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The Number and Distribution of Introduced and Naturalized Parrots

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The Number and Distribution of Introduced and Naturalized Parrots diversity Review The Number and Distribution of Introduced and Naturalized Parrots Carlos E. Calzada Preston and Stephen Pruett-Jones * Department of Ecology and Evolution, University of Chicago, 1101 East 57th St., Chicago, IL 60637, USA; [email protected] * Correspondence: [email protected]; Tel.: +1-630-248-2360 Abstract: Parrots have been transported and traded by humans for at least the last 2000 years and this trade continues unabated today. This transport of species has involved the majority of recognized parrot species (300+ of 382 species). Inevitably, some alien species either escape captivity or are released and may establish breeding populations in the novel area. With respect to parrots, established but alien populations are becoming common in many parts of the world. In this review, we attempt to estimate the total number of parrot species introduced into the wild in non-native areas and assess how many of these have self-sustaining breeding populations. Based the public databases GAVIA, eBird, and iNaturalist, 166 species of Psittaciformes have been introduced (seen in the wild) into 120 countries or territories outside of the native range. Of these, 60 species are naturalized, and an additional 11 species are breeding in at least one country outside of their native range (86 countries or territories total). The Rose-ringed Parakeet (Psittacula krameri) and Monk Myiopsitta monachus Parakeet ( ) are the most widely distributed and successful of the introduced parrots, being naturalized in 47 and 26 countries or territories, respectively. Far and away, the United States and its territories support the greatest number of naturalized parrots, with 28 different species Citation: Calzada Preston, C.E.; Pruett-Jones, S. The Number and found in either the continental US, or Hawaii or Puerto Rico. Naturalized species as well as urbanized Distribution of Introduced and native species of parrots are likely to continue increasing in numbers and geographical range, and Naturalized Parrots. Diversity 2021, detailed studies are needed to both confirm species richness in each area as well mitigate potential 13, 412. https://doi.org/10.3390/ ecological impacts and conflicts with humans. d13090412 Keywords: naturalized parrots; introduced species; invasive species; world parrot trade; Academic Editors: Michael Wink, invasion biology José L. Tella, Guillermo Blanco and Martina Carrete Received: 15 June 2021 1. Introduction Accepted: 26 August 2021 Published: 29 August 2021 Parrots have been transported and traded by humans for at least the last 2000 years and this trade continues today [1]. Cardador et al. [2] summarized trade data available Publisher’s Note: MDPI stays neutral through the Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species of Wild Fauna and with regard to jurisdictional claims in Flora (CITES [3]) and documented that during the 20-year period 1975 to 2015, more than published maps and institutional affil- 19 million individual parrots of 336 species were legally traded among countries. This iations. involved an average of more than half a million birds each year, with the parrot trade representing approximately 25% of all legal bird trade [2]. Inevitably, some individuals of introduced alien species either escape captivity and/or are accidentally or purposefully released and may begin breeding in the wild in the novel area [4,5]. Parrots are no exception and released or escaped parrots are often quite Copyright: © 2021 by the authors. Licensee MDPI, Basel, Switzerland. successful at surviving in the wild in new areas. Over time, if a successful breeding This article is an open access article population is established, the species would be considered naturalized in that area. In distributed under the terms and some cases, the new populations can expand rapidly and grow exponentially in size [6–10]. conditions of the Creative Commons If the species extends its naturalized range and establishes additional populations, it may Attribution (CC BY) license (https:// become invasive. creativecommons.org/licenses/by/ Naturalized and invasive species are increasing worldwide, and parrots represent 4.0/). an increasingly large proportion of the naturalized bird species [11,12]. Although the Diversity 2021, 13, 412. https://doi.org/10.3390/d13090412 https://www.mdpi.com/journal/diversity Diversity 2021, 13, 412 2 of 12 invasive nature of established foreign parrot species is debated [13–15], naturalized parrot populations are increasing in distribution and size. Additionally, their interactions with humans are also increasing and becoming more complex and involve both positive and negative aspects [16–20]. This interaction with humans also includes control of some populations. In many cities around the world two common introduced parrots, the Rose- ringed Parakeet (Psittacula krameri) and Monk Parakeet (Myiopsitta monachus) are being controlled due to real or perceived problems with human activity. This is also true for some species in their native distribution [21]. The wildlife trade that ultimately gives rise to naturalized populations of parrots can also directly and negatively impact populations of species in their native ranges [22]. In many cases, this trade is causing species to be endangered in their native area, while at the same time inadvertently creating the possible situation where a population may establish itself in a novel and foreign area. In addition, the established populations can have impacts on local and native species [13]. It seems critical, therefore, to know exactly how many parrot species have established breeding populations in novel areas outside of their natural distribution. Such information is critical for monitoring introduced populations, informing management priorities, and understanding how introduced population may relate to the conservation of endangered populations in the native range of species [20]. That is the purpose of this review. We summarize multiple databases and attempt to arrive at an estimate for the number of parrot species both introduced and naturalized in the world. Our effort includes providing a database combining information from separate sources for use by other researchers. Efforts to estimate the number of naturalized parrots have been made for almost two decades, and a comparison of the results highlights that the number and distribution of naturalized parrots is increasing. In one of the first efforts at counting naturalized parrots, Lever [23]; see also [24] reported that 34 species of parrots established naturalized populations. Two years later, Runde et al. [25] reported that there were 39 naturalized parrot species. Subsequently, Menchetti and Mori [13] reported about 60 parrot species were breeding outside their native distribution, and Avery and Shiels [26] reported 54 species have been introduced into foreign areas and 38 of these have become established. Most recently, Royle and Donner [24] examined records in the Global Avian Invasion Atlas (GAVIA) database [27] from 1993–2012 and documented records of 129 species of parrots observed in 106 countries. From these records, Royle and Donner concluded that there were at least 47 species of parrots in 21 genera that are naturalized in at least one country outside their native range. Lastly, a recent estimate of the geographical range of naturalized parrots is that of Mori and Menchetti [15] in which they conclude that species are found in 47 countries and all continents except Antarctica [28–30]. The variation in recent estimates is due in part to the sources of the information reviewed, and the time frame considered. Although our study is also subject to the same limitations, our review represents the first attempt to estimate the number of naturalized species based on a combination of the available data sets that have previously been analyzed separately. Additionally, for the United States, we compare the data from the public data sets with detailed reviews and field observations to examine the consistency and accuracy in the public data sets. 2. Methods Our examination of world parrot species follows the taxonomy of the International Ornithological Congress (IOC) [31]. According to that taxonomy, there are 399 recognized species of parrots, including 17 taxa now extinct, and 382 extant species. 2.1. Terminology There are many terms now used in the literature on introduced and naturalized alien species [32]. We use the terminology of Blackburn et al. [33,34] and Richardson et al. [32] as follows: (a) introduced species–a non-native/alien species that has been transported outside of its native range by human means and for which individuals have been observed Diversity 2021, 13, 412 3 of 12 in the wild in the new and novel area; (b) Breeding-non-native/alien species for which there is evidence of breeding in the wild; (c) Naturalized-non-native/alien species that has established a self-sustaining population; (d) Invasive–non-native/alien species that has established a self-sustaining populations at multiple sites across a range of habitats. 2.2. Databases We were focused on identifying populations of species of Psittaciformes that occur in areas outside of their natural ranges. Thus, records of sub-species were subsumed under their corresponding species. To assess the status of each species, we summarized all records in the Global Avian Invasions Atlas (GAVIA) database [27]. GAVIA is a spatial and temporal database that summarizes published literature on naturalized birds and classifies the
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