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UNIVERSITY of CALIFORNIA RIVERSIDE Reconceptualizing UNIVERSITY OF CALIFORNIA RIVERSIDE Reconceptualizing Indigenous Masculinities and Usos y Costumbres in a Mixtec Transnational Community A Dissertation submitted in partial satisfaction of the requirements for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy in Anthropology by John Angel Alvarado August 2016 Dissertation Committee: Dr. Thomas C. Patterson, Chairperson Dr. Christine W. Gailey Dr. Carole Nagengast Copyright by John Angel Alvarado 2016 The Dissertation of John Angel Alvarado is approved: Committee Chairperson University of California, Riverside Acknowledgement This dissertation is the result of a long journey, one that would not have been possible without the help, support, and guidance of many people: family, friends, teachers and professors, and administrators at the graduate division. I would like to first thank Thomas C. Patterson, Christine Ward Gailey, and Carole Nagengast, my dissertation committee, for their guidance, mentorship, and patience. I am grateful to Thomas Patterson for his critical questions that challenged me to consider the production of knowledge, and for taking up the chairmanship of my committee after the death of my original advisor, Michael Kearney. I thank Christine Ward Gailey for her questions regarding the impact transnational migration has had on families and marital relationships. My deepest thanks to Carole Nagengast, who not only inspired me to persevere and see the dissertation through, but was often a source of hope during difficult times. “Shavindo’o Carole.” For their expertise and guidance, I would like to thank Karl Taube, Gene Anderson, and Robert C. Perez. I am grateful to the Department of Ethnic Studies for providing many years of TA-ships, and for the opportunity to work with the following professors: Robert C. Perez, Dylan Rodriguez, Richard Lowie, Anthony Macias, Armando Navarro, and Alfredo Mirandé. I thank Ian Weber, who at Nanyang Technological University, Singapore introduced me to the importance and merit of social scientific research grounded on ethnographic fieldwork. In addition, I extend my deepest iv gratitude to Clifford Trafzer and Robert C. Perez who have inspired me to give back to the indigenous community and to never stop caring. Thank you Cliff and Robert. I also extend my gratitude to my fellow graduate colleagues and friends at University of California, Riverside, who provided many intellectual conversations and questions. Thanks to Sergio Lemus, Theodore Gordon, John Gust, Phuoc Duong, Silvia Ventura Luna, Shyh-Wei Yang, Jelena Fanta, Ben Fierro, William Madrigal, and Daisy O’Campo. For their friendship, I thank René Ruiz Robles, Kester Tapaha, Luis F. Monterrey, Carlos Guzman, Orlando Torres, Daniel P. Lundin, Don Gabino Barrera, Christopher Castillo, Louie Manzo, and the brothers of Nu Alpha Kappa at SDSU and UCR. Thanks to Josh Gonzales, Josh Little, and the Native American Students Program, for creating a welcoming space and a home away from home. I am also grateful for the following institutions that provided me with invaluable financial support: University of California Institute for Mexico and the United States (UCMEXUS), UC Humanities Research Institute (UCHRI), San Diego State University’s Foreign Language and Areas Studies Program (FLAS), and UC Riverside’s Adam Repán Petko Award. In addition, I am deeply thankful to Clifford Trafzer for helping me secure a Graduate Assistant in Areas of National Need (GAANN) fellowship through the U.S. Department of Education. In addition, I would like to thank Karen J. Smith at the graduate division for all those wonderful conversations. I am deeply thankful for the support network of family and friends outside of graduate school. To my brothers, Frank, Noe, Mario, and Eliseo “Chebubu”, thank you. Shavindo’o Ñani. To Jen Inaba Alvarado and Michelle Nichols for taking the time to v watch and care for my daughter when I needed a “few” minutes to write, a very special “thank you.” The idea for this dissertation originated with conversations with Jaime L. Yee, I am greatly indebted to you for all you have done for me. I am grateful to Jocelyn Estrada and the Romero-Cardenas family for their support while I wrote the research proposal for this dissertation. In Deagu, South Korea, I thank Mi-young Baek, for urging me to pursue my graduate studies. To my high school wrestling coach “Joe” Conley, for teaching me that the ‘Luck of the Irish’ was not about luck, but hard work and an unwavering determination, thank you. To Jaime and my daughter Italivi, you both changed my life. I would like to thank my wife, Yuri, for her support during the final leg of this journey. Finally, none of this would have been possible without Michael Kearney, to whom this dissertation is dedicated, and the families of San Jerónimo Progreso, who allowed me the opportunity to enter their lives. My most heartfelt gratitude to these families, men and women, husbands and wives, the youth, who shared their stories and daily lives with me. Shavindo’o, (Mixtec for “Thank You”). vi Dedication For several decades, Michael Kearney was one of the many instrumental figures to families migrating from San Jerónimo to Tijuana, and to the San Joaquin Valley of Central California. Many families fondly referred to Michael as “Don Miguel, Miguelito, or Yele” and there are many stories about how they met him in Riverside or when he first arrived to the small Mixtec speaking town. During my ethnographic research, someone would always ask me if I knew Don Miguel and then proceed to tell me a story about their experience with “el profesor from Riverside.” Some recalled the first time he arrived to San Jerónimo in the 1970s; several of them, elderly men and women, remembered how shocked they were to find an americano visiting San Jerónimo. As Don Casiano in San Jerónimo recalled, “When he came here we didn’t know what to do. So, we organized the band, and we marched around the pueblo to welcome him. The band played all the way to the house he was staying at…” I too was fortunate to meet and learn from Don Miguel. For several years Michael Kearney was the chair of my dissertation committee, and during those few years, he was not just professor and mentor, but a genuine friend. Michael Kearney exemplified what it meant to be an optimist, and he glowed with a genuine care and kindness for others. His untimely death in the fall of 2009 was a tremendous loss for all those who knew him. During the course of writing this dissertation, I have always thought about my conversations with Don Miguel, especially of his optimism for the discipline of anthropology. At times when times were difficult during the process of writing this vi i dissertation, I have thought and asked myself, “What would Don Miguel say?” I think he would probably say, “What a wonderful opportunity to write about San Jerónimo, your family’s town.” Don Miguel, thank you for believing that I would see this dissertation through. Thank you for allowing me the opportunity to write about San Jerónimo and tell their story. Shavindo’o. viii ABSTRACT OF THE DISSERTATION Reconceptualizing Indigenous Masculinities and Usos y Costumbres in a Mixtec Transnational Community by John Angel Alvarado Doctor of Philosophy, Graduate Program in Anthropology University of California, Riverside, August 2016 Dr. Thomas C. Patterson, Chairperson This project documents and analyzes changing notions of masculinities in the Mixtec transnational community of San Jerónimo Progreso. San Jerónimo is a small Mixtec speaking agencia municipal (town) in the municipality of Silacayoapan, and Region Mixteca of western Oaxaca, Mexico. Despite the town’s fragmented appearance (the majority people from San Jerónimo now live permanently outside of the town) San Jerónimo is by all accounts a transnational community; its members recreate their sense of community and belonging to the town across the borders and boundaries of nation- states. San Jerónimo’s families are now primarily located in two satellite communities: Tijuana, Baja California, Mexico and the small farming towns of the San Joaquin Valley, California, in the United States. This dissertation demonstrates how transnational migration and the development of households across the U.S. and Mexico borders have impacted and modified indigenous masculinities as they are constituted in the context of San Jerónimo’s usos y costumbres (uses and customs, including customary law). In ix telling the stories and experiences of San Jerónimenses (people from San Jerónimo Progreso), I explore indigenous masculinities as an outcome and expression of culture and ever-changing socio-cultural, political and economic contexts of their usos y costumbres. This dissertation explores how usos y costumbres, as socio-cultural practices and customary law, continue to impact men’s sense of self. In Oaxaca, the referent of usos y costumbres (now sistemas normativos internos) is used to describe a broad gamut of socio-cultural practices often associated with indigenous communities. Many of these practices, or costumbres, are pre-Hispanic but some originated with the Spanish Conquest of the Americas. These socio-cultural practices include the system of civic-religious posts called cargos (burdens), which are often the most cited and researched example of usos y costumbres. At times, usos y costumbres is very much about an indigenous community’s socio-cultural practices, but in other situations the term can take on more formal definitions associated with a community’s unwritten and uncodified customary laws or social rules. I consider how transnational migration has resulted in a growing number of men and women who no longer find many aspects of usos y costumbres important to their sense of self. These individuals are most visible amongst San Jerónimo’s non- Catholic Christians, who live predominantly in Central California. I explore how masculinities have or have not changed amongst these non-Catholics as they continue to take part in San Jerónimo’s transnational community.
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