The Budgerigarin Florida: Riseand Fall of an ExoticPsittacid
Introduction Budgerigars(MeloDsittacus undulatus) are small psittacids native to open habitatsof theAustralian interior (Forshaw 1977, Long 1981, del Hoyo et al. 1997,A.O.U. 1998, Juniper and Parr 1998). They are believed to be the mostpopular cagebird in the world,and havebeen bred in captivityin Europesince the 1840s(Forshaw 1977). Between 1925 and 1940,240,000 Budgerigarswere brought into theUnited States, with mostof these"con- signed"to Californiaand Florida(Cooke and Knappen1941). It is not clearwhether these were wild-caught individuals imported from Australia, or wereof captive-bredstock obtained from Europe. In the early1960s, a "massivecottage industry" of privateaviculturists producing Budgerigars haddeveloped in the UnitedStates (Clubb 1992). Many of theseavicultur- istswere located in west-centralFlorida, where the sub-tropicaldimate allowedlarge numbers of Budgerigarsto beraised in screenedporches and other outdoorenclosures. Not surprisingly,some Budgerigars escaped accidentally,while many otherswere releaseddeliberately. Wholesale releasesbegan in the 1950s(Lipp 1963,Edscorn 1977) and continuedfor an unknownnumber of years.Up to 3000Budgerigars at a timereported-
Pensacola ßJaokson•Alle Norseshoe• ß -• •
A typicalFlorida suburban scene, with a Budgedgat,native to Australia, perchedin an Oleander(Nerium oleander), a plant native to theMediterranean. Thisimage was taken at oneof the species'slast strongholds in Florida,at dale HemandoBeach, Hernando County, on 5 April2000. Photographby Peter S. St Petersburg Weber. ß Folt Pierce Port st Lucle Sarasota • Punta
Bill Pranty Audubonof Florida 410 WareBoulevard, Suite 702 Tampa,Florida 33619 (billpranty•hotmail.com)
Abstract Sincethe 1950s,a populationof Budgerigars(Melopsittacus undulatus) has Figure1. Mapof Florida,showing most locales mentioned inthe text that con- beenpresent along the Gulf coastof centralFlorida, established primarily tainor containedBudgerigars. Ofthose sites not mapped, Shired Island is just from intentionalreleases of thousandsof individuals.By the late 1970s, the eastof HorseshoeBeach, Spring Hill is just east of HernandoBeach, New Port numberof Budgerigarsin the regionmay haveexceeded 20,000, and Richeyis just norbh of Holiday,and Port CharloUe isjust norbhwest of Punta breedingwas widespread in specially-builtnest boxes. But within a few Gorda.Zellwcod is 35 km northwestof Winter Park.At their maximum years,the population"crashed" and hasnot recovered.Since 1994, fewer establishedrange in the late1970s, Budgerigars were found in coastalareas than100 Budgerigars have been reported on ChristmasBird Counts, and fromHudson to Venice. They were not found in anysubstantial numbers more probablyno morethan 150-200remain in Florida.Eventual extirpation than 10 km inland,and in mostareas were within5 km of the Gulfof Mexico. seemslikely. The causesof thepopulation decline are unknown, but nest- Localescapees or releaseswere found widely elsewhere in Florida,and, except ing competitionwith HouseSparrows (Passer domesticus) may have been at FortLauderdale, these populations died out quickly. Today, Budgerigars are theprimary influence. The sizesof Budgerigarpopulations formerly pres- limitedto HemandoBeach, and from Hudson to Holiday,and all individualsoccur entalong the Atlantic coast of Floridaseem to havebeen exaggerated. within 5 km of the Gulf coast.
VOLUME 55 {2OO1), NUMBER '4 389 ly werereleased (Shapiro 1979, Wenner and Hirth 1984),especially into the St.Petersburg area (Pinelias County), where they were considered a SO00 touristattraction (Lipp 1963,Owre 1973, Shapiro 1979)! Once liberated, Budgerigarsbred initially in naturaland artificial cavities, but as the pop- ulanongrew, so did its popularity. Eventually, human residents (primari- ly retirees)provided Budgerigars with woodennest boxes, which were 6000 usedreadily and nearly exclusively. 5000 Bythe early 1970s, Budgerigars ranged along the Gulf coast of Florida from Hudson(Pasco County) to Venice(Sarasota County), a distanceof 160 km (Fig. 1). Establishedpopulations were limited to residential developmentsdirectly along the coast(Shapiro 1979, 1980, Stevenson and Anderson1994, pers. obs.) to five to 10 km inland (pers.obs.). Betweenthe 1974-1975 and 1984-1985 ChristmasBird Count (C.B.C.) periods,over 1000 Budgerigars were reported annually in the region, peakingat 6895individuals during the 1977-1978count period (Table 1000 1) Butby the early1980s, numbers of Budgerigarshad dedined drasti- cally,and fewer than 100 individuals have been reported on C.B.C.ssince h.m.l.l.l = ...... the 1994-1995count pdriod (Table 1, Fig.2). Furthermore,their range has contracted to about 30 km of coastline between Hernando Beach (HernandoCounty) and Holiday (Pasco County). Except for frequent reportsof usuallysingle individuals that probablyrepresent recent Figure2. Budgerigarson FloridaChristmas Bird Counts, 1962-2000. These escapees,Budgerigars now are extirpated from all otherareas in Florida. datahave not been adjusted by party hour or for anyother factor. Results Despitetheir popularity, little is knownabout Budgerigars outside of fromthe 1976West Pasco C.B.C. were not published and now are lost. captw!ty.Only a single,short-term study of theirdistribution and breed- Sources:all FloridaC.B.C.s published since 1961 inAmerican B/rds, Audubon lng biologyhas been undertaken in Florida(Shapiro 1979, 1980, 1981, F/eldNotes, F/eld Notes, and Flor/daF/eld Naturalist. Wennerand Hirth 1984).Here, C.B.C.and otherdata are analyzedto reassessthe rangeand numbers of Budgerigarsin the state,and to esti- matethe sizeof thepopulation at itspeak. Some potential causes for the Budgerigarpopulation at Holidayand New Port Richey for ninemonths severereduction of thepopulation also are discussed. in 1978.Two elementsof her thesiswere a mail surveyand newsletter requestto determinethe rangeof Budgerigarsin Florida,and a studyof Methods breedingindividuals at Holiday. Shapiro never published her demography Priorto the 1960s,published information on Budgerigarsin Floridawas dataoutside of her thesis(Shapiro 1979), but her distributiondata were hmttedto a paperby Cookeand Knappen (1941), who mentioned solely publishedin a populararticle (Shapiro 1980) and a formalpaper (Wenner that "[a] number"of individualshad been observed.Since the early andHirth 1984);a photo"essay" also was published (Shapiro 1981) In 1960s,the primary sources of Budgerigar occ•urrence areC.B.C. data, a mostcases, Shapiro used vague terms such as "common" and "abundant" studyconducted in 1978(Shapiro 1979, 1980, 1981, Wenner and Hirth whendescribing sizes of Budgerigarpopulations, rather than prov•&ng 1984), the FloridaBreeding Bird AtlasProject, 1986-1991 (F. B. B. A.; specificcounts or estimates,and she did not referenceC.B.C. data Kaleet al. 1992),and observationspublished in standardornithological Shapiro received information on the location and numbers of sources. Budgerigarsfrom more than 50 observers,and the sizesof somepopula- I searchedall publishedFlorida C.B.C.s since December 1960 for tionsreported to her, especiallythose along the Atlanticcoast, seem to Budgerigarreports. In the onlineC.B.C. database (version 5.09) posted havebeen exaggerated. to the Audubonwebsite
390 NORTH AMERICAN BIRDS Budgerigar
Charlotteand Punta Gorda (Charlotte County; Edscorn 1977), Fort Myers andSanibel Island (Lee County; Shapiro 1979, Wenner and Hirth 1984), and Naples(Collier County; Shapiro 1979, Wenner and Hirth 1984). However,none of thesepopulations persisted into the 1980s.Shapiro (1979)stated that the Budgerigars seen at FortMyers were captive individ- ualsand free to "comeand go at will" fromopen aviaries, and she made onlyvague reference to theirbreeding outside of captivityat that locale. Budgerigarswere reported on onlyfour FortMyers C.B.C.s between 1973 and 1982,with thehighest total of 37 individualsin December1979 (Table Bycounties 1). Theywere never reported on theNaples C.B.C., the PeaceRiver C.B.C. (which includesall of Punta Gorda and some of Port Charlotte), or the V//,/•,25-99 Sanibel-CaptivaC.B.C. (Table I). Basedon thesedata, it seemsthat Venice oo-99e markedthe southern limit of the Budgerigar'sestablished range along the • 5000+ Gulf coast. A fewBudgerigars were reported north of Hudson,which in the 1960s and 1970smarked the northernlimit of theirestablished range. There are reportsof oneand two Budgerigars at Bayport (Hernando County) in the 1960s(Stevenson 1964, Pantelidisand Stevenson1969), and four or fewer individualsat ShiredIsland and Horseshoe Beach (Dixie County; Ogden 1973,Robertson and Woolfenden1992) and CedarKey (LevyCounty; Edscorn1976, Atherton and Atherton 1982, Table 1) in the 1970sand early 1980s.The EB.B.A.documented "possible" breeding--presumably a single Figure3. Distributionof Budgerigarsin Florida,1962-2001. Each of the 31 individualseen once--at Crystal River (Citrus County) in 1990(Kale et al. countiesin whichBudgerigars have been reported to occuram shaded 1992).With suchlow numbers and no evidenceof populationpersistence, accordingto the highestsingle count known, mostly obtained from C.B.C.s. For20 (64%)of thesecounties, this total is lessthan 10 individuals.Four othercounties each contained fewer than 100 birds.In onlyseven coun- ties-all alongthe central Gulf coast, and with six of theseadjacent--were morethan 100 Budgerigarsreported to occur.Pasco and Pineliaseach con- tainedmore than 5000 Budgerigars;Robedson and Woolfenden (1992) referredto thesecounties as the species's "heartland." For counties along thesouthern Atlantic coast, I haveused C.B.C. data to determinethe highest totals,rather than the apparentanecdotal evidence published by Shapiro (1979, 1980) andWenner and Hirth (1984).
Distribution Cookeand Knappen(1941) werethe first to mentionBudgerigars in Florida,but theypresented no datafor locations,numbers of individuals, or yearsof occurrence.Since the 1960s,Budgerigars have been reported in 31 of thestate's 67 counties(Fig. 3), but it wasonly along the Gulf coast of centralFlorida that populationsexceeded 50 individualsand persisted for morethan 15years. Because the various populations have different histo- ries,they are discussed separately.
Peninsular Gulf Coast Budgerigarswere first reported breeding at RedingtonBeach and elsewhere in PineliasCounty in the 1950s(Lipp 1963,Stevenson 1963, Edscorn 1977, Figure4. Currentrange (red areas) of the Budgedgarin Florida.Since the Robertsonand Woolfenden1992), and wereconsidered locally common mid-1990s,Budgerigars have been restricted to smallisolated "colonies" on from PortRichey to Holiday(Pasco County) by 1963(Dill 1981}.They or near the Gulf of Mexico in Hernando and Pasco counties. Circlesfor the werefirst listed on a C.B.C.at St.Petersburg in December1962, when six Aripeka-Bayport(north) and West Pasco (south) C.B.C.s am shown;all known werereported, but the compiler noted that there were "hundreds now fetal, Budgerigarsremaining in Floridaoccur within these two C.B.C.circles. nestingin treecavities" (Woolfenden 1963). Shapiro (1979) suggested that Thetwo mostreliable locations for Budgerigarsam HernandoBeach and Budgerigarsmay havefirst appearedat Fort Myers(Lee County) in the BayonetPoint. Hernando Beach is locatedalong the HernandoCounty coast mid-1950s.Other Florida cities later colonized, through either population betweenCounty Roads 550 and595. Budgerigarsmay be seenanywhere expansionor from independentreleases, were Bradenton(Manatee westof ShoalLine Boulevard between Eagle Nest Drive and Companem County}by 1966,Sarasota and Venice (Sarasota County} by 1973,Tampa Entra,but recently they have been found most reliably along Gulfwinds Circle (HillsboroughCounty) in 1975,Bayonet Point/Hudson (Pasco County) by accessedby heading west on Gulfview Drive and turning south at the"T," 1977,and Hernando Beach by 1991(Table 1, pers. obs.). thenangling back north. At BayonetPoint in PascoCounty, Budgerigars most C.B.C.data indicate that Budgerigars occurred regularly south to Venice, withicterids and House Sparrows in treesat thejunction of U.S.Highway 19 butduring the 1970s, individuals were reported south of thislocale, at Port and State Road 52.
VOLUME 55 (2001), NUMBER 4 391 it seemslikely that these Budgerigars were local escapees rather than indi- vidualsfrom establishedpopulations farther south. Shapiro (1979, 1980) ./ andWennet and Hirth (1984)reported "flocks" of Budgerigarsat Spring Hill (HernandoCounty) apparently in the 1970s,and the F.B.B.A.docu- mented"probable" and "confirmed"breeding at two sitesthere in 1988, includingone site at least20 km inland.However, the Spring Hill popula- tion neverwas again mentioned in print. Bythe early 1980s, a declinein therange and numbers of Budgerigars alongthe Gulf coastwas evident (Table 1, Fig.2). Duringthe EB.B.A. (1986-1991),Budgerigars were "confirmed" to breedin theregion in only Hernando,Hillsborough, Pasco, Pinelias, and Sarasota counties (Kale et al. 1992).They were not found at all by F.B.B,A.surveyors in Manatee County,although they persisted at Bradentonthrough December 1991 (Table1). Budgerigarshad colonized Hernando Beach by 1991(Table 1), andthese individuals also had been overlooked by F.B.B.A.surveyors. Budgerigarswere extirpated from Florida by themid-1990s, except for coastalportions of Hernandoand Pascocounties, where small numbers havepersisted (Table 1, Fig.4). A "colony"is presentat HernandoBeach, and otherindividuals occur spottily from Hudsonto Holiday.Both areas of current distribution are within C.B.C. circles,and C.B.C. data have been usedto monitorthese remnant populations. Since its inceptionin 1991, theAripeka-Bayport C.B.C. has recorded a meanof 45 Budgerigars(range 8-137) at Hernando Beach,with countsof 30, 39, and 53 individualsin 1998,1999, and 2000 respectively (Table 1). The HernandoBeach habitat occupiedrecently is lessthan 200 ha (pets.obs., B. Hansenpers. comm.). r ! ! On theWest Pasco C.B.C. since December 1990, a meanof 43 Budgerigars (range11-60) has been seen, with countsof 13,53, and 33 birdsin 1998, 1999,and 2000 respectively(Table 1). Perhapsmost of the Budgerigars remainingin PascoCounty roost at BayonetPoint; recent counts from l•gure5. A Budgerigarinspects a nestbox at HernandoBeach, Hernando thereinclude 52 on 5 December1999 (K. Traceyin Pranty2000), 92 on the County,Florida, 5 April2000. Thispaper suggests that competition with House fall 2000 North AmericanMigration Count (N.A.M.C.) 16 September Sparrowsover such artificial cavities for nesting was a primarycause of the 2000(K. Traceypets. comm.), 25 on the C.B.C.29 December2000 (pets. sharpdecline of the Budgerigarin Florida.Photograph by PeterS. Weber. obs.),and 45 on the fall 2001 N.A.M.C. 15 September2001 (K. Tracey pers.comm.). Based on C.B.C. data and other recent observations, it seems that somewhatmore than 100 Budgerigarsremain in westernPasco Budgerigarshave been found on DadeCounty C.B.C.s (singles in 1975 County,and 50 or moreexist in southwesternHernando County. Outside and 1994)and they have never been reported on the FortPierce C.B.C. or thesetwo counties,presumably escaped Budgerigars have been reported theWest Palm Beach C.B.C. (Table 1). (Port St. Lucie mostly is outside the since1999 in Hillsborough,Manatee, and Pinelias counties (J. Fisher, L. Fort PierceC.B.C. circle). No subsequentreports of Budgerigarshave Snyder,M. ¾Vilkinsonin litt., A. andR. Paulpets. comm.). been publishedfor Fort Pierce,Port St. Lucie,or West Palm Beach. Budgerigarswere reported on 10 Fort LauderdaleC.B.C.s from 1973to Atlantic Coast 1988inclusive, with thehighest total of 11individuals in December1977 Cruickshank(1980) reported "scores" of Budgerigars"at scatteredpoints" (Table 1). in BrevardCounty beginning in 1963,including one pair thatapparently Duringthe EB.B.A.(1986-1991), Budgerigars were found along the bred in an abandonedwoodpecker cavity near Sharpesin 1968. Atlanticcoast only in Miami-Dadeand Duval counties, where"possible" Budgerigarswere seen on five consecutiveCocoa C.B.C.s from 1971to breedingwas documentedat Jacksonvilleand four sitesfrom Miami 1975,with thehighest total of 11 in 1972(Table 1). However,the Brevard Beachto Homestead(Kale et al. 1992);the individualsthat persistedat individualswere not reportedafter 1975. There were reports that Fort Lauderdaleto at leastDecember 1988 (Table 1) had beenoverlooked. Budgerigarsmay have bred at Jacksonville(Duval County) in 1977and Subsequentto the EB.B.A.,only single Budgerigars have been reported previousyears (Kale 1977),but thesewere never again mentioned (e.g., alongthe Atlantic coast: in the FortLauderdale area, at PembrokePines JacksonvilleC.B.C.; Table 1), exceptfor a singlebird seenonce in 1989 (BrowardCounty), and in the Miami area(Table 1, Prantyand Eppsin (Kaleet al. 1992).Apparently from anecdotal information, Shapiro (1979) review,1- Boyd in litt.);most of theseindividuals were seen only once. The andWenner and Hirth (1984)reported that Budgerigars were breeding at sevenor eightBroward County individuals seen since 1998 were blue or Fort Pierceand Port St. Lucie(St. LucieCounty) and Fort Lauderdale yellowmorphs, which suggests strongly that they were escapees (Pranty (BrowardCounty), and that flockswere "common" from northof Fort andEpps in review).Given the low numbers of Budgerigarsseen on a few Piercesouth to West Palm Beach(Palm BeachCounty) and at Miami C.B.C.sin theregion 10-25 years ago (Table 1), it seemsthat the previous (Miami-DadeCounty, formerly Dade County). Shapiro (1980) called the assessmentsof "common" or "abundant"Budgerigar populations along Budgerigar"abundant" at FortPierce and Fort Lauderdale. the Atlanticcoast were exaggerated. Whether Budgerigars ever bred in C.B.C.data offer a differentview of thesizes of Budgerigarpopulations southeasternFlorida is uncertain,although persistent reports on theFort alongthe lowerAtlantic coast. For instance,since the 1960sonly two LauderdaleC.B.C.s (Table 1) suggestthat breeding perhaps did occur.
392 NORTH AMERICAN BIRDS Budgerigar
Table1. Numbersof Budgerigarslisted on all publishedC.B.C.s in Florida
YEAR CJ•.Cs Totals AB BD CK CR FM GC NA NP PR SA SC SP TA VE WP CO DC FL FP JA WB BC BK GA LK LP LW OR PE
1962 1 6 nc 0 nc nc 0 nc nc nc nc 0 0 6 nc nc nc 0 nc 0 0 0 0 nc nc 0 nc nc nc nc 0
1963 1 10 nc 0 nc nc 0 nc 0 nc nc 0 0 10 nc nc nc 0 nc 0 0 0 0 nc nc 0 nc nc nc nc 0
1964 1 100 nc 0 nc nc 0 nc 0 nc nc 0 0 100 nc nc nc 0 nc 0 0 0 0 0 nc 0 nc nc nc nc 0
1965 1 11 nc 0 nc nc 0 nc 0 nc nc 0 0 11 nc nc nc 0 nc 0 0 0 0 0 nc 0 0 nc nc nc 0
1966 2 32 nc 12 nc nc 0 nc 0 nc nc 0 0 20 nc nc nc 0 nc 0 0 0 0 0 nc 0 0 nc nc nc 0
1967 2 87 nc 7 nc nc 0 nc 0 nc nc 0 0 80 nc nc nc 0 nc 0 0 0 0 0 nc 0 0 nc nc 0 0
1968 2 56 nc 28 nc nc 0 nc 0 nc nc 0 nc 28 nc nc nc 0 nc 0 0 0 0 0 nc 0 0 nc nc 0 0
1969 2 184 nc 34 nc nc 0 nc 0 nc nc 0 0 150 nc nc nc 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 nc 0 0 nc 0 0 0
1970 3 237 nc 175 nc nc 0 nc 0 nc nc 0 0 50 nc nc 12 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 nc 0 0 nc 0 0 0
1971 4 214 nc 80 nc nc 0 nc 0 nc nc 0 0 50 0 nc 83 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 nc 0 0 nc 0 0 0
1972 4 269 nc 152 nc nc 0 nc 0 nc nc 0 0 90 0 nc 16 11 0 0 nc 0 0 0 nc 0 0 nc 0 0 0
1973 9 912 nc 371 nc nc 2 nc 0 nc nc 20 0 100 0 64 345 6 0 3 0 0 0 0 nc 0 1 nc 0 0 0
1974 7 2910 nc 301 nc nc 0 nc 0 nc nc 705 0 1800 0 18 81 3 0 2 0 0 0 0 nc 0 0 nc 0 0 0
1975 8 4026 nc 470 nc nc 0 nc 0 nc nc 41 0 3000 cw 303 208 2 1 0 0 0 0 0 nc 0 0 nc 0 0 0
1976 6 1254 nc 360 nc nc 0 nc 0 25 nc 84 0 250 10 521 nc 0 0 4 0 0 0 0 nc 0 0 nc 0 0 0
1977 7 6895 nc nc nc nc 0 nc 0 700 nc 24 0 5400 115 174 470 0 0 11 0 0 0 0 nc 0 0 nc 0 1 0
1978 6 4478 nc nc nc nc 0 nc 0 740 nc 13 0 3000 13 14 698 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 nc 0 0 nc 0 0 0
1979 7 4878 nc nc 3 nc 37 nc 0 525 nc 40 0 3800 65 0 408 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 nc 0 0 0
1980 8 4632 nc nc 0 nc 9 nc 0 150 nc 24 0 3100 2 2 1341 0 0 4 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 nc 0 0 0
1981 9 1460 nc nc 0 nc 0 nc 0 160 nc 104 0 900 16 23 253 0 0 1 0 0 0 2 0 0 cw nc 0 0 0
1982 9 1006 nc 3 0 nc 2 20 0 100 nc 2 0 750 4 28 97 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 nc 0 0 0
1983 11 1832 nc 12 0 nc 0 57 0 390 nc 36 0 570 40 104 600 0 0 5 0 0 0 0 17 0 0 nc 1 nc 0
1984 9 2191 nc 49 0 nc 0 25 0 122 nc 121 0 1700 47 23 102 0 0 2 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 nc 0 nc 0
1985 6 884 nc 0 0 nc 0 4 0 100 nc 0 0 610 1 44 125 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 nc 0 nc 0
1986 8 862 nc 19 0 nc 0 0 0 170 nc 3 0 310 6 133 220 0 0 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 nc 0 nc 0
1987 5 385 nc 0 0 0 0 0 0 3 0 0 0 135 5 52 190 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 nc 0
1988 9 241 nc 1 0 0 0 0 0 4 0 0 0 190 5 16 18 0 0 5 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 1 0 nc 0
1989 4 167 nc 12 0 0 0 0 0 12 0 0 0 127 0 0 16 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 nc 0
1990 6 238 nc 0 0 0 0 4 0 16 0 0 0 135 0 22 60 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 0 0 0 0 0 nc 0
1991 7 255 39 1 0 0 0 0 0 60 0 0 0 100 2 7 46 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 nc 0
1992 5 329 137 0 0 0 0 0 0 50 0 0 0 70 0 20 52 0 0 0 nc 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 nc 0
1993 4 177 44 0 0 0 0 0 0 60 0 0 0 13 0 0 60 0 0 0 nc 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 nc 0
1994 5 23 8 0 0 0 0 cw 0 0 0 0 0 2 0 0 11 0 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 nc 0
1995 2 90 36 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 54 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 nc 0
1996 3 85 29 0 0 0 0 0 0 11 0 0 nc 0 0 0 45 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 nc 0
1997 2 85 35 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 50 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 nc 0
1998 2 43 30 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 13 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 nc 0
1999 2 92 39 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 53 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 nc 0
2000 3 87 53 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 33 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 0 0 nc 0
#Years 10 18 1 0 4 6 0 19 0 13 0 33 15 18 30 5 2 10 0 0 0 2 1 0 4 1 I 1 0
Somecounts on which Budgerigars were never reported are includedif theyare mentionedin thetext, or are locatedin a countyin whichBudgerigars wereobserved. Twenty C.B.C. circles listed Budgerigars at leastonce, beginning with St. Petersburgin December1962. C.B.C.s are arrangedby region, beginningwith the PeninsularGulf coast, then the Atlanticcoast, and concluding with all otherregions combined. Sources: C.B.C. issues of Audubon F/e/dNotes, American Birds, and Fie/d Notes, and Woolfenden et al. (1994)for the 1985 NorthPinelias C.B.C. Counts are abbreviated and include the countyor countiesin which they occur (in italics):AB=Aripeka-Bayport (Hernando and Pasco; all Budgerigarsin Hemando),BC=Bay County (Bay), BD=Bradenton(Mariatee), BK=Brooksville (Hemando), CK:Cedar Key (Levy), CO:Cocoa (Brevarc•, CR--Crystal River (Citrus), DC=Dade County (Miami- Dade),FL=Fort Lauderdale (Browarc•, FM=Fort Myers (Lee), FP:Fort Pierce (St. Lucie), GA=Gainesville (A/achua), GC=Gulf Coast Mariatee County (Mariatee),JA=Jacksonville (Duva•, LK=Lakeland (Po/10, LP=Lake Placid (High/ands), LW=Lake Wales (Po/10, NA:Naples (Co/tier), NP=North Pinelias (P/ne//as),OR:Orlando (Orange), PE=Pensacola (Escambia and Santa Rosa), PR=Peace River (Char/otte), SA:Sarasota (Sarasota), SC--SanibeI-Captiva (Lee),SP=St. Petersburg (Pine//as), TA=Tampa (Hi//sborough), VE:Venice-Englewood (mostly Sarasota but some Char/otte), WB=West Palm Beach (Pa/m Beach),and WP:West Pasco (known as the NewPort Richey C.B.C. until 1989; Pasco). A "0" (zero)indicates that no Budgerigars were seen; "nc" indi- catesthat no count was published for that year. For birds reported during count week (cw), one individual is countedin theyearly totals. The report of "705"Budgerigars on the 1974Sarasota C.B.C. is consideredquestionable here.
VOIUME 55 (2OO1), NUMBER 4 393 Elsewhere in Florida producedat leastone fledgling. Causes of dutchfailure included infertfi- Awayfrom the Peninsular coasts, Budgerigars have been observed widely it),, embryodeath, lack of incubation,desertion, parental destructmn, in Florida,usually in verylow numbers(Fig. 3), beginningin 1971 destructionof onedutch by a Red-bdliedWoodpecker (Melanerpes car- (Robertson1972). Counties in whichonly one to four non-breeding olinus),and destruction of severalclutches by HouseSparrows. Average lndwidualshave been reported will not be discussedfurther. The largest time fromegg laying to fiedgingfor successfulnests was 52.5 days, and numberof Budgerigarsfound inland was at Gainesville(Alachua thenext clutch often was initiated up to 10days before the final nestling County),where "30 or more"were reported in the late 1970s(Shapiro of theprevious brood had fledged. Twelve banded females monitored for 1979,Wenner and Hirth 1984).However, this population apparently dis- the durationof the studyproduced between two andsix clutches each, appearedquickly; Budgerigars were never listed on GainesvilleC.B.C.s with a meanof 3.7 clutches.Most nestlingmortality was attributed to (Table1), nor were they mentioned by Rowan and Manetz (1995). Rowan starvationor illness,but somenestlings were "pecked to death;"it was 0n prep.)added only one otherAlachua County occurrence: a single not knownwhether these were killed by theirparents, other Budgengars, lndwidualseen once in 1996.The "small colonies" of Budgerigarspresent or otherspecies. Only two instancesof predationof adultsor juvemles atWinter Park (Orange County) presumably in the 1970s(Shapiro 1979, wereobserved: one by a housecat (Felisdomesticus) and the otherby a Wennerand Hirth 1984)also apparently vanished quickly; the Orlando Red-shoulderedHawk (ButeoIineatus ). C B C.,which contained this area, listed only a singlebird in 1977(Table Unrelatedto Shapiro'sstudy, a Sharp-shinnedHawk (Accipiterstna- 1) The fiveindividuals at Zellwood(Orange County) in 1972(Ogden tus)captured a Budgerigarfrom a feederat BayonetPoint ca. 1979 (pers 1972) never were again mentioned.An anomalousreport of 13 obs.),and another Sharp-shinned Hawk at BayonetPoint attacked a flock Budgerigarswas listed on the 1983 BrooksvilleC.B.C. (Hernando of 6 Budgerigars15 Sep 2001 (K. Traceyin litt.). Sincethat time, Tracey County),the centerof whichis 32 km fromthe Gulf coast.This report, (in litt.) has observedMerlins (FaIco coIumbarius) attempt to capture the highestinland C.B.C.total in Florida,and the only one for the Budgerigarson severaloccasions. BrooksvilleC.B.C. (Table 1), seemsperhaps equally likely as referring to Movements.--InAustralia, Budgerigars are well-knownfor their birdsat SpringHill (a smallportion occurs within the circle),locally nomadicbehavior, moving from siteto site,often in largeflocks, in escapedor releasedindividuals seen elsewhere, or evena dataentry error. responseto changingenvironmental conditions (Forshaw 1977, Long The F.B.B.A."confirmed" Budgerigars breeding at Auburndale(Polk 1981,del Hoyo et al. 1997,Juniper and Parr 1998). Severalauthors County)in 1987(Kale et al. 1992),but high counts on nearbyC.B.C.s at (Shapiro1979, 1980,Wenner and Hirth 1984,luniper and Parr 1998) Lakelandand Lake Wales are one individual each (Table 1). Fewerthan 20 havestated that the Budgerigarsin Floridaexhibited similar nomadic Budgerigarshave been found in Polk Countysince the 1960s(C. tendencies,but supportingdata seem to belacking. Indeed, the absence Geanangelin litt.). Perhapsno more than one pair of Budgerigarsbred in of largenumbers of Budgerigarsin Florida except along the immediate a nestbox at Pensacola(Escambia County) around 1991 (D. Ware in Gulf coast(e.g., Fig. 3) suggeststhat the low numbersseen elsewhere Stevensonand Anderson 1994, D. Ware in litt0; thesewere neither werelocal escapees, and may further suggest that populations along the reportedon PensacolaC.B.C.s (Table 1) nor mentionedby Duncanand central Gulf coast largely were sedentary.In sharp contrastto Duncan (2000). Budgerigarsoccupying often arid regions of Australia,their counterparts in suburbanwest-central Florida had essentiallylimitless, dependable, NaturalHistory andyear-round water and food resources attheir disposal (Shapiro 1979, Despitetheir abundancein Australiaand (formerly)Florida, little is 1980,1981, Wenner and Hirth 1984).Combined with abundantnesting knownabout the life historyof Budgerigarsoutside of captivity.The sitesprovided nearby (often in thesame yards), dozens of bird feeders Budgerigarsin west-centralFlorida represent the onlyexotic population andbird bathspresent in residentialneighborhoods may have elLmlnat- thathas become established, even though individuals have been liberat- edthe need for Budgerigarsin Florida to travelwidely in searchof food edin manyregions of theworld. From deliberate releases and accidental and water.Nevertheless, limited movements(ca. 5 km) were known to escapes,Budgerigars have been reported in Brazil,Canada, Colombia, occurduring the winter, as some birds left breedingareas to join com- HongKong, Japan, New Zealand, Oman, Puerto Rico, the Society Islands, munalroosts nearby (Shapiro 1979). SouthAfrica, Switzerland, Tasmania, the UnitedKingdom, and several Food.--In Australia,Budgerigars feed primarily on grassseeds, with US statesincluding California, Hawaii, and New York (Long 1981, 39 speciesidentified in one study(del Hoyo et al. 1997);commercial A O U. 1998,Juniper and Parr 1998, e.g., Bannon et al.2001). graincrops occasionally are depredated (del Hoyo et al. 1997,Juniper and Demography.--Shapiro's(1979) studyof breedingBudgerigars at Parr 1998).Feeding habits of Budgerigarsin Floridahave never been Holidayis the sole source of demographydata for Florida.She monitored studied,but observationssuggest that commercial bird seedis theirpri- 31 nestboxes daily from 16April to 15 December1978, and added 22 maryfood (Shapiro 1979, 1980, Wenner and Hirth 1984).Stevenson and boxesto thestudy in Juneto replacethose abandoned by Budgerigars or Anderson(1994) added "weed and grass seeds" taken from "upper beach- usurpedby HouseSparrows (Passer domesticus). Monitoring of seven esand sandy lots," and thought that sown lawn grass seeds probably were boxeswas discontinued at the requestof propertyowners. Budgerigar eaten.Wenner and Hirth (1984)noted that Budgerigars fed on seedsof pairswere believed to bemonogamous and often defended nest boxes for bahiagrass(PaspaIum), but these were "rare events," "several"months before and after the breedingseason. The firstnesting attemptcommenced in mid-March,and the last eggs were laid in mid- PopulationSize November.Nesting was initiated mostly in Juneand August. Eighty mon- Shapiro(1979, 1980) and Wennerand Hirth (1984) monitoreda itoredpairs of Budgerigarsproduced 947 eggs in 168clutches, including Budgerigarroost in a residentialdevelopment at Holidayfrom April 46 eggsfrom the seven boxes later eliminated from the study. Of the901 throughDecember 1978. They estimated that 6000to 8000birds used eggswith knownfates, 384 (42%) failed to hatch,142 (15%) hatched but thisroost "consistently" during that period, which may strengthen the the nestlingsdied before fiedging, and 375 (41%) producedfledglings. hypothesisthat Budgerigarsin Floridamostly were sedentary. Shaplro's Clutchsize ranged from one eggto 12 eggs,with a meanof 5.8 eggs. estimateof up to 8000Budgerigars atthe Holiday roost is the largest total Ninety-five(65%) of 145dutches monitored through the nesting cycle reportedin Florida,surpassing even all multi-partyC.B.C. totals (Table
394 NORTH AMERICAN BIRDS Budgerigar
1) TheHoliday roost, which apparenfiyno longer is active,was within the on C.B.C.s)are limitedto the non-breedingseason. Cumulative totals WestPasco C.B.C. circle, in whichonly 698 Budgerigars were found in for all C.B.C.sincreased more than 1000% in twoyears, rising from 269 December1978 (Table 1)--no more than 11% of the numbersShapiro birdsduring 1972-1973 to 2910individuals during 1974-1975 (Table 1) estimatedfrom the Holidayroost! Despite this apparentlysevere under- Mostof thisincrease occurred at St.Petersburg, where numbers explod- count,C.B.C. data offer the onlymeans of determiningthe sizeof the edfrom 90 to 1800birds (Table 1). Thishuge increase over a shortperi- overallBudgerigar population in Florida.To the figureof up to 8000 od suggeststhat releases of largenumbers of Budgerigarsmay have con- Budgerigarsfound within the WestPasco C.B.C. circle are addedhigh tinued into the mid- 1970s. countsfrom other regional C.B.C.s. Maximum counts for thetwo Pinelias Perhapseven less certain than the causesof the populationincrease CountyC.B.C.s (North Pinellas and St. Petersburg) were 740 and 5400, are the causesof its decline.Cumulative totals on C.B.C.splummeted respectively.The highest count from the Tampa C.B.C. was 115 individu- from 6895 Budgerigarsduring 1977-1978 to 385 birdsten yearslater als,while Manatee County C.B.C.s (Bradenton and Gulf CircleManatee (Table1, Fig. 2). Potentialcauses of this declineinclude severely cold County)peaked at 470and 57 Budgerigars,respectively. If the report of weather,nest box usurpation by HouseSparrows, nest cavity usurpation "705" Budgerigarson the 1974 SarasotaC.B.C. is discounted,then by EuropeanStarlings (Sturnus vulgaris), a reductionin the numberof SarasotaCounty C.B.C.s (Sarasota and Venice-Englewood) contained up nest boxesprovided, disease or epizootic(Hoffman 1995), a "boom- to 121 and 521 individuals,respectively. These totals add up to nearly and-bust"cycle characteristic of populationsof severalother exotic 15,500Budgerigars within eight coastal C.B.C. drcles in a five-countyarea birds,and perhaps several other "unaccountable" factors (Robertson and (Table1). High totalson theseC.B.C.s were obtained between 1975 and Woolfenden1992). C.B.C. data show that Budgerigarpopulations built 1984,with mostoccurring during the 1976-1977and 1978-1979count up steadilythrough the late 1960sand early1970s, peaked in the late periods.The highestcumulative C.B.C. total (6895 individuals)was 1970s,then rapidly declined through the 1980sto (in mostcases) exnr- obtmnedduring the 1977-1978count period (Table 1). pationby the earlyor mid-1990s(Table 1, Fig.2). EveryC.B.C. circle Nearlyall areasalong the centralGulf coastof Floridaoccupied by activeduring that periodshows this trend, which suggests that the pop- Budgerigarswere within C.B.C. circles, except for a substantialportion of ulationdecline was rangewide and synchronous.The followingsection mld-PmellasCounty. This area,especially barrier island communities discussesfive potential causes of the Budgerigar'sdecline in Florida between ClearwaterBeach and RedingtonBeach, contained many Winterfreezes.--Apopular theory of theBudgerigar's disappearance Budgerigarsthat never were counted on C.B.C.s.Lipp (1963) claimed that frommost of itsFlorida range relates to thefreezes that affected the cen- "thousands"of Budgerigarswere present in onemobile home develop- tral Peninsuladuring the period of the populationdecline. Between mentat RedingtonBeach. While this estimate likely is anexaggeration, the 1970 and 1999,four "extremelysevere freezes" were recordedin the presenceof largenumbers of Budgerigarson the barrier islands have been region:in January1977, December 1983, January 1985, and December confirmedby others (Dill 1981,L. Athertonin litt.,W. Biggspers. comm.). 1989(Henry et al. 1994,R. Paulpers. comm.). Temperatures at Tampa When theseindividuals are addedto the nearly 15,500Budgerigars droppedas low as -4ø C duringDecember 1989 (Henry et al 1994) accountedfor within C.B.C.circles, and furtherconsidering that large However,C.B.C. data show no Budgerigardeclines in the yearsfollow- numbersmay havebeen overlooked during C.B.C.s (e.g., see above), it ing threeof thesefreezes; in fact,the highest cumulative C.B.C. total was seemsreasonable to concludethat 20,000or moreBudgerigars may have obtained11-12 months after the January1977 freeze (Table 1, Fig 2) occupiedthe central Gulf coast of Floridaat theheight of theirabundance Only followingthe January1985 freezedo subsequentC.B.C. totals in the late 1970s. reflecta noticeabledecline in Budgerigarnumbers (Fig. 2). But the Currently,Budgerigars are restrictedto smallportions of Hernando apparentlack of effectsof the threeother freezes, coupled with the andPasco counties (Fig. 4), andcumulative totals on C.B.C.shave num- downwardtrend already obvious in the populationby the mid-1980s beredfewer than 100 individuals since the 1994-1995count period (Table (Fig. 2), suggeststhat any link betweenthe January1985 freeze and 1) All habitatat HernandoBeach is surveyedon the Aripeka-Bayport decliningBudgerigar numbers is onlya coincidence. C B C, and it is thoughtthat nearlyall Budgerigarsare counted(pers. Severalother points seem to ruleout freezingtemperatures as a cause obs) A few small"colonies" may be overlookedon WestPasco C.B.C.s of the Budgerigar'sdecline. The first is that coldtemperatures rarely becauseof their moreextensive range within that countcircle; the non- causedirect mortality of birds;a lackof food---oftencaused by extreme C B C totalof 92 Budgerigarson the fall 2000N.A.M.C. wasmentioned weatherevents (e.g., sudden freezes or heavysnow cover)--is more often previously.Probably no more than 150-200Budgerigars remain in the culprit.Second, Budgerigars routinely experience near-freezing or Hernandoand Pasco counties, a figure that represents a greater than 99% freezingtemperatures at nightin Australia(R. Jack,L. Joseph,A. Burton, dechnein theirrangewide numbers since the late 1970s.The extirpation A. Oversin litt.), sothey can tolerate cold temperatures to somedegree of Budgerigarsfrom Pinellas County is especially noteworthy because sev- Third, giventheir highrate of reproductionin Florida(Shapiro 1979, eral thousand individuals occurred there previously(Table 1). 1980), it seemslikely that the Budgerigarpopulation would have Populationsin PascoCounty, while still extant, have declined severely in reboundedin the 1990sfollowing the freeze in December1989. A simi- thepast 15 to 20years. Curiously, the number of Budgerigarsreported on lar weather-relatedcyclic pattern.is shown by Carolina Wrens FloridaC.B.C.s has remained relatively stable since the 1995-1996count (Thryothorusludovicianus) in the northern limits of their range period,with a meanof 80 individuals(range 43-92; Table 1, Fig. 2). (Haggerty1995)..And fourth, all Budgerigarsremaining in Floridaare Nevertheless,the eventualextirpation of Budgerigarsfrom Floridaseems foundin the two northernmostcounties of theirprevious range, where likely temperaturesare a few degreeslower than areasto the south (e g, Hudsonvs. Sarasota areas; Henry et al. 1994).If freezingtemperatures PopulationFluctuation causedthe declineof Budgerigars,then one might haveexpected the C B C datashow a hugepopulation increase during the mid-1970s, and a northernmostpopulation to havedisappeared first, when in fact,it •sthe similarlydramatic decline through the 1980s(Fig. 2). Determiningthe onlyone that haspersisted. causesof thesefluctuations probably is impossible because the population Cavitycompetition.--Budgerigars in Florida have nested in natural wasnot under study during these periods, and published data (i.e., those andartificial'cavities such as snags (Woolfenden 1963, Shapiro 1979,
VOLUME 55 (2OO1), NUMBER 4 395 1981,Cruickshank 1980, L. Athertonin litt., W. Biggspers. comm.), "Boomand bust."--Populationsof severalexotic birds in North davits(cranes used to lower and raiseboats; Shapiro 1979, 1981,D. Americahave shown a rapidincrease followed by a declineto, m some Freemanin litt., M. Wilkinsonin litt.), streetlamps (Shapiro1979, cases,extirpation. In southeasternFlorida, populations of the Canary- 1981),and axilsof CabbagePalms (Sabal palmetto; G.E. Woolfenden in winged [now White-winged]Parakeet (Brotogeris versicolurus) and Stevenson1963), but the majorityof thepopulation used custom-built Spot-breastedOriole (Icteruspectoralis) &dined in the late 1970sand "Budgieboxes." The smallcavity entrance of theseboxes kept out early 1980s(Robertson and Woolfenden1992, Smith and Smith 1993, EuropeanStarlings, but HouseSparrows could enter easily (cf. Fig.5). Brightsmith 1999), which correspondswith the period of the Wennerand Hirth (1984)noted that Budgerigars at Holiday were"heav- Budgerigar'sdecline in west-centralFlorida. The declineof the oriole fly dependent"on nestboxes, and that House Sparrows were their only wasattributed to freeze-relateddamage to fruitingplants on whichthe competitorfor thisresource. Shapiro (1979) observed "many instances" oriolesfed (Robertsonand Woolfenden1992), but no clear causewas whenHouse Sparrows entered nest boxes occupied by Budgerigars, evidentfor the declineof White-wingedParakeets (Robertson and puncturedand removed the eggs, and usurped the box. House Sparrows Woolfenden1992, Smith and Smith1993, Brightsmith 1999). Garrett continueto competewith Budgerigarsover nest boxes, and some resi- (1993)noted a similardecline of White-wingedParakeets in southern dentsat Holidayhave reported local extirpations of Budgerigarsdue to Californiaduring the same period. Crested Mynas (Acridotheres crtstatel- HouseSparrows as recently as 1999(fide K. Tracey).The percentage of lus)at Vancouver,British Columbia declined from manythousands of Budgerigarsthat bred in naturalcavities in Floridais unknown,but individualsin the 1920sand 1930sto fewerthan 100by the mid-1990s probablyit was a small fractionof thosethat nestedin boxes. (Johnsonand Campbell 1995). The causesof the myna'sdecline were Budgerigarsthat nested in naturalcavities apparently could not compete thoughtto beincreased competition with European Starlings for nesting successfullywith EuropeanStarlings (L. Atherton in litt.,W. Biggspets. sites,loss of agriculturalforaging areas from development,maladapta- comm.),which increased as a breedingspecies in Floridabetween 1969 tion to thelocal climate, and a reductionof nestingsites due to changes and1983 (Cox 1987). All publishedobservations of Budgerigars nesting in buildingstructures (Johnson and Campbell 1995). •n natural cavities were in the 1960s and 1970s. Reductionof nestboxes.---Probably every breeding population of Conclusion Budgerigarsin Floridawas sustained by humanresidents who derived Becausethe sizeof the Budgerigarpopulation has remained severely greatsatisfaction in havingthe birdsnest and feed in their yards depressedsince the freezein December1989, some factor other than (Shapiro1979, 1980, Wenner and Hirth 1984).Many residents provided weatherprobably caused the declineand continuesto keepnumbers multiple"apartment" nest boxes where a dozenor morepairs could low.This factor could be competition for resources.Availability of food breed simultaneously(photographs in Shapiro1981). At least one wasprobably never a limitingfactor for Budgerigars,as theyand other Budgerigarpopulation, at MadeiraBeach on thebarrier island in mid- granivorousspecies of heavilysuburbanized areas (primarily doves, P•nellasCounty, was impacted by a reductionin thenumber of residents icterids,and House Sparrows) were provided with a virtuallyhm•tless whoprovided nest boxes. Redevelopment of this area from a retirement supplyof commercialbird seedat manyfeeders (Shapiro 1979, 1980, communityto tourist-orientedmotels and condominiums drove away 1981,Wenner and Hirth 1984).Competition over nesting sites may have theelderly residents who lived there, and this caused extirpation of the beenthe primary cause of theBudgerigar's &dine andmay be the fac- localBudgerigar population (L. Athertonin litt.).At Holidayand New tor that hasprevented the populationfrom recovering.Competlbon PortRichey today, few yards still contain Budgerigar nest boxes (pets. with HouseSparrows over nest boxes is the onlypotential cause of the obs), undoubtedlybecause the birdslargely have vanished from those Budgerigar'spopulation decline that is supportedby Shapiro's(1979) areas. demographicstudy. Diseaseor epizootic.---Price( 1980 in Friendet al.2001) claimed that, "parasitesaffect the life and death of practicallyevery other organism." Acknowledgments Nolan et al. (1998) estimatedthat tensof millions(emphasis added) of Numerousindividuals responded to my requestsfor informabonon HouseFinches (Carpodacus mexicanus) were killed in theeastern United Budgerigaroccurrences in Australiaor Florida,and I thankthem here Statesby an outbreakof mycoplasmalconjunctivitis between 1994 and LynAtherton, Wes Biggs, Allison Bishop, John Boyd, Andy Burton, Judy 1996.Friend et al. (2001)summarized 31 examplesof diseasescausing Caughley,Judy Fisher, Frank Frazier (deceased), Dot Freeman,Chuck mortalityof birdsand other wildlife around the world. Budgerigars are Geanangel,Bey Hansen,Rhetta Jack, Leo Joseph,Katrina Knight, known vectorsof numerousdiseases such as chlamydiosis("parrot AnthonyOvers, Ann and RichPaul, Hugo Phillipps, Don Robinson, fever"),salmonellosis, and Newcastledisease (references in Shapiro Roland Seitre,Lee Snyder,Don Ware, Margie Wilkinson,Stewart 1979).In Florida,Budgerigars roosted in largeflocks, often with other Williamson,and especially Ken Tracey. Those who provided other ass•s- speciessuch as Mourning Doves (Zenaida macroura), American Robins ranceor commentswere Enrique Bucher, Sally Conyne, Karen Mabb, (Turdusmigratorius), European Starlings, and icterids(Shapiro 1979, JohnO'Neill, Rich Paul, and Peter Them. Bruce Anderson, Wes B•ggs, 1981,Dill 1981,Wenner and Hirth 1984,pers. obs.), so the potentialfor Ann Bruce,Todd Engstrom, Doug McNair, Sally Treat, Annamana Van widespreadtransmission of diseasesor parasiteswas great. Hoffman Doorn,and George Wallace provided copies of importantreferences I (1995)believed that disease played a rolein the Budgerigar'sdecline in am mostgrateful to Ned Brinkley,Kimball Garrett, Stephanie Johnson, Florida,but thereseems to beno directevidence to supportthis theory. PaulLehman, Doug McNair, Michael Patten, George Wallace, and espe- One mighthave expected that numbersof "sick"or deadBudgerigars ciallyP. William Smith for improvingdrafts of the manuscript.I thank wouldhave been noticed by the humanresidents in whoseneighbor- Dave Goodwin,Al and BevHansen, Don Robinson,Don Woodard,and hoodsthe birdsroosted, bred, and fed. For example,a die-offof 100 PaulYoung for their long-term participation in theAripeka-Bayport and EurasianCollared-Doves (Streptopelia decaocto) at St. Petersburg in June WestPasco C.B.C.s, which has helpedto documentchanges m the 2001, attributedto a pathogen,was publicizedin the press(e.g., Budgerigarpopulation. Finally, I am grateful to myparents, Holly Lovell Holhngsworth2001). No similarreport of Budgerigardeaths in Florida for support,and to GlenWoolfenden and the late Herb Kale for •mprov- •sknown to havebeen published (e.g., Stevenson and Anderson 1994). ing my writing.
396 Budgerigar
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