communiqué, unchallenged political and social structure. press release, and portfolio request must The Prime Minister (i.e. the chair) has accurately reflect the viewpoints of the character. chosen 21 trusted officials, scholars, diplomats and leaders of political thought to compose a Quadrumvirate new and exciting chapter of Japan’s history. Specifically, these 21 delegates must maintain Organization Japan’s alliances with Western nations and react China, Japan, South Korea, and USSR to intensifying geopolitical tension within Asia, will be functioning as a group of four namely between North Korea and South Korea, committees, with interconnected crisis elements, as well as coming into its own from its imperial in which all debate in the individual committee past. As a committee, it is our duty to ensure that rooms will impact the other three committees. the security, stability and interest of Japan is While there are specific concerns that affect each always held as the highest priority. room individually and with which delegates must The Prime Minister anxiously awaits the concern themselves, just as important is the fruitful debate you will bring to the table. Let us international politicking and debate behind the band together, and rally together for a more closed doors of the other three committee rooms. glorious Japan! Every decision made by each of these Quad committees will impact the other three, making Parliamentary Procedure for a multifaceted crisis elements and discussion, as well as the potential for multilateral Standard MUN parliamentary procedure agreement and conflict. will be adhered to in this committee, but may be altered at the discretion of the chair to reflect the current state of the crisis. Delegates in this Delegate Biographies committee have certain abilities and powers that can greatly affect debate, and subsequently, the Shigeru Yoshida (Minister of Foreign course of events. This committee will be Affairs) following procedures similar to that of the Although Yoshida is also at this time the General Assemblies, which includes maintaining Prime Minister of Japan, for the purposes of this committee Yoshida will only be the Minister of
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Foreign Affairs. Yoshida’s strong reliance of relations between Japan and nationalist China.5 western military protection and emphasis on post-war economic recovery was called the Prince Naruhiko Higashikuni Yoshida Doctrine.12 Yoshida is the cabinet The Prince is last Prime Minister who member who works most closely with the previously served as a general officer of the Supreme Command of Allied Powers (SCAP) to Imperial Japanese military, and was the last maintain foreign relations with the Allied member of the imperial family to head a cabinet. Powers. He is also close friends with Hayato Although by 1949 he has resigned his Cabinet Ikeda, who remains on the Cabinet of Japan position, he sits on this committee as the symbol despite his ill health at the insistence of Yoshida. of the informal influence of the Emperor and Imperial Rule. During Higashikuni’s brief time Tanzan Ishibashi (Minister of Finance) as Prime Minister in 1945, he pushed for the Ishibashi openly opposes the ideals of cessation of Japan’s military forces.6 Prince General Douglas MacArthur, favored diplomatic Higashikuni refuses to speak with the SCAP due relations with China, and was purged from the to General MacArthur’s decision to abolish the Cabinet two years ago (1947) due to his liberal Thought Police of Japan and repeal the 1925 political views (he favored a laissez-faire style Peace Preservation Law, designed to suppress economy and minimal government political dissent. Prince Higashikuni works intervention). He also espoused the Small Japan closely with Tanzan Ishibashi, an open opponent policy.3 However, due to Hayato Ikeda’s ill of the SCAP, and Kosaku Teramoto, a former health, he was invited to serve as the Minister of member of the Thought Police and the current Finance. Minister of Labor.
General Douglas MacArthur (Supreme Joseph Dodge (Special Counselor to the Commander of the Allied Powers) United States) General MacArthur plays a huge role in Joseph Dodge is an American banker and transforming the country into a parliamentary economics consultant who drafted and proposed democracy. He helped draft Japan’s new the Dodge Line, which is a financial and constitution and radically changed the structure monetary contraction policy that recommended of land ownership, promoted civil liberties and balancing the national budget to reduce protected the Japanese Emperor.4 While he is inflation, decreasing government intervention the de facto leader of all the non-Japanese and fixing the exchange of yen to US dollar to diplomats on the Cabinet of Japan, he faces keep the Japanese export prices low.7 opposition from Japanese cabinet members who disagree with a wide range of his policy Wada Hiroo (Director General of the decisions, including Prince Naruhiko Economic Stabilization Board) Higashikuni. The Economic Stabilization Board was created by PM Shigeru Yoshida following the Kijuro Shidehara (Minister of State) economic crisis of 1946 in Japan. They serve as Shidehara assumed the position of Prime the personal think tank for Yoshida Sotaro and Minister in 1945 but after losing the first general proposed policies such as “priority production” election of Japan he could only continue his which concentrated all of the economy’s assets in political career by being on Yoshida’s first a few strategic sectors. Wada Hiroo has Cabinet. He is known widely as pro-American, is experience managing the Japanese economy fluent in English, and zealously enacts the orders during wartime, and believed strongly in priority issued by MacArthur. He promoted what is production and interventionist government - a known as “Shidehara Diplomacy” and improved stance the Allied Powers later adopted to help
1 "Relevance of the Yoshida Doctrine in Current U.S.-Japan 4“Occupation and Reconstruction of Japan, 1945-1952." Ties." Japan Today. Japan Today, 13 May 2014. Web. 16 U.S. Department of State. U.S. Department of State, n.d. July 2017. Web. 15 July 2017. 2 "Yoshida Shigeru." Encyclopædia Britannica. 5 "Historical Figures." 国立国会図書館―National Diet Encyclopædia Britannica, Inc., n.d. Web. 16 July 2017. Library. National Diet Library, 2003. Web. 16 July 2017. 3 "105. Memorandum of a Conversation, Ministry of 6 “Historical Figures” International Trade and Industry, Tokyo, December 19, 7 “Historical Figures” 19561." U.S. Department of State. U.S. Department of State, 19 Dec. 1956. Web. 16 July 2017.
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boost the Japanese economy.8 thought to have co-operated with authoritarian governments in the 1930’s and 1940’s, he was Etsujiro Uehara (Minister Without barred from politics for 5 years. He is also the Portfolio 3) leader of the Liberal Democratic Party, which While first serving as Minister Without has consistently held power in Japan. Although Portfolio and then being appointed the Minister he was mostly involved in domestic struggles of of Home Affairs until the position was abolished power, he has always been a proponent of strong in 1948, Etsujiro Uehara formed the Japan Japan-Soviet relations. Liberal Party (1942-1948). He holds a vehement opposition to the Article 9 of the Japanese Hayato Ikeda (Minister Without Portfolio Constitution, promotion of big government and 1) large-scale public spending, but also supports The former Minister of Finance, Ikeda militarism for the purpose of winning votes.9 resigned and joined the House of Uehara is also deeply resentful towards Tetsu Representatives. Ikeda is instrumental in Katayama and Charles Kades for their roles in stabilizing Japan’s post-war economy by abolishing the Minister of Home Affairs and implementing the strong deflationary policies drafting Article 9 of the Japanese Constitution, proposed by American economist Joseph Dodge. respectively. He does not care for small or medium-sized businesses if they went bankrupt as a result of Tokutaro Kimura (Minister of Justice) the economic policies that he was putting in In addition to being the Minister of place. Although he stepped down from his Justice, Kimura was also at one time the position as Minister of Finance due to his poor Attorney General of Japan. He is an influential health, he still maintains a very close political figure in the Japanese Diet, Kimura was relationship with Shigeru Yoshida, the Minister the face of the Japanese Police and law of Foreign Affairs. 12 enforcement. He has mostly been preoccupied with suppressing internal unrests and leftist Sadao Iguchi (Special Counselor to the protests after the war. His conservative views Minister of Foreign Affairs) bring him head to head with Tetsu Katayama, Japanese diplomat well acquainted with the first socialist to ever serve as the Prime the western world. Indeed, it was Iguchi’s failure Minister of Japan. In addition, Kimura’s to relay the message of declaration of war while relationship with cabinet members associated he was working in the Japanese Foreign with the GHQ fluctuates as SCAP changes his Minister’s Department D.C in 1941 which lead allegiance to certain types of peaceful protest and the United States to consider Pearl Harbor a democratic dissent in Japan. 10 “sneak attack”. He has high hopes of becoming the Japanese Minister of Foreign Affairs and Kiyohide Okano (Minister of potentially the ambassador to the United States. International Trade and Industry) Okano pushes for the development of Richard B. Finn (Special Ambassador investment into renewable energy plants in from the Allied Powers) Japan to curtail Japan’s dependence on imports A young diplomat hailing from the of raw materials. He was the namesake of the United States of America, Richard Finn is a “Okano Plan”.11 protégé of General MacArthur’s, who recommended him for a Minister position on the Ichiro Hatoyama (Minister Without Cabinet of Japan. Although he fully supports the Portfolio 2) SCAP and his political endeavors, he is not Hatoyama was supposed to become willing to cooperate with William Sebald, whose prime minister of Japan in 1946 but, as he was evaluation Finn spearheaded three years earlier,
8 Bai. "Economic Ideology and Japanese Industrial Policy." 10 Wildes, Harry. "Postwar Japanese Police." Journal of Google Books. Cambridge University Press, 1997. Web. 16 Criminal Law and Criminology. N.p., 1953. Web. 16 July July 2017. 2017. 9 Ramsdell, Daniel B. The Japanese Diet: Stability and 11 Nakamura, Takafusa, Konosuke Odaka, and Noah S. Change in the Japanese House of Representative, 1890- Brennan. Economic History of Japan, 1914-1955: A Dual 1990. University Press of America Structure. Oxford: Oxford UP, 2003. N. pag. Print. 12 "Ikeda Hayato." Encyclopædia Britannica. Encyclopædia Britannica, Inc., n.d. Web. 16 July 2017.
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resulting in uncomfortable and difficult in Japan as a foreign servant, he does not speak relationship within the American diplomatic Japanese and rarely engages with Japanese community in Japan.13 cabinet members, instead opting to work and associate closely with his western colleagues. Kosaku Teramoto (Minister of Labor) Shaw was able to gain a seat on the Cabinet of Teramoto is the Minister of Labor who Japan because the SCAP fought to secure the engineered the Labor Standards Act of 1947 presence of more western diplomats on the which defined reasonable working conditions for Cabinet. Japanese workers. Teramoto is also a former member of the Thought Police.14 Teramoto has a Abe Yoshishige (Minister of Education) close alliance with Tokutaro Kimura, the Abe’s work in reforming the education Minister of Justice, and Prince Higashikuni. system and revising the Imperial Constitution is critical to the development of the “New Japan.”19 Toshio Irie (Chief Secretary of the Yoshishige and Charles Kades complement each Cabinet) other in their expertise in constitutional law, and Irie works on the enactment of the have formed a strong personal relationship. Constitution of Japan. He has high hopes of becoming the Commissioner General of the Joji Matsumoto (Minister of State) House of Representatives and a Justice of the A legal scholar from an ex-Samurai Supreme Court.15 Irie works closely with Charles family, Matsumoto is the Minister of State in L. Kades, the American diplomat who helped charge of the “Committee to study Constitutional draft Article 9 of the Japanese Constitution, and Problems”, which was established by General Tokutaro Kimura, the Minister of Justice. MacArthur. Matsumoto is able to push the needle on the radical democratization and Yujiro Yuzeki (Iseki) (Director of reform of the Japanese imperial system.20 International Cooperation Bureau of the Foreign Minister) Yuzeki is also the Japanese representative on the Joint Committee created by the Administrative Agreement - as a result, his role will be to coordinate negotiations between the representatives of the Allied Powers and the Japanese Cabinet.16
William J. Sebald (Special Counselor to the Supreme Commander of Allied Powers) William J. Sebald is a U.S. Naval Academy graduate who practiced law in Kobe, Japan. He was a political advisor to General Douglas MacArthur with ambassador rank.17
Patrick Shaw (Australian Ambassador to Japan) While he was stationed in 1941 as a secretary he was taken as a prisoner of war when WWII broke out.18 Although he chose to remain
13 Kennedy, Charles Stuart. “Richard B. Finn Interview”The 17 "Sebald, William J. (1901-1980)." U.S. Naval Institute. Association for Diplomatic Studies and Training Foreign N.p., n.d. Web. 17 July 2017 Affairs Oral History Project. April 8, 1991. July 27th, 2017. 18 Lee, David. "Sir Patrick Shaw." Australian Dictionary of 14 Dower, John W. Embracing Defeat: Japan in the Wake Biography. Australian Dictionary of Biography, n.d. Web. of World War II. New York: W.W. Norton, 2000. Print. 16 July 2017. 15 “Historical Figures” 19 “Historical Figures” 16 "Foreign Relations of the United States, 1952–1954, 20 “Historical Figures” China and Japan, Volume XIV, Part 2." U.S. Department of State. U.S. Department of State, n.d. Web. 17 July 2017.
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which looked upon traditional Japanese virtues, was fervently met by the pervasive sentiment of Topic A: Ensuring Economic the time. 24 In addition, the emperor also sided with Japanese military as he isolated other Growth and Internal Social political parties and pushed back on Japan’s Stability in Japan with a New early attempt to establish a democracy. The Second Sino-Japanese war started in Political Structure 1937 as an incidence between the Chinese and Introduction Japanese troops quickly escalated into a military action. Japan was in a state of constant warfare, The first order of business for the Cabinet and military groups and their supporters pushed of Japan is to stabilize the country economically their agenda even further.25 The war time and socially. In addition, Japan is expected to be government was heavily influenced by such putting forward a series of concerted groups as they essentially manipulated public democratization efforts in collaboration with The opinions.26 Supreme Commander and his forces. The main Japan suffered from devastating goals of the Occupation of Japan by the Allied firebomb raids from 1942 – 1945. The powers can be summed up in three words: culmination of many years of firebombing was democratization, demilitarization, and on March 10th, 1945, when the bombing of Tokyo decentralization. occurred. The bombing of Tokyo destroyed 15 square miles of downtown Tokyo and rendered a History and Background million people homeless. The attacks targeted civilians and similar raids were carried out on 50 Information other cities in Japan.27 In Japan, as in the case of France and England, there were a number of significant changes which took place prior to the birth of a Occupation of Japan notable revolution. The development of light industry, the popularization of education, and Imperial Japan announced its surrender the gradual disintegration of a status-oriented on August 15, 1945, not only putting an official social structure were common to all three end to the animosities of WWII, but also societies. As the Meiji period came to an end in declaring the fall of an imperial power in Asia. 1912, an era in which Japan transformed from a Consistent aerial bombings caused extensive feudal society built upon agriculture to a modern destruction to Japan’s major cities, and air raids nation, the country embarked on a road to were particularly intensified towards in 1945 as a establishing a parliamentary government 21. means for the Allied Powers to call for the In the beginning of the twentieth century, country’s surrender. As a result, millions of due to a lack of confidence in the newly installed civilians found themselves homeless at the end political system, right-wing nationalists and of the war, and food shortage became a common militarists started to occupy key positions in the theme that devastated the remaining population. government. Towards the end of the 19th century, Exhaustion from perennial warfare combined as Japan engaged in a series of warfare with with resource depletion drove citizens to despair. China, a nationalist party began to gain immense Inflation quickly tipped over the economy, and popularity, and other political parties found some of the most basic supplies were only themselves on a path to oblivion22. With little attainable in black market.28 opposition, fanatic militarists and incited angry In September of the same year, the groups ubiquitously supported an armed oversea period known as the Occupation officially began. expansion.23 On 1927, the new emperor Hirohito Between 1945 and the present, the United States entered the historical stage, and his ideology, of America became heavily involved with the
21 Hays, Jeffrey. "JAPAN BEFORE WORLD WAR II: THE 24 Hays, Jeffrey RISE OF JAPANESE MILITARISM AND NATIONALISM." 25 Hays, Jeffrey Facts and Details. N.p., n.d. Web. 10 July 2017. 26 Japan’ Quest for Power and World War II in Asia 22 Japan's Quest for Power and World War II in Asia | Asia 27 "WWII Firebombing of Tokyo:." Time. Time, n.d. Web. 23 for Educators | Columbia University. N.p., n.d. Web. 10 July July 2017. 2017. 28 Hays, Jeffrey 23 Hays, Jeffrey
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occupation and reconstruction of Japan. Led by facilities for higher education continued to General Douglas MacArthur, the Occupation of expand.40 Japan sought to punish and reform Japan’s imperial and militaristic structure while stabilizing Japan’s economy and social horizons, Economic Crises and Reforms ultimately forming a lasting alliance with a stronghold of democracy in Asia.29 While Great Immediately after the war, Japan’s Britain, the nationalist Republic of China and the economy was in shambles, and humanitarian Soviet Union had a voice in the direction of the crises were a constant threat. Japan was Occupation of Japan as a part of SCAP “advisory dependent upon American military rations and council,” MacArthur was the ultimate arbitrator massive amounts of food aid from the United of all decisions.30 States,41 and in June 1946 each citizen of Tokyo During the Occupation, more than received a ration of only 150 calories a day.42 The 200,000 people31 who held important positions situation has improved by 1949 such that during the war were purged from government average food intake reached almost 2100 calories and leadership positions, in a bid to remove any per day, but even so nutrient deficiencies ultra-nationalistic and militaristic influences remained widespread.43 In addition, according to from the government.32 In addition, twenty-eight December 1948 estimates, Japan’s population Japanese wartime leaders were brought to trial was predicted to soar to 100 million people by for war crimes;33 all defendants were found the late 1960s,44 making long-term food security guilty, though two died during the trial.34 an issue; this is not helped by the arrival of seven In May 1947, a new constitution million expatriates who have been returning presented by General MacArthur was put into from Japan’s former colonial possessions.45 place establishing the principle of public In addition to food shortages, inflation sovereignty.35 Notably, Article 9 of the had been a major problem throughout the constitution stated that Japan was not allowed to Occupation. Between 1945 and 1949, the price maintain any armed forces other than for the level in Japan had increased 150 times, and has defense of Japanese territory.36 Another radical significantly hampered the budget of the departure from the previous “Meiji Constitution” Japanese government.46 Previous efforts to of 1889 was that the elected Japanese parliament stymie inflation, including a redenomination of now had the supreme power once held by the the yen in February 1946, have been failures.47 Japanese Monarch.37 Furthermore, efforts and suggestions to combat In addition to the constitution, inflation, which included suppressing wages and MacArthur’s General Headquarters (GHQ) also restricting subsidies, conflicted with efforts to implemented free speech laws, strengthened promote the rights and living standards of labor unions, enfranchised women and reformed Japanese workers.48 the judicial system.38 Meanwhile, many Japanese Inflation did benefit one sector of the traditions, such as the patriarchal family system, population: peasant farmers. By 1948, inflation were gradually replaced by Western values, reduced farmers’ pre-war debts to 1 per cent that namely the equality of sexes.39 At the same time, of 1934-36, and has helped finance land transfers land reforms took place across the country. Compulsory education was reinforced while
29“Occupation and Reconstruction of Japan, 1945-1952." 38 Berkofsky 11 30“Occupation and Reconstruction of Japan, 1945-1952." 39 Hays, Jeffrey 31 Martin, 56 40 Hays, Jeffrey 32 Martin, 52 41 Cohen, Theodore, and Herbert Passin. The Remaking 33 Martin, 21 Japan: The American Occupation as New Deal. New York: 34 "The Nuremberg Trial and the Tokyo War Crimes Trials Free, 1987. Print. 144-145 (1945–1948)." U.S. Department of State. U.S. Department 42 Cohen, 142 of State, n.d. Web. 14 July 2017. 43 Perry, John Curtis. Beneath the Eagle's Wings: Americans 35 Martin, Edwin M. The Allied Occupation of Japan. in Occupied Japan. New York: Dodd, Mead, 1980. Print. 118 Stanford, California: Stanford UP, 1948. Print. 66 44 Perry, 119 36 Berkofsky, Axel. “JAPAN'S POST-WAR CONSTITUTION. 45 Perry. 87 ORIGINS, PROTAGONISTS AND CONTROVERSIES.” Il 46 Cohen, 171-172 Politico, vol. 75, no. 2 (224), 2010, pp. 5–25. JSTOR, 47 Cohen, 173-175 www.jstor.org/stable/24006503 48 Cohen, 178 37 Berkofsky, 6
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to peasant farmers.49 50 Ultimately, the Japanese mandated controlling it and balancing the Government bought 4.5 million acres of land, budget,66 and sent Detroit banker Joseph Dodge and a third of Japanese cultivate land and 30 per to enforce it.67 cent of the Japanese people were affected by land reform.51 Land reform is a central tenet of Occupation reforms; Japanese tenant farmers have historically been an oppressed class, and Labor Reforms and Social improving their lives is imperative to ensuring a Unrest successful democratic Japan.52 53 Another aspect of economic reform was While labor unions existed in Japan the dissolution of the zaibatsu, the business before the war, during the Occupation they combines that controlled a large portion of returned with renewed vigor. By the end of 1946, Japanese economic activity. Initially, many 4.5 million Japanese workers have joined American officials were eager to dissolve the unions.68 69 zaibatsu, viewing them as uncompetitive, In the early years of the Occupation, undemocratic, and militaristic.54 55 Instructions SCAP/GHQ promoted labor unions, viewing for doing so were eventually detailed in FEC 230, them as an essential component of Japan’s a document that advocated for not only budding democracy.70 In that regard, three destroying the zaibatsu, but for destroying any important labor laws were passed by the “excessive concentrations” of economic power Japanese Government in the span of less than and preventing new ones from forming in the two years. The Trade Union Law of 1945 legally future.56 However, deconcentration efforts faced protected unions and the right to collective strong opposition, both from Americans57 and bargaining,71 the Labor Relations Adjustment Act the Japanese58; eventually, most of the of 1946 established third-party mechanisms for instructions in FEC 230 were scrapped,59 and by resolving labor disputes,72 and the Labor 1949 only a fraction of the initial Standards Law of 1947 detailed regulations that deconcentration efforts were completed.60 protected workers and their rights.73 Even as late as 1948, economic problems Furthermore, the Japanese Labor Ministry was still troubled Japan; for instance, consumer created in 1947 to enforce the Labor Standards prices rose 41 per cent in the second half of 1947 Law.74 and 24 per cent in the first half of 1948,61 though A newly reinvigorated labor movement inflation did decrease in 1949.62 Furthermore, also created challenges. Strikes were common the United States has seeked to reduce the during the Occupation, and “production control” amount of aid it is sending to Japan;63 besides strikes, where workers continued to work but in reducing the burden on the American taxpayer, a ways that defied management, were common more self-sufficient Japan was necessary to during the early years.75 Furthermore, the protect Japanese democracy,64 especially with an Japanese Communist Party (JCP), headed by imminent Communist victory in China.65 In chairman Kyuichi Tokuda, became an important response to the inflation, United States political force after it was re-established in government issued a new directive that December 1945.76 Starting in early 1946, the JCP
49 Cohen, 176-177 65 Hadley, Eleanor M. Rev. of Remaking Japan: The 50 Perry, 162 American Occupation as New Deal. The Journal of 51 Perry, 161 Japanese Studies 14.2 (1988): 480-85. JSTOR. Web. 13 52 Perry, 160 June 2017. 484-485 53 Martin, 87 66 Cohen, 425-426 54 Cohen, 353 67 Cohen, 428 55 Perry, 155-156 68 Cohen, 197 56 Cohen, 357-358 69 Perry, 151 57 Perry, 157-159 70 Perry, 149-150 58 Cohen, 356-358 71 Saruya, Hiroe. "Protests and Democracy in Japan: The 59 Cohen, 372-373 Development of Movement Fields and the 1960 Anpo 60 Perry, 159 Protests." Thesis. University of Michigan, 2012. Print. 47 61 Cohen, 412 72 Saruya, 47 62 Cohen, 434 73 Cohen, 231 63 Cohen, 399-400 74 Cohen, 236 64 Cohen, 406 75 Cohen, 218-220 76 Saruya, 46
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performed a campaign of infiltrating labor unions, often gaining effective control of them.77 One of the most prominent results of Education Reform and Student Communist infiltration is the Yomiuri Activism newspaper strike of 1946. After the old owner of the Yomiuri Shinbun, Matsutaro Shoriki, was As the war left Japan’s educational sent to prison,78 the newspaper was effectively system in shambles, the Occupation heralded an run by Communist union leaders.79 Things came American zeal to transform Japan’s educational to a head in May 1946 when after the Yomiuri system into an American one. This meant published a scandalous story on the SCAP, the censoring textbooks, teachers and curricula that new owner ordered the resignation of six Americans deemed undemocratic, militaristic, or Communist union leaders.80 They refused, anti-American.94 Thousands of teachers were resulting in a fight that culminated in a police screened and purged; thousands more raid on Yomiuri headquarters;81 the non- abandoned the profession voluntarily, increasing Communist workers eventually decided to strain on the education system95 Reforms also replace their union and sideline the included reorganizing and increasing the Communists.82 number of years children spent in school96 and An even greater crisis that occurred was reducing the influence of rote learning in lieu of the attempted general strike of February 1, 1947, encouraging creative and critical thinking.97 which was orchestrated by Japanese Just as Japanese labor was restless Communists.83 The Communists took advantage during the Occupation, university students have of both their increasing strength84 and economic also been active, particularly in demonstrations hardship85 to encourage workers across all aimed against the injustice and militaristic industries to strike on that date; by stopping all education in their universities. Student-led staff transportation, food, and electricity,86 the purges occurred at Mito Higher School and Uneo Communists hoped to use the chaos to take Women’s School in 1945, while protests also down the Japanese government.87 Ultimately, occurred at Kyoto University and Waseda the crisis was averted at the last minute when University.98 Student groups have organized MacArthur said he would not permit a general against a SCAP/GHQ proposal to reorganize strike.88 89 public universities in 1947, and they mobilized Relations between labor and the again against SCAP/GHQ proposals to increase SCAP/GHQ have become strained as the public tuition and university costs.99 Occupation went on. In 1948, SCAP/GHQ By 1948, university student body revoked the right to strike for government associations have formed the Zengakuren, or the employees,90 91 and around that time the All-Japan Federation of Student-Government SCAP/GHQ Labor Division told many workers, Associations.100 With 300,000 members across from printing workers to railwaymen, that their all national universities and 70 per cent of public strikes were illegal.92 In the months since the universities,101 the Zengakuren has become a arrival of Joseph Dodge, thousands of Japanese force to be reckoned with. And as with labor workers were laid off, with undesirable and unions, a large portion of the Zengakuren disloyal workers targeted in particular.93 leadership is made up of committed Communists.102
77 Cohen, 207 91 Saruya, 50 78 Cohen, 243 92 Cohen, 444 79 Cohen, 244-245 93 Cohen, 447 80 Cohen, 246-248 94 Beauchamp, Edward R. "The Development of Japanese 81 Cohen, 249-250 Educational Policy, 1945 - 85." History of Education. 82 Cohen, 257-258 History of Education Society, n.d. Web 83 Cohen, 278 95 Perry, 134 84 Cohen, 280 96 Perry, 136-137 85 Cohen, 278-279 97 Martin, 60 86 Perry, 151 98 Saruya, 151-152 87 Cohen, 278 99 Saruya, 153-154 88 Cohen, 295 100 Saruya, 149 89 Perry, 152 101 Saruya, 154 90 Cohen, 307 102 Saruya, 149-150
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Conclusion not benefiting from Japan’s new economic, social and constitutional How the Cabinet handles the internal reforms try to influence the Cabinet? rebuilding of Japan will determine the future of As a Minister, are you a part of any the country for decades to come. Whether it be such interest groups? steering economic recovery in a robust yet controlled direction, transforming the education system or handling labor reforms, the world has its eyes on Japan’s every move. Although at times you may find yourself challenged and frustrated and personally attacked by your peers, Topic B: Allying with the you must be weary of infighting, and try to United States to Safeguard approach issues from a united front. The result of your actions will dictate how Japan is Japan’s Influence and represented on the world stage and the leverage Territory in Asia that Japan will receive in forging relationships with the West and other rising powers in Asia. Introduction The second order of business for the Committee is to re-establish international relations. During Questions to Consider this time period, the Cold War has already been 1. How can the Cabinet stabilize the set in motion, with the divide between the Japanese economy and implement the capitalist and Communist blocs already Dodge mission, while also keeping in becoming apparent. Thus it is imperative that mind the needs and desires of the the nation of Japan finds its place in the Japanese people? international system such that it can ensure peace and prosperity for its citizens. 2. How can the Cabinet respect the democratic wishes of Japanese Japan-US Relations laborers and students, while ensuring that radical forces like the The occupation-era foreign policy of Communists do not destabilize or Japan was completely dominated by Japan- overthrow the government? United States relations, which in turn was heavily influenced by the latter’s victory over the 3. How can we ensure that Japan’s former during the war. Despite the fact that economy will fulfill its potential and other allies, such as China and the Soviet Union, prosper in both the near and far were instrumental to the defeat of Japan, the future? In addition, what does Occupation was largely an American project. For economic success look like, and how example, while Germany was divided into four does it differ from economic growth? occupation zones, Japan was to be occupied in 103 its entirety by the Americans. Most notably, 4. How will the Cabinet reconcile while the Far Eastern Commission (FEC) was vestiges of its old imperial political established in December 1945, in which the US, system with a new democratic one on the UK, the USSR, and China all participated in, the national scale? the US was able to unilaterally issue “interim directives” and the power of SCAP/GHQ 104 5. Which national issues are considered authority remained unhampered. outside of SCAP’s purview, if any? If The most important man of the there are any such issues, what needs Occupation, especially during the early years, to be done to ensure that they are not was Gen. Douglas MacArthur, who as Supreme influenced by MacArthur and GHQ? Commander of the Allied Powers had the ultimate authority over both military and civilian 105 6. How might interest groups who are aspects of the Occupation. At the start of the occupation, the
103 Perry, 12-13 105 Martin, 10 104 Martin, 8-9
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Japanese government had to prevent itself from the early years. In a postwar world with mass being rendered powerless under the SCAP/GHQ starvation everywhere, however, Japan was not occupation government. To that extent, it the first priority for the United States’ aid succeeded, as then-Foreign Minister Mamoru programs, which was initially aimed to aid Shigemitsu was a major influence in ensuring Europe first.114 Even so, $280 million (1946 that the governance of Japan should be handled dollars) in food aid was sent from 1946-47, through the domestic government,106 as opposed which was increased to $330 million for 1947-48 to the previous American plan of military rule.107 and $497 million for 1948-49, which helped Even so, SCAP/GHQ completely monopolized prevent radical and anti-American forces (such Japan’s relations with the rest of the world.108 as the JCP) from destabilizing the occupation.115 Relations between the Japanese In total, $2 billion in food and non-food aid government and the Americans were dynamic would be sent to Japan from America over the and impacted Occupation policy, particularly course of six years.116 with the Government Section (GS) department of The dynamics between Japan and the SCAP/GHQ. For example, two of Japan’s most United States shifted as the Cold War came into important diplomats, Minister of State Kijuro full force; the emergence of Communism as an Shidehara and Foreign Minister Shigeru opposing force to the West, along with continued Yoshida, were pro-Western diplomats during the economic malaise, was a reason for the re- pre-war period.109 With this goodwill towards the emphasis on economic restoration over Americans, Yoshida was able to blunt the impact continued liberalization, a move often referred to of certain GS policies, such as government as “reverse course.” 117 Japan firmly aligned itself purges, while siding with rival American such as in the capitalist, Western camp of the Cold War the Dodge mission. Likewise, during the and ensured that Japan would be highly negotiations for the San Francisco Peace Treaty dependent on the US for its security needs.118 in 1951, Yoshida opposed rapid rearmament, which MacArthur also opposed but future US Anti-American Sentiment Secretary of State John Foster Dulles supported; however, Yoshida supported Japanese Despite the effective control of Japan by sovereignty over Okinawa, which MacArthur SCAP/GHQ (through the Japanese government) supported but Dulles was opposed to.110 and pro-American sentiments among prominent Not all factions of the Japanese Japanese leaders, anti-American sentiments did government acted in this sort of manner towards exist. The most prominent manifestation of this the Americans; some politicians, such as Tetsu was by Japanese labor, which despite working Katayama, favored close relations with GS, to the with SCAP/GHQ initially, became dissatisfied point where their independent actions were with American policy due to anti-labor policies constrained by GS policies.111 The Japanese associated with the later years of the Occupation. government thus had to walk a fine line between Labor was not the only faction on the close cooperation with the Americans and Japanese left that opposed American policies. By maintaining their autonomy during the now, the Japan Socialist Policy adopted a occupation, a fact that generalized to the platform of Japanese neutrality and opposed the Japanese-American relation during the post- establishment of foreign bases (including Occupation era.112 American ones) in Japan. These sentiments were One of the biggest successes both the shared among large portions of the Japanese Japanese government and MacArthur was the public.119 distribution of aid to Japan.113 Food aid was There was also the issue of the Japanese essential during the Occupation, especially Communist Party, especially with regards to how during the economic and humanitarian crises of it influenced the relation between Japanese labor
106 Iokibe, Makoto. “Fifty Years of Japanese Diplomacy.” 113 Iokibe, 4 Japan's Diplomacy Series, Japan Digital Library, The Japan 114 Cohen, 143 Institute of International Affairs, Nov. 2001. Web. 3 115 Cohen, 144-145 107 Perry, 47 116 Cohen, 455 108 Iokibe, 4 117 “Occupation and Reconstruction of Japan, 1945-1952." 109 Iokibe, 4 118 Iokibe, 7 110 Iokibe, 4-5 119 Price, John. A Just Peace? The 1951 San Francisco Peace 111 Iokibe, 5 Treaty in Historical Perspective. Japan Policy Research 112 Iokibe, 5 Institute, 2001
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and American leadership. Despite initially domestic bugbear to rally support for the South tolerating Communism in the Japanese labor Korean government. The early Korean republic movement,120 relations between the JCP and the derived its legitimacy from its opposition to Americans has begun to sour. Japan and North Korea, portraying South Korea as under threat from both the land and the sea122. The Cold War in Asia Japan and North Korea also established By now, the Cold War is in full swing in short-term relations that are rather informal. In Asia. China was embroiled in a civil war between the first years after the proclamation of the the Communists and the Nationalists (the latter North Korean state, relations between the two also referred to by their Chinese name, the countries were mostly hostile and practically Guomindang). Korea, formerly a Japanese non-existent. Recently the North Korean colony, had been partitioned into Soviet and leadership expressed utmost resentment towards American zones, which would become North and the economic and political negotiations made South Korea, respectively. The Soviet Union, between Japan and South Korea. However, which declared war on Japan and invaded North Korea sought to take advantage when Manchuria in the closing days of World War II, relations worsened between Japan and South was a major player on the Asian continent. Korea over a boundary line establishment in Japan-Soviet Union relations have a long 1955. In the following decade, Japan and North history that was first addressed during the Korea gradually expanded their economic competition between the two imperial powers for cooperation. dominance in Northeast Asia. During WWII, the two countries mainly shed blood over border Japan and China war until the Soviet invasion of Manchuria Post WWII Sino-Japanese relationship is towards the very end. After the invasion, over 50 an even more sophisticated topic. China-Japan islands of the Kuril chain were incorporated into relations at this period have a complicated the Soviet Union, but such an action was never history that requires prior knowledge as the two recognized by Japan121. countries experienced internal change that shaped their future in the next century. The Japan and the Korean Peninsula traditional power and the new empire clashed The Korean peninsula was a Japanese through a series of political events, and ended colony from the first decade of the twentieth their duel in a full-scale war that lasted from century, and it did not gain its independence 1937 to 1945123. Since the late 1930’s until the until the end of WWII.Japan lost control of present day, China has found itself in civil Korea when it surrendered to the Allied Powers. conflicts between Guomingdang and the The victorious nations envisioned an Communist Party, and often sound it a struggle independent post-war Korea, but the peninsula to form a united resistance meant for wound up divided into two ideologically distinct international conflicts. However, until 1941 it countries. In 1945, Korea regained its was Japan’s plan to not only end the Second independence after 35 years of Japanese reign. Sino-Japanese War by conquering China but also Per the Yalta Conference agreements, Soviet to advance southward towards British Malay and forces accepted surrender of Japanese forces in the Dutch East Indies.124 As a result of the Pearl northern Korea above the 38th parallel, and U.S. Harbor Bombing, the United States formally forces south of that line. Korea was then divided created an alliance with Guomingdang of China, into Soviet (North Korean) and U.S. (South and supported the anti-Japan effort by supplying Korean) spheres (History of Japan–Korea Relations). South Korea refused diplomatic and trade relations with Japan, using Japan as a
120 Cohen, 450 123 Tao, Xie. “The Politics of History in China-Japan 121 “Japan–Soviet Union Relations.” Wikipedia, Wikimedia Relations.” The Diplomat, The Diplomat, 10 Aug. 2015, Foundation, 31 May 2017,
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aid. 125 What should be Japan’s appropriate After the Sino-Japanese War, civil response be to Cold War conflict that had begun in the earlier decades developments in Asia? intensified, ultimately leading to a Communist victory as recent as earlier this year. However, 4. To what extent should achieving the Sino-Japanese relationship has largely stymied goals of peace and prosperity inform due to the lack of official communication the answers to the previous channels up until now. On the other hand, both questions? countries were influenced by the superpowers behind them to a certain degree, so Japan and the PRC faced many obstacles while establishing foreign relations, not to mention their perennial historical issues126.
Conclusion
How the Cabinet handles the internal rebuilding of Japan will determine the future of the country for decades to come. Whether it be steering economic recovery in a robust yet controlled direction, transforming the education system or handling labor reforms, the world has its eyes on Japan’s every move. Although at times you may find yourself challenged and frustrated and personally attacked by your peers, you must be weary of infighting, and try to approach issues from a united front. The result of your actions will dictate how Japan is represented on the world stage and the leverage that Japan will receive in forging relationships with the West and other rising powers in Asia.
Questions to Consider
1. To what extent should the Japanese
members of the Committee cooperate
with the American members, even if
their interests may diverge?
2. What role should Japan play in the
international arena? Should Japan
prioritize autonomy in international
affairs? Or should it pursue mutual
defense and cooperation with the
United States in terms of foreign
policy?
3. What should Japan’s role be in the
Cold War? To what extent, if at all,
should Japan assist the United States
in the fight against Communism?
125 “War between Nationalists and Communists.” 126 Tao, Xie. “The Politics of History in China-Japan Encyclopædia Britannica, Encyclopædia Britannica, Inc., Relations.” The Diplomat, The Diplomat, 10 Aug. 2015, www.britannica.com/place/China/War-between-
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Works Cited “Japan–Soviet Union Relations.” Wikipedia, Wikimedia Foundation, 31 May 2017, Bai. "Economic Ideology and Japanese
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Crimes Trials (1945–1948)." U.S. Department of State. U.S. Department of State, n.d. Web. 14 July 2017. “War between Nationalists and Communists.” Encyclopædia Britannica, Encyclopædia Britannica, Inc., www.britannica.com/place/China/War- between-Nationalists-and- communists#ref590696 Wildes, Harry. "Postwar Japanese Police." Journal of Criminal Law and Criminology. N.p., 1953. Web. 16 July 2017. "Yoshida Shigeru." Encyclopædia Britannica. Encyclopædia Britannica, Inc., n.d. Web. 16 July 2017. "105. Memorandum of a Conversation, Ministry of International Trade and Industry, Tokyo, December 19, 19561." U.S. Department of State. U.S. Department of State, 19 Dec. 1956. Web. 16 July 2017.
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