BLOOMSBURY ENCYCLOPEDIA OF POPULAR OF THE WORLD VOLUMES VIII–XIII: GENRES

VOLUME IX GENRES: CARIBBEAN AND

Encyclopedia .indb i 1/14/2014 3:50:15 PM Principal Editors

David Horn, Institute of , University of Liverpool

John Shepherd, FRSC, Carleton University, Ottawa

Founding Editor

Paul Oliver, Oxford Brookes University, Oxford

International Advisors

Christopher Ballantine, University of KwaZulu-Natal, Peter Manuel, City University of New York, USA South Africa Portia Maultsby, Indiana University, USA Nimrod Baranovitch, Haifa University and Richard Middleton, University of Newcastle, UK Hebrew University of Jerusalem, Israel Toru Mitsui, Kanazawa University, Japan Rafael Jos é de Menezes Bastos, Universidade Federal de Santa Catarina, Svanibor Pettan, University of Ljubljana, Slovenia Th eo Cateforis, Syracuse University, USA Paolo Prato, Pontifi cal Gregorian University, Jan Fairley, University of Liverpool, UK† Motti Regev, Open University of Israel, Israel Juan Pablo Gonzalez, Universidad Alberto Hurtado Raquel Z. Rivera, affi liated scholar, Center for Puerto SJ, Santiago, Rican Studies, Hunter College, City University of New York, USA Dai Griffi ths, Oxford Brookes University, UK T. M. Scruggs, University of Iowa, USA Jocelyne Guibault, University of California, Berkeley Chris Stapleton, London, UK Bruce Johnson, University of Turku, ; Macquarie University, Sydney; University Martin Stokes, University of Oxford, UK of Glasgow, UK Jim Strain, Northern Michigan University, USA Steve Jones, University of Illinois, USA Will Straw, McGill University, Canada Dave Laing, University of Liverpool, UK Paul Wells, Middle Tennessee State University, USA

Encyclopedia .indb ii 1/14/2014 3:50:16 PM BLOOMSBURY ENCYCLOPEDIA OF POPULAR MUSIC OF THE WORLD VOLUMES VIII –XIII: GENRES EDITED BY DAVID HORN AND JOHN SHEPHERD

VOLUME IX GENRES: CARIBBEAN AND LATIN AMERICA

EDITED BY DAVID HORN, HEIDI FELDMAN, MONA-LYNN COURTEAU, PAMELA NARBONA JEREZ AND HETTIE MALCOMSON

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Tango 4. Th e Nuevo (New Tango) period, from Th e word ‘ tango ’ describes a dance, a and a 1955 to 1985. Th is stage began with the avant- purely instrumental music form. It was born and garde movement, but the decline of the tra- developed in the R í o de la Plata area and its two most ditional genre also took place. Th e common important cities, () and Mon- denominator of the genre in these years was a tevideo (), but the center of its activity has great struggle between the traditionalists and always been Buenos Aires. It originated in a process the avant-garde led in an almost univocal form that culminated at the end of the nineteenth century, by , along with a general process shaped by diff erent elements: the musical activity of of decay and diminished popularity that only black slaves on the Atlantic coast of South America began to change in the mid-1980s. and the modifi cations that they made to European 5. Th e rebirth of tango . From 1985 to the early music; other genres including the American tango twenty-fi rst century there was a renaissance ( tango americano ), the habanera and the milonga ; and of activity and new tango styles and popular music melodies of Argentina. Tango built emerged. upon these infl uences but was new in its rhythm, structure and melody. The Old Guard: Origins to 1920 One of tango ’ s most original aspects is its choreog- It is very diffi cult to ascertain with accuracy the raphy. Tango is danced by a couple in a close embrace, origin of tango. Various elements contributed to with quebradas (swaying hips), cortes (‘ cuts, ’ pause a process that took place during the latter years or interruption in the movement) and more or less of the nineteenth century, leading eventually to consistent choreographic fi gures, combined and per- the emergence of a genre that was given the name formed in a totally improvised form. ‘ tango. ’ Th e single work in the musicological fi eld Any tango can be danced, whether it is a song that explores thoroughly all the precedents that con- or instrumental. A large number of tango pieces of verged into tango is the Antolog í a del Tango Rioplat- instrumental origin later included and many ense, Vol. 1 (ATR-1) (Novati 1980), carried out by others were composed with lyrics, or began with lyr- the Instituto Nacional de Musicologí a ‘ Carlos Vega’ ics around which music was composed. with of Argentina, which is followed in this article to lyrics are oft en called tango canció n , though this explain the origins. Th is work treats both Montevi- denomination does not refer to a specifi c subgenre of deo and Buenos Aires as a single geographic area. tango. Some others are called tango romanza, when No serious study can be carried out on tango without they are predominantly instrumental and melodic, bearing in mind this research, either to follow it or and tango milonga, when they are more rhythmically to criticize it. Th e research centered on the analysis oriented. of a sample of 700 sheet music pieces and over 500 Th e history of tango may be divided into fi ve stages: recordings (78 rpm faces), widely representative of the genre until 1920. Th e sheet music samples dated 1. Th e Guardia Vieja (Old Guard), from its ori- from almost 1890 to 1920, when tango was already gins to 1920. Th is stage comprises the tango ’ s established as a genre, so analysis was not able to beginnings and its consolidation as a diff erenti- display the process of its origin, but rather the traits ated genre. In this stage, the tango was strongly that the new genre presented in its notated form. based in its place of origin and also spread Th ere is no precise documentation of the worldwide by traveling musicians and later by nineteenth-century process that resulted in the recordings; development of tango in the Rio de la Plata area (in 2. Th e Guardia Nueva (New Guard), from 1920 Buenos Aires and ). Th e diverse elements to 1935, in which tango made a qualitative leap mentioned in ATR-1 concerning the origins of tango due to its melodic, harmonic and interpretive are: the music of Africa; the musical activity of black development and in which diff erent interpretive Argentinians; the tango americano and the habanera ; schools arose; the tango españ ol or tango andaluz; the milonga; the 3. Th e Golden Age, from 1935 to 1955, in which a folk and popular melodic themes and phrases of large number of high-level orchestras appeared Argentina. Th ere is some documentation to support and the popularity of tango dancing and of its theories regarding the infl uence of the tango ameri- performers, singers, instrumentalists and - cano and habanera , milonga , and folk and popu- leaders was enormous. Th e most signifi cant lar melodies and , while claims developments took place in the 1940s. regarding the infl uence of Andalusian, African and

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black Argentinian music have proved more diffi cult to to milonga and early tango (Old Guard), and thus support with tangible evidence. may be predecessors (Cirio 2007). Cori ú n Aharoni á n Given the lack of substantive evidence, there has (2007, 68) affi rms that the music of black slaves prob- been some debate regarding the possible infl uence of ably infl uenced tango’ s origins, at least in Montevi- African-derived music on the origins of tango . Musi- deo. In fact, Goldman (2008) studied documents of cologists who analyzed and dance around Afro-Uruguayan societies from the period between 1900, when tango was already popularized, did not 1870 and 1890 in Uruguay and found documenta- fi nd what they considered to be African traits (cf. tion of the presence of Uruguayans of African descent ATR-1), and scholarly investigation has produced no in the environments where the tango rioplatense was documented evidence of African roots. Musicologists later born, and he noted that music and dance that Carlos Vega (2007 [1966], 32) and Jorge Novati (1980, emerged in the 1870s shared traits with what decades 2) are among those who do not consider the tango to later was consolidated as tango rioplatense . Th e thesis be of African origin. Further, historical documenta- of African origin may also derive from the fact that tion in sources such as newspapers, traveler testimo- the word tango (or tambo ) was related from very early nies and police reports is limited to descriptions of the times to musical practices of blacks in the Americas. modifi cation of European patterns such as, the trans- Th e term ’ s use has been documented from Rio de la formations that the underwent in Cuba Plata to the Gulf of Mexico with a similar meaning: (Carpentier 1972, 142), which gave origin to what lodging, sale, party and meeting. was alternately called habanera , tango american o or Regarding infl uence from , Argentinian simply tango (Novati 1980, 2 – 5). musicologist Carlos Vega developed a hypothesis that Because of the relatively low number of Afrode- holds that a certain Andalusian tango gave birth to the scendants in Argentina and the historical processes Argentinian tango . Th e authors of ATR-1 consider this whereby black Argentinian culture has been margin- hypothesis poorly documented and invalid, although alized, it may be argued that the absence of documen- the ATR-1 authors accept many of Carlos Vega ’ s other tation of black infl uences is to be expected and does fi ndings on tango (Kohan 2007). Much of Vega ’ s work not necessarily mean there were no black infl uences. on tango was unpublished, though accessible in the While the number of blacks in Argentina is much fi les of the INM at the time, but has since been pub- smaller than other regions of North and South Amer- lished (Aharoni á n 2007). ica, there were times when the black population of the Pablo Kohan (2007) argues that Carlos Vega city of Buenos Aires reached 10 percent. In Montevi- favored the idea of the Spanish origin of tango deo, by comparison, by the early nineteenth century because he supported a pro-Hispanic trend (pro- the black population was 50 percent. Th e slave trade moted by offi cial sectors that sought to build Argen- began in Argentina in 1590, and 35,000 enslaved Afri- tine national identity with strong links to European cans were brought between 1590 and 1790 (Novati models) that was growing at the beginning of the 1980, 2). However, by the fi rst half of the nineteenth twentieth century in Argentina as a reaction against century black and Creole populations diminished, massive immigration. Vega ’ s theory, stressing the due to the decrease in slave traffi c as well as the death Spanish origins of Argentinian social dances and of blacks serving in the army (Lobato and Suriano minimizing the infl uence of the music and dance 2000, 93; 208). Th e fi rst national census in 1869 did of local populations, is located in the process of the not report the ethnic composition of the population, establishment of the emblems of Argentine nation- which led to black invisibility and obliteration of black ality that began aft er 1930 when tango had already Argentinian culture in the hegemonic discourse (Cirio reached its status as a cultural symbol of Argentina 2008). Th e cultural activities of Afro-Argentinians did (Garramu ñ o 2007). not cease during this period, but they remained in Th e elements for which documented evidence has home-based, private practices that currently are very been clearly identifi ed in the process of the creation of diffi cult to recover. the genre are: (a) the tango americano or habanera ; (b) Th us, the idea of the African and/or black Argen- the milonga; and (c) the motives and melodic popular tinian origin of tango is broadly supported in non- airs of the Rio de la Plata area. academic publications. One serious, but unconfi rmed, Tango americano or habanera originated in the theory regarding the possible infl uence of black music c ontradanza, a music-and-dance genre of European of Argentina on the origins of tango was that in Bue- origin that came to the Americas with French and nos Aires certain pieces named , of African Spanish settlers and had developed its own Cuban derivation, are similar melodically and rhythmically form by the turn of the eighteenth century. From the

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contradanza came the habanera (also called tango, but Toward the end of the nineteenth century tango not yet the tango of the Rio de la Plata region), with was well developed as an emerging genre and pre- African infl uences. Th e habanera returned as a novelty sented the following musical aspects: the habanera to Europe, where it took the name tango americano . rhythm in the accompaniment (dotted eighth note, Th is tango americano spread widely in and the sixteenth note and two eighth notes) and elements of Americas beginning in the middle of the nineteenth ‘ broken ’ rhythm (rests, syncopation, displacements century. In Europe, it bifurcated into two genres: the of accents and upbeat phrases). From the listener ’ s habanera (a ballroom dance by an embracing couple) perspective, these characteristic elements were typi- and the tango americano (spread mainly in the the- cally employed as unexpected rhythmic devices. Th e ater), which had no specifi c choreography. characteristics of early tango can be appreciated in the Th e habanera in its European ballroom dance form compilation of recordings published in the ATR-1 that came from Europe to Rio de la Plata in the fi rst half includes recordings from 1907 to 1920. Some interest- of the nineteenth century, in two variants: (a) a ball- ing recordings also are kept in the Lehman Nietsche room dance consecrated in and (b) a version collection of the Berlin Museum (Garc í a 2006). Once that spread among the popular classes in marginal established as a genre, tango developed following its dancing venues (mainly brothels). Th is latter version own logic. Its distinctive choreography contributed came by ship across the Atlantic, mainly from Cuba greatly to its dissemination, both in Rio de la Plata to Montevideo, Uruguay, brought by sailors and pas- and abroad. Th e history of tango as dance began in sengers. Its choreographic style was characterized by a the early years of the twentieth century. By that time ‘ broken ’ ( quebrado ), hip-shaking style of dancing and tango was already popular, described in Rio de la Plata a close embrace. Th is habanera, which is considered newspapers as a fashionable piece in Carnival dances. to be one of the sources for the origin of tango , did not Th e habanera still was present, but soon thereaft er fell disappear with the emergence of the Rio de la Plata into oblivion. Th e seriousness of the dance (some- tango, but it did not survive for long. times confused with sadness) became a well-known Th e milonga already existed around 1880 as a characteristic. musical entity in its own right both in Argentina In addition to the Carnival balls, the dance was and Uruguay. Th e word was also associated, in both practiced beginning around 1890 at recreational soci- Argentina and Uruguay, with danceable music or eties with their own orchestras called rondallas (com- a place for dancing, and it was regarded as music of prised of bandurrias , and ). In brothels, the compadrito or lower-class person (inhabitant of music was performed by the early great pianists/ the urban outskirts). Th e milonga was a dance of the of tango , including Manuel Campoamor, popular classes with no ballroom version. Several of Rosendo Mendizá bal, Alfredo Bevilacqua and its features were adopted by tango : the displacement Enrique Saborido. Tango was also found in restau- of accents, the beginning of themes on upbeats, and rants or summer resorts, where it was danced at night the brief and descending melodies. Also, the milonga ’ s with small ensembles, in the dance halls (academias ) choreography was in the broken ( quebrado ) style. where customers paid to dance and at rather sordid Th e milonga spread through the popular theater dancing venues in the Palermo district. ( g é nero chico ), by means of the payadores (vocalists Beginning in 1901 there was a profusion of tango who improvised a recitation or singing with guitar sheet music for published in Buenos Aires, accompaniment) who used it as background for their coinciding with the import of and mechani- lyric improvisations. At the circus it was the favor- cal playing machines (cylinders and discs). Between ite genre to accompany satirical texts. Around 1890 1905 and 1910 tango was described as a common it was already mentioned in dictionaries (Granada practice and the fi rst criticisms of its social atmo- 1890, 282) as dance and as song. It was in vogue until sphere appeared, characterizing it in newspapers and toward the end of the nineteenth century and later it magazines as lewd and libertine, when commenting endured as a folk genre in the countryside. on the dance at Carnival. Other dances, including Finally, traditional motives were commonly used, habanera, , and cuadrilla , disappeared. providing evidence of tango ’ s character as collec- Tango choreography underwent a double change: it tive cultural asset. Th ese elements include rhyth- was simplifi ed for the common people, and it became mic designs, melodic movements, cadences and more diffi cult as a contest dance. folk melodic airs. Th e denomination of tango criollo Tango groups began to include the bandone ó n , a appeared but the diff erence between the latter and type of German concertina named aft er its creator, other tangos was purely nominal. Heinrich Band. Th e bandone ó n arrived in Argentina

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around the 1880s and was included in tango ’ s accom- the rate of harmonic change was quite slow and con- panying instrumental ensemble, the orquesta t í pica , centrated around the tonic, dominant and subdomi- between 1905 and 1907. In 1907 the fi rst recordings nant, with secondary dominants. At fi rst only a few of tangos were performed by military bands and tango tangos were sung, because tango was mainly a dance. singers (not exclusively devoted to the genre), gener- Th erefore melodies were ample and not fi t for sing- ally singing simple lyrics of costumbristic, humorous ing, frequently structured with arpeggios. Tango is or picaresque type. Th e fi rst recorded orchestral tan- musically defi ned by the motive; the mere stating of a gos were performed by quartets with bandone ó n , vio- motive represents in advance the character of a tango lin, fl ute and guitar, such as the Greco Orchestra that piece. Th e motives include accents that contrast with in 1910 made the fi rst recording of an orquesta tipica metric convention, entrances on the upbeat and syn- criolla : the tango ‘ R o s e n d o . ’ Th e international compa- copation. nies that recorded tango in these years were Columbia Around 1915 the choreographic panorama of and Victor. Local labels included Atlantic, Era and tango was formed by three subspecies: the tango Phono D’ Art, among others. criollo , whose basic characteristics were improvisa- Tango ’ s fi rst international diaspora occurred tion and invention along with a variety of fi gures; between 1900 and 1914, resulting from tango d a n c e r the smooth (liso ) tango , which altered the tango Casmiro Ain’ s demonstrations in Paris and London criollo by suppressing fi gures; and ballroom tango , in 1903 and the subsequent arrival in 1907 of the fi rst the product of local systematizations with European musicians to Paris to make record- infl uences. ings for the ‘ Argentine market (Villoldo and Gobbi). Around 1920 quartets with bandone ó n , guitar, fl ute At the time, tango was viewed by Europeans asseduc- and violin were modifi ed. Piano replaced guitar, winds tive because of its dance style, not its music. Dance disappeared and the groups increased their number, academies were founded in Paris and the aristocratic sometimes to six members. circles of the city become enthusiastic promoters of In the Old Guard period groups did not play written the genre, although the dance was subjected to sev- . Performance practice involved playing eral modifi cations in order to make it more ‘ decent. ’ according to previous agreements between the musi- In 1910 tango entered the aristocratic Paris dance cians. Sections were repeated without variation as halls, brought by performing artists of variet é and many times as necessary to fi ll the three-minute time music hall and by young Argentine elites. Beginning allotted for recordings. During this stage there were in 1912 tango was very popular, and between 1913 no diff erentiated styles and more or less all ensembles and 1914 there was a true ‘ tangoman í a ’ in Paris. Soon played in the same way. dance teachers proliferated there. In Paris, musicians Toward the end of the period some gradual changes and publishers preferred to write their own tangos , took place. Th e rigid 2/4 formula of dotted eighth and the fi rst written codifi cations of tango ’ s d a n c e note, sixteenth note, two eighth notes, began to alter- appeared in Paris. nate with the uniform beat of four eighth notes in 4/8 With the prestige of victory in Paris, tango began its (that would be standardized in just a short time), journey through the great capitals and cities, including although tango was still written in 2/4. On the other Rome, London, Tokyo and New York (Pelinski 2000; hand, some melodies narrowed their scope and new Savigliano 1995). World War I imposed a break, but melodic designs appeared that set the conditions for in 1919 the tango fashion reappeared with renewed the vocal tango (Kohan 2010). energy in Europe. Due to the Parisian success, aft er 1911 the practice of tango became widespread in The New Guard, 1920–35 Argentina, through sheet music, dance books, records During the New Guard period, tango matured as and dancing teachers. Th e Buenos Aires elite felt com- a form and distinct stylistic and interpretive schools pelled to learn it and to answer for its acceptance or emerged. By 1920 Orquesta Tí pica Select, led by ban- rejection. New ensembles appeared, including those doneonist , inaugurated a more mod- of Eduardo Arolas and , and the pianola ern sound that announced a new style, exemplifi ed entered the country. in recordings such as ‘ Don Esteban ’ (Sir Steven) and Beginning in the early twentieth century, tango ’ s ‘ El taura ’ (Th e Brave Man), which was already being was divided in 95 percent of cases into developed by Eduardo Arolas (see, for example, the three sections of 16 bars comprised of four phrases Arolas recording ‘ Mo ñ ito ’ [Little Bow]). Recordings each. Th e third section was also called trio . Th e diff er- from this period demonstrate a clear diff erentiation ent sections displayed neighboring tonalities, whereas of roles between instruments and arrangements that

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allow the showcasing of each instrument type. Th e recordings from the Victor series. Th ese recordings orchestra fronted by Fresedo, along with those led demonstrate how the group never repeated a section by pianists Juan Carlos Cobi á n and Carlos Vicente with the same instruments, used numerous bridges Geroni Flores, experimented with innovations from between sections, added secondary melodies and fre- 1918 to 1924 (see, for example, Fresedo’ s recording quently employed instrumental solos and dynamic ‘ Los dopados’ [Th e Doped Ones], Cobiá n ’ s ‘ Shush- variation. Th e orchestration almost as a rule was var- eta ’ [Playboy] and Flores ’ ‘ La pecadora ’ [Th e Sin- ied every two bars. Th is atomization in the orchestral ner]). Finally in 1923 formed a sextet writing was rich and complex but simultaneously log- that would defi ne the tango canon of the New Guard, ical, systematically incorporating a series of resources contributing the major orchestral innovation during typical of tango : ‘fraseos ’ (articulated phrasing) of the New Guard era. De Caro’ s style became the basis the and bandoneó ns (melodic segments in for the mainstream of progressive tango . De Caro a strongly rubato style), ‘lloros ’ o f bandone ó ns (pro- arrangements include instrumental solos, sections in longed clashes of minor seconds), and anticipations which only the bandone ó n or piano play and coun- and suspensions at phrase endings. terpoint between the violins and bandone ó ns . Th e Roberto Firpo recorded about 2,700 sides of bandoneó ns lead entire sections with the accompani- 78-rpm discs between 1912 and 1941 for the Odeon ment of other instruments. Th e melody is played with label. Not all of those recordings have continued to an intense rubato. Examples of these features may be be available; only about 50 percent are preserved in heard on De Caro ’ s recordings of ‘ Todo coraz ó n ’ (All the hands of collectors. Firpo ’ s tango s (such as Tata Heart) and ‘Amurado ’ (Forsaken). viejo ’ [Old Grandpa] and ‘ Cuando llora la milonga ’ New orchestral styles arose, with a basic division [When the Milonga Cries]) typically displayed slow between the ‘ traditional ’ Old Guard style and ‘ pro- tempos, with few simple bridges, violins in legato, gressive’ new groups, mainly those conducted by Julio little use of secondary melodies and the piano in a De Caro and Osvaldo Fresedo. Th e progressive groups leading function. Th e style of was incorporated a new and rich instrumental output still more conservative with four eighth notes to and had the explicit goal of raising tango to a supe- the bar and strict adherence to the published piano rior musical level while retaining its popular essence sheet music. Th e use of instruments across sections is and danceable features. Th e traditional style, mainly repetitive, which may be heard in recordings includ- represented by Francisco Canaro and Roberto Firpo, ing ‘ Cuesta arriba’ (Uphill) and ‘ Yo no se qué me han remained tied to the older approach to orchestral hecho tus ojos ’ (I Don ’ t Know What Your Eyes Have performance, including straight, rigid demarcation Done to Me). Canaro recorded 3,700 tracks from of four beats and clear exposition of melodic lines in 1915 to 1969, a large number of which are still pre- perfectly danceable versions. served. Neither Canaro nor Firpo has been favored Both traditional and progressive tango composi- with systematic reissues, and as a general rule only tions were still in two or three sections of 16 bars in ‘ greatest hits ’ and pieces so labeled have been made ABACA or ABCBA forms and all their possible vari- commercially available. By comparison, bandoneo- ants but soon the third section disappeared, and the nist and bandleader Osvaldo Fresedo ’ s tango s display new tangos composed in the 1920s comprised only a polished orchestral sound, highlighting the violins two sections. For variety, composers used diff erent with few instrumental solos and brief secondary instrumental combinations, diff erent bridges between countermelodies and bridges. Generally, he obtained sections, and variants in the accompaniment rhythm. variation with dynamic resources. Fresedo recorded In general traditionalists created one instrumental 1,150 sides of 78-rpm discs between 1917 and 1957, scheme for a section that was repeated each time the and 100 tracks in 33 rpm from 1958 to 1980. Th e last section returned. On the other hand, progressivists recordings have been made available, but the huge tended to employ a greater variety of resources. volume of production from the period between 1917 Typical compositional characteristics of the New and 1928 (more than 700 sides) has been reissued Guard era may be heard in the recordings of works by more slowly. its major orchestras. De Caro, who set the tone for the Composers Juan Carlos Cobiá n and Enrique Delf- era, recorded 420 sides of 78-rpm discs from 1924 to ino began to produce new tangos with more singable 1953. All of them have continued to be available but melodic lines that some specialists describe as t ango only a few were reissued by the labels that recorded romanza. A new type of lyric for tango as a song was them (RCA Victor, Brunswick, Odeon, Pathe). established, with a plot or story line. Th e fi rst and For instance, Euro Records have reissued several model example of this new tango style is ‘ Mi noche

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triste ’ (My Sad Night, lyrics by and the tango vogue disappeared. Th e recorded output music by Samuel Castriota). fell dramatically to a level of approximately 150 annual At the same time the fi gure of the tango singer recordings in 1933. Th e people withdrew from tango ; arose as a star in the singing world. Tango with vocals they no longer danced it. In fact, the fi rst written his- had two streams. Th e orchestras used an estribillista tory of tango , published in 1936, regarded tango as (refrain singer, crooner), who sang only one section something that was coming to an end (Bates 1936). of the lyrics, generally in the central section of the Only the most important orchestras survived. Many piece. On the other hand, there were specialized tango musicians organized small groups in the Old Guard singers such as or , style, launching a ‘ revival ’ that led the public to regard who sang tangos with orchestra or guitar accompani- tango as something historical that was no longer in ment. Th ere were other well-known singers including vogue. Charlo or Marambio Catá n, but they did not reach the popularity or number of recordings of Gardel or The Golden Age, 1935–55 Corsini. During this stage, between 1920 and 1935 Beginning in the mid-1930s, and as the world alone, the two singers recorded an approximate total economic crisis was abating and industrial growth of 1,400 . All of these records have continued to was taking place, tango returned to the dancing ven- be available, but only Gardel has been awarded sys- ues (clubs and carnival dance halls) with a renewed tematically chronological reissues. It was also a period energy. New cabarets opened, and tango entered what of great female singers who doubled as movie idols, would later be seen as a Golden Age, in which it was including Rosita Quiroga, , Ada Fal- established as an easily danceable style. Orchestras c ó n and Mercedes Simone. grew to an average of 12 musicians, arrangements Th e New Guard incorporated larger orchestras were very carefully disposed and the work of profes- with more skilled musicians, and the continued activ- sional arrangers was considered very important. Sing- ity provided stability while at the same time avoiding ers also grew in importance and sometimes became routine and repetition. Repertoires were enlarged and more famous than the orchestras. Orchestral styles all the orchestras made a great number of recordings. were derived from those in the New Guard. Most Th e orquesta t í pica developed a standard ensemble important, dancing and hearing tango was now a of two bandone ó ns , two violins, piano and double widespread cultural phenomenon. bass. Th e orchestration was not performed strictly Dancers were strongly attracted by a new style with from written notation. While musicians used a piano faster tempi and straight demarcation of the beat, score, they added countermelodies, and bandone ó ns provided by Juan D ’Arenzio ’ s orchestra, based at the employed special features such as rubati and antici- Chanteclair cabaret. New audiences frequenting caba- pations. It was not until about 1932 that professional rets were formed by the emerging bourgeoisie, a result arrangers such as Julio Rosemberg, Julio Perceval and of industrialization. At its peak in the 1940s this tango Guti é rrez del Barrio wrote charts for the renowned boom provided work for all the musicians of the last orchestras. decades as well as a new generation. Under the presi- In the New Guard tango was no longer a phenom- dency of Juan Domingo Per ó n, beginning in 1946, enon of the urban outskirts and was accepted both mass culture became industrialized: a national cin- by popular and aristocratic classes. It was possible to ema, the radio and the recording industry, all of which hear it in bars, cabarets, cinemas, theaters and ball- has begun in the previous decades, grew signifi cantly rooms. It spread through piano sheet music copies, in size and were closely linked to tango . Tango ’ s apex magazines including lyrics, recordings and radio. In of success and popularity in the 1940s is parallel to this professionalized stage, managers became neces- the peak of , although there is no direct rela- sary and author copyrights were established. Tango ’ s tionship between the two. By that time tango was con- peak in popularity was evidenced by the great num- sumed massively by the middle and lower classes. ber of concerts and venues for listening and dancing. During this renaissance the traditional sextets From 1926 to 1928 tango orchestras made 800 annual gave rise to an enlarged instrumental formation, recordings, a number never again attained, and in the still named ‘ orquestas t í picas ’ : four bandone ó ns, four period 1920– 1935 a total of 8,000 recordings were violins, sometimes and violoncello, piano and made (of which approximately 20 percent were made . As Decarean sextets languished around by the progressive orchestras). 1935, violinist Juan D ’Arienzo, who had led a sextet In 1929 the economic crisis deeply aff ected the in 1928, began to develop a new style ideal for dancing popular masses that supported tango and suddenly (within the traditional trend): simple phrasing and

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instrumentation and a marked rhythm, four beats to Pugliese, like Troilo, can be regarded as one of the the bar. Th e simplicity of this style was deplored by most outstanding fi gures in the history of tango . He admirers of the baroque style of the progressive out- organized his fi rst orchestra in 1936 but disbanded it fi ts, but the 1940s would not have been the same for shortly aft erward. A new attempt in 1939 was success- tango without the presence of D ’ Arienzo ’ s orchestra ful and his orchestra continued working for 50 years. and others that adopted his style, including Rodolfo During the 1940s it was one of the most active and Biagi, Alfredo De Angelis and Hé ctor Varela. Between popular, and it toured throughout the world begin- 1935 and 1975 D ’Arienzomade approximately 1,000 ning in 1959. With his Decarean orchestra, Pugliese recordings for Victor, almost all of which have been shared with Troilo the vanguard of the new progres- reissued. sive style of the 1940s. His orchestra displays a strong D ’ Arienzo ’ s orchestra contributed to the formation pulse, an extensive use of rubato and divisi of the of a new tango public. Later the orchestras derived from violins and bandoneó ns in rich counterpoint, with the progressive schools benefi tted from this new audi- arrangements usually conceived by him. He was not ence. At the start of the 1940s there were several pro- a prolifi c ; and he devoted himself mainly gressive orchestras: Alfredo Gobbi, to instrumental tango. One of his fi rst tangos was and An í bal Troilo were formed based on Decarean ‘ Recuerdo ’ (Memory) (1923) which became a classic. aesthetics, along with the orchestras of Pedro Laurenz Aft erward he forged a new compositional modal- and Lucio Demare that were already playing with the ity with tangos such as ‘ Negracha ’ (Black Woman), same style (their recordings have been reissued). ‘ La Yumba’ (an onomatopoeic term that describes a In the progressive fi eld the emblematic fi gure of the particular way to accentuate the beat) and ‘ Maland- 1940s was Aní bal Troilo, bandoneonist, bandleader raca ’ (Little Rascal) developed from brief, reiterated and composer. Troilo was the incarnation of bohemia and varied themes. Pugliese recorded more than 400 in tango ; he was a composer of very well-known tangos songs for Odeon, Stentor and Philips between 1943 and he was also a bandone ó n player and leader of his and the early 1980s, and has been accorded systematic own orquesta t í pica . Th e singers of his orchestra were reissues of nearly his entire oeuvre . exemplary; passing through the ranks of the Troilo Alfredo Gobbi ’ s orchestra style is Decarean but Orchestra assured a singer of the success needed to combined with the Di Sarli style, which was an early later begin an independent career. Troilo successively infl uence for Gobbi, especially in its rhythmic aspect. employed vocalists including Francisco Fiorentino, Aft er several attempts, Gobbi launched his own Alberto Marino, Floreal Ruiz and . orchestra in 1942 and began to record in 1947 for Vic- Troilo’ s orchestra is perhaps considered the most tor, ultimately producing around 80 recordings (all of important of this era, due to the choice of repertoire them reissued) within which there are 16 orchestral for both instrumentalists and vocalists, Troilo ’ s own renditions that are widely considered to be among compositions and his delicate bandoneó n solos. Th is the best tango recordings of the 1940s. ‘ Camandulaje ’ orchestra pioneered a style that became deeply rooted (Scoundrels) and ‘ El Andariego’ (Th e Drift er) are his in tango , contrasting the less complex presentation of most memorable compositions. He led the orchestra D’ Arienzo and the other traditionalists. from the violin stand, and his solos displayed a great Th us Troilo became the mainstream of progressive mastery and perfect command of the eff ects created tango , soft ening the Decarean style but without losing by Julio De Caro. its essence. As a bandone ó n player, he cultivated a dis- Th e activity of the genre in the 1940s was very tinctive style that combined profundity and intimacy, intense. In addition to Troilo, Pugliese, Gobbi and sensuality and drama, without superfi cial virtuosity the Decarean orchestras (and also De Caro, who con- and impregnated with sincere emotion. As a composer tinued with his orchestra until the mid-1950s) and he wrote classic pieces, especially those written in col- D ’Arienzo and other traditional orchestras, the fi eld laboration with the poets Homero Manzi and C á tulo was marked by the continuation of the progressive Castillo. Th e music and evocative poetry combine to line led by Fresedo (and its derivatives, such as Di describe landscapes and people of Buenos Aires, as Sarli) and the continuing traditionalist orchestras of demonstrated in recordings including ‘ Gar ú a ’ (Fog), the Old Guard, such as those of Canaro and Firpo. ‘ La ú ltima curda ’ (Th e Last Drunkenness), ‘ Che ban- Fresedo ’ s orchestra polished its use of nuances, and doneó n ’ (Hey ) and ‘ Sur ’ (South). Between when he included the arrangements written by Hé c- 1938 and 1970 he recorded over 400 songs for RCA, tor Artola and Argentino Galvá n he obtained a very TK and Odeon, and his discography has been com- interesting orchestral result (see, for example, versions pletely reissued on CD (in chronological editions). such as ‘ Te llama mi viol í n ’ [My Violin Calls You]

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and ‘ Mariposa ’ [Butterfl y]) based on the timbre of a account all his groups, at least 250 recordings). He is large ensemble of strings and bandoneóns , and a very also important as a composer; his tango ‘ A fuego lento ’ prominent use of the piano in rhythms, leading melo- (At Slow Fire) is a good example of his style. dies, counterpoints and bridges. Fresedo further pol- During the 1940s the orquestas t í picas included only ished his melodic and sumptuous orchestrations with male singers. However, several female singers acted the unusual use of harp, drums and vibes to produce as independent fi gures. For example, the legendary special timbral eff ects. Followers of his school were singer Mercedes Simone, who began in 1925, con- and Miguel Cal ó among others. In the tinued evolving as a soloist. Other singers with great 1940s the most acclaimed vocalists working with his popular acclaim were , Carmen orchestra were Ricardo Ruiz and Oscar Serpa. Duval and Marí a de la Fuente, among a large number Derived from Fresedo’ s style, the orchestra fronted of outstanding fi gures in vogue in the decade. by pianist Carlos Di Sarli was highly regarded by Lyricists of the 1940s made advances in tango ’ s dancers because of its beat, which favored medium poetic complexity and lyrical content. Homero and slow tempos. Di Sarli’ s orchestra also highlighted Manzi depicted suburban landscapes with simple the strings and the piano rhythms. Th e orchestra’ s language but with metaphors of high fl ight. Some notable singers included Roberto Rufi no, Jorge of his masterpieces are ‘ Sur ’ (South), ‘ Milonga triste’ Durá n, Alberto Podestá and Oscar Serpa. Di Sarli (Sad Milonga ), ‘ Tal vez ser á mi alcohol ’ (Perhaps It was not a prolifi c composer. His most memorable Will Be My Alcohol) and ‘ Barrio de tango ’ (Neigh- compositions are ‘ Milonguero Viejo (Fresedo)’ (Old bourhood of Tango ). Enrique Santos Discé polo Milonguero) and ‘ Bah í a Blanca’ (White Bay). In the brought tango to a new refl ective dimension and bit- orchestra his piano had a strong presence and he ingly criticized contemporary society, demonstrat- favored the strings over the bandoneóns . Between ing skepticism and hopelessness in his lyrics of deep 1928 and 1958 he recorded 382 sides of 78-rpm dramatic quality ( ‘ Cambalache ’ [Th e Junk Shop], discs for Victor, TK and Philips. Th ose recorded for ‘ Uno ’ [One], ‘ Cafet í n de Buenos Aires’ [Little Buenos Philips (the last ones he made) comprise a good com- Aires Caf é ] and ‘ Canci ó n desesperada ’ [ Desperate pendium of his style. His discography has not been Song]). Cá tulo Castillo belonged to the so-called systematically reissued. Boedo School that valorized the past. Among the A magnifi cent synthesis of infl uences of Troilo most important pieces of his oeuvre are ‘ Luna llena’ and Di Sarli is evidenced in the music of the Fran- (Full Moon), ‘ Caf é de los angelitos ’ (Caf é of the cini-Pontier orchestra co-led by violinist Enrique Little Angels), ‘ Tinta roja ’ (Red Ink) ‘ Patio m í o ’ (My Mario Francini and bandoneonist Armando Pon- Patio), ‘ Mar í a, ’ ‘ La ú ltima curda ’ and ‘ A Homero’ tier. It began its appearances in 1945 and performed (To Homero). Homero Expó sito was infl uenced by until 1955 when the leaders split off to lead their own the opposing infl uences of the evocative romanti- orchestras. Argentino Galvá n and, sometimes, Astor cism of Manzi and the sarcastic dramatic quality Piazzolla were responsible for the arrangements. Th ey of Discé polo. A nonconformist innovator, he scat- recorded approximately 130 tracks on 78-rpm discs, tered his tangos with literary fi gures, as exemplifi ed most of which have subsequently been reissued. ‘ Tigre by ‘ Naranjo en fl or ’ (Orange in Flower), ‘ Absurdo ’ viejo ’ (Old Tiger) is a good example of their recorded (Absurd) and ‘ Afi ches ’ (Posters). works. Another fundamental fi gure, Enrique Cad í camo, Horacio Salg á n began with his orchestra in 1944 began writing tango lyrics in the 1920s and was infl u- and elaborated an unprecedented new language within enced by Celedonio Flores and later by the school the Decarean conception. Th at orchestra folded with- of Boedo. He demonstrated mastery in his descrip- out making any recordings, and he founded a more tions and in both tragic and comic subject matters, successful one in 1950. Th e piano performed both as as well as in ironic or evocative depiction. Examples soloist and as rhythmical/harmonic support, with syn- of his work include ‘ Pompas de jabó n ’ (Soap Bubbles) copation and counterpoint between orchestral units ‘ Mu ñ eca brava’ (Dazzling Babe), ‘ Che papusa oí ’ (Hey in an essentially tango -based style. Salgán’ s recordings Babe Listen) and ‘ Anclao en Parí s ’ (Stuck in Paris). were released in a chronologically disjunct fashion and Aft er 1930 he wrote tangos such as ‘ Nostalgias, ’ ‘ La they alternated orchestra, duo and quintet renderings. casita de mis viejos ’ (Th e Little House of My Elders), Many of them have been confusingly reissued. Th e ‘ Santa Milonguita ’ and ‘ Nieblas del Riachuelo ’ (Clouds fact that he recorded every number more than once of Riachuelo). Other important lyricists of the time with the same contributes to the confus- were Horacio Sanguinetti, Jose Mar í a Contursi and ing nature of his whole recording oeuvre (taking into Francisco Garc í a Jim é nez.

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From around 1950 the opposition of the middle In 1953 the quartet fronted by Troilo with guitarist and upper classes to the Per ó n regime became more Roberto Grela garnered unexpected acclaim. Th is noticeable. Th e middle class moved away from tango group was the precedent for a great number of trios and because it was something ‘ national ’ and all that was quartets that would be formed in the 1960s because of national was associated with ‘ the people’ and Peronism the increasing diffi culty of paying for orchestras. Th is (Matamoro, 215). Th e working class followed tango diffi culty was not due to the economic context, which faithfully, but the 1950s marked the decline of the by these years was fairly good, but because the tango great fi gures of the genre. Aft er 1955, when President public was not large enough to support a full orches- Per ó n was overthrown, tango ’ s fall was accelerated tra of 12 musicians through ticket sales alone. with the import of mass culture products, including Th e participation of Astor Piazzolla outside of musical ones, made in the United States. the mainstream in the late 1950s is important. He abandoned the typical orchestra lineup and estab- The Period, 1955–85 lished the ensemble that combined solo bandone ó n Around 1955 a turning point in the history of with string orchestra. He evolved as composer and tango took place. President Peron’ s fall caused deep arranger, studied with Nadia Boulanger in , changes in the cultural policy. Th e borders were open and thereaft er was temporarily based in the United to industrialized cultural products mainly from the States. Piazzolla ’ s infl uence is demonstrated by the United States. Th e eff ect on tango was not immediate, role of the bandone ó n as a soloist in the orchestra but shortly aft erward tango was no longer the most and by the division of the compositions in two-part popular music in Argentina. form: an A-section that emphasizes rhythmic aspects Th e amount of activity carried out in connection and broken melodic lines, with frequent use of osti- with tango had become formidable and it was not natos and contrapuntal resources and a B-section interrupted all at once. In the late 1950s and early with a moderate tempo and singable lines. Th is form 1960s tango still enjoyed some of the popularity it precluded the possibility of regarding tango as a had experienced in the previous decade. However, a danceable piece. Among Piazzolla’ s prolifi c works, new phase began in the 1960s which was to last until this form may clearly be heard in ‘ Adios Nonino ’ the mid-1980s, characterized by the abandonment (Goodbye Nonino). Piazzolla was at the core of of dancing and a transformation of tango music for the nuevo tango and continued using Decarean listening with more intellectualized content, pigeon- resources throughout his career, adding academic holed as a marginal manifestation of popular culture. musical procedures without straying from tango ’ s From the mid-1980s on a gradual renaissance took essence. He used new timbre combinations as well as place that in turn led to a sort of peak in the twenty- unconventional eff ects and sounds (in some groups fi rst century, but tango never recovered its massive he included percussion), electronic instruments popularity. and experiments with an electronically amplifi ed Th ree essential streams coexisted in tango in the late bandone ó n . Piazzolla ’ s discography comprises 985 1950s: the surviving orquestas t í picas, chamber groups entries (Saito 1988). Nearly all the recordings have (duets, trios, quartets, etc.) and the vanguard outfi ts been made available on CD, but chronologically (such as the one led by Astor Piazzolla). Th e main haphazard reissuing makes it diffi cult to follow their protagonists were still the orquestas t í picas and the progression without a guide. greatest singers. Tango continued to be dances assidu- Between 1955 and 1958 in Buenos Aries Piazzolla ously, even though the infl uence of new foreign dances created the , which elicited a nega- was felt concurrently. Th e scene was dominated by the tive reaction from traditional tango followers, because great orchestras of the 1940s: Troilo, those of Pugliese, it was very modern in style, but which, for the younger Gobbi and Salgá n. Other orchestras that were less tango musicians and an audience of connoisseurs, was renowned but very accomplished included those of the manifestation of a radical departure from tradi- Enrique Francini, Alberto Mancione, Stampone-Fed- tional tango . In some way, the vanguard of the 1960s erico, Eduardo del Piano and Joaquí n Do Reyes. More and new tango , as it would later be understood, began traditional orchestras, such as those of D ’ Arienzo or with the recordings of the Octeto Buenos Aires. Th e De Angelis, also maintained a presence. By the end of music of the Octeto was absolutely revolutionary. the decade, the singers with the greatest public appeal Contrapuntal textures, aggressive harmony, melodic were Edmundo Rivero, Floreal Ruiz, Alberto Marino freedom in arrangements based on traditional tangos and a great number of other singers performed with and the modifi cation of the harmonic basis shift ed the orchestras or guitar accompaniment. traditional tango in an unprecedented way.

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In the early 1960s the name ‘ nuevo tango’ (new were disbanded soon aft er the beginning of this stage tango) came into use to distinguish the production (those of Gobbi, for example) and still others had a of Astor Piazzolla. In a 1961 radio interview Piaz- very short life, in spite of their importance and record- zolla stressed that he was developing a music that he ings (Francini-Pontier, Joaqqu í n Do Reyes). Th ese denominated nuevo tango and announced the immi- orchestras emphasized the orchestral virtues fi tting nent creation of a national movement, of which later the Decarean or Fresedean stylistic streams while still there were no specifi c hints. But the name nuevo tango making danceable versions. remained in use to designate the music of Piazzolla Argentina had been rich in raw materials in the and its followers. 1940s. Its prosperity began to decline when Europe In the 1960s the fi rst landmark of importance for began its reconstruction aft er World War II. Th e mas- the avant-garde movement was the formation of sive broadcasting of fashionable foreign music, mainly Piazzolla ’ s quintet. With this group, whose structure North American, and the gradual impoverishment of was absolutely new, Piazzolla established a model for the country’ s economy resulted in the identifi cation eventual followers of his aesthetics that could not be of this failure with everything connected to national absorbed when he introduced the more radical and identity. Tango , the music of Buenos Aires, could not aggressive Octeto Buenos Aires. Th e music composed avoid guilt by implication. To listen to or to dance by Astor Piazzolla for this quintet already contained to tango music was considered shameful and old- the advanced style that would characterize him fashioned by 1965. Recording companies canceled throughout his career, without substantial changes. the contracts of many tango orchestras. Aft er 1955 Th e quintet was his favorite lineup with which he the Buenos Aires middle class disowned tango and worked most. Piazzolla had demonstrated with his warmly accepted the music of the Argentine interior, octet that he was able to play a diff erent tango, totally and foreign music. instrumental, abandoning singable versions and Derived mainly from the Troilo style, tango orches- danceable music. Now he continued that trajectory, tras that did not promote dancing began to appear and in so doing he consolidated the nuevo tango, as infl uenced in some aspects by Piazzollian aesthetics. he called it, beyond the traditional and progressive Th ese orchestras adapted to the disappearance of the trends. Drawing on Decarean roots, Piazzolla inaugu- tango-dancing public and learned instead to play an rated a vanguard that lasted until the 1990s with suc- attractive repertoire for cafe-concert audiences. In cessive stylistic changes. their arrangements, the orchestras now alternated Th us at the beginning of the 1960s three main types danceable sections with others of a greater rhythmic of tango groups were established: the typical orches- fl exibility, and they used slow tempos with space to tras, the small groups and the vanguard combos. As showcase the instrumental solos. Th ese orchestras tango activity declined, the traditional stream, catering were not long-lived, but they appeared in popular almost exclusively to dancers, suff ered the most. With venues and they recorded oft en. Th e orchestras led the death of the bandleaders who had kept it going, by Baff a-Berlingieri and Piro were derived from the such as Canaro and D’ Arienzo, it became more and Troilean style. Th e one led by more relegated to the sidelines and its exponents were (also Troilean but with Di Sarli’ s and Salgá n ’ s infl u- practically reduced to only two orchestras that went ences) stood out because of its rhythmic drive. Th e on playing for many years, the one led by De Angelis one fronted by Berlingieri spotlighted the piano and and the one headed by Varela, with an increasingly took some elements such as phrasing and harmonies diminished following in only marginal places. from . Astor Piazzolla not only led the avant-garde stream Some tango singers remained popular, but their but also had a profound infl uence on the musicians songbooks were based almost exclusively on the who continued working with and developing tango . tango of the 1940s, since not many pieces attained the However, for musicians and consumers of traditional level of popularity reached in that decade. Edmundo tango , Piazzolla ’ s work contained elements of heresy, Rivero, Roberto Rufi no, Alberto Podest á , which resulted in an ongoing controversy about its and, especially, , were some of authenticity. During the 1960s the main orchestras the stand-out singers, along with the younger voices still continued developing their activity, somewhat of Raul Lavié and Rubé n Juá rez. Th ese new inter- distancing themselves from Piazzolla ’ s infl uence, preters sang well-known classic numbers but also without doing so entirely (a great number of his com- needed new songwriters able to capture the reality of positions were recorded by Troilo, Basso, Fresedo their time. In the 1960s tangos were written by Hé c- and Francini-Pontier). Other important orchestras tor Negro, Osvaldo Avena and Juan Carlos Lamadrid.

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In the 1970s Eladia Bl á zquez began her prolifi c tango a sextet with two bandone ó ns , two violins, piano and output, and Horacio Ferrer with Piazzolla released an double bass. original series of songs, tangos and ballads. Finally in With regard to the sextets, one of the fi nest was the the 1980s Juanca Tavera with Osvaldo Tarantino and Sexteto Tango that branched off from the Pugliese Ferrer with Garello were considered the most out- Orchestra in 1968. Its style was quite similar to Pugl- standing composers in this genre. iese ’ s, and all of its members were arrangers and com- Th e typical tango orchestras were practically extin- posers. Th e Sexteto Mayor began to appear in 1973, guished by the 1970s. Only the one led by Pugliese, also within the progressive style. which made frequent tours abroad, and those headed Beginning in 1960 various groups with a similar by Leopoldo Federico and regularly lineup and a similar aesthetic view about the treat- appeared at the tourist nightclubs. Tango orchestras ment of tango appeared under the infl uence of Astor ( orquestas tipicas ) were hard to maintain and did not Piazzolla Nuevo Tango: the groups led by Eduardo reach a wide following. Th e Orquesta del Tango de Rovira, Rodolfo Mederos, Dino Saluzzi, Hugo Bara- Buenos Aires (initially conducted by Carlos Garcí a lis, N é stor Marconi, Juan Carlos Cirigliano and Ra ú l and Ra ú l Garello) and the Juan de Dios Filiberto Cosentino. Few of these contributed something new Orchestra were funded by the Municipality of Bue- to the genre, despite the fact that their recordings had nos Aires. Th e main record labels reissued the hits of great musicality and interpretive quality. Two lead- the 1940s, and the criteria were almost always com- ers/composers, however, deserve to be highlighted: mercial since many remarkable recordings were never Rovira and Mederos. published in LP. Th e radio broadcasters, in general, Eduardo Rovira, renowned as a remarkable musi- followed these criteria. cian, was infl uenced by Piazzolla but also followed Th e tango mainstream moved toward small his personal style, with a greater inclination toward ensembles (sextets, quintets, quartets and trios). In academic language and forms. For that reason some this type of group the bandone ó n is never absent of his compositions were perceived as lacking the (except for rare exceptions such as the 1966 Osvaldo strength and persuasion considered inherent in tango . Manzi trio with piano, electric guitar and double His ensembles included: his tango orchestra (1950s); bass). Also present are violins, piano and double Octeto de la Plata (founded 1957); Agrupació n de bass, and frequently electric guitar. Th is same quin- Tango Moderno (founded 1960); his trio (founded tet framework was adopted by Salg á n in 1960 with 1965) and a quartet (founded 1974). the Quinteto Real, when he expanded the piano- Rodolfo Mederos, also considered an outstanding electric guitar duo he had shared with De Lio. First , was much more infl uenced by Piazzolla’ s they added a violin () and a musical personality but always strived to demonstrate double bass (Rafael Ferro) and fi nally Pedro Laurenz his diff erent approach, alternately including and dis- joined them on bandone ó n . carding infl uences from other musical sources, espe- As for the trios, bandone ó n , piano and double bass cially rock. Among his most important works is ‘ Las are quite frequent (examples include Tr í o Contem- veredas de Saturno’ (Th e Paths of Saturn), based on por á neo, founded in 1968, Federico-Berlingieri- Eduardo Arolas ’ s oeuvre ; his rendition of Gardel ’ s tan- Cabarco, founded in 1971, Vanguatrí o, founded gos for bandoneó n and string orchestra (1990) and his in 1971 and Mosalini-Beytelman-Caratini, founded quintet (1992). in 1983). Th ere is also bandone ó n , guitar and bass Another important bandleader and composer of (e.g., Eduardo Rovira’ s trio, founded in 1966); the 1960s and 1970s was Atilio Stampone. He began guitar trios (such as the Palermo Trio, founded as a pianist in Piazzolla ’ s tango orchestra of the 1940s in 1967) or the combination of bandone ó n, guitar and the octet in 1955. He later formed an important and piano (e.g., Los Tres de Buenos Aires, founded orchestra that he co-led with Leopoldo Federico in 1962). and whose main arranger was Argentino Galvá n. Th ere were quartets of diverse combinations: ban- In 1961 he fronted a new orchestra with outstanding done ó n; violin, cello or guitar; piano or guitar; and instrumentalists in which the infl uences of Horacio double bass: Reynaldo Nichele (established Salg á n, Anibal Troilo and Piazzolla were combined. in 1961), Eduardo Rovira (est. 1975), Osvaldo Requena In the 1970s Stampone attempted to modify his (est. 1979), Cuarteto Col á ngelo (est. 1971) and Cuar- style by adopting academic forms and techniques teto Orlando Trí podi (est. 1974). In this relocation from diff erent schools and times (Impressionism, of tango in chamber versions, the Decarean stream Baroque) along with phrasings, chords and rhythms adopted a lineup very close to the typical orchestra: from jazz in order to mix them with the language of

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traditional tango. But the general result was hybrid emerged. Th e new interpreters tended to avoid the and heterogeneous, because all these elements were solution brought by the Piazzollean vanguard and not well integrated into the tango language. focused on traditional tango songbooks or on the tango styles that prevailed between the 1930s and the The Rebirth of Tango : From 1985 to 1950s. Th ey aspired to follow the classic tango model the Twenty-First Century and eschewed changes of the general sound. In the 1980s there were still some venues for In the early twenty-fi rst century there are sev- dancing, but they were considered marginal. Dance- eral schools: one continues the Piazzollean line with able tango was presented as a show, with professional groups including the quintet La Camorra, and those dancers and more or less elaborated choreographies. led by Marcelo Nisinman and Sonia Posetti. Another Tango also was used by many choreographers of con- trend within modern tango accepts certain Piazzol- temporary ballets. Due to the international acclaim lean premises but is closer to the type of harmonic of the ‘ Tango Argentino’ show, a musical play featur- and formal elaboration of the quartets and quintets of ing tango music and dance staged by Claudio Segovia the 1970s. A third stream, very interesting and prom- and Hector Orezzolli which was performed to great ising, is derived from the Pugliese style but pushed acclaim in Paris (1983), on Broadway (1985– 86) and to an extreme and radicalized in its rougher aspects. around the world, interest in the theatrical version of In this stream there are groups such as the Orquesta tango revived worldwide and new dance halls opened T í pica Fern á ndez Fierro and Astillero sextet. Onstage, in Buenos Aires. However, this new fan-base for tango their attitude and appearance is infl uenced more by did not include the popular classes, and the dance rock than by traditional tango , appealing to tango fans halls were patronized by the cultured middle class. as well as a rock audience. Th ere are also some eclectic Between the 1960s and 1990s the number of musi- groups, such as Quasimodo Trio, that combine free cians devoted to the genre decreased. Performers, old composition with strongly tango -based traits. or young, seemed unable to attract a new public. In Finally, it is important to mention the international the 1980s there was deep concern about the lack of migrations of tango , which have been important new bandone ó n players to learn tango ’ s special fea- because they have contributed to the resurgence of tures, performance nuances and other secrets from tango in its place of origin. Th e fi rst time that tango the apparent last generation of instrumentalists. relocated was before World War I, as previously Tango may be performed without a bandoneó n , but stated, giving birth to a dance hall tango (either Euro- the genre with the total absence of bandone ó ns is not pean or North American) that throughout time has considered possible. While the threat of a tango with- followed a path almost independent of the Argentine out bandone ó n players did not come to fruition, a gen- tango. In the 1970s a great number of musicians began erational breach of about 20 years does exist. to be exiled (for economic or political reasons) and, Meanwhile the Piazzolla-infl uenced vanguard with them, tango relocated to European cities such trend continued with a small output never surpass- as Paris, Amsterdam, Berlin, and also to Tokyo, New ing its model or establishing a style that moved away York and Montreal. Th e tango resulting from these from the original. During the years in which tango musicians ’ relocation includes copies of sub-styles; was nearly hibernating, only a few institutions and new versions of the classic tango ; and its stylistic individuals preserved tradition. Very important is the fusion, generally combining jazz, erudite music and work of the Escuela de M ú sica Popular de Avellaneda tango (Pelinski 2000). where Rodolfo Mederos teaches, along with the ban- With regard to discography, approximately 24,000 doneonists Daniel Binelli, Nestor Marconi and Julio tango tracks were recorded between 1907 and 2010. Pane. Some editions are hard to fi nd, even in Argentina. Partly due to the success of ‘ Tango Argentino’ s Others have a wider distribution, such as Piazzolla’ s intensifi cation of worldwide interest in tango and recordings. With some previously cited exceptions, its reopening of the international market for tango major recording labels have not been systematic musicians, and partly because a new generation of about the global reissuing of the material. Some musicians gradually began to be attracted by a lan- semicommercial labels, including those run by Aki- guage that was being lost but which they considered hito Baba and Yoshihira Oiwa (Japan), El Bandoneon to be their own, a renaissance fi nally arrived by the label, located in Barcelona, Spain, and Euro Records , mid-1990s. Little by little, new performers and com- a label established in Buenos Aires, are fi lling the posers with new ideas arose, who, in general, did not gaps in reissues of the main repertoire. In 2010 what subscribe to Piazzolla ’ s aesthetics. New singers also was commercially available could be found on the

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internet, while old recordings that had not been Argentinian orchestras. Aft er that period, the public reissued were less available because they were still for the genre declined, only to resurface by 1990, managed by collectors, both in Buenos Aires and again in parallel with Buenos Aires. Tango remains Montevideo. very popular in Uruguay, with a strong presence of the genre on the radio (even more than in Argentina). Tango in Uruguay Tango dance is also very popular in Uruguay. While tango ’ s origin and early development was Th e main icons of tango in Uruguay are Carlos primarily Argentinian, and its principal produc- Gardel, Enrique Matos Rodrí guez, Francisco Canaro tion site was in Buenos Aires, tango is situated more and Julio Sosa. Despite the fact that Gardel was raised broadly in the Rio de la Plata area (see Enrique Haba in Buenos Aires and launched his early career in in Binda 2005). In particular, Montevideo, the capi- Argentina, he is a local hero for Uruguayans. While tal city of Uruguay, has long constituted a tango scene Uruguayans claim that Gardel was born in Uruguay, (Cohen 1999) that paralleled that of Buenos Aires. Argentinians believe that he was born in France, and Nevertheless, since tango production was so prolifi c recent research confi rms this theory (Barsky and in Buenos Aires, it is very common to speak of an Barsky 2005). Uruguayan Enrique Matos Rodrí guez, ‘ Argentinian tango ’ ( tango argentino). In fact, while born in Uruguay, was the composer of ‘ La Cumparsita,’ the Uruguayan and Argentinian markets were always one of the most famous tangos . Francisco Canaro also unifi ed as a record-buying public for tango , almost all was born in Uruguay, and was one of the most promi- of the records were produced by Argentinian musi- nent musicians, composers, bandleaders and promot- cians (Binda 2005). However, both cities are part of a ers of tango. He established his career in Argentina sociocultural region, and tango belongs to that region. and became a citizen of Argentina in 1940. Finally, Referring to the tango as ‘ Argentinian, ’ then, obscures Julio Sosa was a Uruguayan tango singer who became the fact that an important part of the history of tango an idol both in Argentina and Uruguay between 1960 took place in Uruguay (Aharonian 2007). Th us, rather and 1964. He lived and worked in Buenos Aires, than an Argentinian tango , a tango rioplatense may be where he died in 1964 in a car accident. said to exist. In Uruguay, by 1890 there was a tango ‘orillero ’ Written Publications About Tango (from the urban outskirts) in Montevideo suburbs, Th e tango , in its literary and musical aspect, has similar to that of Buenos Aires (Ayestaran 1967). generated many interpretations and analysis. Th ey Th e practice of tango unfolded similarly in Buenos include panegyrics, monographic essays, and numer- Aires and Montevideo between 1890 and 1900, in ous biographies and autobiographies of composers, marginal (suburban) venues. By 1910 the genre was writers, musicians and singers. It is only recently that accepted by Montevideo ’ s middle class. Instrumen- tango has become an academic subject, addressed by tal groups of three or four people played tango in sociologists, historians and anthropologists. Strictly cafes, and some orchestras performed it more seri- musical analysis is the least developed. Most stud- ously (not necessarily in a strictly popular style) in ies and other publications are published in Argen- Carnival balls (Fornaro, Ilarraz and Agustoni 2002). tina, but important works have also emerged outside However, it was diffi cult for Uruguayans to organize Argentina, in many cases by Argentinian researchers and maintain tango orchestras without the participa- living abroad (C á mara 2002; Savigliano 1995; Pelinski tion of Argentinian musicians, since specialized tango 2000). musicians were not yet living in Uruguay. In fact, it Th e fi rst history of tango was written in 1936 by was not until 1916 that Alberto Alonso organized the two journalists, H é ctor and Luis J. Bates. While this fi rst Uruguayan tango quartet. In addition, only three volume is not very well documented and includes Uruguayan tango orchestras recorded in the early mistakes that were repeatedly reproduced by many twentieth century, between 1917 and 1929: Alonso- writers, its great value is that it includes several Minotto (in 1917) including the tango ‘ L a c u m p a r - interviews with the leading composers, musi- sita ’ (Th e Little Band), Minotto (in 1922), including cians and singers of early tango. A pioneer in tango the tango ‘ Fruta prohibida ’ (Forbidden Fruit) and studies was Argentinian musicologist Carlos Vega Donato-Zerrillo (in 1929), including ‘ Se va la vida’ (1898 – 1966) who introduced early studies of urban (Life Goes On). popular music in Argentina (Vega 1966) and whose Between 1930 and 1950 there was a great boom in uncompleted research on tango was published post- tango’ s popularity in Uruguay, similar to what was humously (2007). Another important early resource, occurring in Argentina, with an intense presence of as stated earlier, is the fi rst volume of Antologia del

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tango rioplatense , which studies tango ’ s origins and comprehensive essay about tango by Daniel Vidart early development up to 1920. Th e second volume, (1967). A recent work by Goldman (2008) studies the which covers the period from 1920 to 1935, is being relationship between the dances and music practiced completed by a group of researchers at the Instituto by Afro-Uruguayans between 1870 and 1890 and the Nacional de Musicolog í a ‘ Carlos Vega ’ in Argentina. tango rioplatense established in 1900. Pablo Kohan (2010) published a study of the music Discographical sources include several publications styles of tango composers between 1920 and 1935, by Nicol á s Lefcovich (1980, 1981 and so on), which while Binda and Lamas (2008) is a well-documented provide information about recordings (label, record account of early tango and society. A comprehensive and matrix numbers, dates, authors and genres), series of entries is included in the Diccionario de la including the recordings of the principal orchestras m ú sica espa ñ ola e hispanoamericana (1999– 2002), and singers from 1920 to 1960. A brief guide to tango providing an overview of the history, schools and recordings and their availability has been published by main composers and directors of tango . Nuevo tango Garc í a Brunelli (2010). Th e website Todotango (www. is studied in a compilation of articles about Piazzolla ’ s todotango.com) provides short biographical articles music (Garc í a Brunelli 2008) and contemporary about musicians in Spanish and English, along with tango has generated several monographs, some of scores and recordings. which were compiled (Liska 2012) or published in specialized musicological reviews. Recent approaches Conclusion include performance studies (Cecconi 2009; Liska At the beginning of the twenty-fi rst century the 2009; Garc í a Brunelli 2012). tango renaissance is in the hands of perhaps less than In addition to the musicological literature, there a hundred young musicians, only a few more than are many popular works about tango and gender, those that shaped its origin (Ferrer 1999). In spite tango dance, tango and society and tango lyrics. of tango ’ s prolonged history of crisis, it remains in In fact, publishing about tango is a very profi table vogue as an inevitable component of the identity industry, with about 200 books published yearly in of Uruguayans and Argentinians. In the twenty- Argentina about tango and related themes (Mar- fi rst century historical styles are being recovered, chini 2007), few of which are considered academic generating positive expectations about future devel- sources. Among the nonacademic sources, Hora- opments. Local demand has encouraged the recruit- cio Ferrer’ s dictionary (1980) and history (1960) ment of musicians and international interest has provides an overview of the history and style of the assured a suffi cient market to maintain musicians’ genre. Th e extensive Historia del tango , with spe- activity. With a dynamic defi nitively anchored in its cialized works collected by Pampin (1976– 2012), place of origin and generating more or less related sometimes lacks accuracy but is considered in other spinoff versions in other places of the world, tango ways to be a good fi rst resource. An extensive study has endured as one of the best-known and complex of bandoneonists who have worked in the genre popular music forms (instrumental, sung or danced) beginning in 1910 was published by Zucchi in four in the world. volumes (1998– 2008). Still a work in progress, Zuc- chi’ s study is considered very useful and well doc- Bibliography umented, including discographical information, Aharoni á n, Cori ú n. 2007. ‘ El tango. ’ M ú sicas populares interviews and discussions of style. Regarding the del Uruguay [Popular of Uruguay]. Montevi- biographical works, worth mentioning are the auto- deo: Universidad de la Rep ú blica. biographies of Francisco Canaro (1999) and Julio De Ayestar á n, Lauro. 1967. El folklore musical uruguayo Caro (1964) for their historical and documentary [Uruguayan Folk Music]. Montevideo: Alfa. value, and Astor Piazzolla’ s (Collier and Azzi 2000) Azzi, Susana, and Collier, Simon. 2000. Le Grand and Carlos Gardel’ s (Barsky and Barsky 2004; Col- Tango. Th e Life and Music of Astor Piazzolla . New lier 1986) among other biographies. Finally, a biblio- York: Oxford University Press. graphic dictionary of musicians from Argentina has Barsky, Juliá n, and Barsky, Osvaldo. 2004. Gardel. La been edited by Donozo (2007). biograf í a [Gardel: Th e Biography]. Buenos Aires: Two interesting articles by Aharonian (2007) Taurus. and Fornaro and Agustoni (2002) focus on tango in Bates, Hé ctor, and Bates, Luis J. 1936. La historia del Uruguay. Th e latter includes references to additional tango: Sus autores . Primer tomo [Th e History of bibliographic sources, including a book about Tango: Its Authors, Vol. 1]. Buenos Aires, Talleres Uruguayan folk music (Ayestaran 1967) and a Grá fi csos de la C í a. Gral. Fabril Financiera.

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Binda, Enrique. 2005. ‘ ¿ Tango rioplatense o tango Garc í a Brunelli, Omar, ed. 2008. Estudios sobre la argentino? ’ [Argentine Tango or Tango from Rio de M ú sica de Astor Piazzolla [Studies of the Music of la Plata?]. Online at: http://www.todotango.com/ Astor Piazzolla]. Buenos Aires: Gourmet Musical spanish/biblioteca/cronicas/cronica_tangoriopla Ediciones. tense.asp. Garc í a Brunelli, Omar. 2010. Discograf í a bá sica del Binda, Enrique, and Lamas, Hugo. 2008. El tango en tango (1905– 2010): Su historia a trav és de las gra- la sociedad porteñ a, 1880– 1920 [Tango in Buenos baciones [Basic Discography of Tango (1905 – 2010): Aires Society, 1880 – 1920]. Unquillo: Abrazos. Its History Th rough the Recordings]. Buenos Aires: C á mara, Enrique. 2002. ‘ Hybridization in the Tango: Gourmet Musical. Objects, Process, and Considerations. ’ In Songs of the Garramu ñ o, Florencia. 2007. Modernidades primiti- Minotaur: Hybridity and Popular Music in the Era of vas: Tango samba y nacion [Primitive Modernities: Globalization. A Comparative Analysis of Rebetika, Tango Samba and Nation]. Buenos Aires: Fondo de Tango, Rai, Fl ñ amenco, Sardana, and English Urban Cultura Econ ó mica. Folk , ed. Gerhard Steingress. London: Lit Verlag. Goertzen, Chris, and Azzi, Maria Susana. 1999. ‘ Glo- Canaro, Francisco. 1999 Mis memorias: Mis bodas de balization and the Tango. ’ Yearbook for Traditional oro con el tango [My Memories: My Golden Wed- Music 31: 67 – 76. ding with Tango]. Buenos Aires: Corregidor. Goldman, Gustavo. 2008. Lucamba. Herencia africana Carpentier, Alejo. 1972. La m ú sica en Cuba [Music in en el tango. 1870– 1890 [ Lucamba : African Heritage Cuba]. M é xico: Fondo de cultura econ ó mico. in the Tango ]. Montevideo: Perro Andaluz. Cirio, Norberto Pablo. 2007. ¿ C ó mo suena la mú sica Granada, Daniel. 1890. Vocabulario rioplatense afroporte ñ a hoy? Hacia una genealog í a del patri- razonado [Reasoned Rioplatense Vocabulary], 2nd monio musical negro de Buenos Aires [How Does ed. Montevideo: Imprenta Rural. Afroporte ñ a Music Sound Today? Toward a Gene- Kohan, Pablo. 2007. Carlos Vega y la teor í a hispani- alogy of Black Musical Patronage of Buenos Aires]. sta del origen del tango [Carlos Vega and the His- Revista del Instituto de Investigació n Musicoló gica panist Th eory of the Origin of the Tango]. Buenos ‘ Carlos Vega ’ 21(21): 86 – 101. Aires: Espacios de Cultura y Producció n, Facultad Cohen, Sara. 1999. ‘ Scenes. ’ In Key Terms in Popular de Flosof í a y Letras, Universidad de Buenos Aires Music and Culture , eds. Bruce Horner and Th omas (June), 34. Swiss. Oxford: Blackwell, 239 – 50. Kohan, Pablo. 2010. Estudios sobre los estilos composi- De Caro, Julio. 1964. El tango en mis recuerdos [Tango tivos deltango (1920– 1935) [Studies of the Compo- in My Memories]. Buenos Aires: Centuri ó n. sitional Style of Tango (1920 – 1935)]. Buenos Aires: Donozo, Leandro. 2007. Diccionario bibliogr á fi co de la Gourmet Musical. mú sica Argentina (y de la mú sica en la Argentina) Lefcovich, S. Nicol á s. 1980 – 90. Estudios monogr á fi cos [Bibliographic Dictionary of Argentine Music, and acerca de la discografí a del tango [Monographic of Music in Argentina]. Buenos Aires: Gourmet Studies about Tango Discography], 20 Vols. Buenos Musical. Aires: Self-published. Ferrer, Horacio. 1980. El libro del tango [Th e Book of Lobato, Marí a Zaida, and Suriano, Juan. 2000. Atlas Tango]. Buenos Aires. Antonio Tersol. hist ó rico [Historical Atlas]. Buenos Aires: Sudamer- Ferrer, Horacio. 1999. El tango: Su historia y evolució n icana. [Th e Tango: Its History and Evolution]. Buenos Marchini, Jorge. 2008. El tango en la econom í a de la Aires, Peñ a Lillo-Ed. Continente. (First Published ciudad de Buenos Aires [Tango in the Economy of Buenos Aires: La Siringa, 1960.) the City of Buenos Aires]. Buenos Aires: Observa- Fornaro, Marita, Ilarraz, Leonor, and Agustoni, Nilda. torio de Industrias Culturales de la Ciudad de Bue- 2002. ‘ Tango (I). II Uruguay.’ In Diccionario de la nos Aires, Subsecretarí a de Industrias Culturales, M ú sica Espa ñ ola e Hispanoamericana [ Dictionary of Ministerio de Producció n, Gobierno de la Ciudad the and Hispanic America]. Vol. 10, Aut ó noma de Buenos Aires. ed. Emilo Casares Rodicio et al. : SGAE, 153. Matamoro, Blas. 1982. La ciudad del tango: Tango Garc í a, Miguel. 2006. Una narrativa can ó nica de la histó rico y sociedad [Th e City of Tango. Historic mú sica popular: A 100 añ os de las grabaciones de Tango and Society]. Buenos Aires: Galerna. Robert Lehmann-Nietsche [A Canonic Narrative Novati, Jorge, ed. 1980. Antolog í a del tango rioplatense of Popular Music: 100 Years of the Recordings of Vol. 1 (Desde sus comienzos hasta 1920) [Anthol- Robert Lehmann-Nietsche]. Buenos Aires: Revista ogy of the Rioplatense Tango, Vol. 1 (From its Ori- Argentina de Musicologí a, Asociació n Argentina gins to 1920)]. Buenos Aires: Instituto Nacional de de Musicologí a. Musicologí a ‘ Carlos Vega.’

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Pampin, Manuel, ed. 1976– 2012. La historia del Florentino, Francisco ‘ Mar í a. ’ Fiorentino (con acompa- tango [Th e History of Tango], 20 vols. Buenos ñamiento de orquesta dirigida por Astor Piazzolla) Su Aires, Corregidor. discografí a juntos. DBN 477604. 2007 : Argentina. Pelinski, Ramó n, ed. 2000. ‘ Di á sporas del tango rio- Fresedo, Osvaldo. ‘ Te llama mi violin. ’ Osvaldo Fresedo platense’ [Diaspora of the Tango Rioplatense ]. In 1938– 1948. Euro Records 17013. 2004 : Argentina. Invitaci ó n a la etnomusicolog í a. Quince fragmentos Gardel, Carlos. ‘ Mi noche triste. ’ Antolog í a del tango y un tango [Invitation to . Fift een rioplatense, Vol. 1 . INM. 2008 : Argentina. Fragments and a Tango ]. Madrid: Akal (Also pub- Greco Orchestra. ‘ Rosendo. Antologí a del tango rio- lished in Buenos Aires: Corregidor.) platense, Vol I . ’ INM. 2008 : Argentina. Saito, Mitsumasa. 2008. ‘ Discograf í a de Astor Piaz- Gobbi, Alfredo. ‘ Camandulaje, ’ ‘ El andariego. ’ Instru- zolla.’ In Estudios sobre la mú sica de Astor Piazzolla mental (1947– 1958). Euro Records 14027. 2010 : [Studies of the Music of Astor Piazzolla], ed. Omar Argentina. Garc í a Brunelli. Buenos Aires, Gourmet Musical Goyeneche, Roberto. ‘ A Homero, ’ ‘ La ú ltima curda, ’ Ediciones, 263 – 300. ‘ Tinta roja.’ El Gordo y el Polaco. DBN 41290. 2010a : Savigliano, Marta E. 1995. Tango: Th e Political Econ- Argentina. omy of Passion . Boulder, CO: Westview Press. Goyeneche, Roberto. ‘ La ú ltima curda. ’ DBN 41290. Vega, Carlos. 1966 ‘ Mesomusic: An Essay on the 2010b : Argentina. Music of the Masses.’ Ethnomusicology 10(1): Goyeneche, Roberto ‘ Afi ches. ’ Roberto Goyeneche Com- 1 – 17. plete recordings. RCA-BMG 42922. 2004 : Argentina. Vega, Carlos. 2007. Estudios para los origenes del tango Iriarte, Ra ú l. ‘ Canci ó n desesperada. ’ Miguel Caló . Sus é xi- argentino [Studies of the Origins of the Argentine tos con Raú l iriarte. DBN 495362. 2007 : Argentina. Tango], ed. Coriun Aharonian. Buenos Aires: Educa. Maida, Roberto. ‘ Milonga triste.’ Francisco Canaro. Editorial de la Unversidad Cat ó lica Argentina. Roberto Maida canta sus é sitos. Euro Records Vidart, Daniel. 1967. El tango y su mundo [Th e Tango 541691. 1998 : Argentina. and Its World]. Montevideo: Tauro. Marino, Alberto. ‘ Cafe de los angelitos, ’ ‘ Uno. ’ Sin Zucchi, Oscar. 1998 – 2008. El tango, el bandone ó n palabras. DBN 41371. 2005 : Argentina. y sus inté rpretes [Th e Tango , the Bandone ó n and Maure, Hé ctor. ‘ Uno. ’ D’ Airenzo y Maure. Sus primeros Th eir Performers]. Vols. I– IV. Buenos Aires: é xitos. DBN 49721. 2001 : Argentina. Corregidor. Maure, H é ctor. ‘ Pompas de jab ó n. ’ Juan D á rienzo (1941 – 1944) Con Maur é y Lamas. Euro Records Discographical References 17010. 2007 : Argentina. Canaro, Francisco. ‘ Cuesta arriba ’ and ‘ Yo no se que Orquesta Alonso-Minotto [Alberto Alonso and me han hecho tus ojos.’ Antolog í a del tango rioplat- Minotto Di Cicco]. La cumparsita . El himno del Rí o ense, Vol. 2. INM. 2012 : Argentina. de la Plata. Euro Records 14007. 2008 : Argentina. Charlo [Carlos P é rez de la Riestra]. ‘ Nostalgias. ’ Una Orquesta Francini-Pontier. ‘ Tigre viejo. ’ Instrumental voz inolvidable. DBN 477598. 2008 : Argentina. Vol. 1. Euro Records 16013. 2005 : Argentina. D ’ Agostino, Angel, and Vargas, Angel. ‘ Barrio de tango.’ Orquesta Tí pica Arolas. ‘ Mo ñ ito. ’ Antolog í a del tango Tango de á ngeles. DBN 41291. 1998 : Argentina. rioplatense, Vol. 2 . INM. 2012 : Argentina. D ’ Arienzo, Juan, and Echag ü e, Alberto. ‘ Cambalache. ’ Orquesta T í pica C. V. G. Flores. ‘ La pecadora. ’ Antologí a Joyas del lunfardo. DBN 41279. 1997 : Argentina. del tango rioplatense, Vol. 2 . INM. 2012 : Argentina. De Caro, Julio, y su Orquesta T í pica. ‘ Todo Coraz ó n ’ ; Orquesta Tí pica Cobiá n. ‘ Shusheta. ’ Antologí a del ‘ Amurado. ’ Antologí a del tango rioplatense, Vol. 2 . tango rioplatense, Vol. 2 . INM. 2012 : Argentina. INM. 2012 : Argentina. Orquesta Tí pica Fresedo. ‘ Los dopados.’ Antologí a del Di Cicco, Minotto. ‘ Fruta prohibida.’ Antologí a del tango rioplatense, Vol. 2 . INM. 2012 : Argentina. Tango Rioplatense Vol 2 . INM. 2012 : Argentina. Orquesta Tí pica Select. ‘ Don Esteban,’ ‘ El taura.’ Antologí a Di Sarli, Carlos. ‘ Milonguero Viejo. ’ Instrumental. del tango rioplatense, Vol. 2 . INM. 2012 : Argentina. DBN 41297. 2003 : Argentina. Piazzolla, Astor. ‘ Adi ó s Nonino.’ Adi ó s Nonino Trova Di Sarli, Carlos. ‘ Bahia Blanca. ’ Instrumental vol. 2. CD 404. 2004 : Argentina. DBN 63345. 2004 : Argentina. Pugliese, Osvaldo. ‘ La Yumba, ’ ‘ Recuerdo. ’ Instru- Donato, Edgardo, and Zerrillo, Roberto. ‘ Se va la vida.’ mentales inolvidables Vol. 1. DBN 859023. 1999 : Epoca de oro Vol. 8. BATC 2010 : Argentina. Argentina. Firpo, Roberto. ‘ Tata viejo,’ ‘ Cuando llora la milonga.’ Pugliese, Osvaldo. ‘ Maladranca, ’ ‘ Negracha. ’ Instru- Antolog í a del tango rioplatense, Vol. 2. INM. 2012 : mentales inolvidables Vol 2. DBN 499985. 2003 : Argentina. Argentina.

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Rivero, Edmundo. ‘ Cafet í n de Buenos Aires. ’ Troilo- De Caro, Julio. Recuerdo 1926– 1928 . RCA-Euro Rivero: Cafetí n de Buenos Aires. DBN 41294. 2008 : Records EU 17044. 2009 : Argentina. Argentina. Di Sarli, Carlos. Nubes de humo. Philips P-8254-L. Rivero, Edmundo. ‘ Patio m í o. ’ Edmundo Rivero 1950 – 2010 : Argentina. 1953. Euro Records 17005. 2009 : Argentina. La é poca de oro. Vol. I / Vol. XVIII (selected tangos from R i v e r o , E d m u n d o . ‘ A b s u r d o . ’ La é poca de Oro Vol 13. 1917 to 1955). Euro Records. 2010: Argentina. BATC - Col 553. 2010 : Argentina. Federico, Leopoldo. Sentimiento criollo. MH 236516. Ruiz, Floreal. ‘ Luna llena,’ ‘ Naranjo en fl or. ’ Troilo-Ruiz: 1994 : Argentina. Amor y tango . DBN 41370. 2007 : Argentina. Firpo, Roberto. De la Guardia Vieja. DBN 837477. Salgan, Horacio. ‘ A fuego lento.’ Silbando (1953 – 1957). 2008 : Argentina. Euro Records 13006. 2001 : Argentina. Firpo, Roberto. De la Guardia Vieja Vol. 2 . DBN Sosa, Julio. ‘ Cambalache. ’ Armando Pontier Vol. 1. 499979. 2009 : Argentina. Euro Records 18001. 2010a : Argentina. Francini/Portier 1946/1950. Colecció n 78 rpm . Euro Sosa, Julio. ‘ Che papusa oí , ’ ‘ La casita de mis viejos.’ Records EU 17004. 2004 : Argentina. Armando Pontier Vol. 2. Euro Records 18002. Fresedo, Osvaldo. Nostalgia. (1952 – 1956). EMI 2010b : Argentina. 8374182. 1996 : Argentina. Troilo, An í bal. ‘ Gar ú a, ’ ‘ La ú ltima curda, ’ ‘ Che ban- Fresedo, Osvaldo, y su Orquesta T í pica. Fresedo en done ó n, ’ ‘ Sur. ’ Troilo complete recordings . BMG. Stereo , 1961 – 1963. Sony BMG. 2007 : Argentina. 2004 : Argentina. Gardel, Carlos. Todo Gardel. Complete recordings . Altaya. 2001 : Spain. Goyeneche, Roberto. Goyeneche en RCA Victor. Discography 1952/1980. 15 CDs. BMG. 2004 : Argentina. Alfredo Gobbi Instrumental 1947 – 1958. Euro Records Horacio Salgan En RCA Victor Vol. I/II 1950/53 . Sony/ EU 14027. 2009 : Argentina. BMG 740058/9. 2008 : Argentina. Antologí a del tango rioplatense, Vol I. From Its origins Juan D’ Arienzo 1947/1952. Colecció n 78 rpm . Euro to 1920. Instituto Nacional de Musicolog í a ‘ Carlos Records EU 17040. 2005 : Argentina. Vega. ’ 2008 : Argentina. Lucio Demare y su orquesta t í pica (1942/1944) Tango Antologí a del tango rioplatense, Vol. II. 1920– 1935 . guapo . El bandoneon EB-CD 10. 1989 : Spain. Instituto Nacional de Musicologí a ‘ Carlos Vega.’ Mú sica popular y aborigen. Field recordings by 2012 : Argentina. Robert Lehmann Nitsche, 1905– 1909, ed. Miguel Biagi, Rodolfo. Tango y milonga (1938– 1948). DBN A. Garc í a. Berliner Phonogramm-Archiv - Ibero- 89069. 2006 : Argentina. Amerikanisches Institut, Staatliche Museen zu Cal ó , Miguel. Miguel Cal ó y su orquesta t í pica. EMI Berlin. 2009 : Germany. 499969. 1999 : Argentina. Orquesta T í pica Fernandez Fierro . 2009 : Argentina. Canaro, Francisco, y Su Orquesta. Instrumental. Tan- Orquesta Tipica Osvaldo Fresedo. Vol. I/VII. 1927 – gos de colecció n . DBN 473886. 2007 : Argentina. 1939 . A.M.P. Yoshihiro Oiwa Tango-Colecció n. Carlos Di Sarli 1928/1931. Colecci ó n 78 rpm . Euro 1992: Japan. Records. EU17022. 2005 : Argentina. Pedro Laurenz 1937/1943. Colecci ó n 78 rpm . Euro Carlos Di Sarli Complete Recordings. Vol I/XVI (1928 – Records EU 17015. 2004 : Argentina. 1958) Akihito Baba AV ALMA CTA 501/517. 2002 : Piazzolla, Astor. La Camorra: Th e Solitude of Pas- Japan. sionate Provocation . American Clave. AMCL 1021. Charlo. Una voz inolvidable. DBN 477598. 2008 : 1989 : USA. Argentina. Piazzolla, Astor. Orquesta de la Opera de Paris y Corsini, Ignacio. El caballero cantor. DBN 477586. Orquesta Tipica . Lantower 51012. 2006 : Argentina. 2006 : Argentina. Piazzolla, Astor. Su primera orquesta 1945/1951 . Euro D ’ Arienzo, Juan, y su Orquesta Tí pica. 70 a ñ os. Selected Records EU 14015. 2008 : Argentina. recordings from 1937 to 1975. (15 CDs.) Sony BMG. Piazzolla, Astor. 1956/1957 Completo . Lantower 2005 : Argentina. 51802. 2009 : Argentina. De Angelis, Alfredo. Acordes porte ñ os. DBN 89006. Piazzolla, Astor, y su quinteto. Adios Nonino . Trova 2010 : Argentina. 404. 1989 : Argentina. De Caro, Julio. Vol I/V. Complete Victor Recordings Piazzolla, Astor, y su conjunto 9. Musica contempo- 1926– 1934. Akihito Baba CD A.V. Alma CTA 121- ranea de la ciudad de Buenos Aires . CA ECD 1071. 125. 2000: Japan. 1993 : Argentina.

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Encyclopedia .indb 842 1/14/2014 3:51:23 PM Teatro Danzante Cocolo

Possetti, Sonia. Cayó la fi cha. Epsa Music. 2010 : British-derived dramatic narratives of medieval Argentina. origin with carnivalesque Afro-Caribbean costum- Pugliese, Osvaldo, y su orquesta tí pica. Obras com- ing, dance and humor, and instrumental musical pletas. Vol. I/III. EMI 81260/81326/89533. 1984 : accompaniment including bombo (bass drum), Argentina. redoblante (‘ kettle drum’ ), ting-a- ling (triangle) and Pugliese, Osvaldo, y su orquesta tí pica. Antologí a. Vol cocola (transversalfl ute). Cocolos like to call each of I/VI . Polygram 522375/80. 1994 : Argentina. the dramatic acts lecciones because, in addition to Quasimodo Trio. Tango contemporá neo . Independent the motives of entertainment, they impart social and Edition. 2012 : Argentina. religious messages. Rovira, Eduardo. Tango Vanguardia. Sony BMG Th e musical ensemble resembles the British- 740877. 2008 : Argentina. derived military fi fe and drum band, although, Salgan, Horacio, and Rivero, Edmundo. Con sabor a as in the music of Jonkunnu and other Anglo- tango . Polydor 531996. 1996 : Argentina. Caribbean masquerade ensembles, what is played Tangos en versió n original (1907– 1920) Vol. I . Centro also refl ects strong African and Afro-Caribbean feca. 2012 : Argentina. infl uences. For example, in the Suite el Momí se, Troilo, Aní bal. Troilo en RCA Victor Argentina. 1941– the musical form resembles a seventeenth-century 1970. RCA-BMG. 2004 : Argentina. European minuet, yet the tetratonic (4-note) scale Varela, H è ctor. Grandes é xitos . DBN 88445. 2009 : is more typically African. In other pieces, the cocola Argentina. melody and percussion parts make frequent use of Vida y obra de Carlos Gardel. Odeon Complete syncopations, additive rhythms and polyrhythmic Recordings. (63 LPs.) Chronological edition. 1987 : interactions refl ecting African infl uences. While Argentina. a number of songs were originally sung as well as played instrumentally, now most of the pieces are interpreted by the cocola player. In general, the Sheet Music bombo drum provides a steady pulse, the ting-a- Academia Nacional del Tango (Argentina) Library: ling accents the offb eat and fi lls in the duple sub- http://www.anacdeltango.org.ar/actividades_ divisions, and the redoblante alternates subdued biblioteca.asp. rolls with sharp attacks falling between the short http://www.todotango.com/spanish/biblioteca/par- and rapid melodic sequences of the fl ute. In some tituras/partituras.asp. pieces, the redoblante may be played with consider- Instituto Nacional de Musicologí a ‘ Carlos Vega’ able syncopation and rhythmic virtuosity. Depend- (Argentina). Library: http://www.inmuvega.gov.ar/ ing on the action of the dancers, there are several inmuvega/bibliote.htm. variations on the basic rhythmic combination and OMAR GARCÍ A BRUNELLI distinct fl ute motifs. In their improvisations, cocolo fl autists delight in the art of subtle rhythmic and See also : Tango , Vol. XII, International. tonal permutation of cellular tetratonic and penta- tonic fragments. Teatro Danzante Cocolo Of the variety of dance dramas that cocolos intro- In the Dominican Republic, cocolo is a term for duced to the Dominican Republic, only three have black migrant workers from the anglophone Lesser continued to be performed regularly – Mom í ses Antilles, including St Kitts and Nevis, Anguilla, (Mummies), Guloya (or David and Goliath) and British Virgin Islands, Antigua and others. Tens of Wild Indians. Momí ses involves an encounter thousands of cocolos were contracted to work on between a giant, a king, a deceased citizen and a doc- Dominican sugar plantations between the 1880s tor (or traditional healer), ending in a battle between and the 1920s. Many of these eventually settled in the giant and king, and the miraculous revival of the the south-east of the country in the vicinity of San deceased. It is associated particularly with Carnival Pedro de Macorí s and La Romana and retained dis- season, though it is also performed for the fi esta tinct cultural practices, although discrimination, patronal of San Pedro de Macorí s at the end of July. economic hardship and gradual integration into Th e name Guloya is a Hispanic linguistic transforma- Dominican society subsequently led to their decline. tion of Goliath and has been adopted by Dominican Teatro danzante cocolo represents the preserva- spectators as the name for the cocolo dance-drama tion and revival of cocolo tradition. It synthesizes based on the biblical legend of David and Goliath.

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