11111.111111 FAO ManagementManagement andand FORESTRY conservation of PAPER conservatbn (if 101101 closedclose forests inin tropicaltro ical AmericaA ere,
Food ancfand Agriculture Organization of the United Nations
Rome, 19931993 Oil The designations employedemployed andand thethe presentationpresentation ofof materialmaterial inin thisthis publication do not imply the expression of any opinion whatsoever onon thethe partpart ofof thethe Food Food and and Agriculture Agriculture OrganizationOrganization ofof thethe United United Nations concerning the legal status of any countrycountry,, territoryterritory,, city or area or of its authorities, or concerningconcerning the delimitation of its frontiers or boundaries.boundaries.
MM-36-36 IISBNSBN 92-592-5-103147-9-103147-9
All rights reservedreserved.. No part of this public,ationpublication maymay bebe reproduced,reoroduced, storedstored inin a retrievalretrieval system, or transmitted inin any form or by any means, electronic,electronic, mechani-mechani calcal,, photocopyingphotocopying or otherwise, without the prior permission of the copyright owner.owner. Applications for such permission, withwith aa statement of of the purpose andand extentextent of 01 thethe reproductionreproduction,, should be addressed to thethe Director,Director, PublicationsPublications DivisDivision,ion, FoodFood anandd Agriculture Organization ofof the United Nations, Viale delle Terme di Caracalla,Caracalla, 0010000100 Rome, Italy.Italy.
©0 FAO FAO 19931993 - iii -
PREFACE
The Forest ResourcesResources Division of FAO's ForestryForestry DepartmentDepartment hashas undertakenundertaken inin recent years the publicationpublication of a seriesseries ofof ForestryForestry PapersPapers onon thethe managementmanagement ofof moistmoist tropicaltropical forestsforests in collaborationcollaboration with various national organizationsorganizations.. The The fIrstfirst of thesethese documentsdocuments presentedpresented examples ofof tropicaltropical forestforest managementmanagement inin India,India, Ghana,Ghana, HondurasHonduras and TrinidadTrinidad andand Tobago (FAO Forestry Papers Nos 53 andand 55).55). These were followedfollowed byby regionalregional surveyssurveys of forestforest managementmanagement systems currentlycurrently practicedpracticed inin Africa and Asia,Asia, published in 1989 (FAO Forestry Papers Nos 88 and 89). This paper continues the seriesseries withwith a survey of thethe managementmanagement systemssystems implemented in the moist tropical forests of LatinLatin AmericaAmerica and the Caribbean.
This isis thethe regionregion thatthat hashas thethe largestlargest areaarea ofof closed closed tropicaltropical forestsforests inin thethe world.world. As in mostmost ofof thethe tropicaltropical world,world, thethe destructiondestruction ofof thesethese forestsforests isis proceedingproceeding at aa rapidrapid pace. AlthoughAlthough the great AmazonianAmazonian forest is still largelylargely intact,intact, inin spitespite ofof considerableconsiderable deforestation on its outskirts, thethe maintenancemaintenance of a sufficient amount of forest cover in otherother tropical parts of thethe continentcontinent isis problematical, or eveneven gravely gravely compromised.compromised.
The management of tropical forests with a view toto thethe sustainedsustained production of woodwood and!and/or or other products and services is a sinesine quaqua nonnon notnot onlyonly forfor theirtheir conservation conservation butbut also for improvement ofof the quality of life of the millionsmillions of persons who live in oror nearnear these forests.
In thethe AmazonAmazon BasinBasin countries,countries, wherewhere populationpopulation density is low, zoningzoning basedbased onon solid scientific criteria should make it possiblepossible to direct landland settlementsettlement towards the richestrichest soils, toto developdevelop thethe permanentpermanent forestsforests andand toto reservereserve aa certain certain numbernumber ofof protected protected areas.areas. Extensive, ratherrather thanthan intensiveintensive forestforest managementmanagement shouldshould bebe envisagedenvisaged inin thethe initialinitial phasesphases of suchsuch development.development.
The Central American and Caribbean countries,countries, onon thethe otherother hand,hand, havehave a high population density and are faced withwith woodwood supplysupply problems. problems. Their land reserves are limited and there isis muchmuch soilsoil erosion.erosion. InIn thisthis contextcontext aa policypolicy basedbased onon thethe delimitationdelimitation ofof permanent national productiveproductive forests isis imperative,imperative, andand mustmust bebe accompaniedaccompanied byby intensiveintensive forest management,management, possiblypossibly inin associationassociation withwith agro-silvo-pastoral-activities. agro-silvo-pastoral-activities.
We hope that this studystudy will serve as aa referencereference bookbook forfor thosethose interestedinterested inin thisthis subject, whether theythey be foresters oror not,not, andand thatthat itit willwill helphelp themthem toto understandunderstand moremore fully,fully, andand possiblypossibly alsoalso toto solve,solve, thethe problemsproblems posedposed inin thethe management management ofof tropical tropical AmericanAmerican forests.forests.
J.P. LanlyLanly Director ForestForest ResourcesResources DivisionDivision Forestry DepartmentDepartment - ivIV -
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
This documentdocument is base,dbased on severalseveral contributeAcontributed casecase studies whose authors FAO wishes toto acknowledge:acknowledge:
"Informe relativo al manejomanejo de bosquesbosques tropicalestropicales húmedoshUmedos en México"Mexico" -- MiguelMiguel Caballero Deloya, CarlosCarlos RodríguezRodriguez Franco,Franco, InstitutoInstituto NacionalNacional dede InvestigacionesInvestigaciones Forestales yy AgropecuariasAgropecuarias dede México,Mexico, Mexico.Mexico.
"El"EI manejomanejo dede bosquesbosques húmedoshUmedos tropicalestropicales enen AméricaAmerica Central"Central" - HéctorHector A.A. Martínez,Martinez, RonnieRonnie de Camino,Camino, CentroCentro AgronómicoAgronomico Tropical dede InvestigaciónInvestigacion y EnseiianzaEnseñanza - CATIE,CA TIE, CostaCosta Rica.Rica.
"Management ofof tropicaltropical moistmoist forestforest inin Suriname" -- J. HendrisonHendrison andand W.B.J.W.B.J. Jonkers, LandbouwLandbouw Hogeschool,Hogeschool, Wageningen,Wageningen, Netherlands.Netherlands.
"Rapport national sur l'aménagementl'amenagement des forasforets naturellesnaturelles tropicalestropicales humideshumides enen AmeriqueAmérique Latine",Latine", Office NationalNational desdes ForetsForêts - ONFONP andand leIe CentreCentre TechniqueTechnique Forestier Tropical - CTFT,CTFT, FrenchFrench Guiana.Guiana.
FAO sincerely thanks the "Centre Technique Forestier Tropical" inin FranceFrance toto whichwhich it committed the synthesis andand final editingediting ofof thethe document. InIn particular,particular, FAO wishes to thank thethe authors:authors: MessrsMessrs H.F.H.F. Maitre, D. Laurent,Laurent, A. Coic,Coic, C.C. FargeotFargeot andand V.V. FavrichonFavrichon for theirtheir outstandingoutstanding work.work. - v --
CONTENTS
Page
I. INTRODUCTION 1
1. Previous papers 1 2. Presentation 1 3. Management and conservationconservation 2
II. EXTENT ANDAND CLASSIFICATIONCLASSIFICATION OFOF CLOSEDCLOSED FORESTSFORESTS IN TROPICAL AMERICAAMERICA 5
l. The tropicaltropical forestsforests ofof MexicoMexico andand CentralCentral AmericaAmerica 5 2. The island forestsforests -- thethe CaribbeanCaribbean 9 3. The GuyaneseGuyanese forestforest regionregion 12 4. The AmazonianAmazonian forest regionregion 15
III. FOREST POLICIES, LEGISLATIONLEGISLATION ANDAND ADMINISTRATIONADMINISTRATION 25
1. The Isthmus countriescountries 25 2. The CaribbeanCaribbean archipelagoarchipelago countriescountries 28 3. The GuyaneseGuyanese regionregion countriescountries 29 4. The AmazonianAmazonian countriescountries 32 5. Recapitulation 40
IV.N. STATE OF THETHE RESOURCE:RESOURCE: INVENTORIESINVENTORIES AND DEFORESTATION 43
1. The Isthmus countriescountries 44 2. Mexico 48 3. Belize 48 4. The CaribbeanCaribbean 49 5. The GuyaneseGuyanese regionregion 51 6. The AmazonianAmazonian countriescountries 53 7. General conclusions 56
V. ECONOMIC FACTORS ANDAND WOODWOOD PROCESSINGPROCESSING 57
1. General introductionintroduction 57 2. The Isthmus and CaribbeanCaribbean countriescountries 60 3. The GuyaneseGuyanese regionregion countriescountries 66 4. The AmazonianAmazonian and AndeanAndean countriescountries 70 - vi --
VI. RESEARCH 76
1. The IsthmusIsthmus andand CaribbeanCaribbean countriescountries 76 2. The GuyaneseGuyanese regionregion countriescountries 79 3. The AmazonianAmazonian and AndeanAndean countriescountries 82 4. Overall summary of researchresearch 87
VII.VII. MANAGEMENT PROGRAMMES ANDAND PROJECTSPROJECTS 90
1. Overview 90 2. The Isthmus and CaribbeanCaribbean countriescountries 91 3. The GuyaneseGuyanese shieldshield countries 98 4. The AmazonianAmazonian and AndeanAndean countries 101
VIII. CASE STUDIES 107
1. Case studystudy N°N° 11 107 2. Case study N°N°2 2 113 3. Case study N°N°3 3 117 4. Case studystudy N°N° 4 124 5. Case studystudy N°N° 55 112828 6. CaseCase study N°N°6 6 131
IXIX.. GENERAGENERALL SUMMARY - CONCLUSIONCONCLUSION 133
BIBLIOGRAPHY 137 - 11 -
I. INTRODUCTION
1. Previous papers: With a viewview toto thethe planningplanning andand preparationpreparation ofof tropicaltropical forestforest management and conservationconservation programmes, the FADFAO Forestry Department hashas commissioned a numbernumber of paperspapers onon tropicaltropical moistmoist forestforest management.management. The most recent and significant of these are:
"Review of forestforest managementmanagement systems of Tropical Asia"Asia" (FAO(FAD FORESTRYFORESTRY PAPERPAPER 89)89) based on case studiesstudies of timber-oriented projectsprojects inin India, Malaysia and thethe Philippines;Philippines; and "Management ofof tropical moist forests in Africa"Africa" (FAO(FAD FORESTRYFORESTRY PAPER 88),88), whichwhich deals essentially withwith lowlandlowland tropicaltropical moistmoist forests.forests.
2. Presentation: ThisThis paperpaper dealsdeals aboveabove allall withwith low-altitudelow-altitude moistmoist forestsforests inin CentralCentral America and Amazonia,Amazonia, and reviewsreviews thethe forestforest situationsituation typicaltypical ofof mostmost tropicaltropical LatinLatin American nations and prevailingprevailing inin thethe definitiondefinition andand applicationapplication of Forest ManagementManagement Plans.
It summarizes the available documents collected byby thethe FADFAO Forestry Department.Department. These are either national reports written expressly for the purposes ofof the present paperpaper (as in the cases of Central America, Suriname, andand FrenchFrench Guiana),Guiana), oror project reports or final assessments drawn up by various experts and participants (as in the cases of Brazil, Mexico,Mexico, Venezuela, etcetc...... ). ).
For easier reading, inin thethe followingfollowing chapters the various countries havehave been grouped together inin geographicalgeographical blocsblocs oror sub-regions:sub-regions:
The first,first, consistingconsisting of Mexico, thethe CentralCentral AmericanAmerican IsthmusIsthmus countriescountries andand Belize, constitutesconstitutes a relativelyrelatively homogeneoushomogeneous unitunit whose naturalnatural forestforest formationsformations are presentedpresented inin greatestgreatest detaildetail inin thethe sectionsection onon Mexico;Mexico;
The secondsecond is thethe CaribeanCaribean Archipelago,Archipelago, an area on whichwhich only scantyscanty data is available inin manymany cases;cases;
The nextnext groupgroup consistsconsists ofof Suriname,Suriname, GuyanaGuyana andand FrenchFrench GuianaGuiana (including(including Venezuelan Guyana) which due to their size and their inclusioninclusion inin thethe GuyaneseGuyanese Shield are somewhat aloof from the AmazonianAmazonian forest region;
The lastlast groupgroup isis mademade upup ofof all all those those South South American American nationsnations thatthat includeinclude portions of Amazonian forest, namely Brazil, Bolivia, Colombia, Ecuador, Peru and Venezuela; thethe mostmost detaileddetailed presentationpresentation ofof thesethese forestforest formationsformations isis givengiven in thethe sectionsection onon Brazil.Brazil.
These groupings are furtherfurther justifiedjustified byby thethe conceptconcept ofof an an interactiveinteractive relationship relationship between forest cover and deforestation, thethe latterlatter beingbeing directlydirect! y relatedrelated toto populationpopulation densitydensity 2 per km2.km • The graph shown below (taken from "Deforestation"Deforestation or development in the Third World?" MATTI PALO & JURKIJURKI SALMISALMI 1987,1987, TheThe FinishFinish ForestForest ResearchResearch Institute),Institute), which establishes the correlation between forest cover andand populationpopulation densitydensity inin LatinLatin America in 1980,1980, isis extremelyextremely eloquent:eloquent: - 2 -
100% * FR.FR. GUIANAGUIANA * SURINAMESURINAME * GUYANA Forest * GUYANA cover %
* PERUPERU * BRAZILBRAZIL * ECUADORECUADOR
* BOLIVIA
* COLOMBIACOLOMBIA 50%
* VENEZUELA
* COSTA RICA
* MEXICO
* HAITI o 1 2,7 7,4 20 55 148 Density pop/km2pop/krn'
The GuyaneseGuyanese ShieldShield countries are groupedgrouped togethertogether inin the sectorsector withwith lowlow population densitydensity and high rate of cover, whilstwhilst CostaCosta Rica (Isthmus)(Isthmus) and Mexico are in the opposite sectorsector (high population densitydensity andand low forest cover);cover); mostmost ofof thethe AmazonianAmazonian countries are midwaymidway betwe,enbetween the two.
(Attention is drawn to thethe dramaticdramatic situationsituation inin Haiti).Haiti).
Note: So asas toto preservepreserve thethe consistencyconsistency (and(and primaryprimary motivation)motivation) ofof this paper, namelynamely natural forest.forest itsits conservation conservation andand development,development, wewe havehave decideddecided toto omit,omit, oror rather,rather, toto avoidavoid dealing at any lengthlength withwith man-mademan-made forest plantationsplantations (and theirtheir silviculturalsilvicultural techniques),techniques), which are certainly very numerousnumerous and would have takentaken upup aa disproportionatedisproportionate amount of space in the text, althoughalthough inin thethe lastlast analysisanalysis theythey merelymerely constituteconstitute aa technicaltechnical alternativealternative when the natural forestforest ecosystemecosystem can nono longerlonger bebe sustained.sustained.
3. ManagementManagement and conservation: There can be no doubt that one of thethe bestbest waysways to protect a forestforest isis toto workwork in in it; it; more more specifically, specifically, continuouscontinuous andand permanentpermanent forestforest management combines all the crucial elements require,drequired toto assureassure forestforest conservation,conservation, and this is even more true when thesethese measures are able toto give rise toto positive economic, ecological, social and scientific repercussions.repercussions. - 3 -
The definition (or definitions)definitions) of forestforest managementmanagement is presentedpresented inin somesome detaildetail inin the introductionintroduction toto the aforementionedaforementioned FAO FAO ForestryForestry PaperPaper 8888 onon Africa. AA fewfew briefbrief quotations should thus be sufficient for our purposes:
"Management consistsconsists inin decidingdeciding whatwhat wewe wishwish toto do with the forest, toto taketake accountaccount ofof what we can do with it, andand hencehence toto deducededuce what we should do with it".
"(Management is)is) thethe allocation and organization of scarce resourcesresources toto meetmeet defineddefined objects,objects, goals or ends".ends" .
Both these definitions stress the fact that management must be a compromise between the ideal and the possible; thatthat itit requiresrequires clearlyclearly defineddefined objectives;objectives; thatthat thethe objectivesobjectives mustmust be realisticrealistic andand maymay needneed toto bebe modifiedmodified inin thethe lightlight ofof biological, biological, socialsocial economiceconomic oror political constraints; and thatthat managementmanagement must make the best use of availableavailable resources.resources.
The "traditional""traditional" approach to forestforest managementmanagement was basedbased essentiallyessentially on thethe concept that thethe forestforest isis anan ecosystemecosystem toto bebe described described (geographical,(geographical, climatic,climatic, floristic,floristic, pedological, ... ecological characteristics),characteristics), studiedstudied (potential,(potential, evolution,evolution, growthgrowth ...... ) ) andand situated inin aa specific contextcontext (ownership(ownership rights, rights, produce, demand,tlemand, markets, ...).... ). SocialSocial datadata was rarely taken into account: except for human resources to carry out thethe workwork required,required, the socio-economic rolerole andand aboveabove allall thethe impactimpact "of""of" and "for" thethe surroundingsurrounding population were scarcely or tootoo brieflybriefly considered.considered.
Once the above information liadhad been obtained, thethe managementmanagement plan prescribedprescribed thethe appropriate silvicultural techniques, rotations, felling rates andand schedules,schedules, withwith estimatedestimated yields, ... and then proceeded to establish the procedures forfor verifyingverifying thethe applicationapplication ofof thethe management plan and for itsits revisionrevision furtherfurther onon inin thethe light light of of changing changing circumstances.circumstances.
This rigorous standard approach, with its emphasis on long-term production, is in fact hardly ever applicable in the tropics, and particularly in tropical America, sincesince itit comes up against two majormajor factorsfactors thatthat implyimply a shiftshift inin itsits conceptsconcepts andand criteria:criteria:
the high populationpopulation growth-rate inin most of thethe countriescountries in question,question, andand itsits consequences in terms of land-hungerland-hunger andand deforestation;deforestation;
and thethe constantlyconstantly increasingincreasing demand in thesethese countriescountries forfor forestforest produceproduce (chiefly wood).
Conse,quently,Consequently, thethe criteriacriteria employedemployed inin drawingdrawing upup "modern""modern" ManagementManagement Plans for tropical forests mustmust obligatorily take into account thethe needneed to satisfysatisfy thethe locallocal population'spopulation's land and forest product needs, and knowledgeknowledge of thethe forest ecosystem, its evolution, potentialpotential and developmentdevelopment options will remain sterilesterile unlessunless accompaniedaccompanied by detaileddetailed analysisanalysis ofof pertinent agricultural, politicalpolitical and socialsocial factors.factors. - 44 -
Hence, quoting once again from FAOFAO FORESTRYFORESTRY PAPER 88, thethe planningplanning ofof management systemssystems forfor the conservation and development of tropical forestsforests mustmust includeinclude at least four datadata sectors:sectors:
(1) Physical, biological andand ecologicalecological factors;factors;
(2) Social factors, includingincluding politicalpolitical and cultural facets,facets, andand locallocal andand nationalnational needs;needs;
(3) Economic factorsfactors,, including financial andand budgetary constraintsconstraints,, raterate of return,return, costs, prices,prices, tradetrade andand markets;markets;
(4) Technological factors and their rate of changechange in silviculture,silviculture, harvestingharvesting andand woodwood processing. - 5 -
II. EXTENT AND CLASSIFICATIONCLASSIFICATION OF CLOSEDCLOSED FORESTSFORESTS IN TROPICALTROPICAL AMERICA
Continental and insular tropicaltropical America counts about 678 million hectares of moist forests, over half ofof whichwhich isis locatedlocated inin thethe AmazonAmazon basinbasin (see(see MapMap ofof TropicalTropical TreeTree Formations overleaf).
In addition,addition, therethere areare alsoalso 108108 millionmillion hectareshectares ofof so-called so-called secondarysecondary forestsforests (CATIE, 1991).1991).
1. THE TROPICAL FORESTSFORESTS OFOF MEXICOMEXICO ANDAND CENTRALCENTRAL AMERICAAMERICA
Mexico has 38.9 millionmillion hectares of forest, equivalentequivalent to 19.4%19.4% ofof thethe country'scountry's total area, 11.411.4 millionmillion hectareshectares ofof whichwhich consistconsist ofof tropicaltropical treetree formations.formations. These are divided into two major groups, the so-calledso-called "high" forests:forests: 2.12.1 million hectares,hectares, and "low" forests:forests: 9.39.3 million million hectares.hectares.
Apart from standsstands ofof Pines,Pines, thethe tropicaltropical broadleavedbroadleaved forestsforests ofof MexicoMexico varyvary considerably according to such distinguishing sitesite characteristicscharacteristics asas climateclimate,, e.ge.g.. rainfallrainfall,, its distribution overover the year andand thethe numbernumber ofof drydry months,months, andand thethe edaphicedaphic andand topographictopographic factors, e.g. soilsoil characteristics,characteristics, altitude,altitude, slopes,slopes, etc.etc.
In relationrelation toto thesethese sitesite characteristics,characteristics, three major types of high forestsforests can be distinguished that combine climatic andand edaphicedaphic conditionsconditions favourable favourable toto forestforest ecosystemecosystem dynamics:
Evergreen forest,forest, (perennifolia)(perennifolia) withwith non-deciduousnon-deciduous leaves,leaves, underunder annualannual rainfallrainfall exceeding 2 000 mmmm withwith a short,short, drydry season,season, oror rainfall rainfall thatthat continuescontinues withoutwithout interrruption throughoutthroughout the year and totalstotals between 1 600 and 11 700700 mm.mm.
ItIt is found at lowlow altitudesaltitudes on well-drainedwell-drained soils of volcanic,volcanic, sedimentary oror other orIgm.origin. ThisThis is is the the most most luxuriant luxuriant type type of of forest, forest, well-storeyedwell-storeyed andand includingincluding treestrees ofof all all sizesize classesclasses..
The tallest trees inin thethe dominantdominant storeystorey cancan exceedexceed 6060 metresmetres inin heightheight andand attainattain anan above-buttress diameter diameter of of 6060 cm.cm. As in thethe upland AmazonianAmazonian forest,forest, mostmost trunkstrunks are straight and free of lowlow branches.branches.
This type of forestforest isis alsoalso richlyrichly endowedendowed with species ofof commercial value.value. TheThe best-known ofof these are:
- Swietenia macrophylla andand Cedrela odorata Meliaceae - Ceiba pentandra Bombacaceae - Guatteria anomala Annonaceae - Manilkara zapotilla Sapotaceae - Simarouba glauca Simaroubaceae - 66 -
- Vochysia hondurensis Vochysiaceae - Dialium guianensisguianensis Leguminosae - Terminalia amazonia Combretaceae
ItIt is found almost exclusively onon thethe Atlantic coastcoast (except(except forfor aa smallsmall stripstrip onon the Pacific side).
Semi-evergreen forest (subperennifolia), in which some species (25 to 50%) shed all or much of their foliage during the three-month drydry season.season.
It growsgrows onon slopingsloping groundground andand onon fairlyfair! y poorpoor calcareouscalcareous oror metamorphicmetamorphic soils,soils, under annual rainfallsrainfalls ofof 1 100 to 11 300 mm.mm .
In thisthis typetype ofof forest,forest, whichwhich isis farfar lessless well-stockedwell-stocked withwith valuablevaluable speciesspecies thanthan thethe previous kind, thethe dominantdominant tree heightheight is variablevariable but relatively low: fromfrom 2525 toto 3535 metres.metres. The typicaltypical speciesspecies are:are:
- Brosimum alicastrum Moraceae - Astronium graveolens Anacardiaceae - Guarea turchemimiiturchemimii Meliaceae - Manilkara zapotilla Sapotaceae - Bursera simarouba Burseraceae - Platymiscium yucatanum Leguminosae - Pseudobombax ellipticumellipticum Bombacaceae
This is certainly the most widespread type of tree formation in Mexico; itit growsgrows onlyonly on the AtlanticAtlantic seaboard.seaboard.
Semi-deciduous forest forest (subcaducifolia),(subcaducifolia), in in which which 50 50 toto 75% ofof thethe dominantdominant species shed all theirtheir leavesleaves duringduring thethe lengthylengthy stretchstretch ofof five five ecologicallyecologically "dry""dry" months. Annual rainfall is 1 000 toto 1I 200200 mm. AlthoughAlthough thethe densitydensity ofof thethe treetree population isis less thanthan inin thethe previousprevious twotwo types of forest,forest, the dominant height isis considerable:considerable: 2525 toto 3030 metres.metres.
This isis aa highlyhighly characteristiccharacteristic formation,formation, foundfound chieflychiefly onon thethe PacificPacific seaboard,seaboard, which includes species of greatgreat commercialcommercial value:value:
- Cedrela odorata andand SwieteniaSwietenia humilishumilis Meliaceae - Enterolobium cyclocarpumcyclocarpum Leguminosae - Bernoullia flammea Bombacaceae - Pseudobombax ellipticumellipticum Bombacaceae - MacluraMadura tinctoriatinctoria Moraceae - Spona'iasSpondias monbin Anacardiaceae - Piscidia conintuniscommunis Leguminosae - Vitex gaumeri Verbenaceae - Cordia alliodora Boraginaceae --7 7 -
TROPICAL FOREST FORMATIONS
UNITED STATESSTATES
...... 6
~ '~ ' CUBA ~ HAITI DOMINICAN REP. BELIZE ~ DOMINICAN REP. ~ _.,..... PUERTO RICO HONDURAS \ C-ZrL:J JAMAICA
GUATEMALA NICARAGUA EL SALVADOR PANAMA TOBAGO
COSTA RICA ---TRINI DAD
FR. GUYANA SURINAME GUYANA
ECUADOR Esuator
BRAZIL
CHILE ARGENTINA
URUGUAY
Dry tropical forestforest and wooded savanna
Deciduous and semi-deciduoussem i-deciduous tropical forestforesl
Evergreen tropical forest
Source: VegetationVegetation map of tropicaltropical America Scale o 19001900km km 1980 - Unesco - ICIV -8 -
In addition, under poorer sitesite conditions, a further four typestJ'pes of low forestforest areare toto be found whichwhich areare to to bebe considered considered structuralstructural andand floristicfloristic variantsvariants onon thethe previousprevious three:three:
Montane "low""low" evergreenevergreen forest:forest: this type, whichwhich isis foundfound atat altitudesaltitudes betweenbetween 1 000 and 22 500500 m,m, isis aa moistmoist forestforest ecosystemecosystem thatthat growsgrows underunder anan annualannual rainfall of 11 500500 mmmm accompaniedaccompanied byby mistsmists andand invisibleinvisible precipitations,precipitations, andand hence by abundant mosses,mosses, fernsferns and ground and tree-borne lichens.lichens. TheThe soilssoils are shallowshallow and poor in humus; the trees are mostlymostly small and misshapen. ThisThis typetype ofof forest,forest, whichwhich containscontains somesome highlyhighly characteristiccharacteristic speciesspecies suchsuch asas Podocarpus reichei,reichei, isis ofof no no commercialcommercial interest,interest, butbut playsplays aa vitalvital environmental role (erosion(erosion prevention, watershedwatershed protection,protection, etc.).etc.).
Two typestJ'pes of "low°'"low" semi-deciduous forest, strictlystrictly dependentdependent on edaphic factors:factors:
Savanna or transitionaltransitional forest/savannaforest/savanna formations of low densitydensity andand floristicfloristic variety, inin whichwhich treetree heightheight seldomseldom exceedsexceeds 5 m;m;
Swamp forests (growing on permanently or seasonallyseasonally flooded land), inin whichwhich three typicaltypical speciesspecies account forfor mostmost ofof thethe treetree population:popUlation: MetopiumMetopium browneibrownei (Anacariaceae), CamerariaCameraria latifolialatifolia (Apocynaceae)(Apocynaceae) andand aboveabove allall HeamatoxylumHeamatoxylum campechianum, aa Leguminosa formerlyformerly used to makemake dyes.dyes. This type of formation is very widespreadwidespread onon waterloggedwaterlogged soilssoils inin Yucatan.Yucatan.
Lastly, the low deciduous forest. TheThe geographical geographical distributiondistribution of this type of forest is veryvery complex:complex: it isis generallygenerally foundfound on thethe slopesslopes ofof deep,deep, narrownarrow valleys, onon poor,poor, stoney,stoney, sandysandy soils.soils. It receives an average rainfallrainfall ofof onlyonly 800800 mm per yearyear andand enduresendures aa drydry seasonseason lastinglasting 77 oror 88 months,months, duringduring whichwhich thethe species shed their leaves completely (5 to 7 months). The treestrees do notnot exceedexceed 1010 m in height and are oftenoften badlybadly shapedshaped and branchy at the base.base. TwoTwo frequentlyfrequently found speciesspecies areare BurseaBursea simaroubasimarouba (Burseraceae)(Burseraceae) andand GuiacumGuiacum sanctumsanctum (Zygophyllaceae).(Zygophyllaceae) .
Range in Central AmericaAmerica
These formations extend beyond the country's bordersborders andand areare foundfound throughoutthroughout thethe length of thethe CentralCentral AmericanAmerican isthmus.isthmus. Their ranges in thisthis areaarea varyvary considerably,considerably, butbut there is a very markedmarked divisiondivision betweenbetween moistmoist evergreenevergreen forestsforests onon thethe AtlanticAtlantic seaboardseaboard andand semi-deciduous andand deciduousdeciduous forestsforests onon thethe PacificPacific seaboard; these are separated by thethe central mountain ranges which enclose moist montane forests,forests, stands ofof pines as far southsouth as Nicaragua or oaks (Quercus. spp.)spp.) asas farfar asas southsouth CostaCosta Rica.Rica.
In Panama andand CostaCosta Rica,Rica, however,however, somesome characteristiccharacteristic formationsformations ofof Catival Catival andand of Guandal/SajalGuandal/Sajal are foundfound that areare identicalidentical toto thosethose inin ColombiaColombia (described(described furtherfurther on).on). - 99 -
Purely as anan indication,indication, thethe estimatedestimated forest areas in 19801980 areare givengiven belowbelow (in(in millions of hectares):hectares):
Broad-leaved forest Coniferous forest Total
Costa Rica 1.641.64 - 1.64 Salvador 0.10 0.04 0.14 Guatemala 3.78 0.66 4.44 Honduras 1.86 1.94 3.80 Nicaragua 4.17 0.33 4.50 Panama 4.16 - 4.16 TOTAL 15.7115.71 2.97 18.68
Today these areas are undoubtedlyundoubtedly far smaller; unfortunately the recent informationinformation available in this regard isis fragmentaryfragmentary andand unspecifiedunspecified due to thethe lacklack ofof up-to-dateup-to-date forestforest ininventories. ven tories.
As regards BELIZE, this sparcely populated countrycountry (average(average 88 inhabitants/km~inhabitants/ke) isis almost entirely covered with forests, whichwhich totaltotal slightlyslightly lessless thanthan twotwo millionmillion hectares.hectares. Three types of formationformation are foundfound herehere (FAO(FAO Nicolait,Nicolait, 1984):1984):
firstly, moistmoist broad-leavedbroad-leaved forest, locatedlocated on thethe lowlandslowlands inin thethe NortheasternNortheastern half of thethe countrycountry (1(1 600600 000000 hectares);hectares); itit isis extensivelyextensively loggedlogged forfor thethe exportexport market, andand suppliessupplies largelarge quantitiesquantities ofof mahogany; mahogany;
secondly, naturalnatural pine-forestspine-forests locatedlocated in thethe mountainsmountains ofof thethe SoutheasternSoutheastern halfhalf of thethe countrycountry andand threatenedthreatened byby repeatedrepeated forestforest firesfires (in(in are,asareas wherewhere rainfallrainfall ranges from 2 000 toto 33 000000 mmmm perper year);year); these,these, togethertogether with with openopen forests,forests, cover lessless thanthan oneone hundredhundred thousandthousand hectares;hectares;
- lastly, mangrovemangrove and swampswamp forests:forests: 240240000 000 ha.ha.
2. THE ISLANDISLAND FORESTSFORESTS -- THETHE CARIBBEAN CARIBBEAN
The informationinformation available on thethe variousvarious islandsislands ofof thethe GreaterGreater andand L,esserLesser AntillesAntilles constituting thethe Caribbean Archipelago differsdiffers considerablyconsiderably withwith regardregard toto the extent and classification of natural tree formationsformations (and(and eveneven plantationsplantations and forestry activities).activities).
Detailed coverage ofof this this areaarea isis consequentlyconsequently impossible,impossible, andand inin thethe followingfollowing pagespages we havehave thereforetherefore presentedpresented only thethe mainmain datadata available,available, emphasizingemphasizing the factfact thatthat thethe various sources tally above all with regard toto thethe relativerelative extentextent of thethe forestforest formationsformations andand their utilization.utilization. - 10 -
In fact the forest cover raterate rangesranges from dangerously lowlow (as in the case of Haiti) to relativelyrelatively highhigh withwith accompanyingaccompanying developmentdevelopment programmesprogrammes and/or veryvery advancedadvanced protectionprote,ction measuresmeasures (as(as inin thatthat ofof Trinidad);Trinidad); these diverse situations are chiefly thethe result ofof difference in history, populationpopulation density and standard of living.living.
PUERTO RICO
The total area ofof climaxclimax forestsforests isis estimatedestimated toto bebe onlyonly 33 400400 hectares.hectares. All the rest of the island has,has, toto aa gre,ater greater oror lesserlesser degree,degree, beenbeen affectedaffected byby humanhuman intervention,intervention, andand particularly by tree-felling.
The total forest area is 279 000 hectares, equivalent to a cover rate of 31%,31 %, andand thethe productive forestsforests covercover 130 000 ha, asas classifiedclassified inin 19731973 usingusing Holdridge'sHoldridge's "Life"Life zonezone system". TheThe forestsforests inin questionquestion areare ofof the the "subtropical""subtropical" type:type:
- Mangrove and swamp forests, withwith heightsheights varyingvarying accordingaccording to rainfall.rainfall.
Subtropical drydry forest, under rainfall of 600600 toto 1 100 mm. The speciesspecies are deciduous, with succulentsucculent or coriaceous leaves. TheThe dominantdominant heightheight isis aroundaround 15 metresmetres andand thethe growth-rategrowth-rate isis low,low, givinggiving generallygenerally hardhard woods.woods. The crownscrowns are broad and flattened,flattened, withwith sparsesparse foliage.foliage. This type of forestforest usuallyusually growsgrows on calcareous soils.
Subtropical semi-moistsemi-moist forest,forest, withwith rainfallrainfall betweenbetween 1 1 100100 and and 2 2 200200 mm.mm. TheThe trees have rounded crowns, with a total height exceeding 2020 m. ManyMany speciesspecies are deciduous and therethere areare numerousnumerous epiphytes.epiphytes. TheThe standsstands havehave frequentlyfrequently given way to grazing.
Subtropical moist forest,forest, with rainfall betweenbetwe,en 2 2 000 000 and and 4 4 000 000 mm. mm. The forest canopy, located at a height of approximately 2020 m,m, isis veryvery thick.thick. EpiphytesEpiphytes and orchids areare numerous.numerous.
Very moist subtropical forest, with precipitations exceeding 3 800 mm and soil permanently saturatedsaturated with water. The originaloriginal feature ofof its floristic composition is the presence ofof palms.palms.
Montane forest: the last remnantsremnants of climaxclimax forestsforests (3(3 400400 hectares).hectares).
- Plantations extendingextending overover 1111 200200 haha ofof state forests and 27 000 haha ofof privateprivate forests.forests. The mostmost commonlycommonly used species are Pines,Pines, Eucalyptus,Eucalyptus, TeakTeak andand Mahoganies.
- Lastly, mangrovemangrove swampsswamps and swampswamp forestsforests (about(about 66 000000 hectares).hectares). - 11 -
CUBA
On this island, thethe largest inin thethe Caribbean,Caribbean, thethe naturalnatural forestsforests areare confinedconfined to thethe three mountain ranges:ranges: the Cordillera dede los Organos yy Sierra del Rosario inin the West, the Sierra Trinidad in the Centre and the Sierra MaestraMaestra in the East.
The availableavailable figures are approximative: the area coveredcovered by mangrovemangrove waswas aboutabout 400 000 hectareshectares inin 1975,1975, andand apartapart fromfrom areasareas ofof severely severely degradeddegraded forest,forest, thethe formationsformations in thethe mountainousmountainous areas covercover aroundaround 800800 000000 hectares.hectares.
Taking into account the factfact thatthat PinePine formationsformations andand plantations plantations could could wellwell amountamount to a furtherfurther 200200 000000 hectares,hectares, thethe proportionproportion ofof forest forest covercover wouldwould thusthus bebe betweenbetween 1010 andand 12%.
The types of uplandupland closedclosed forests forests vary vary according according toto rainfallrainfall andand soilsoil characteristicscharacteristics (the valuablevaluable speciesspecies includeinclude SwieteniaSwietenia mahogany,mahogany, SwieteniaSwietenia macrophylla,macrophylla, andand CedrelaCedrela mexicana).
The pinepine formationsformations includeinclude manymany differentdifferent species:species: PiMISPinus trtropicalis,opicalis, P. cubensis,cubensis, P.P. caribaeacaribaea andand P.P .occidentalis. occidentalis.
HAITI AND DOMINICANDOMINICAN REPUBLICREPUBLIC
Broadleaved forests are foundfound only atat highhigh altitudesaltitudes in HaitiHaiti andand cancan bebe classifiedclassified asas "residual" subtropicalsubtropical moistmoist forests.forests. The forest cover rate is alarminglyalarmingly low:low: aboutabout 1%!1 %!
The situationsituation is lessless seriousserious inin thethe DominicanDominican Republic,Republic, wherewhere thethe forestforest covercover raterate in 19851985 waswas estimatedestimated at 12%.12 %.
The forestforest stands,stands, whichwhich covercover onlyonly thethe poorestpoorest soils,soils, areare floristicallyfloristically akinakin toto thosethose of CubaCuba (subtropical(subtropical climate). Swietenias, Cedrelas and Simarubas are present,present, andand aa fewfew pines (Pinus occidentalis) are to bebe foundfound mixedmixed inin withwith thethe broad-leavedbroad-leaved species.species.
JAMAICA
Compared to thosethose ofof thethe precedingpreceding countries,countries, Jamaica'sJamaica's plantplant formationsformations areare distinctly tropical, but the forestry situation isis similar: aa forest covercover raterate of 5% in 19851985 (it is noted that reforestation is being attempted,attempted, as isis alsoalso thethe casecase inin Cuba).Cuba).
MARTINIQUE,MARTINIOUE. GUADELOUPEGUADELOUPE ANDAND DOMINICADOMINICA
In spite of the high population density, managedmanaged and/orand/or protectedprotected state-ownedstate-owned forestsforests (including 1 500 ha of plantations and 2 000000 haha ofof mangrovemangrove swamps)swamps) cover 1212000 000 hectareshectares in Martinique, equivalent to 11%11 % of thethe island'sisland's totaltotal area,area, withoutwithout takingtaking intointo accountaccount thethe 25 000 hectareshectares ofof privately-owned privately-owned forestforest lands.lands. - 1212 -
Guadeloupe hashas 3030 000 hectareshectares of state-ownedstate-owned forestsforests (including(including 5 5 000000 haha of mangrove swamps andand 4 000000 haha ofof plantations), plantations), concentratedconcentrated inin thethe BasseterreBasseterre PeninsulaPeninsula (17% of the island's totaltotal area).area).
Lastly, the islandisland ofof Dominica,Dominica, whichwhich hashas aa lowlow populationpopulation density,density, hashas anan exceptionally high rate ofof forestforest cover.cover.
Note: in thethe LesserLesser AntillesAntilles thethe highhigh raterate ofof endemic endemic speciesspecies deservesdeserves mention.mention.
TRINIDAD ANDAND TOBAGOTOBAGO
The forest of Tobago, and above allall thatthat ofof TrinidadTrinidad isIS inill all respectsrespects (structure, flora ..).. ) similarsimilar toto thethe greatgreat Guyanese Guyanese forest,forest, andand especiallyespecially itsits VenezuelanVenezuelan portion.portion. This applies particularly toto the moist evergreen forest.forest. The two species typical ofof the latter are Carapa guianensisguianensis and Eschweilera subglandulosa.subglandulosa. ThisThis typetype ofof forestforest accountsaccounts for muchmuch of the forestforest cover:cover: 115115 000000 hectareshectares accordingaccording toto thethe inventoryinventory completedcompleted in 1980.1980.
The semi-deciduous forestforest (14(14 000000 ha)ha) is characterizedcharacterized byby speciesspecies suchsuch asas PeltogynePeltogyne porphyrocardia, TabehuiaTabebuia serratifolia, etc.etc. The drydry forests,forests, deciduousdeciduous oror evergre,en,evergreen, areare marginal (4 500 ha). MoistMoist montane montane forestsforests covercover onlyonly 2222 000000 hectares.hectares.
With thethe inclusioninclusion of of swampswamp andand mangrovemangrove forests forests as as well as forestforest plantationsplantations (16 500 haha inin 1980),1980), thethe totaltotal woodedwooded areasareas ofof Trinidad Trinidad andand TobagoTobago amountamount toto 200200 000000 hectares, giving a cover rate ofof 39%.39 %.
Note:Note: It mustmust bebe emphasizedemphasized thatthat TrinidadTrinidad and TobagoTobago are anan exceptionexception inin thethe American tropical forest context;context; theirtheir outstanding outstanding forestryforestry expertiseexpertise andand programmesprogrammes (Synnot T.T. 1988)1988) will be describeddescribed furtherfurther on.on.
3. THETHE GUYANESEGUYANESE FORESTFOREST REGIONREGION
The GuyaneseGuyanese forest cancan bebe distinguisheddistinguished phytogeographically from from thatthat ofof the Amazon basin for several reasons: itit constitutesconstitutes a fairlyfairly homogeneoushomogeneous unitunit fromfrom thethe climaticclimatic and geological/pedologicalgeological/pedological standpointsstandpoints (Guyanese(Guyanese shield), shield), andand aboveabove allall from the floristicfloristic point of view; itit coverscovers aa vastvast coastalcoastal fringefringe ofof the the SouthSouth AmericanAmerican continentcontinent stretchingstretching fromfrom Venezuelan GuyanaGuyana (including(including Trinidad) Trinidad) to to the the StateState ofof Amapa in BrazilBrazil andand includingincluding Guyana, Suriname and French Guiana.Guiana.
In spite of thethe damagingdamaging impact impact of of human human activities activities onon forestsforests inin recentrecent yearsyears (Venezuela, Guyana ...... ), ), thisthis forestforest unitunit isis stillstill relativelyrelatively unpopulatedunpopulated andand unharmed.unharmed.
VENEZUELA
There exists a very exhaustive cartographic document that classifies the various types of vegetation found in this country, namelynamely thethe "Mapa"Mapa dede vegetacionvegetacion actualactual dede Venezuela",Venezuela", published inin 1983. ItIt is is basedbased onon thethe cross-analysiscross-analysis ofof ninenine typestypes of datadata (type(type of formation, - 1313 -- evergreen or deciduousdeciduous foliage,foliage, altitude,altitude, standstand densitydensity andand treetree height,height , morpho-pedology,morpho-pedology, human impact, agriculture and hydrology)hydrology) and has resultedresulted inin aa very very detaileddetailed typologicaltypological study of thethe bioclimaticbioclimatic landscape.landscape.
The total areaarea coveredcovered byby plantplant formationsformations (consisting(consisting of trees and/or shrubs,shrubs, andand extremely varied) exceeds half the national territory, withwith moistmoist forestsforests properproper accountingaccounting for around 30 millionmillion hectares,hectares, 90%90% ofof whichwhich areare concentratedconcentrated inin thethe EastEast ofof the the countrycountry onon both sides of the Orinoco in the Guyana VenezolanaVenezolana region. region. AsAs itsits namename indicates, this very extensive Eastern forest zone isis floristicallyfloristically and structurallystructurally linked toto the GuyaneseGuyanese shieldshield formations, withwith varieties ofof somesome characteristiccharacteristic speciesspecies - Peltogynes, HymeneasHymeneas or Eperuas -- appearing in the midstmidst of extremelyextremely heterogeneousheterogeneous forestsforests thatthat averageaverage sixtysixty differentdifferent species species 2 per hectare, withwith 600600 stemsstems exceedingexceeding 10 cm in diameterdiameter and a basalbasal areaarea ofof 2020 toto 3535 m2.m •
The composition ofof these forestsforests is veryvery accuratelyaccurately describeddescribed in thethe documentdocument entitled "Especies forestales autóctonasaut6ctonas de los bosques naturales de Venezuela",Venezuela", publishedpublished by J.P.J.P. VEILLONVEILLON inin 1986.1986.
According toto B.B. BlascoBlasco (1991),(1991), VenezuelaVenezuela isis amongst the world'sworld 's eight eight majormajor mangrove countriescountries,, four of which are in America:America:
- Brazil 2.5 millionmillion hectareshectares (estimated)(estimated) Venezuela 0.6 millionmillion hectareshectares Panama 00.2.2" " Colombia 0.30.3" "
SURINAME
Forest vegetation covers 9292% % ofof thethe totaltotal areaarea ofof thethe countrycountry.. TheThe primaryprimary forests can be divide,ddivided into five classes:classes:
mangrove swampswamp (115(115 000000 ha),ha) , fresh waterwater swampswamp forestforest (725(725 000 ha),ha) , seasonal swamp forest (505(505 000000 ha),ha) , - dry forest (150(150 000 ha),ha) , moist uplandupland forestforest (13(13 362362 000000 ha).ha).
Secondary forests and other plantplant formationsformations cover 170170 000000 ha.ha.
- Mangroves protect the coastscoasts fromfrom erosion.erosion. They are composedcomposed chieflychiefly of species belonging to the RhizophomRhizophora and Avicennia families, and although they can provide good-qualitygood-quality fuelwood theythey areare onlyonly minimallyminimally exploited.exploited.
Seasonal fresh water swamp forest is very common on the coastal lowlandslowlands.. OneOne of thethe threethree sub-types,sub-types, characterizedcharacterized byby anan abundanceabundance ofof Virola Virola surinamensis,surinamensis, Symphonia globuliferaglobulifera,, PterocarpusPterocarpus officinalis andand EuterpeEuterpe oleracoleraceaea (a palm),palm) , is of commercialcommercial importance.importance. This type of forest exceeds 40 m inin heightheight and grows on peaty soilssoils thatthat maymay seasonallyseasonally dry out on thethe surface.surface. - 1414 --
The permanent swamp forests vary greatly in floristicfloristic composition, and have many species in common bothboth with the seasonal swamp forestsforests and with the moist uplandupland forests.forests. Large-scale exploitation occursoccurs in the West when Mora excelsa is dominant andand onon thethe coastalcoastal plainplain whenwhen Hura crepitanscrepitans isis dominant.dominant. The otherother speciesspecies of commercialcommercial interestinterest areare Carapa spp.spp. andand TabebuiaTabebuia serratifolia,serratiJolia, whichwhich can reach a heightheight of 45 m.m.
- The dry forestsforests grow on whitewhite sands and highly filtering soils.soils. TwoTwo sub-typessub-types are distinguisheddistinguished according to treetree height:height:
low dry forest, withwith fewfew speciesspecies and a heightheight of less thanthan 1515 m;m; high dry forest,forest, which is far more varied and taller (30 m). TheThe typical typical speciesspecies is Eperua Jalcata,falcata, butbut itit has has manymany speciesspecies inin commoncommon withwith thethe moistmoist uplandupland forest. Commercial exploitationexploitation is feasible when sufficientsufficient quantitiesquantities of marketable woods are present.
- Moist uplandupland forestsforests cover overover 80% ofof thethe country. As inin French GuianaGuiana,, De GranvilleGranville (1987)(1987) distinguishesdistinguishes twotwo sub-typessub-types according toto altitude,altitude, the dividing lineline beingbeing atat aroundaround 400-600400-600 mm.. TheThe soilssoils areare generallygenerally very poor and well-drained. TheseThese forestsforests areare botanicallybotanically rich,rich, butbut somewhatsomewhat lessless variedvaried than thethe world's other evergreen forests. AboutAbout 500500 speciesspecies havehave been identified and an average of between 100 andand 150 speciesspecies areare foundfound per per hectarehectare.. Some 70 species are currentlycurrently oror potentiallypotentially ofof commercial commercial interest,interest, including inin particular:particular:
Goupia glabraglabm - Dicorynia guianensisguianensis VouacapouaVouacapoua americana Ocotea rubra Virola melinoniimelinonii
The forest structurestructure isis variablevariable andand thethe canopycanopy heightheight is betweenbetween 28 andand 4545 m.m.
FRENCH GUIANAGUIANA
As in Suriname,Suriname, proceedingproceeding fromfrom thethe coastcoast towardstowards thethe interiorinterior thethe followingfollowing plantplant formations are encountered:encountered:
A coastalcoastal fringefringe ofof mangrove mangrove swampswamp featuringfeaturing AvicenniaAvicennia nitidanitida alongalong thethe sea-sea coast and Rhizophora spp.spp. inin thethe estuaries;estuaries;
A stripstrip ofof grassygrassy savanna,savanna, probablyprobably partlypartly ofof man-made man-made origin,origin, which is thethe focal point of humanhuman activities;activities; - 1515 --
- The gre,atgreat Guyanese forest, consisting of equatorial moistmoist evergreen forestforest andand covering overover 8 000 000000 haha (90% of thethe country).country). ItIt isis divideddivided intointo severalseveral subtypes:
Low-altitude swamp forests locate('located alongalong watercourseswatercourses onon seasonallyseasonally floodedflooded groundground.. TheThe typical typical species species areare Virola Virola surinamensis,surinamensis. SymphoniaSymphonia globuliferaglobulifera and Carapa procem.procera.
Low-altitude upland forest (below 500500 m). This constitutes the greater part of the great Guyanese forest. ItsIts typicaltypical featuresfeatures are greatgreat botanicalbotanical variety,variety, scatteredscattered and isolated individuals ofof the samesame speciesspecies andand relativelyrelatively smallsmall treetree size,size, particularly asas comparedcompared to AfricanAfrican forests.forests. The mostmost commoncommon botanicalbotanical families are Leguminosae, Lecythidaceae,Lecythidaceae, VochysiaceaeVochysiaceae and Sapotaceae.Sapotaceae.
Medium-altitude forest (above 500 m),m) , located chiefly along the ININI-CAMOPI range. ItsIts floristicfloristic compositioncomposition featuresfeatures aa ratherrather limitedlimited rangerange ofof treetree speciesspecies and a relative abundance of latex-bearing species, especially SapotaceaeSapotaceae.. Tree-fernsTree-ferns such as CyarheaCyarhea imrayana, which cancan attain aa height of severalseveral metres,metres, are scattered through the forest.forest.
4. THETHE AMAZONIANAMAZONIAN FORESTFOREST REGIONREGION
This chapter describes not only the AmazonianAmazonian forest proper,proper, but also thethe PacificPacific coastal forests and Brazil's AtlanticAtlantic forest.forest.
The AmazonAmazon basin extends over 750 millionmillion hectares, 350 millionmillion ofof whichwhich areare located in Brazil.Brazil.
Around 280280 millionmillion hectareshectares ofof the the AmazonianAmazonian closed forest proper are in Brazil,Brazil, ii.e..e. overover halfhalf itsits total total area, area, which which is is estimated estimated at at about about 500 500 million million hectareshectares includingincluding thethe portions extending into Bolivia, Colombia,Colombia, Equador,Equador, PeruPeru andand Venezuela,Venezuela, andand thethe GuyaneseGuyanese forest as well.well.
BRAZIL
In spitespite ofof itsits complexitycomplexity andand diversity,diversity, THETHE AMAZONIANAMAZONIAN FORESTFOREST can be subdivided intointo threethree major types of formation,formation , which differ greatly in extent:extent:
moist upland forest, whichwhich constitutes most of thethe Hylaea;Hylaea;
the fresh water swampswamp forests,forests , thethe chief of which are the Varzea (seasonal floodflood- water swamps) and thethe IgapoIgapo (permanent(permanent swamps);swamps); and
the transitionaltransitional forest growinggrowing betweenbetween closed moistmoist forestforest andand savannasavanna formations. The precise boundaries ofof thisthis typetype ofof forest areare hard to define. - 1616 --
* MOIST UPLAND FORESTFOREST
This forest, botanicallybotanically veryvery richrich andand stockedstocked with over 500 tree species, is farfar fromfrom homogeneous. In 19771977 thethe IBGE (Instituto Brasileiro de Geographia ee Estatistica) began to subdivide it into aa seriesseries ofof phytogeographic phytogeographic unitsunits byby identifying identifying eighteight sub-regions sub-regions characterized by thethe presencepresence oror abundanceabundance ofof certaincertain species.species.
This typetype ofof evergreen evergreen forestforest isis characterizedcharacterized byby dominantdominant treestrees betweenbetween 2525 andand 4040 m high and seldomseldom exceeding 70 cm in diameter, withwith straightstraight bolesboles thatthat areare branchlessbranchless upup to a considerable height and frequently narrownarrow crowns.crowns. MostMost ofof thethe speciesspecies concerned have hard, veryvery densedense wood.wood.
Counting trees with diameters of 1010 cm or more, thethe growinggrowing stockstock rangesranges fromfrom 150150 to 300 m3m3 perper hectare,hectare, with a high stem density (500(500 toto 600600 perper hectare) andand aa basalbasal areaarea of 25 toto 4040 m2/ha.m2/ha.
The shrubsshrubs and above all the small trees, which are very numerous, also have a very straight bole, and thethe presencepresence of acaulousacaulous or stemmedstemmed palms is oneone ofof thethe mostmost typicaltypical visual features of thesethese forests.forests.
The mostmost frequentlyfrequently encounteredencountered families and genera areare thethe Sapotaceae,Sapotaceae, suchsuch asas Pouteria spp.,spp., andand ManilkaraManilkara spp.;spp.; thethe Leguminosae, Leguminosae, whosewhose membersmembers includeinclude the forest's tallest trees: thethe CedroranaCedrorana CedrelingaCedrelinga catenaefonniscatenaeformis andand thethe AngelimAngelim Dinizia excelsa;acelsa; thethe Lecythidaceae, whose largest (and(and mostmost sought-after)sought-after) representativerepresentative isis thethe CastanheiraCastanheira BenholletiaBertholletia excelsa;ace/sa; and lastly, the Piquia Caryocar villosum,villosum, a Caryocaracea that can grow to a veryvery largelarge size.size.
It mustmust alsoalso bebe notednoted thatthat in muchmuch of thethe areaarea underunder HylaeaHylaea thethe representativesrepresentatives ofof the Meliaceae family, which are often of high commercial value, e.g. Swietenia macrophylla, Carrapa guianensisguianensis or CedrelaCedrela odorata,odorata, maymay bebe totallytotally absent,absent, andand thethe samesame is alsoalso truetrue ofof the Myristicaceae: VirolaVirola spp..spp ..
This typetype ofof moistmoist forestforest alsoalso encompassesencompasses somesome drydry forest-typeforest-type formationsformations (clump(clump savanna andand drydry semi-deciduoussemi-deciduous forest)forest) andand aboveabove all somesome highly characteristic formations, linked to the presence of an extremely poor white sandy soil. These are knownknown as "Campina""Campina" and "Campinarana" and consistconsist ofof lowlow forestsforests andand thicketsthickets veryvery richlyrichly stockedstocked withwith OrchidsOrchids and Bromeliaceae (and ofof great interest to botanists andand ecophysiologists).ecophysiologists). These twotwo typestypes of formations are scatteredscattered throughthrough thethe forestforest followingfollowing thethe distributiondistribution ofof thisthis whitewhite sandysandy soil,soil, but theirtheir aggregateaggregate area isis farfar fromfrom negligible:negligible: aroundaround 66 oror 77 millionmillion hectares.hectares.
* THE SWAMPSWAMP FORESTSFORESTS
- The Varzea is aa freshfresh waterwater swampswamp forestforest onlyonly seasonallyseasonally subjectsubject toto inundation.inundation. It isis riparian,riparian, andand foundfound allall alongalong thethe banksbanks ofof thethe rivers,rivers, riverriver branches branches andand watercourses of thethe AmazonAmazon basin, wherewhere itit coverscovers aa totaltotal areaarea ofof about about 77 millionmillion hectares. - 17 -
There are severalseveral differentdifferent typestypes ofof Varze,a,Varzea, depending on the characteristics of the waters, whichwhich can bebe whitewhite or yellowyellow (silty),(silty), blackblack and transparent (rich in humic acids) or colourless (clear water), andand alsoalso onon thethe inundationinundation period.period. ThereThere isis thus thus the the high high Varze,a, Varzea, which is inundated only when the flood-waters areare at their peak (a few weeks), and the low Varzea, which maymay bebe floodedflooded for severalseveral months.months.
All these variations give rise to considerable differences in floristicfloristic compositioncomposition and certainly also in stand dynamics; the Varzea is, however,however, farfar lessless richlyrichly stockedstocked withwith speciesspecies than the uplandupland moistmoist forests, forests, althoughalthough somesome ofof these these species,species, includingincluding severalseveral ofof the the mostmost common, areare subjectsubject toto heavyheavy exploitation:exploitation: UcuubaUcuuba (Virola(Virola spp.), AndirobaAndiroba (Carapa(Carapa guianensis)guianensis),, Sumauma (Ceiba pentaruira)pentandra),, Assacu (Hura crepitans),crepitans), LourosLouros (Ocotea(Ocotea spp.),spp.), Jacareuba (Calophyllurn(CalophyUum brasiliense), MacacaubaMacacauba (Platymiscium(Platymiscium spp.), etc.etc.
These Varzeas and thethe valuablevaluable speciesspecies theythey containcontain havehave provedproved anan economiceconomic "blessing" for thethe AmazonAmazon forestforest industries:industries: inin 19731973 theythey providedprovided 80%80% ofof Amazonian Amazonian timber, and 60%60 % in 1981.1981. TheirTheir exploitation exploitation is is facilitated facilitated byby easyeasy accessaccess byby waterwater (often(often thethe only feasible means), an artisanalartisanal extractionextraction system based on seasonallyseasonally rising and falling water levels, and low-cost transportation: floating the timber in rafts down to the processing centres located at ManausManaus oror elsewhere.elsewhere. This economic "blessing" (which isis more like a "curse" from thethe Varzeas'Varzeas' pointpoint of of view) view) isis onlyonly aa temporarytemporary one,one, however,however, asas thethe logginglogging areas are forcedforced toto shiftshift furtherfurther andand furtherfurther upriver,upriver, andand timbertimber cancan nownow onlyonly bebe obtainedobtained in the extreme upstream reaches.reaches.
- The Igapos are forests that grow in virtuallyvirtually permanent swamps. TheyThey containcontain a veryvery limitedlimited rangerange ofof endemic endemic speciesspecies whosewhose behaviourbehaviour isis highlyhighly specialised specialised in relation to their peculiar environment. In particular, thesethese include Leguminosae: MacrolobiutnMacrolobium acaciifoliumacaciifolium andand AldinaAldina lar latifolia; ¿folia; LecythidaceaeLecythidaceae (genus Couepia) andand ChrysobalacaeaChrysobalacaea (genus(genus Licania).Licania).
- Lastly, thethe mangrovemangrove swamps,swamps, foundfound chieflychiefly inin thethe AmazonAmazon estuaryestuary (covering(covering about aa hundredhundred thousandthousand hectares)hectares) andand typicallytypically composedcomposed ofof Avicennia Avicennia nitidanitida (Verbenaceae), Laguncularia racemosaracemosa (Combretaceae)(Combretaceae) andand RhizophomRhizophora manglemangle (Rhyzophoraceae).
* THE TRANSITIONALTRANSITIONAL FORESTFOREST
According toto the IBGE,IBGE, thisthis is a semi-evergreensemi-evergreen forestforest geographicallygeographically andand floristically situated midway betweenbetween the the uplandupland closed evergreenevergreen forestforest andand thethe savannasavanna formations.formations.Hence, Hence, itit isis sited onon the outskirts ofof the evergreen forestforest proper,proper, andand isis to be found in thethe followingfollowing zones:zones: partpart ofof Maranhao;Maranhao; thethe southern,southern, e,asterneastern and northernnorthern area.sareas ofof Para; allall thethe northernnorthern MatoMato GrossoGrosso region;region; aa significant significant portionportion ofof Roraima Roraima andand Rondonia;Rondonia; and limited areas ofof Amapa,Amapa, AcreAcre andand Amazonas.Amazonas.
In thisthis typetype ofof forestforest thethe treestrees areare ofof normal normal heightheight butbut havehave narrownarrow bolesboles andand skimpy crowns; lianaslianas andand palmspalms suchsuch asas thethe BabaçuBaba<;u (Orbign.ya(Orbignya martiana) areare plentiful,plentiful, andand heveas are alsoalso abundant.abundant. TheThe typicaltypical speciesspecies varyvary considerablyconsiderably fromfrom oneone zonezone toto another.another. In thethe best-knownbest-known sectorsector inin southernsouthern ParkPara, the the following following are are mentioned: mentioned: Calophyllum Calophyllum -- 18 -
brasiliense (Guttiferae),(Guttiferae), SimarubaSimaruba amaraamara (Simarubaceae)(Simarubaceae) andand somesome Leguminosae,Leguminosae, suchsuch asas Hymenaea stilbocarpa; whilst in easterneastern ParàPara andand inin certaincertain areasareas ofof Maranhao Maranhao thethe speciesspecies indicatedindicated below are reported:reported:
Lecythis paraensisparaensis Lecythidaceae BenholletiaBertholletia excelsaexcelsa Lecythidaceae Ceiba pentandrapentandra Bombacaceae Castilloa ulei Moraceae Hymenea courbarilcourbaril Leguminosae VouacapouaVouacapoua americanaamericana Leguminosae
THE ATLANTIC FORESTSFORESTS
These forests are vividlyvividly describeddescribed by AubrévilleAubreville (1961):(1961): "In"In thethe past, anan unbrokenunbroken belt of forestforest stretchedstretched along the AtlanticAtlantic Ocean coastcoast from BrasilBrasil's's North-East tip to the extreme SouthSouth ((...). ... ). This great coastalcoastal forestforest gave wayway inin thethe hinterlandhinterland toto thethe "Catinga""Catinga" inin the North and thethe "Campos"Campos cerrados"cerrados" inin thethe South.South. It extendedextended further SouthSouth fromfrom RioRio de laneirointoJaneiro into thethe highhigh mountainmountain forests forests of of the the Serra Serra do do Mar Mar ( (...).00 ')' WhatWhat remainsremains of itit isis being cut down, either for agriculturalagricultural purposes oror to makemake charcoal (...)(00' ) itit stillstill provides provides Brasil with some of itsits finestfinest timber:timber: DalbergiaDalbergia nigra,nigra ,Aspidospetma Aspidosperma peroba,peroba, Astronium Astronium fraxinifolium,jraxinijolium, Paratecoma peperobaroba (...)(00' ) Bahia'sBahia's forestsforests suppliedsupplied luxuryluxury woods:woods: PauPau brasilbrasil (Caesalpinia echinata),echinata), Pau violetavioleta (Dalbergia(Dalbergia caerensis) and PauPau rosarosa (Dalbergia(Dalbergia frutescens)."jrutescens). "
This forest,forest, althoughalthough differingdiffering inin speciesspecies fromfrom thatthat ofof the the Amazon Amazon regionregion (according(according to Ducke),Ducke), nonethelessnonetheless resemblesresembles itit inin termsterms ofof its its rangerange ofof botanical botanical families:families: anan abundanceabundance of Leguminosae,Leguminosae, Sapotaceae,Sapotaceae, LecythidaceaLecythidacea andand Lauraceae.Lauraceae.
COLOMBIA
In 1975,1975 , Colombia's forestsforests coveredcovered justjust over 4646 millionmillion hectares,hectares, ofof whichwhich 3535 million were in thethe AmazonianAmazonian region,region , overover 8.58.5 millionmillion werewere coastalcoastal forestsforests andand thethe restrest mostly montanemontane forests.forests.
The forest belongingbelonging toto thethe AmazonianAmazonian blockblock andand isolatedisolated byby thethe AndeanAndean cordillera,cordillera, is similar to thatthat ofof Brasil'sBrasil's WesternWestern hylaeahylaea andand isis onlyonly minimallyminimally exploited.exploited.
The coastal forests provideprovide mostmost ofof thethe country'scountry's exploitableexploitable forestforest resources:resources: thethe Pacific coastal forest resources:resources: thenthen PacificPacific coastalcoastal forestforest thenthen coveredcovered moremore than than 5.65.6 million million hectares, i.e. 12%12 % ofof Colombia's Colombia's forest forest area,area, andand the the Atlantic Atlantic seaboard seaboard forestforest slightlyslightly lessless than 3 millionmillion hectares,hectares, 1.751.75 millionmillion of whichwhich werewere atat thethe mouthmouth ofof thethe AtratoAtrato andand thusthus directly exploitable.exploitable.
The extentextent ofof thesethese coastalcoastal forestsforests isis likely to bebe farfar smallersmaller today,today, asas thethe deforestation raterate since 1975 is estimatedestimated at 500 000 haha perper year!year! - 19 -
TABLE OF TYPICAL MOISTMOIST UPLANDUPLAND FORESTFOREST SPECIESSPECIES IN EIGHT REGIONSREGIONS
Region Species Family
1. AmazonAmazon DeltaDelta Parkia spp. VataireaVatairea Leguminosae guianensis Ormosia spp.spp. Leguminosae Manilkara spp. PradosiaPradosia Sapotaceae sppspp.. Erismajiscum,Erisma fiscum, VochyslaVochysia YochysiaceaeVochysiaceae guianensis VirolaVirola spp. Myristicaceae
2. North-EasternNorth-Eastern AmazonAmazon Micropholis spp., Sapotaceae Ecclinusa spp.spp. ChrysophyllumClitysophyllum spp.spp. Sapotaceae Manilkara spp.spp. Epurua spp.spp. SwartziaSwartzia spp.spp. Leguminosae Orm.osiaOrmosia sppspp.. and Inga spp.spp. Leguminosae GoupiaGoupia glabraglabra Celastraceae Iryantheralryanthera spp.spp . MMyristicaceae yristicaceae Qualea spp.spp. YochysiaceaeVochysiaceae
3. && 4.4. RegionsRegions aroundaround thethe Swietenia macrophylla Meliaceae Tocantis/Gurupi rivers and the Cedrela odorata, CarapaCarapa Meliaceae Xingy/Tapajos riversrivers guianensis Vouacapoua americana Leguminosae Piptadenia spp.spp. && Leguminosae Peltogyne spp.spp. CordCordiaia goeldiana Boraginaceae Mezilaurus itauba Lauraceae Astronium spp. Anacardiaceae Jacaranda coparacopai"a Bignoniaceae HeHevea vea brasiliensis Euphorbiaceae - 20 --
Region Species Family
5. Madeira and Purus Hymenolobium excelsum Leguminosae rivers area Peltogyne densiflora Leguminosae Eperua spp.spp. Leguminosae SwieteniaSwietenia macrophylla Meliaceae Carapa guianensisguianensis Meliaceae Cordia goeldiana Boraginaceae Manilkara huberi Sapotaceae Theobroma spp. Sterculiaceae HeveaHe vea brasiliensisbrasiliensis Euphorbiaceae Euterpe oleraceae PalmaceaePal maceae
6. Western Hylaea from Theobroma spp. andand Sterculiaceae the Jurua toto thethe sub-Andeansub-Andean numerous monocotyledonsmonocotyledons Myristicaceae borderlands Leguminosae Bombacaceae Lauracaceae Rubiaceae MusaceaeMu saceae Zingiberaceae Marantaceae
7. North-West Hylaea DimorphandaDilliOrphanda spp. Leguminosae from the Rio NegroNegro PeltogynPeltogynee spp. Leguminosae to the Trombetas Eperua spp.spp. DiDicotyniacorynia spp.spp. Leguminosae Macrolobium spp.spp. Leguminosae Swartzia spp.spp. LeguminosaeLegum inosae Carapa guianensisguianensis MelMeliaceae i aceae Cedrela odorata MelMeliaceae iaceae CariniCariniana ana micranthamicrantha Lecythidaceae
8. Acre regionregion Swietenia macrophylla Meliace,aeMeliaceae CCedrelaedrela spp.spp. MelMeliaceae i aceae Torresea acreana LegumiLeguminosae nosae HeHevea vea brasiliensis Euphorbiaceae -- 21 -
These forests areare essentiallyessentially of the moist uplandupland type, varyingvarying inin compositioncomposition according toto altitudealtitude,, and the lower-altitude forestsforests nearnear thethe coast have provedproved toto be those most richly stocked with marketablemarketable species: BrosirnumBrosimum utile,utile, Virola sppspp.,., TerminaliaTerminalia spp.,spp., Bellucia grosularoides ...
Apart from mangrovemangrove (300(300 000 ha), twotwo particularparticular plantplant formationsformations deservedeserve mention:mention: the Guandal and the Catival which, like thethe VarzeaVarzea ofof Brasil,Brasil, areare seasonalseasonal swampswamp forestsforests containing valuable species.species.
The GuandalGuandal forest covers about 0.8 millionmillion hectares, i.e. 14%14% ofof the the totaltotal PacificPacific coast forestforest.. It isis characterizedcharacterized byby thethe presencepresence ofof twotwo exploitableexploitable species,species, thethe CuangareCuangare (Dialyanthera(Dialyanthera gracilipes) and thethe SajoSajo (Campnospenna(Campnosperma panamensis), whichwhich can constituteconstitute between 4545 andand 7575% % of the total population. ThisThis riparianriparian seasonalseasonal swampswamp forestforest growsgrows onon very poor, undrainedundrained acid soils;soils; it isis heavilyheavily exploited and its survival is due only to thethe inaccessibility ofof some of thethe standsstands and itsits regenerativeregenerative powers.powers.
The Catival forest,forest, whichwhich extends over aboutabout 400400 000000 haha inin the Rio Aratro area,area, is characterized byby the predominance ofof thethe Cativo (Prioria copaifera),copaijera) , aa highlyhighly sought-aftersought-after timber species that can constitute up to 60% of thethe population,popUlation, thethe restrest ofof which which alsoalso consistsconsists of valuablevaluable species: CarapaCarapa guianensisguianensis oror VirolaVirola spp.spp. It hashas beenbeen eveneven moremore severelyseverely affected byby over-exploitation thanthan the Guandal, and is consequently endangered inin spite of itsits natural regenerative capabilities.capabilities.
ECUADOR
In 1980,1980, 58%58 % ofof Ecuador'sEcuador's totaltotal areaarea waswas coveredcovered byby naturalnatural treetree formations: about 17 million hectares, almost 2 millionmillion of whichwhich werewere alreadyalready destineddestined for agriculturalagricultural uses.uses.
Approximately 5 millionmillion hectares,hectares, mostlymostly located in the cordillera zone (sierra), were listed as playing a protection rolerole.. TheseThese were were chiefly chiefly mountainmountain formations,formations, varyingvarying greatlygreatly in their characteristics according to soil, altitude,altitude, exposureexposure andand topography,topography, thethe mostmost typicaltypical being the moist forest found at altitudesaltitudes of betweenbetween 500 and 11 000000 mm withwith annualannual rainfallrainfall between 33 000 and 8 000 mmmm andand featuringfeaturing small,small, misshapen,misshapen, moss-coveredmoss-covered trees (a great variety of Lauraceae, Nectandra spp., etc.).etc.).
The majority of thethe productiveproductive forests are ofof thethe moistmoist evergreenevergreen typetype andand areare located in thethe lowlandlowland plainsplains (at(at altitudesaltitudes below 500 in)m) along thethe coastscoasts (Noroccidente)(Noroccidente) and in thethe AmazonianAmazonian region region (Oriente):(Oriente): thesethese totalledtotalled 2.5 andand 7.57.5 million million hectareshectares respectivelyrespectively in 1980.1980.
Note: AtAt thatthat datedate forestforest plantationsplantations alreadyalready amountedamounted toto aroundaround 5353 000000 hectares,hectares, mostlymostly located inin the centralcentral mountainousmountainous zonezone andand consistingconsisting ofof Eucalyptus Eucalyptus (particularly(particularly E. globulus),globulus), originallyoriginally introduced in 1879,1879, and also Pinus radiata.
The evergreen forestforest ofof thethe OrienteOriente regionregion isis ofof thethe AmazonianAmazonian type,type, similarsimilar toto thatthat of Colombia and Peru and of relativelyrelatively low density and with a rattlerrather low exploitable volume of valuable species:species: 1010 m3/ha.m3/ha. .- 22 --
The coastal forest isis moremore richlyrichly stockedstocked (up(up toto 3030 m3/ham3/ha ofof exploitable exploitable timber);timber); itit resembles thethe moist coastal forests of Colombia and Panama, with quite large expanses ofof mangrove and, above all,all, limitedlimited butbut richrich standsstands ofof Cuangare Cuangare (DialyanMera(Dialyanthera gracilipes)gracilipes) onon swampy terrain.
The structure and floristicfloristic composition of this forest varies according to rainfall and the extent of thethe drydry season.season. ThreeThree categories categories are are generally generally distinguished:distinguished:
luxuriant (and richly stocked) stretches of very moistmoist forest with an annualannual rainfallrainfall of 22 500500 toto 44 500 500 mm mm andand no no dry dry season, season, in in which which the the dominant dominant speciesspecies are:are: Brosimum utile,utile, DacryodesDaciyodes occidentalis, VirolaVirola spp.,spp., PlatymisciumPlatymiscium pinnatum, .. .
moist forests with annual rainfallsrainfalls ofof betweenbetween I1 500500 andand 22 500 mmmm andand aa drydry season lasting from JulyJuly toto November;November; species:species: SwartziaSwartzia spp.,spp., Celtis schippii,schippii, Pithecellobium arboreum, ...
and "dry" forestsforests receiving less than 1 500 mm of rainfall perper year; thesethese are lessless extensive thanthan thethe preceding typestypes asas they have suffered thethe impact of fires andand frequently given wayway toto savannasavanna formations.formations. TheThe commonestcommonest species are Tabebuia guayacan, Ficus citri/olia,citrifolia, PouteriaPouteria spp."spp. Acacia Acacia macracantha,macracantha, .. .
The preferentially exploitedexploited coastal coastal forest forest species species are are:: CedrelaCedrela odorata,odorata, Carapa guianensis, Inga spp., TabebuiaTabebuia guayacan, Cordia alliodora, .. .
PERU
The Amazonian region of Peru extendsextends overover 775775 650650 km2,km\ and isis divideddivided intointo twotwo sub-regions:sUb-regions:
the Andean piedmont inin the 3 600 mm toto 700700 mm altitudealtitude range,range, the Amazonian plain below 700 m.m.
FUENTE (1976),(1976), inin hishis explanatoryexplanatory notesnotes on thethe ecological map of Peru (ONERM),(ONERM) , describes thethe forest formation foundfound inin the piedmontpiedmont zone as thethe "selva alta".alta" . The Amazonian plainplain oror "selva baja" is mademade upup ofof fivefive differentdifferent ecologicalecological units:units:
- Tropical dry forest:forest: Area:Area: 55 394394 km2km2 Average temperature: 22 to 24°C24 ° C Precipitations: 1 150150 to 11 400400 mmmm The terrain consists of rolling hills, with deep clayclay oror limestonelimestone soils.soils. The forest is talltall andand includesincludes bothboth evergreenevergreen andand deciduousdeciduous species.species.
- Tropical moistmoist forest: forest: Area: 2424 497497 km2km2 Average temperature: 2222 to 26°C PrecipitationsPrecipitations:: 2 150 to 3 500500 mmm m - 23 --
The terrainterrain isis slightlyslightly rolling,rolling, withwith deepdeep clayey and acid soils. The forest is tall (40 m) and veryvery luxuriant,luxuriant, withwith fourfour phyto-sociologicalphyto-sociological storeys.storeys.
- Tropical veryvery moistmoist forest:forest: Area: 8383917 917 km2 km2 Average temperature: 22 to 26°C Precipitations: 4 500 toto 55 500500 mmmm The terrain consistsconsists of sharply dissected hills,hills, withwith clayeyclayey acidacid soils.soils. TheThe forestforest is extremelyextremely luxuriant,luxuriant, withwith aa veryvery completecomplete floristicfloristic range.range. Five phyto-phyto sociological storeysstoreys areare distributed over a total heightheight ofof 6060 m.m.
Subtropical moistmoist forest:forest: Area: 2222 517517 km2km2 Average temperature: 24 toto 25°C25°C Precipitations: 900 to 1I 900900 mmmm The hilly terrain provides deep acid soils of well-balanced texture.texture. TheThe forestforest is thick,thick, withwith fourfour storeysstoreys overover aa heightheight ofof 3535 m.m.
Subtropical very moistmoist forest:forest: Area: 3737 275275 km2km2 Average temperature: 24 to 25°C25°C Precipitations: 3 000 to 33 500500 mmmm The steeplysteeply sloping hills have deepdeep acidacid soils.soils. TheThe forestforest hashas fourfour storeysstoreys andand rises to a heightheight of 45 m.m.
The "selva"selva alta"alta" isis subdividedsubdivided intointo twotwo differentdifferent phyto-sociological phyto-sociological units:units:
- Tropical sub-montanesub-montane moistmoist forest:forest: Area: 3232 775775 km2km2 Average temperature: 24 to 25°C Precipitations: 900 to 11 900900 mmmm The high-altitudehigh-altitude terrain is undulating, with deep acidacid soilssoils tendingtending towardstowards anan even balance.balance. The forestforest isis thick,thick, withwith 44 storeysstoreys distributeddistributed overover aa totaltotal heightheight of 35m.35 m.
- Tropical submontanesub montane veryvery moistmoist forest:forest: Area: 238238 101101 km2km2 Average temperature: 24 to 25°C Precipitations: 33 000000 toto 33 500500 mmmm The terrain isis veryvery steepsteep withwith acidacid topsoil.topsoil. TheThe forestforest isis tall,tall, withwith fourfour storeysstoreys distributed over a heightheight ofof 4545 m.m.
BOLIVIA
Bolivia's closed moistmoist forestsforests cover just overover 44 millionmillion hectares,hectares, equivalentequivalent toto 40%40% of the total area of thethe countrycountry (without(without countingcounting other tree or plantplant formationsformations that accountaccount for a furtherfurther 2424 toto 2525 millionmillion hectares).hectares). - 24 --
These thick forestsforests areare locatedlocated chiefly on thethe EasternEastern llanosllanos (plains),(plains), butbut areare alsoalso found in the most secludedsecluded portions of thethe YungasYungas (sub-Andea.n(sub-Andean region). region). InIn thethe AndeanAndean zonezone there remainremain onlyonly severelyseverely endangeredendangered forestforest relicts.relicts.
Depending onon latitude and altitude, the formationsformations cancan be dry,dry, subtropicalsubtropical or tropical; as ecological conditions vary from South to North, thethe forest grows richer inin speciesspecies and more and moremore luxuriant,luxuriant, finallyfinally becomingbecoming identicalidentical toto thethe BrazilianBrazilian highhigh forestforest ofof Acre Acre Region and Rondonia.
In thethe YungasYungas thethe forestsforests growgrow onon steeplysteeply slopingsloping soils,soils, andand onon thethe llanosllanos theythey occupy poor soilssoils oftenoften subjectsubject toto seasonalseasonal flooding.flooding .
Consequently, only 13.5 million of the existingexisting 4444 millionmillion hectareshectares of forestsforests cancan be considered accessible andand suitablesuitable forfor development.development. .
The mostmost sought-aftersought-after andand heavilyheavily exploitedexploited speciesspecies is the maramara (Swietenia(Swietenia macrophylla), andand inin spitespite ofof the the distancedistance andand inaccessibilityinaccessibility of manymany stands,stands, somesome forecastsforecasts estimate that the growing stockstock of thisthis speciesspecies is inin seriousserious dangerdanger ofof exhaustion exhaustion withinwithin thethe next 1515 years.years.
Note:Note : the drydry forestsforests ofof thethe SouthSouth areare characterizedcharacterized byby aa usefuluseful species,species, thethe quebrachoquebracho colorado (Schinopsis(Schinopsis balansae).baZansae).
.. -- 25 -
III. FOREST POLICY,POLICY. LEGISLATIONLEGISLATION ANDAND ADMINISTRATIONADMINISTRATION
Before examining thethe moremore technicaltechnical aspects,aspects, suchsuch asas thosethose concerningconcerning forest resources and their management,management, we have sought to "establish" the political, legislative and administrative context by a fairly exhaustive butbut conciseconcise reviewreview ofof thethe variousvarious countries;countries; this step appears necessary for a betterbetter understandingunderstanding ofof thethe "field"field situation".situation".
1.1. THETHE ISTHMUS ISTHMUS COUNTRIES:COUNTRIES:
GUATEMALA, HONDURAS.HONDURAS, ELEL SALVADOR,SALVADOR. NICARAGUA.NICARAGUA, COSTACOSTA RICA AND PANAMA
These six countries have many common features in terms of forest policy, legislationlegislation and administration.
The forest legislation isis still all too recent,recent, andand inin somesome countries,countries, suchsuch asas Guatemala, it has onlyonly justjust beenbeen finalized.finalized . In addition,addition, it consistsconsists ofof purelypurely restrictive lawslaws on exploitationexploitation activitiesactivities thatthat dodo not therebythereby ensureensure forestforest protection. TheThe laws laws establishestablish numerousnumerous proceduralprocedural hurdleshurdles toto bebe overcomeovercome inin order to obtainobtain exploitation licenses, but do not contemplatecontemplate the need for thisthis resource to bebe developeddeveloped inin thethe mostmost advantageousadvantageous manner,manner, withwith consequentconsequent management ofof forests with a view toto sustainedsustained production.
- The forestry departments, however greatgreat their enthusiasm, are faced with thethe problems of insufficientinsufficient means,means, in termsterms ofof both both humanhuman resourcesresources andand equipment, to ensure compliance with the law and to promotepromote rational measuresmeasures for thethe managementmanagement of thisthis resource.resource. The technicaltechnical sectionssections responsibleresponsible forfor carrying out fieldworkfieldwork suchsuch as forestforest inventoriesinventories are eithereither non-existentnon-existent or areare reduced toto anan absoluteabsolute minimum.minimum.
The situation in each countrycountry isis summarizedsummarized below.below.
COSTA RICA:RICA: Forest resources come under the authority ofof the Ministry of Natural Resources, Energy and MinesMines throughthrough thethe ForestsForests DepartmentDepartment (DGF),(DGF) , which was establishedestablished inin 1969.1969. The firstfirst forestforest law waswas passedpassed inin 19691969 toto control the use of forests andand developdevelop thethe privateprivate timbertimber plantationsplantations (through(through taxtax benefits).
The DGFDGF is atat present attemptingattempting to reconcilereconcile the interests of private enterprises and GovernmentGovernment byby simplifyingsimplifying administrativeadministrative procedures. AnotherAnother departmentdepartment of thethe samesame MinistryMinistry isis responsibleresponsible forfor thethe protectedprotected areas.areas.
- EL SALVADOR:SALV ADOR: Wood resources are controlledcontrolled by thethe NationalNational CentreCentre forfor Natural Resources (CENREN), an agency of the Ministry of Agriculture.Agriculture. TheThe 1973 forest law has nonethelessnonetheless proved inapplicableinapplicable to date.date.
GUATEMALA: The The Forests Department (DIGEBOS)(DIGEBOS) of of thethe MinistryMinistry of Agriculture andand AnimalAnimal HusbandryHusbandry was was set set upup inin 1988, but the ForestForest LawLaw enabling this Department to perform its functions, above all with regard toto thethe - 26 --
development ofof timber plantations,plantations, was not passed untiluntil NovemberNovember 1989.1989. It liaises with CONAMACONAMA onon environmentalenvironmental issues.issues.
- HONDURASHONDURAS:: CODHEFOR (Corporación(Corporacion HondureñaHondureiia de Desarollo Forestal) was established by executive decreedecree in January 1974 and is responsible, on thethe basisbasis of thethe ForestryForestry LawLaw ofof 1961, 1961, forfor the the management management ofof both both privateprivate andand publicpublic forests. CODHEFOR thus thus hashas ampleample powerspowers toto draw up andand ensureensure thethe implementation ofof whatever forest managementmanagement measures it considersconsiders mostmost advantageous for protection, development,development, exploitation and industrial development with reference to forestsforests andand forestforest produce.produce.
NICARAGUA:NICARAGUA: TheThe fIrstfirst forest law dates backback toto 19051905 andand concernsconcerns forestforest protection.protection. InIn 19791979 IRENAIRENA (Instituto(Instituto NicaragüenseNicaragiiense de Recursos NaturalesNaturales yy deldel Ambiente) was establishedestablished to formulateformulate andand implementimplement thethe nationalnational policypolicy onon natural resources and thethe environment.environment. It isis thusthus responsibleresponsible forfor thethe planning,planning, administration, supervision,supervision, study,study, managementmanagement (including(including reforestation)reforestation) andand development ofof thethe naturalnatural resourcesresources thatthat are are exclusively exclusively State-owned. State-owned. In theory, nono treetree cancan bebe felled felled withoutwithout priorprior authorisationauthorisation fromfrom IRENA.IRENA.
A parallelparallel body,body, CORFOPCORFOP (Corporación(Corporacion Forestal del Pueblo),Pueblo), waswas alsoalso established in AugustAugust 1979.1979. It isis aa StateState agencyagency responsibleresponsible forfor operatingoperating the wood processing units (sawing, peeling, etc.) andand marketingmarketing woodwood productsproducts (as(as the solesole agencyagency authorisedauthorised toto exportexport them).them). Exploitation permitspermits are, afterafter consultation, issued by IRENA to CORFOPCORFOP whichwhich isis responsibleresponsible forfor extractingextracting forest produce and distributingdistributing itit toto thethe variousvarious processingprocessing units.units.
- PANAMA:PANAMA: INRENAREINRENARE (Instituto(Instituto NacionalNacional dede Recursos NaturalesNaturales Renovables),Renovables), an agency of the Ministry of Agriculture and Animal HusbandryHusbandry,, waswas established in 19861986 withwith broadbroad powerspowers inin thethe forestforest resourcesresources field.fIeld. TheThe most most noteworthynoteworthy point is that,that, duedue toto thethe country'scountry's severesevere deforestation,deforestation, itit was was decideddecided byby decreedecree in AprilApril 19871987 toto banban allall tree-fellingtree-felling throughoutthroughout the country for a period of fivefIve years.
In spitespite ofof thesethese forestforest lawslaws andand administrations,administrations, there is notnot aa singlesingle forestforest management planplan forfor sustained productionproduction inin Central America, save for fellingfelling managementmanagement plans, particularly thosethose of CostaCosta Rica.Rica:
This lack of interest in sustainedsustained forest managementmanagement is, asas inin mostmost tropicaltropical countries,countries, thethe result ofof financialfInancial difficultiesdiffIculties thatthat preventprevent long-termlong-term investments.investments.
MEXICO
Mexico is not a traditionallytraditionally forest-minded country,country, andand itit was not until 1940 that thethe concept of forest protection and forest "culture" firstfIrst beganbegan toto taketake shape.shape. - 27 -
Mexican society presently adopts variousvarious attitudesattitudes withwith regardregard to thethe forestforest ecosystem, depending on the socialsocial stratastrata involved:involved:
a conservationist or eveneven ecologisticecologistic stancestance originatingoriginating inin urbanurban milieux;milieux;
the productivity-orientedproductivity-oriented approachapproach ofof the privateprivate sectorsector enterprises,enterprises, favouringfavouring land-use conversion witha view to maximummaximum economic returns;
and a mistrustful attitude on the part of the peasantry, whowho wishwish toto useuse thethe forestforest for theirtheir immediateimmediate needs or inin accordanceaccordance withwith traditionaltraditional practices.practices.
On their part, thethe governmental authoritiesauthorities seekseek toto reconcilereconcile thesethese divergentdivergent interestsinterests without actually changing their chiefly protection-oriented policy (even though this policy has not proved effective). TheThe rolerole ofof the the country'scountry's forest forest servicesservices hashas inin factfact been been restrictedrestricted largely to thethe State-ownedState-owned forests.forests.
The object of the 19261926 Forest Law waswas to conserve,conserve, restorerestore andand monitormonitor thethe forestforest vegetation, and to train and organize the necessary technical personnel.personnel. TwoTwo newnew lawslaws were enacted in 19431943 and 19481948 which were again whollywholly conservationist as far as the State-owned forests were concerned but otherwise gave private enterprise a clear field.field. This situationsituation remained virtually unchanged until the 1987 law on ecological balance andand thethe protection ofof the environment. TheThe principal principal agencies agencies andand departmentsdepartments operatingoperating inin thethe forestryforestry fieldfield areare under the authority of thethe ComisiónComisi6n NacionalNacional Forestal.Forestal.
BELIZE
In Belize thethe current legislationlegislation isis incapableincapable of safeguardingsafeguarding thethe continued existence of forestforest reservesreserves inin thethe faceface ofof agricultural agricultural encroachment.encroachment.
The forestforest policy waswas formulatedformulated in 1954,1954, butbut nono policypolicy waswas defineddefined withwith regardregard toto land occupation or reservereserve protection.protection.
The present proceduresprocedures withwith regardregard toto transfertransfer ofof ownership ownership andand reservationreservation statusstatus are poorly formulatedformulated andand extremelyextremely arbitrary.
The production policy (forest exploitation) is very vaguely defined: "to increase the production ofof forestforest reservesreserves byby assuringassuring full utilization ofof hardwoodshardwoods and pinespines andand encouraging the useuse ofof secondarysecondary hardwoodhardwood speciesspecies andand otherother forestforest produce".produce" .
The origin of certaincertain difficultiesdifficulties can in factfact bebe ascribedascribed toto severalseveral factors:factors:
on thethe oneone hand,hand, thethe decisionaldecisional spheres of the MinisterMinister and the Head of thethe Forestry DepartmentDepartment areare poorlypoorly defined;defined;
on the other, logginglogging permitpermit rightsrights andand obligationsobligations areare notnot clearlyclearly specified;specified; - 28 -
- lastly, therethere isis roomroom forfor improvementimprovement inin thethe proceduresprocedures forfor classifyingclassifying andand declassifyingdeclassifying State forests and the wording of the regulations concerning charges and penalties.
The Forestry ServiceService ofof Belize (formerly British Honduras) was created in 1922,1922, but its present activities are curtailed by the usual difficulties (scarcity(scarcity ofof personnel, scarcity of funds: there is not even an itemizeditemized forestry budget) which havehave resultedresulted inin a dramatic lacklack of control over exploitation and logging permits (concessions), and information and education of thethe locallocal populationpopulation onon forestforest issues.issues. The exploitation chargescharges and control systemsystem isis particularly inadequate:inadequate:
- little distinction is mademade betweenbetween speciesspecies of veryvery differentdifferent value;value; - no differences are foreseenforeseen inin relationrelation toto diameter;diameter; - there is nono listlist ofof exploitable exploitable speciesspecies oror exploitableexploitable diametersdiameters (established(established on a rational basis).
To this we maymay addadd thatthat thethe productiveproductive forests are nownow privatelyprivately owned to a veryvery large extent.
2. THETHE CARIBBEAN CARIBBEAN ARCHIPELAGO ARCHIPELAGO COUNTRIESCOUNTRIES
The situations encountered varyvary enormouslyenormously,, rangingranging fromfrom the total absence ofof any forest policy (and(and even any forests)forests) toto thethe formulationformulation ofof sophisticated sophisticated managementmanagement plansplans (Trinidad) implemented byby a well-establishedwell-established forestry administrationadministration,, as willwill bebe describeddescribed further on.on .
The case of Puerto Rico is instructive fromfrom thethe "forestry"forestry issues"issues" standpoint.standpoint. In factfact the forest-consciousness ofof this island is characterized by twotwo phenomena:phenomena:
- The importance of soilsoil conservationconservation problems, linkedlinked toto thethe catastrophiccatastrophic erosionerosion suffered by the island inin thethe 1930s.1930s.
- Nature preservation-consciousness duedue toto the fairly high standard of living,living, thethe importance of the tourist industry and thethe biological richness linked to insularity.
The scientific authorities estimate thatthat 445445 000000 haha mustmust bebe keptkept underunder forest,forest, ii.e..e. all gradients exceeding 40% and the catchmentcatchment areasareas ofof springssprings andand reservoirs.reservoirs.
In additionaddition,, the very high proportion ofof endemicendemic speciesspecies of both faunafauna and flora, duedue to insularity,insularity, has ledled thethe authoritiesauthorities toto classifyclassify the lastlast virginvirgin forestsforests andand refugesrefuges ofof endangered species as reserves.reserves.
Fourteen forests of all types, covering a total area of 34 000 ha,ha, areare thusthus preservedpreserved in thethe frameworkframework ofof thethe CommonwealthCommonwealth ForestForest System.System.
The productive forests suffer from anan imageimage thatthat brandsbrands themthem asas abandonedabandoned wasteswastes of no economiceconomic interest.interest. Recent inventories havehave,, on the contrary, shownshown that the volume of standing timber is farfar fromfrom negligiblenegligible andand thatthat simplesimple techniquestechniques couldcould improveimprove itsits quality.quality. - 2929 --
3. THETHE GUYANESE GUYANESE REGION REGION COUNTRIES COUNTRIES
SURINAME
Since 1947 the national forests have been entrusted to Suriname's Forestry ServiceService with a viewview to:to:
"managing thethe country's forestsforests throughthrough inventories,inventories, research,research, thethe inspectioninspection andand supervision ofof forestry activities andand thethe exportation ofof wood"wood" so that theythey willwill perpetually produce thethe greatestgreatest possiblepossible benefitsbenefits forfor thethe community.community.
This remainsremains thethe Government'sGovernment's officialofficial policy.policy.
In 1970 a governmentgovernment reportreport stressed the importanceimportance ofof reforestationreforestation andand conservation ofof the natural environment. ButBut thethe meansmeans deployeddeployed were notnot ableable toto satisfysatisfy its needsneeds andand thethe ForestryForestry Service,Service, realizingrealizing thethe inadequaciesinadequacies ofof the the governmentgovernment policy,policy, developed its own approach based on fivefive mainmain points:points:
- Inventory of newnew areasareas .as as thethe coastalcoastal plainplain isis overexploited;overexploited; - Reforestation of the overexploited areas, chiefly with Pinus caribaea hondurensis; . - Forestry research,research, aboveabove allall onon reforestation;reforestation; Establishment and training of forestryforestry personnel;personnel; Launching of forest development projects with thethe assistanceassistance of thethe Netherlands.Netherlands.
The amiaim waswas toto 'use use thethe plantationsplantations toto satisfysatisfy locallocal needsneeds andand toto obtainobtain high-qualityhigh-quality timber for export from thethe natural forests. However,However, byby the the end end of of the the 1970s 1970s itit had had becomebecome . obvious that the plantations were a failure,failure, andand thisthis ledled toto aa renewedrenewed interestinterest inin naturalnatural forestforest silviculture.
Legislation
The ForestryForestry ServiceService isis anan independentindependent organizationorganization belonging toto the Ministry of Natural Resources. Its activitiesactivities are governedgoverned by three basicbasic statutes:statutes:
the Woods Statute (1947),(1947), the Special Concessions StatuteStatute (1947),(1947), thethe TimberTimber InspectionInspection StatuteStatute (1950)(1950)
The latter governsgoverns inspectioninspection by the Forestry ServiceService of allall logs,logs, timbertimber andand woodwood products withwith thethe exceptionexception ofof plywoodplywood andand particle-boards.particle-boards.
The statute on special concessions was enacted in 1947 for the benefit of BWC (the Bruynzeel WoodWood Company),Company), grantinggranting them aa 500500 000 concession areaarea for 25 years.
The Woods Statute still regulatesregulates the harvestingharvesting of forestforest produceproduce on StateState landslands through the granting of concessionsconcessions and logginglogging permits, thethe establishmentestablishment of chargecharge ratesrates and the inspection of logging operations by the Forestry Service.Service. - 3030 --
In practice, duringduring thethe lastlast 4040 yearsyears therethere havehave beenbeen fivefive majormajor typestypes ofof land-use land-use inin relation toto forestforest management:management:
ordinary concessionsconcessions 18001 800 000000 haha managed concessionsconcessions 260000260 000 haha forests withwith logginglogging permits 588000588 000 haha - plantations 69006 900 haha natural reservesreserves andand nationalnational parksparks 572 000000 haha forest reservesreserves 492000492 000 haha
The ordinaryordinary concessionsconcessions have a maximummaximum duration ofof ten years andand aa maximummaximum area of 50 000 ha.ha. TheThe extension extension ofof felling felling rightsrights mustmust bebe appliedapplied forfor eacheach year,year, butbut asas aa rule it is always granted ifif exploitation isis being conducted in compliance with the regulations.
The managedmanaged concessions were inventoried between 1949 and 19591959 by thethe ForestForest Service, which drew upup aa managementmanagement planplan specifying:specifying:
- topographic characteristics;characteristics; forest characteristics;characteristics; inventory of commercialcommercial timbertimber volumes:volumes; compartmentation based on natural boundaries (200 to 300300 haha perper compartment)compartment) to rationalizerationalize thethe harvestingharvesting system.system.
The logginglogging permits are grantedgranted toto communitiescommunities of AmericanAmerican IndiansIndians or blackblack refugees for anan indefiniteindefinite period,period, asas aa means means of of improving improving livingliving conditionsconditions andand providingproviding employment.
The logging royalties remainedremained veryvery lowlow untiluntil 1981.1981. TheyThey havehave beenbeen increasedincreased to US$ 4.00 perper m3m3 forfor valuablevaluable speciesspecies andand US$US$ 1.41.4 forfor secondarysecondary species.species. There is also a tax on haulagehaulage onon publicpublic roads.roads.
Political factorsfactors
In theory, allall forestsforests belongbelong toto thethe StateState and are controlled by thethe Forestry Service.Service. Given the lowlow populationpopUlation density, landland accessaccess isis notnot subjectsubject toto socialsocial constraints, constraints, but political factors nonetheless play an important role.
In the first place,place, thethe grantinggranting ofof concessions concessions isis subjectsubject toto politicalpolitical influence,influence, whichwhich also affects the applicationapplication of thethe penaltiespenalties prescribed by the law,law, resultingresulting inin thethe rapidrapid skimming-offskimming-off ofof the forests' mostmost valuablevaluable assetsassets andand blockingblocking thethe establishmentestablishment of realreal logging-processing concerns.concerns.
Secondly, BSH occupies aa privilegedprivileged position.position. InIn 19721972 an agreement was signed that renewed BSH's concession and established aa financial linklink upup withwith thethe Government. SinceSince then BSH blocked all attempts to reformreform thethe legislationlegislation governinggoverning thethe concessionsconcessions so as toto introduce the concepts of sustainedsustained productivityproductivity andand multiple-usemultiple-use forestry.forestry. ThenThen inin 19821982 BSHBSH became a State-ownedState-owned company.company. -- 31 -
LastlyLastly,, Dutch aid is important. ItIt funds funds heavyheavy investments,investments, butbut onlyonly onon aa short-termshort-term basis through specificspecific projects.
In addition,addition , sincesince 19851985 guerillaguerilla warfarewarfare hashas fosteredfostered insecurity,insecurity, whichwhich isIS nevernever favourable to forestforest management.management.
Forest administration
An embryonic forestry department operated from 19041904 to 1925, but after a promising beginning itit was suppressed duedue to thethe country'scountry's economiceconomic difficulties andand its lack ofof financial autonomy.
The demand for timber after thethe SecondSecond World War justifiedjustified the establishmentestablishment of the Forestry Service,Service, whichwhich wonwon aa reputationreputation forfor competencecompetence andand efficiencyefficiency but doesdoes notnot have sufficient legal ammunition forfor itsits tasks.tasks.
The Service is attachedattached toto thethe MinistryMinistry ofof Natural Natural Resources.Resources. It isis headedheaded byby aa Conservator and consists ofof eighteight divisions:divisions:
Central administration, Planning and research Forest inspection Wood and timber inspectioninspection Wildlife and reserves managementmanagement Reforestation Forest engineeringengineering Training.
All these divisions are based in Paramaribo,Paramaribo, but therethere areare overover 5050 forest forest stationsstations operating in thethe field.field.
The ForestForest ServiceService operatedoperated efficiently,efficiently, withwith adequateadequate financialfinancial andand humanhuman resources, until 1978.1978. ButBut thethe relative relative failurefailure ofof the the plantationplantation schemes,schemes, andand aboveabove all thethe spreading guerilla warfare andand econoiniceconomic difficultiesdifficulties have greatly reduced itsits activities.activities.
FRENCH GUIANAGUIANA
The French Department of GuyanaGuyana is very muchmuch of anan exceptionexception inin thethe contextcontext ofof continental SouthSouth America,America, given its tinytiny populationpopulation (100(100 000000 inhabitants)inhabitants) withwith aa nearlynearly European standard of living and social security, ensconced in a vast territory almostalmost entirely covered with almostalmost unthreatenalun threatened moistmoist forestforest (over(over 88 million million hectares).hectares).
Nonetheless,Nonetheless, French GuianaGuiana doesdoes revealreveal somesome significantsignificant weaknesses.weaknesses. WeWe notenote inin particular the smallnesssmallness ofof itsits market,market, confinedconfined toto its sparsesparse population;population; thethe limitedlimited development ofof its agricultural and industrial sectors, and a still embryonic road network.network. - 3232 --
Forest administrationadministration functions inin Guyana come underunder thethe DepartmentDepartment of Agriculture and Forests in thethe case of public service duties, and thethe NationalNational Forests Office (Guyana Regional Division) for everything concerning thethe managementmanagement and equipment of the State-owned forests (which total 7.5 millionmillion hectares,hectares, inin otherother wordswords almostalmost allall thethe woodedwooded area of thethe country).country).
Following Decree No. 86-116986-1169 ofof31 31 October 1986,1986, thethe spheresphere of competence of the Director of AgricultureAgriculture andand ForestsForests hashas beenbeen augmentedaugmented in thethe forestforest sectorsector byby thethe followingfollowing public service functions:functions:
- the safeguardingsafeguarding ofof woodlands,woodlands, - the preparation of regionalregional forestforest policy,policy, the preparation of thethe State'sState's annualannual forestforest investmentsinvestments plan,plan, the implementationimplementation of publicpublic interventionintervention measures,measures, the promotion and follow-upfollow-up ofof woodwood industryindustry enterprisesenterprises (primary(primary processingprocessing sector).
Note: It shouldshould bebe notednoted thatthat privateprivate forestforest ownershipownership isis virtuallyvirtually non-existentnon-existent inin FrenchFrench Guiana.
The National ForestsForests OfficeOffice (ONF)(ONF) isis responsibleresponsible forfor thethe performanceperformance ofof the the aboveabove functions onon the behalfbehalf andand subjectsubject toto thethe authorityauthority ofof thethe DirectorDirector ofof Agriculture Agriculture andand Forests.
The principal functionsfunctions carried out by the ONF areare derivedderived fromfrom thethe applicationapplication of the Forests Code and the State Property Code.Code. TheyThey cover:cover:
the managementmanagement and equipmentequipment of thethe State-ownedState-owned forests,forests, thethe granting ofof explorationexploration andand harvestingharvesting permitspermits andand exploitationexploitation licences, and private salesale agreementsagreements per productproduct unit.unit.
Other functions are performed on the basis of agreements on a national oror local scale entered into with various partners, suchsuch as:as:
the execution of annual forest access roadroad buildingbuilding programmes,programmes, the managementmanagement ofof thethe GuyaneseGuyanese Space Centre's forestforest lands,lands, amountingamounting toto 4848500 500 ha.ha.
The meansmeans available to thethe ONF,ONF, particularlyparticularly asas regardsregards humanhuman resources,resources, areare relatively small in relation to thethe extentextent of itsits functions.functions.
4. THETHE AMAZONIAN AMAZONIAN COUNTRIES COUNTRIES
BRAZIL
Public bodies: it mustmust bebe noted,noted, firstfirst ofof all,all, thatthat inin BrazilBrazil thethe publicpublic agenciesagencies activeactive in the forests and forestry spheresphere areare ofof twotwo types:types: nationalnational (federal)(federal) organizationsorganizations operating throughout the entire country,country, andand StateState bodiesbodies whosewhose activity activity isis confine,d confined toto aa singlesingle State.State. - 33 --
The role of the State bodies, which it would be tiresome toto list in detail,detail, is to taketake over fromfrom thethe nationalnational agenciesagencies atat aa locallocal level,level, talcingtaking intointo considerationconsideration thethe locallocal contextcontext and the specificspecific characteristics of their forests,forests, industriesindustries and wood sector in general.general.
The followingfollowing nationalnational (federal)(federal) agenciesagencies deservedeserve mention:mention:
- IBAMA (Instituto do Meio Ambiente et dos Recursos Naturais Renovaveis).Renovaveis). ThisThis institution, which amalgamates the previously separate agenciesagencies IBDF,IBDF, SEMA,SEMA, SUDEPE and SUDHEVEA, respectively dealing with forests/naturalforests/natural parks,parks, the environment, aquaculture and fisheries, andand rubber,rubber, waswas officiallyofficially establishedestablished inin August 19891989 andand is still in the throesthroes of administrativeadministrative andand technicaltechnical reorganization. It appearsappears thatthat environmentalenvironmental issuesissues will playplay anan importantimportant rolerole in IBAMA.IBAMA.
Its generalgeneral mandatemandate isis toto establishestablish thethe country'scountry's environmentalenvironmental policypolicy andand thethe management of its naturalnatural resources.resources. Its more specificspecific role inin thethe forestryforestry fieldfield is described furtherfurther onon withwith regardregard toto forestforest management,management, inventoriesinventories etc.etc.
- EMBRAPA (Empresa Brasileira de Pesquisas Agropecuarias), created in 19721972 for the development of agronomic and animal husbandry research;research; itit hashas includedincluded a forestryforestry researchresearch programmeprogramme sincesince 1977.1977.
CEPLAC (Commisao ExecutoraExecutora dodo PlanoPlano dada LavouraLavoura Cacaueira)Cacaueira) operatesoperates inin thethe forestry field by thethe introductionintroduction ofof mixedmixed plantationsplantations of cocoacocoa inin associationassociation with various treetree species.species.
- IBGE (Instituto Brasileiro de GeographiaGeographia e Estatica)Estatica) whichwhich waswas responsible,responsible, amongst other things,things, forfor thethe phytogeographiephytogeographic classificationsclassifications quotedquoted inin previousprevious chapters.
Several other institutesinstitutes andand agenciesagencies engagedengaged inin researchresearch andand developmentdevelopment activitiesactivities primarily concerning the humid tropics shouldshould also bebe mentioned:mentioned:
CPATU (Centro de PequisasPequisas AgropecuarioAgropecuario do TropicoTropico Humido)Humido) -- ResearchResearch Centre.Centre.
SUDAM (Superintendencia(Superintendencia do Desenvolvimiento da Amazonia) - DevelopmentDevelopment agency.
INPAINP A (Instituto(Instituto National de Pesquisas da Amazonia)Amazonia) - ResearchResearch Institute.Institute.
and EMBRAPAEMBRAPA (alre,ady(already mentioned).mentioned).
This far fromfrom exhaustiveexhaustive list gives a fairlyfairly clearclear ideaidea ofof thethe complexitycomplexity existing in the distributiondistribution of functionsfunctions and responsibilities, althoughalthough therethere isis no reason to doubtdoubt thethe good work donedone byby mostmost ofof these these organizations.organizations. - 34 -
ForestForest policypolicy andand administration:administration: management of of natural forest and timbertimber plantations isis foreseenforese,en in in thethe ForestForest Code (Law No. 47714771 ofof September September 1965).1965). This legislationlegislation was strengthened in July 1986 (Law' No. 7511) by thethe establishmentestablishment of long-termlong-term management programmesprogrammes for all forestsforests subjectsubject toto exploitation.exploitation.
Prior toto allall exploita.tionexploitation operations, the preliminarypreliminary managementmanagement plans must be submitted toto IBAMAmAMA for agreement, amendment andand further verification and, inin theory,theory, constituteconstitute aa "sine qua non".
However, these procedures have little impactimpact inin practice. For instance,instance, inin thethe StateState of RondoniaRondonia (Cf. T.T. BalaguerBalaguer Quilez,Quilez, 1989)1989) thethe privateprivate sectorsector tooktook advantageadvantage of thethe regulations toto legalize the origin of logslogs extractedextracted from differentdifferent sites by meansmeans of annualannual felling inin thethe managedmanaged area... Wood from reserved areas cancan thusthus bebe marketedmarketed withwith impunity.
In addition, IBAMAIBAMA does not have a large enough organization to study and approveapprove all the various management plans, and above all, itit lackslacks thethe fieldfield organizationorganization necessarynecessary for effective supervision ofof the execution of the works.
All in all,all, inin thethe StateState ofof Rondonia Rondonia onlyonly thethe NationalNational ParksParks andand ReservesReserves andand one State Forest havehave managementmanagement plans.
This situationsituation isis not uniqueunique toto Rondonia,Rondonia, and withwith aa fewfew variationsvariations isis foundfound throughout legal Amazonia.
The forest policy as aa wholewhole hashas (since(since 1988)1988) been toto zonezone thethe territory,territory, bearingbearing inin mind the fact that over nine-tenthsnine-tenths ofof thethe AmazonAmazon basin soilssoils are of lowlow fertility,fertility, and in mostmost cases unsuitable for agriculture.agriculture.
About 45%45 % cancan bebe cultivatedcultivated onon thethe conditioncondition thatthat refertilizingrefertilizing inputsinputs areare applied.applied. The rest mustmust imperatively bebe keptkept inin theirtheir woodedwooded state,state, theirtheir valorizationvalorization beingbeing assuredassured byby forest management in thethe areasareas wherewhere socio-economicsocio-economic conditionsconditions areare favourable.favourable.
For example,example, thethe creationcreation andand maintenancemaintenance of a seriesseries ofof forestforest reservesreserves (under(under aa management plan)plan) is foreseen over an area ofof aboutabout 5050 millionmillion hectareshectares aroundaround thethe CarajasCarajas industrial complex.
This policy,policy, whichwhich seeksseeks toto combatcombat thethe dramaticdramatic problemproblem ofof deforestation, deforestation, isis consistent withwith the national programmeprogramme launchedlaunched inin 1988: PROGRAMAPROGRAMA NOSSANOSSA NATUREZA.
COLOMBIA
The forestforest sectorsector isis totally inin the handshands ofof privateprivate enterprises,enterprises, onon whichwhich INDERENA (Instituto Nacional de los Recursos Naturales Renovables y del Ambiente), the agency responsible for implementing forest policy, can have only a minimalminimal impact for lack - 35 -- of both meansmeans and authority.authority. ProofProof ofof thisthis situationsituation isis providedprovided inin thethe finalfinal documentdocument of the UNDPUNDP-FAO-INDERENA-FAO-INDERENA ProjectProject ofof 1981, which reportsreports the destruction ofof portionsportions ofof the project's researchresearch installations installations byby logginglogging companiescompanies andand thethe locallocal population.population.
Moreover, thethe operativeoperative capabilitiescapabilities ofof organizationsorganizations suchsuch as CONIFCONIF (Corporacion(Corporacion Nacional de InvestigacionInvestigacion yy FomentoFomento Forestal),Forestal), responsible forfor forestforest researchresearch andand development, are very limited. TheThe training training ofof foresters foresters isis alsoalso neglected,neglected, andand isis merelymerely an individual specializationspecialization forfor university-traineduniversity-trained agronomists.agronomists.
The goal of thethe presentpresent ForestryForestry ActionAction Plan for ColombiaColombia (PAFC), drawn up by the National Planning Department (DNP) is toto ensureensure betterbetter integrationintegration ofof thethe forestforest sectorsector in thethe nationalnational economyeconomy throughthrough various quantifiablequantifiable outputs and also as a supportsupport forfor ruralrural development.
Colombia's forestforest problemproblem cancan bebe summarizedsummarized inin thethe fivefive majormajor pointspoints identifiedidentified by the PAFC:
Very low contributioncontribution of forestforest activitiesactivities to thethe GNP.GNP.
Severe imbalance in regional development levels, to the detriment of forest areas;
Many symptomssymptoms of disorderlydisorderly exploitation:exploitation: erosion,erosion, badlybadly regulatedregulated waterwater resources;
Irrational managementmanagement of resourcesresources duedue toto dispersion,dispersion, obsoleteobsolete processing processing structures and anan underdeveloped,underdeveloped, inadequatelyinadequately knownknown market for forestforest products.
Lack of governmentgovernment action at thethe institutional level and in support of the private sector, whichwhich consequentlyconsequently lacks interestinterest inin woodwood sectorsector industries.industries.
To overcomeovercome these problems, action mustmust" "start start fromfrom scratch"scratch" inin thethe technicaltechnical sphere:
strengthening of institutional measures with a view toto moremore effectiveeffective resourceresource management, including in particular a reviewreview ofof thethe legislationlegislation andand thethe trainingtraining and recycling ofof operationaloperational personnel.personnel.
the establishment of territorial plans forfor majormajor catchmentcatchment areas withwith duedue regardregard for regionalregional identities;identities;
development of forest product utilization;utilization; and
promotion of research onon allall aspectsaspects ofof thethe woodwood sector.sector. - 36 -
ECUADOR
EcuadorEcuador's's forestforest policypolicy isis governedgoverned byby thethe "Ordenanzas"Ordenanzas Forestales"Forestales" (Forest(Forest LawsLaws and Decrees), butbut thethe ForestryForestry Service,Service, anan agencyagency ofof the the Forest Forest Development Development DepartmentDepartment of the Ministry of Agriculture and Animal Husbandry, has only aa slight impact,impact, proportionateproportionate to thethe meansmeans allocated to it (an(an FAOFAO projectproject strengthenedstrengthened the Forestry ServiceService in 1977).1977).
Most forestforest developmentdevelopment projects are implementedimplemented in thethe frameworkframework ofof specificspecific Regional Programmes comprised in thethe National Development Plan, either withwith internationalinternational aid or withwith domesticdomestic funding,funding, forfor instanceinstance throughthrough FONAPREFONAPRE (Fondo(Fondo NacionalNacional de Pre-Pre Inversi6n).Inversión).
Numerous agencies are active in the forestry field, including both semi-governmental bodies such as CREACREA (Centro(Centro dede ReconversiónReconversi6n Econ6micaEconómica deldel Azuay, Canar y MoronaMorona Santiago) andand PREDESUR (Programa(Programa para para elel desarrollo regionalregional deldel Sur) andand privateprivate organizations: EMDEFOR (Empresa mixta de Desarrollo Forestal).Forestal).
The wood-processing industries,industries, which are faced with wood supply problems,problems, have also decided to prepare for thethe futurefuture byby optingopting forfor reforestationreforestation in preference to naturalnatural forest management (which has proved conflictualconflictual with agriculture).
The NGOs (Non-Governmental Organizations)Organizations) areare alsoalso veryvery activeactive.. For example,example, in 1987 Fundacion Natura signed an agreement with the Governments' MonetaryMonetary CouncilCouncil thatthat authorized it toto exchangeexchange aa maximummaximum sumsum ofof 1010 millionmillion USUS dollarsdollars againstagainst locallocal currencycurrency bonds (nature-debts exchange system); thethe fundsfunds areare toto financefinance naturenature conservationconservation activities.activities.
PERU
Peru's agricultural agricultural policy policy isis basedbased onon thethe conceptconcept ofof the the "gre,en"green revolution", i.e. self-self sufficiency throughthrough the developmentdevelopment of aa modernmodern agriculturalagricultural systemsystem usingusing geneticallygenetically improved staple speciesspe,cies (rice, (rice, maize, maize, soya, soya, ...... ) ) and plentiful inputs.inputs. ExportExport cropscrops (coffee,(coffee, cotton, cocoa, ...)... ) provide provide thethe hardhard currencycurrency necessarynecessary toto purchasepurchase thesethese inputs.inputs.
In thisthis framework,framework, thethe AmazonianAmazonian forestforest isis consideredconsidered aa potentialpotential "El"El Dorado".Dorado". It is viewed in the first placeplace as aa reservereserve ofof land land forfor internalinternal migrationmigration fromfrom thethe Andes,Andes, andand as a reserve ofof woodwood toto bebe "mined""mined" toto supplysupply timbertimber forfor thethe wood-processing wood-processing industriesindustries andand the urban market.market.
The resultingresulting forest legislation isis analysed below;below; butbut with the failurefailure ofof thethe agricultural policypolicy andand the increasinglyincreasingly evident ecological problems,problems, aa new interestinterest inin studying andand following traditional forest utilization techniques,techniques, particularlyparticularly withwith regardregard to food production, is now coming to thethe fore.fore.
The Forest Law ofof 19751975 (Ley(Ley ForestalForestal yy dede FaunaFauna Silvestre)Silvestre) definesdefines the termsterms of reference for forestforest managementmanagement in Peru, andand inin particularparticular makesmakes itit clearclear thatthat floraflora andand faunafauna resources are nationalnational property andand thatthat nono acquiredacquired rightsrights cancan bebe claimedclaimed overover them.them. - 37 --
This latter conceptconcept waswas ratifiedratified inin 19791979 andand extendedextended toto allall naturalnatural resources,resources, renewable or otherwise.
In reality thethe currentcurrent legislationlegislation is endowed with sufficient technical, ecological and administrative content to permit sustainable utilization ofof the resource, butbut itit isis certaincertain that,that, for wantwant of adequateadequate meansmeans andand determinationdetermination on the Government's part:part: "The"The applicationapplication of thethe legislationlegislation has beenbeen reducedreduced toto aa minimum,minimum, toto approximatelyapproximately 40% ofof itsits articles"articles" (Cf. Report No. 1717 -- FAOFAO -- 1989)1989)
According to this legislation, forests are classed in the following different categories:
national forests:forests: BosquesBosques Nacionales,Nacionales, "usable" forests:forests: BosquesBosques dede LibreLibre Disponibilidad,Disponibilidad, protection forests: BosquesBosques dede ProtecciónProtecci6n conservation forests: UnidadesUnidades dede ConservaciónConservaci6n private forests, plantation forests.forests.
Apart from thethe protection forestsforests andand conservation unitsunits thethe other forestsforests maybemaybe used for commercial and/or industrialindustrial purposes, underunder contractscontracts oror permitspermits issuedissued byby thethe MinistryMinistry of Agriculture.
Private intervention is regulated by the 19801980 Law (Ley(Ley dede PromociónPromoci6n yy DesarrolloDesarrollo Agrario) which supplemented the previous legislation byby foreseeing the possibility,possibility, on anan exceptional basis,basis, of private valorization in NationalNational Forests.
Exploitation permitspermits areare granted at threethree levels:levels: national, by thethe MinistryMinistry ofof Agriculture; regional, by the Director of the District Agrarian UnitUnit,, and local, by the Forest Units. AA series series ofof model model contracts contracts areare foreseenforeseen accordingaccording toto thethe legallegal statusstatus ofof thethe forest,forest, thethe extent of the permit and itsits duration,duration, andand thethe investmentsinvestments proposed.proposed.
Note: The most easily obtained logging permits, and the least exacting for their beneficiaries, are thosethose issuedissued for areasareas ofof less less thanthan 11 000 000 hectares hectares (to(to encourage encourage andand helphelp small-scalesmall-scale enterprises, but withwith obviousobvious possibilitypossibility ofof abuse).abuse).
The DirecciónDirecci6n General Forestal y de FaunaFauna ofof thethe MinistryMinistry ofof AgricultureAgriculture isis alsoalso responsible for the approvalapproval andand controlcontrol ofof forest forest managementmanagement andand reforestationreforestation studies.studies.
A reforestationreforestation tax, thethe "Canon"Canon dede Reforestación",Reforestaci6n", hashas beenbeen leviedlevied sincesince 19801980 on forest logginglogging concernsconcerns toto fundfund tree-planting tree-planting campaignscampaigns (conducted(conducted in principle byby reforestation committees).committees).
The implementationimplementation of thethe managementmanagement plansplans submittedsubmitted in order to obtainobtain exploitation licenses hashas remainedremained ""theoretical", theoretical", because these plans are based on silvicultural concepts that lack any concrete experimental backing;backing; andand this,this, combined with the lack of interest or motivationmotivation on thethe partpart ofof these these concerns,concerns, reducesreduces thesethese forestryforestry managementmanagement studies and proposals to thethe statusstatus ofof meremere bureaucraticbureaucratic formalities.formalities. - 38 -
The result isis thatthat thethe legislation,legislation, althoughalthough plentiful, lackslacks concreteconcrete application;application; eveneven the plantation forests are not subjectsubject toto managementmanagement programmes or even simplesimple silviculturesilviculture monitoring, due toto aa vacuumvacuum thatthat isis notnot onlyonly te,chnicaltechnical but legislative as well.
A pragmatic economic approach favouring privateprivate investmentsinvestments couldcould bebe oneone ofof the options to makemake forestforest managementmanagement a reality,reality, butbut thesethese cannotcannot bebe easilyeasily anticipatedanticipated inin aa precarious socio-economicsocio-economic context.context.
The Plan Nacional de AcciónAcci6n Forestal (1988-2000)(1988-2000) aims to to resolve thisthis situation,situation, but difficultiesdifficulties have beenbeen encounteredencountered in reconcilingreconciling national prioritiespriorities withwith those of international donors,donors, whichwhich translate intointo a conflictconflict betweenbetween productivityproductivity and forestforest conservation.
BOLIVIA
According toto the General Forest Law, all naturalnatural forestsforests belong to thethe State,State, whoever the owner of the land may be;be; moreover,moreover, thethe notionnotion ofof landland "tenuretenure isis confusedconfused and impreciseimprecise...... oftenoften therethere isis nono documentarydocumentary proofproof ofof ownership. ownership.
By law, therethere areare tenten forestforest reserves,reserves, consistingconsisting eithereither ofof classified classified forestsforests (in(in whichwhich only logging is permitted) or reservedreserved forestsforests (where(where nono operationsoperations whatsoeverwhatsoever are allowedallowed ... the forestsforests areare "frozen"),"frozen"), butbut unfortunatelyunfortunately theirtheir boundariesboundaries are vaguevague andand theirtheir delimitation is inadequate.inadequate. They cover approximatelyapproximately nine million hectares, but somesome portions have been destroyed as a resultresult ofof spontaneous spontaneous oror legallegal landland settlement.settlement.
The chief agenciesagencies operating in the forestryforestry and woodwood sectors are:
CDF :: CentroCentro dede DesarrolloDesarrollo ForestalForestal CNF :: CámaraCamara NacionalNacional ForestalForestal CORDES : CorporaciónCorporaci6n RegionalRegional dede DesarrolloDesarrollo Civic committees (at(at provincialprovincial level).level).
The CDFCDF receivesreceives fromfrom thethe declareddeclared forestforest enterprisesenterprises thethe paymentpayment of forestforest royalties (for logging)logging) charged per rn3m3 ofof rough timber trucked (from 1 toto 66 USUS dollarsdollars according to species);species); these royalties are paidpaid intointo aa nationalnational forestforest fund.fund.
The equivalent of half the above sums is paid by the logger as aa contributioncontribution to thethe PPF (Forest(Forest PlantationsPlantations Programme) which,which, underunder the control of thethe CNF,CNF, conductsconducts experimental timbertimber plantationplantation andand agro-forestryagro-forestry projects.projects.
Lastly, sincesince 19821982 thethe CORDESCORDES havehave beenbeen receivingreceiving 11%11 % ofof thethe lump-sum lump-sum production cost per m3m3 of sawnwood (about 0.22 US dollars), whichwhich isis inin factfact establishedestablished byby agreement between the CDF and the CNF,CNF, toto financefinance worksworks ofof public public andand communalcommunal utilityutility (as a rule inin thethe regionregion wherewhere thethe woodwood waswas produced).produced). - 39 --
Two hundredhundred exploitationexploitation permits or concessionsconcessions are in forceforce forfor individualindividual areasareas of 1010 000000 toto 2020 000000 hectareshectares (totalling(totalling 32.50032.500 millionmillion hectAres)hectares) located chiefly inin the main classified forestsforests such as Los Chimanes,Chimanes, GuaravosGuaravos and El Chore.Chore. In thethe last two,two, it isis estimated that about one millionmillion hectareshectares havehave beenbeen deforesteddeforested ......
VENEZUELA
Venezuela's forest policy, implementedimplemented byby the MinistryMinistry ofof thethe Environment: Environment: MARNR (Ministero(Ministero deldel AmbienteAmbiente yy dede loslos RecursosRecursos NaturalesNaturales Renovables)Renovables) isis basedbased onon thethe Land Management Plan (Plan(plan dede OrdenaciónOrdenaci6n deldel Territorio)Territorio) inin accordanceaccordance withwith twotwo laws:laws: the Ley OrgánicaOrganica del Ambiente and thethe Ley OrgánicaOrganica de OrdenaciónOrdenaci6n del Territorio, andand withwith the current NationalNational Plan (VII(VII PlanPlan dede lala Nación).Naci6n).
This policypolicy isis foundedfounded onon threethree principles:principles: sustainedsustained production,production, protectionprotection andand multiple use ofof forestforest ecosystems.ecosystems. Its objectivesobjectives are:are: to integrateintegrate wooded areasareas inin the development ofof the country (job creation,creation, self-sufficiency in in woodwood andand derivativesderivatives,, etc etc...... ), ), to maintain their productivity and/or theirtheir environmentalenvironmental protection role, andand toto defenddefend themthem from thethe destructivedestructive actionaction ofof man.man.
As regardsregards thethe lastlast objective,objective, thethe precedingpreceding descriptiondescription of thethe phenomenonphenomenon ofof intensive deforestation clearlyclearly revealsreveals thatthat itit is farfar fromfrom havinghaving beenbeen achievedachieved forfor lacklack ofof decisiveness andand political support "high up" asas regardsregards MARNR.MARNR.
As they do not reallyreal Iy havehave thethe meansmeans toto copecope withwith thethe socio-economicsocio-economic problemproblem of deforestation, thisthis Ministry'sMinistry's departmentsdepartments havehave concentratedconcentrated theirtheir effortsefforts onon threethree aspects: aspects:
- Information and researchresearch - Determination of forestforest resourcesresources - Rational management of thethe resourceresource (planning)(planning)
For example,example, as foreseenforeseen byby thethe ForestForest LawLaw (Ley(Ley ForestalForestal deoe SuelosSuelos yy dede Aguas)Aguas) MARNR is responsibleresponsible for regulating the utilizationutilization ofof forest resources; hence, with itsits guidance, long-termlong-term logginglogging operationsoperations subjectsubject toto aa managementmanagement planplan havehave beenbeen progressivelyprogressively encouraged: in 19801980 virtually all roughrough timbertimber productionproduction (80 to 90%)90%) waswas underunder annualannual licenses, but byby 19871987 aa largelarge proportion proportion (40%)(40%) ofof this this production production waswas underunder long-term long-term concessions.
MARNR controls thethe "Areas bajo régimenregimen de administraciónadministraci6n especial",especial", I.e.i.e. thethe productive forests, protectionprotection forestsforests andand nationalnational parks.parks.
The productiveproductive forests consist essentially of tenten Forest ReservesReserves totalling 11.3 millionmillion hectares.hectares.
The protection forestsforests amountamount toto aboutabout 1414 millionmillion hectares,hectares, thethe NationalNational ParksParks covercover 7 million hectares, andand publicpublic andand private managedmanaged reforestation areas totaltotal 300300 000 haha (this(this last figure is ofof somesome importance).importance). - 40 --
The administrativeadministrative organization of the services headed by MARNRMARNR (established(established inin 1977) is highlyhighly structured:structured: watershedwatershed andand nationalnational parkpark managementmanagement is handledhandled byby twotwo separate agencies, whilstwhilst productive forests and woodlandswoodlands are thethe responsibilityresponsibility ofof thethe Venezuelan Forestry Service (SEFORVEN, created in June 1989).1989).
This forestforest administrationadministration is well designed and structured, but (once again), itit findsfinds it difficultdifficult toto operateoperate effectivelyeffectively in thethe fieldfield (human(human resources,resources, equipmentequipment and funding are all distinctly inadequate).inadequate).
5. RECAPITULATIONRECAPITULATION
Isthmus countries and MexicoMexico
The forestforest lawslaws areare recent,recent, havinghaving onlyonly beenbeen introducedintroduced inin thethe 1970s.1970s. They are currently being revised oror eveneven totallytotally replacedreplaced byby newnew legislationlegislation (Guatemala)(Guatemala) withwith aa viewview to promoting forestryforestry activities.activities.
Generally speaking, these laws establish regulations for the utilizationutilization of forestforest resources and their protection.protection. TheThe trendtrend isis towardstowards rationalrational andand continuouscontinuous forestforest use,use, withwith management plansplans aa requirement. In some cases, the new laws go as far as limitinglimiting or even prohibiting forest exploitationexploitation (Nicaragua).(Nicaragua).
The agencyagency responsible forfor forests is usuallyusually a departmentdepartment of thethe MinistryMinistry ofof Agriculture (EI(El Salvador, Guatemala,Guatemala, Nicaragua,Nicaragua, Panama), oror occasionallyoccasionally of thethe MinistryMinistry of Natural Resources and Mines (Costa Rica). HondurasHonduras isis thethe onlyonly countrycountry thatthat possessespossesses a National Office in charge of forests.forests.
The problems encountered by the forest administration areare many, and do not differ greatly from oneone countrycountry toto another:another: insufficientinsufficient andand inadequatelyinadequately qualifiedqualified personnel,personnel, andand inadequate resources.resources. SometimesSometimes therethere isis nono forestforest managementmanagement serviceservice at all;all; andand inin manymany cases the laws are not applied duedue toto thethe pressurespressures exertedexerted onon thethe administrationadministration by logginglogging concerns.
Countries with low populationpopUlation pressure
In Suriname, thethe forestforest policy dates back to 19471947 and is to "manage"manage the country's forests so thatthat theythey eternallyeternally produceproduce thethe maximummaximum benefitsbenefits forfor thethe communitycommunity throughthrough inventories, research,research, inspection andand supervisionsupervision of forestryforestry operations and timbertimber exploitation"exploitation". .
The forestryforestry service,service, whichwhich comescomes underunder thethe MinistryMinistry ofof NaturalNatural Resources,Resources, isis responsible for the application of the law in the national forestsforests.. All the country'scountry's forestsforests are national forests. - 41 -
The first legislationlegislation dating from 19471947 servedserved chiefly to establishestablish the conditionsconditions for exploiting the forest, whichwhich isis extremelyextremely extensiveextensive and subject to very little human pressure. They regulate the issuing of concessions and the amount of royalties, whichwhich areare lowlow (around(around US$1/US$1/m3).m3). InIn 1947 a vastvast concessionconcession (500(500 000000 ha)ha) waswas grantedgranted toto Bruynzeel Bruynzeel CompanyCompany (BSH).
In thethe 1970s,1970s, thethe emphasisemphasis waswas onon conservationconservation andand reforestationreforestation measures,measures, withwith Dutch bilateralbilateral cooperation.cooperation. At thethe samesame time,time, thethe forestryforestry serviceservice proposedproposed a newnew legislativelegislative approach that would take intointo accountaccount thethe sustainedsustained charactercharacter ofof production production andand multiple forest uses.uses.
These proposals camecarne up againstagainst thethe politicalpolitical constraints that weighweigh uponupon forestry in thisthis country. TheThe granting granting ofof concessions concessions isis determineddetermined byby non-technicalnon-technical criteria;criteria; thethe BSHBSH company blocked any revision of timber royaltiesroyalties untiluntil itit becamebecame aa StateState companycompany inin 1982;1982; the waning of supportsupport fromfrom thethe NetherlandsNetherlands and thethe outbreakoutbreak ofof guerillaguerilla warfarewarfare alsoalso weighed veryvery heavily on this status quo.
The forestry service,service, whichwhich waswas wellwell structuredstructured andand endowedendowed upup toto thethe beginningbeginning of the 1980s,1980s, isis losinglosing groundground atat present.present.
In FrenchFrench Guiana,Guiana, mostmost ofof thethe forestedforested areaarea isis FrenchFrench StateState property.property. It isis consequently administeredadministered byby thethe NationalNational ForestsForests OfficeOffice.. TheThe exploitationexploitation policypolicy forfor thisthis resource is based onon concessionsconcessions granted forfor specificspecific areasareas andand durationsdurations toto loggersloggers whowho mustmust also operate wood processing plants.plants. ThisThis rulerule aims to fosterfoster thethe developmentdevelopment of of local wood sector enterprises toto meetmeet sawnwoodsawn wood needs.needs.
The administration responsible for thethe developmentdevelopment of this sectorsector isis wellwell structuredstructured but shortstaffed.shortstaffed.
Brazil
In BrazilianBrazilian AmazoniaAmazonia thethe problems ofof forestforest policypolicy inm SouthSouth AmericaAmerica areare dramatically apparent.apparent.
The statusstatus and utilizationutilization of forestsforests are governedgoverned by thethe 19651965 ForestForest Code,Code, whichwhich indicates inin articlearticle 1515 thethe needneed forfor "sustained "sustained forest forest management". management". This CodeCode waswas augmented inin 1984-851984-85 byby a seriesseries ofof regulationsregulations thatthat makemake it obligatory,obligatory, inin particular,particular, toto plant a certain numbernumber ofof treestrees perper m3m3 felled.felled. But the future of the forestforest dependsdepends first of all on a policy of land zoning, and secondly, onon thethe organization of agricultural colonization.
An initial subdivision into "economic-ecological""economic-ecological" zones revealed that 19%19% ofof soilssoils are seasonally flooded (cultivation area),area), 46% ar poorpoor butbut cancan bebe cultivatedcultivated withwith inputs,inputs, andand 30% are poor and unsuitable forfor cultivation.cultivation. ThisThis lastlast zone zone is is to to become become a a managed managed forestforest reserve. In thethe absenceabsence ofof zoningzoning legislation,legislation, zoneszones thatthat shouldshould bebe leftleft woodedwooded areare beingbeing cleared in controlled fashion; this situationsituation is aggravated by an agricultural policy thatthat givesgives rise to thethe openingopening upup ofof roadsroads followingfollowing ill-conceivedill-conceived routes, andand toto speculationspecUlation inin land.land. - 42 -
The Programma Nossa NaturezaNatureza (Our Nature Programme - a a landland useuse planplan basedbased on suitabilitysuitability criteria),criteria), formulated inin 1988, must be urgentlyurgently applied to allowallow thethe establishment of a realreal forestforest policypolicy (particularly(particularly inin thethe CarajasCarajas region).region).
The AndeanAndean CountriesCountries
These countries all possesspossess recentrecent forestforest lawslaws andand thethe administrative administrative structuresstructures necessary for their application.application. ButBut present present budget budget difficulties difficulties andand socialsocial unrestunrest pushpush forestforest problems into the backgroundbackground inin termsterms ofof government government priorities.priorities.
More specifically, inin thethe casecase ofof Venezuela,Venezuela, thethe presentpresent forestforest policypolicy isis detaileddetailed andand well-conceived. ItIt is is formulatedformulated byby thethe MinistryMinistry ofof thethe EnvironmentEnvironment and Renewable Natural Resources, which draws upup a NationalNational ForestryForestry DevelopmentDevelopment Plan based on three principles: sustained yield in productionproduction zones, localised areas of total protection, and multiple-usemultiple-use forest management.
The objectives could serve as reference points for reflection:reflection: toto integrateintegrate forestsforests inin regional development planning;planning; toto protectprotect forestsforests fromfrom the destructive action of man and natural agents;agents; to ensureensure thethe rationalrational utilisation ofof forests with a viewview toto sustainedsustained production; to preserve the value of forests as protectors of other natural resources; to limit wood imports and provide exports; toto increaseincrease forests'forests' participationparticipation inin nationalnational development.development.
The scarcity of fundsfunds isis atat presentpresent thethe chiefchief obstacleobstacle toto itsits implementation.implementation. -- 43 -
IV. STATESTATE OFOF THETHE RESOURCE: RESOURCE: INVENTORIESINVENTORIES ANDAND DEFORESTATIONDEFORESTATION
To put it briefly,briefly, thethe salientsalient featuresfeatures ofof thethe majoritymajority ofof tropical tropical forestsforests inin general,general, andand ofof those of Latin AmericaAmerica in particular, are:are:
insufficientinsufficient knowledgelcnowledge of of thethe resourceresource (exploitation and development potential); the dual phenomenon of intensive deforestation and/orand/or degradation of the forest ecosystem.ecosystem.
Forest degradation isis a difficult phenomenon to quantify, asas itit involvesinvolves modifications of the forest'sforest's ecosystemecosystem of detrimentdetriment to itsits treetree population,population, faunafauna or sitesite (terrain,(terrain, soil,soil, microclimate ....,). ) andand whichwhich impairimpair itsits potentialpotential byby decreasingdecreasing itsits productionproduction capability.capability.
Deforestation isis due to the conversion ofof woodlands toto otherother uses,uses, or reduction of thethe land'sland's vertical cover toto lessless thanthan 10%10% (FAO,(FAO, Unasylva,Unasylva, 1991).1991).
The provisional data presently available from the FAO Forest Resources Evaluation Project (commenced in 19901990 and scheduledscheduled for completion in mid-1992)mid-1992) are summarized in the following table.table.
PROVISIONAL ESTIMATES OF FOREST COVER ANDAND DEFORESTATIONDEFORESTATION IN 62 TROPICAL COUNTRIESCOUNTRIES
Continent Number of Total area ForestedForesteAl areaarea Forested 'relarea Deforestation Trend countries examinedexamined in 19801980 in 19901990 per year 1981-19901981-199C (in thousand of ha) (%(% year)year)
Africa 15 609800609 800 289289700 700 241 800800 44800 800 - 1.71.7
Latin America 32 1 263 600 825825900 900 753753000 000 77300 300 - 0.9
Asia 15 891 100 334334500 500 287500287 500 44700 700 - 1.41.4
TOTAL 62 27645002 764 500 1 450 100100 1 282 300 1616800 800 - 1.21.2
Note: The countries examinedexamined include practically allall thethe moist forest zone and some dry zoneszones as well. TheThe figuresfigures areare indicative, and must notnot bebe taken taken asas regionalregional averages.averages.
These provisional and partial figuresfigures are sufficientsufficient in themselvesthemselves to give an idea ofof the magnitude of the phenomenonphenomenQB ofof deforestation inin thethe tropics, where a highly significantsignificant correlation hashas beenbeen notednoted betweenbetween thethe forestforest covercover trendtrend andand demographicdemographic estimates.estimates.
NotNot onlyonly doesdoes deforestationdeforestation appear to be gaininggaining speedspeed in thethe humidhumid tropicstropics asas aa whole, but inin additionaddition thethe degradationdegradation of thethe biomassbiomass seemsseems toto bebe linkedlinked toto thethe magnitudemagnitude of thethe indexindex ofof fragmentation fragmentation (borders(borders between between forest andand non-woodednon-wooded land in relationrelation toto total foresteciforested area);area); inin other words, "the"the moremore fragmentedfragmented the forest,forest, thethe greatergreater itsits susceptibility to degradation" (FAO, Unasylva,Unasylva, 1991).1991).
These twotwo aspects, deforestationdeforestation andand degradation,degradation, areare more more specifically specifically linkedlinked inin thethe Central American Isthmus countries; we have decided for thisthis reasonreason toto discussdiscuss themthem firstfirst and inin somesome detail.detail. - 44 -
1. THETHE ISTHMUS ISTHMUS COUNTRIES:COUNTRIES: COSTA COSTA RICARICA -- SALVADORSALVADOR -- GUATEMALAGUATEMALA - HONDURASHONDURAS-NICARAGUA-PANAMA - NICARAGUA - PANAMA
On the whole the sixsix IsthmusIsthmus countriescountries havehave similarsimilar morphologicalmorphological characteristics,characteristics, which can be summarizedsummarized asas follows:follows:
- A narrow Pacific coast, deforesteddeforested sincesince thethe lastlast fewfew decades, wherewhere onlyonly islandsislands of broadleaved forest survive, exploited onon an irregular basis to supplysupply logs to small sawmills.sawmills.
The land, withwith itsits generallygenerally richrich soils,soils, isis usedused forfor agricultureagriculture andand agro-industry.agro-industry. TheTherere are largelarge plantationsplantations ofof cotton andand sugarsugar-cane,-cane, and and also, also, butbut toto aa lesser extent, of bananas,bananas, coffee and cocoacocoa onon thethe lowerlower slopes.slopes.
- A volcanic central zone with very abrupt contours, and altitudes of from 800 to 3 500 mm.. Here,Here, althoughalthough thethe landland isis betterbetter suitedsuited toto forestsforests thanthan toto farming,farming, . population pressure hashas givengiven riserise toto intensiveintensive andand uncontrolleduncontrolled deforestationdeforestation to make wayway for shiftingshifting cultivation.cultivation.
This is the zonezone wherewhere coniferousconiferous forests are toto bebe found,found , mademade upup ofof species species suchsuch as PinusPinus oocarpaoocarpa and and Pinus Pinus pseudostrobus, pseudostrobus ,to to mention mention onlyonly thethe mostmost intensivelyintensively exploitedexploited varietiesvarieties..
- Lastly,Lastly, thethe vastvast low-altitudelow-altitude AtlanticAtlantic zone,zone, withwith lowlow populationpopulation densitydensity andand fewfew roads penetrating into the interior;interior; thisthis isis wherewhere thethe reservesreserves ofof broad-leaved broad-leaved tropical timber speciesspecies are located.located.
The climate, whichwhich is always of the moist tropical type, varies according to exposure to Atlantic or Pacific ocean influencesinfluences and above all to altitude.altitude. Rainfall thus ranges fromfrom I1 000 to 6 000 mmmm per year,year, andand meanmean temperatures,temperatures, whichwhich areare aroundaround 30°C30°C atat sea-level,sea-level, can be as low as 12°C12 °C aboveabove 22 500500 m.m.
The density of population,population, whichwhich isis asas lowlow asas 2323 inhabitantsinhabitants perper km2 km2 in in Nicaragua,Nicaragua, rises to overover 230230 inin ElEl Salvador. Salvador. The averageaverage for thethe sixsix countries'countries' total area of 508 894 kmkm22 isis 5252 inhabitants/kminhabitants/km',2, with an overalloverall populationpopulation of 2626 million.million . . The ruralrural population is always relatively large (43 to 67%67% ofof thethe totaltotal population).population). .
The GDP per inhabitantinhabitant varies fromfrom US$US$ 481481 (Panama)(Panama) to US$US$ 1I 126126 (Guatemala),(Guatemala), but thethe agriculturalagricultural economieseconomies are comparable:comparable:
- Export crops (coffee,(coffee, cotton,cotton, sugar,sugar, bananas)bananas) areare givengiven priority.priority.
- From thethe land-useland-use standpointstandpoint the majormajor agriculturalagricultural holdings,holdings, whichwhich areare export-export oriented, are inin sharpsharp contrastcontrast toto thethe peasantpeasant holdings,holdings, whichwhich practicepractice fairlyfairly extensive subsistence farming.
- The rising population (2.8%(2.8 % perper year)year) thusthus givesgives riserise toto large-scalelarge-scale clearanceclearance of forest areas (400 000 ha per yearyear forfor thethe regionregion asas aa whole)whole) which,which, givengiven thethe nature of thethe terrain,terrain, causescauses very very seriousserious soilsoil conservationconservation problems.problems. -- 45 -
Knowledge ofof forest resources is very incomplete. For instance:instance:
in GuatemalaGuatemala the last forestforest cover estimateestimate dates back to 1979,1979, andand therethere hashas never been a properproper inventory;inventory;
in Honduras,Honduras, aa COHDEFOR/ACDICOHDEFORlACDI project in thethe earlyearly 1980s1980s compiledcompiled anan estimate of available forest stock basedbased onon earlier inventories; inin principle, a COHDEFOR forestforest inventoryinventory unitunit isis supposedsupposed toto continuecontinue andand updateupdate this work;work;
in Nicaragua, afterafter thethe FAOFAO inventoryinventory conductedconducted fromfrom 19651965 toto 19731973 inin severalseveral Atlantic regions, anan evaluationevaluation of forest resources forfor thethe countrycountry asas aa wholewhole waswas carried out fromfrom 19811981 toto 19831983 withwith SwedishSwedish cooperation support, withwith aa viewview toto establishing aa Development PlanPlan for the wood sector asas aa whole;whole;
in Costa Rica,Rica, ElEI SalvadorSalvador andand PanamaPanama nono recentrecent estitnateestimate isis available.available.
Hence it cancan bebe postulatedpostulated thatthat withwith thethe annualannual deforestationdeforestation raterate ofof 3 toto 4%4 % recorded in allall thethe IsthmusIsthmus countries,countries, onlyonly aboutabout tenten millionmillion hectareshectares ofof actual actual forestforest cancan bebe counted upon: perhaps lessless than a million in Costa Rica; in ElEI Salvador truetnte forest can be said toto be virtually non-existent, as what remains is mostly degraded forest used asas cover for coffee plantations; Nicaragua, Honduras, Panama andand Guatemala shouldshould eacheach havehave 22 toto 2.5 millionmillion hectareshectares ofof forestforest (broad-leaved(broad-leaved andand coniferous).coniferous).
Given this situation, it mustmust bebe notednoted thatthat reforestationreforestation onlyonly amountsamounts to aroundaround 8 000 hectares per yearyear forfor thethe wholewhole region.region.
Efforts havehave nonethelessnonetheless be,enbeen mademade overover the last twenty years to establish protected forest zones in thethe formform ofof forest forest reserves,reserves, nationalnational parksparks oror biosphere biosphere reserves.reserves. These protected areasarea.s havehave increasedincreased fromfrom aboutabout 3030 in 1968 to over 240240 today,today, equivalentequivalent toto 9%9% of thethe totaltotal areaarea ofof these these six six countries countries andand approximately approximately 25%25% ofof thethe naturalnatural forestforest ecosystems.
The principal countries that have adopted this protection policy are Costa Rica and Panama, which have given protected status to a considerableconsiderable partpart ofof their their nationalnational territory:territory:
26% of Costa Rica, i.e.i.e. aboutabout 1.31.3 millionmillion hectares,hectares, 19% of Panama, i.e. aboutabout 1.41.4 millionmillion hectares,hectares, and 9% of the 66 countriescountries as a whole,whole, i.e.i.e. aroundaround 4.54.5 millionmillion hectares.hectares.
However, protected areas mustmust notnot bebe confusedconfused withwith survivingsurviving forests;forests; forfor instance,instance, the Masaya Volcano National Park isis notnot aa woodlandwoodland area.area.
Land use and its incidenceincidence on forest: in thisthis IsthmusIsthmus region there is aa veryvery sharpsharp difference between the Pacific coastal zones, the "mesetas" and central cordilleras, and thethe Atlantic coastal zones, forfor bothboth climaticclimatic andand pedologicalpedological reasons.reasons.
The Atlantic zones are byby farfar thethe leastleast denselydensely populatedpopulated andand (still)(still) thethe mostmost heavilyheavily wooded; the best regions for agriculture are thosethose of thethe PacificPacific coastcoast andand the Centre, whichwhich have deep volcanic soilssoils...... thatthat areare extremelyextremely fertilefertile (under(under aa mildermilder climate).climate). - 46 --
This imbalance in populationpopulation distribution linked to the land'sland's agricultura]agricultural potentialpotential reflects a very criticalcritical situationsituation in thethe ruralrural world:world:
overpopulation in thethe traditionaltraditional farmingfarming areas,areas, frequently rudimentaryrudimentary agriculturalagricultural techniques,techniques, - poor naturalnatural resourceresource exploitationexploitation structures.structures.
The saturation ofofthe the good farmland areas le,adsleads toto tthehe wellwell-known-known phenomenon,phenomenon, veryvery widespread in Central America, ofof shiftingshifting cultivationcultivation carried out toto thethe detrimentdetriment ofof naturalnatural forest. The latterlatter isis permanentlypermanently cleared and burned by thethe peasants who, as theythey cannotcannot practice the fallow fields system, are obliged to abandon their plots after two or three years' successive cultivation as soon as yieldsyields dropdrop beyondbeyond tolerabletolerable levels.levels.
In addition, twotwo peculiaritiespeculiarities characterizecharacterize thisthis typetype ofof shiftingshifting cultivation:cultivation:
Firstly, livestocklivestock farmingfarming isis consideredconsidered thethe finalfinal object of forestforest clearance,clearance, sincesince after a periodperiod ofof intensive intensive cultivationcultivation the freefree areasareas areare immediatelyimmediately takentaken inin hand again to prevent forest regrowth and foster the development of grassy cover so as to allowallow extensive stock-farming over quite considerable areas (which, for lack of appropriate management,management, finally suffersuffer irreversibleirreversible degradation).degradation).
Secondly, penetration ofof forests by farmersfarmers isis oftenoften independentindependent of logging,logging, asas in most cases agricultural settlement occurs before any logging has takentaken place.
To expressexpress thethe aboveabove inin moremore concreteconcrete terms,terms, accordingaccording toto CostaCosta Rican Rican statistics: statistics:
1 118 000 hectares ofof forest were cleared betweenbetween 19501950 and and 1977,1977, atat aa raterate ofof 41 000000 hectareshectares perper year;year; this rate increasedincreased to 60 000000 hectareshectares fromfrom 19771977 toto 19871987 (offset(offset byby onlyonly aa fewfew hundred hectares of reforestationreforestation perper year);year); natural moist forests presently totaltotal approximatelyapproximately 11 millionmillion hectareshectares (about(about halfhalf of whichwhich hashas protected status as reserves andand nationalnational parks), withoutwithout takingtaking intointo account about 300 000 hectares of swamp forests, severely degraded forests and mangrovemangrove swamps.swamps.
In Nicaragua, moistmoist forestforest usedused toto covercover 44 millionmillion hectareshectares and pinepine standsstands accountedaccounted for a further 300 000 hectares. TheThe annualannual deforestationdeforestation raterate isis aroundaround 3%,3 %, i.e.i.e. anan estimatedestimated 120 000 hectares.hectares.
Lastly, in PanamaPanama about 70% ofof thethe countrycountry waswas woodedwooded in 1947,1947, butbut deforestationdeforestation had reduced forest cover to 43% inin 19871987 (according(according toto satellitesatellite images); the figures are as follows:
1970: 56%,56%, i.e.: 4.34.3 millionmillion hectareshectares 1980: 46%,46%, i.e.:i.e.: 3.53.5 millionmillion hectareshectares 1987: 43%,43%, i.e.:i.e.: 3.33.3 million million hectareshectares
Annual deforestation rate:rate: 1.6%1. 6 % betweenbetween 19701970 and 1987.1987. - 4747 --
And there had beenbeen nono managementmanagement plant until the establishment of the Panamanian TFAP.
The catival forest, heavilyheavily exploitedexploited byby thethe logginglogging industryindustry (up(up toto 19861986 itit providedprovided 50% ofof sawnwoodssawnwoods and 90% ofof plywoodsplywoods ...),... ), has has sufferedsuffered fromfrom uncontrolleduncontrolled utilizationutilization (clearing, fires): ofof thethe 7070000 000 hectareshectares existingexisting inin 1970,1970, onlyonly 3030000 000 remain remain today.today.
It is thus evident that the future of thethe American Isthumus forestforest isis closely dependent on the solutions that will be adopted to meet thethe area'sarea's agricultural and human problems, and that any excessively narrow forestforest managementmanagement approach is doomed in advanceadvance toto failure.failure.
The problem of the disappearance of forest resources in these countries can only be resolved if preliminarypreliminary measuresmeasures are adoptedadopted toto stabilizestabilize thethe ruralrural sector.sector. These are well-well known: credit aid for smallsmall farmers,farmers, improvement of agriculturalagricultural techniquestechniques (fertilisers,(fertilisers, mechanization,mechanization, irrigationirrigation ...... ), ), reduction ofof extensive stock-farming (improved(improved pastures, pastures, fodder fodder storagestorage ...... ), ), incentives (tax benefits) for thethe reforestationreforestation of marginalmarginal lands, aimed particularly at large landowners,landowners, etc.etc ...... forestry programmes, inin termsterms ofof thethe conservationconservation andand managementmanagement ofof naturalnatural forestforest formations, reforestation and agroforestry,agroforestry, cancan onlyonly bebe effectiveeffective ifif implemented implemented alongsidealongside thesethese measures.measures.
Given the "critical" situation,situation, naturalnatural fallowfallow can no longer be envisaged because ofof the longlong regenerationregeneration timetime required.required. It isis thusthus indispensableindispensable toto adoptadopt artificial fallowfallow systems involving various modes of plantingplanting fast-growing,fast-growing, high-yieldhigh-yield woodwood speciesspecies (for(for fodder, fuelwood and roundroundwood wood ...... ) ) soso asas toto ensureensure thethe advantageousadvantageous use of thethe available rural landland andand aa goodgood cost/benefitcost/benefit ratio.ratio.
The variousvarious artificialartificial fallowfallow systemssystems belong to thethe vastvast domaindomain ofof agroforestry agroforestry techniques,techniques, many ofof which have beenbeen empiricallyempirically practiced practiced for for a a longlong timetime,, asas aa matter ofof necessity, in thethe CentralCentral AmericanAmerican countries.countries.
Reforestation in the form of single-species or slightly mixed stands has the advantage of concentratingconcentrating aa high yield in aa smallsmall area,area, andand isis the the best best solution solution whenever whenever farmersfarmers exercise mild competitive pressure on land use.use.
This isis thethe onlyonly feasiblefeasible meansmeans toto provideprovide timber,timber, roundwoodroundwood oror fuelwood fuel wood inin sufficient quantities from smallsmall areas.areas. It alsoalso constitutesconstitutes aa veryvery effectiveeffective meansmeans ofof ensuringensuring soil protection and restoration, and ofof reducingreducing exploitationexploitation pressure on the majormajor naturalnatural forests with a viewview toto theirtheir conservationconservation andand management.management.
Hence, despite the multiplicitymultiplicity of technical,technical, financialfinancial andand landland ownershipownership problemsproblems that reforestationreforestation projects have toto contendcontend with,with, theirtheir successfulsuccessful implementationimplementation in thethe framework of national plantation programmes is absolutely indispensable soso asas to avoid the needneed toto importimport woodwood productsproducts atat highhigh cost.cost. - 48 --
In thethe frameworkframework ofof a a rationalrational nationalnational developmentdevelopment plan,plan, forestforest plantationsplantations shouldshould preferably be established onon land that is marginal from thethe agricultural standpointstandpoint (unsuitable for cultivation,cultivation, severely degradeddegraded ...... ) ) butbut whichwhich alsoalso allowsallows regularregular andand easyeasy timbertimber extraction. The farmer-ownerfarmer-owner mustmust havehave anan economiceconomic interestinterest andand participateparticipate directlydirectly in thethe management ofof the stands; thisthis meansmeans promoting "rural forestry"forestry" projectsprojects withwith governmentgovernment aid in the initialinitial phases.phases.
2. MEXICOMEXICO
Of thethe originaloriginal 2929 millionmillion hectareshectares ofof tropical tropical forests,forests, 2121 millionmillion remaine,d remained atat thethe beginning of this century and almostalmost 20 millionmillion werewere stillstill standingstanding inin 1950.1950.
During thethe fiftiesfifties over 2 million hectares of forest disappeared, followed byby aa furtherfurther 2.5 millionmillion between 19601960 andand 1975.1975. OverOver this this 25-year 2S-year period period deforestation deforestation thus thus proce,eded proceeded at a fairly constantconstant rate: aroundaround 200 000 ha/year.ha/year.
The pacepace ofof deforestation deforestation then underwent a sharp acceleration to over 350 000 ha/year; thethe tropicaltropical forestsforests hadhad been reducedreduced toto 1515 millionmillion hectares in 1976,1976, andand had shrunk to only 11.411.4 millionmillion inin 1986.1986.
This deforestation is thethe resultresult ofof twotwo typestypes ofof human human intervention:intervention:
governmental programmesprogrammes for the controlle,dcontrolled settlement of "available" woodlands; andand
uncontrolled individual clearanceclearance duedue to shifting cultivation.
These "classic""classic" formsforms ofof deforestationdeforestation are, yetyet again,again, thethe manifestationmanifestation ofof land-land hunger in an extremely fast-growingfast-growing population, andand ofof overambitiousoverambitious government schemes unbacked byby anyany preliminary generalgeneral developmentdevelopment planplan forfor farmlandsfarmlands oror forfor thethe territoryterritory asas a whole.
After somesome small-scalesmall-scale inventinventoriesories (the(the earliest of which date back to 19201920 in thethe tropical zone)zone),, a general inventory of tropicaltropical forest resources was begun inin 1964 with the creation of thethe NationalNational InventoryInventory Department,Department, withwith assistanceassistance fromfrom FAO.FAO.
Sampling was conducted at an approximate rate of 0.4% basedbased onon primaryprimary countingcounting units each measuring 0.10.1 ha. ThisThis inventoryinventory was completed inin 1971 for the forestsforests in thethe States ofof Chiapas and Quintana RooRoo,, and in 19841984 forfor allall ofof Mexico's Mexico's tropicaltropical forests.forests.
3. BELIZEBELIZE
This country has aa veryvery lowlow populationpopulation densitydensity (an(an averageaverage ofof 8 8 inhabitants/km2), inhabitants/km2), and is almost entirely underunder forestforest (93%).(93%).
It would appear thatthat littlelittle in thethe wayway ofof forest forest resourceresource evaluationevaluation hashas takentaken placeplace after the findings of thethe 19781978 FAOFAO Project.Project. In earlier days,days, importantimportant botanicalbotanical researchresearch projects hadhad beenbeen carriedcarried outout inin thethe '20s,'20s, '30s and '50s. - 49 -
The chief threats to Belize'sBelize's forestsforests are:are:
- fires, aboveabove all inin pinepine forests.forests. (It(It appears,appears, however,however, thatthat thesethese havehave aa positivepositive effect on the pines' naturalnatural regeneration).regeneration).
the highlyhighly destructive tornadoestornadoes thatthat sweep thethe country from East toto West.West. Given their frequency (once(once everyevery fivefive years)years) andand thethe width of thethe forestsforests concerned, in statistical terms each forest compartment should be destroyed once every 45 years.years. RiskRisk studiesstudies basedbased onon geographicalgeographical locationlocation should make it possible to identify the least-affectedleast-affected areas, wherewhere forestforest managementmanagement projectsprojects could be established.
farming consumes more or less forest land according to the techniques practiced by the communities concerned:
clear felling, burning, stump-grubbingstump-grubbing andand permanentpermanent mechanizedmechanized cultivationcultivation (Mennonites);
agroforestry (by the Amish community ofof 10 000 persons of DutchDutch origin,origin, who practice an archaicarchaic life-style);life-style);
slash-and-burn cultivation (Mestizo and YucatecYucatec Maya)
citrus (lemon)(lemon) and bananabanana plantationsplantations after total destruction of thethe forest.forest.
forest logging over-exploits certain species (Mahogany(Mahogany and Cedar).Cedar).
4. THETHE CARIBBEAN CARIBBEAN - -Example:Example: PUERTOPUERTO RICORICO
In thethe CaribbeanCaribbean ArchipelagoArchipelago thethe deforestationdeforestation situation varies greatly from oneone place to another,another, rangingranging fromfrom veryvery severesevere inin HaitiHaiti toto relativelyrelatively slightslight inin Trinidad.Trinidad. BothBoth deforestation and the inventoryinginventorying of forestforest resourcesresources areare intimatelyintimately linkedlinked toto thethe contextcontext ofof each island and country: thethe exampleexample ofof PuertoPuerto RicoRico isis veryvery eloquenteloquent inin thisthis regard.regard.
The forest history of Puerto RicoRico fromfrom itsits discoverydiscovery earlyearly inin thethe 16th16th centurycentury toto thethe mid-20th century isis that ofof the gradual destruction ofof plantplant covercover andand soilssoils,, in three major phasesphases::
Settlement firstfirst cleared woodlands toto make way for pasture,pasture, whichwhich inin 18991899 covered 55% of thethe island's surface,surface, andand crops.crops. TheThe large large estates,estates, locatedlocated onon thethe best and least hilly land, grewgrew cropscrops forfor thethe exportexport marketmarket whilstwhilst thethe nuinerousnumerous small farms in the mountainsmountains practiced shiftingshifting cultivation of subsistence crops.
At thethe endend ofof the the nineteenth nineteenth century,century, coffeecoffee cultivationcultivation developeddeveloped in thethe mountains on land previously considered unsuitable forfor cultivation.cultivation. TheThe forestforest cover rate plummeted to 20% in 1900,1900, andand onlyonly aa thirdthird ofof thethe remainingremaining standsstands are ableable toto provideprovide anythinganything otherother thanthan fuelwood.fuelwood. - 50 -
- Forest clearanceclearance continuedcontinued until 1950, underunder thethe pressurepressure ofof risingrising population,population, the development ofof export crops, and above all of thethe economiceconomic crisescrises which,which, with increased unemployment, brought about a return to aa subsistencesubsistence economy. The forest cover raterate fellfell toto 6%6 % andand erosionerosion reachedreached catastrophiccatastrophic levels.levels.
Since the middle of thisthis century,century, withwith thethe progressprogress ofof economic economic development,development, thethe area underunder forestforest hashas beenbeen incre,asingincreasing due to the abandonment of marginalmarginal landslands andand a private reforestation movementmovement on erodederoded lands.lands.
The mangrovemangrove forestsforests onon the coast, whichwhich originally coveredcovered 2424 000000 ha, hadhad stabilized atat 66 000000 ha in 1979.1979. TheThe causal causal factorsfactors ofof this this reductionreduction hadhad been:been:
- initialinitial cuttingcutting forfor fuelwood,fuel wood, subsequently, the agricultural use of thesethese lands,lands, - and finally,finally, thethe developmentdevelopment ofof townstowns andand ports.ports.
Now that theirtheir protectiveprotective rolerole againstagainst marinemarine erosionerosion isis betterbetter understoodunderstood thethe mangroves are no longerlonger subjectsubject to clearance,clearance, butbut theythey suffersuffer heavilyheavily fromfrom cyclones.cyclones.
The generalgeneral forest inventory ofof the island was carried out in 19801980 toto provideprovide information on thethe productionproduction potentialpotential ofof youngyoung secondarysecondary forests.forests .
Due to populationpopulation migrationsmigrations and declining agriculture,agriculture, the area under forestforest hashas increased considerably overover thethe lastlast 30 years. It now amounts toto 275 000 ha, corresponding to a forest cover rate of 31%,31 %, butbut duedue toto thethe island'sisland's mountainousmountainous relief only 130130000 000 ha are located in potentially productive zones.zones.
The exploitable forest area is defined by 5 criteria:criteria:
3 - exploitable volume per hectarehectare aboveabove 2.52.5 m3;m ; - distance from nearest permanent road below 11 km,km, - areaare,a heldheld byby a single title-holdertitle-holder above 5 ha;ha; satisfactory physical conditionsconditions forfor exploitation;exploitation; - distance from nearest riverriver oror lakelake aboveabove 5050 m,m, .. .
This gives 31 000 haha ofof currentlycurrently exploitableexploitable forest,forest, i.e. aboutabout oneone quarterquarter ofof thethe forest area in thethe productionproduction zone.zone.
The rest of thethe productionproduction forestforest isis veryvery young,young, butbut therethere isis enoughenough standingstanding timbertimber stock to estimate that a protection and managementmanagement programme would be sufficient to make itit productive without any large-scale reforestation measures being required.required.
The available volumes,volumes, divideddivided by typestypes of forest,forest, areare asas follows:follows:
- abandoned coffeecoffee plantationsplantations : 5353 m3/ham3/ha secondary forestsforests : 44.444.4 m3/ham3/ha shade trees overover coffeecoffee groves:groves: 36.336.3 m3/ham3/ha - 51 --
The highesthighest volume (73.3 mm3/ha)3/ha) isis foundfound onon deep volcanic soils. But the sawablesawable volume isis only one-tenth ofof thethe standingstanding volume volume.. What is more, the logs are of very poor quality, except in naturalnatural forest.forest.
The floristic composition datadata isis moremore favourable.favourable. WithWith 547 natural species and 203 introduced speciespecies,s, the flora isis highlyhighly diversified, although 10 species account forfor 60% of the total volume. TheThe fact fact that that eight eight of of these these havehave been been usedused asas sheltershelter forfor coffeecoffee plantations plantations or for fruitfruit productionproduction clearlyclearly reflectsreflects thethe man-mademan-made origin of thethe stands.stands.
The inventory also investigated thethe forestsforests'' ownership.ownership. ApproximatelyApproximately 8585% % of thethe land under forest belongs to private ownersowners.. InIn thethe publicpublic domain,domain, thethe CommonwealthCommonwealth isis thethe largest owner; withwith nationalnational parks and reserves, itit holdsholds virtuallyvirtually allall thethe primaryprimary forestforest stillstill in existence.
5. THETHE GUYANESE GUYANESE REGIONREGION
Suriname and French GuianaGuiana areare representativerepresentative examplesexamples ofof aa contextcontext wherewhere humanhuman impact is (still)(still) relativelyrelatively slight.slight.
SURINAME
Suriname hashas a small population whichwhich iis,s, moreover,moreover, highly urbanizedurbanized,, as 80% of the population liveslives lessless than 30 km away from Paramaribo. TheThe impactimpact ofof agriculture agriculture onon the forest is thusthus very low.low.
The existing problems are connectedconnected withwith bauxitebauxite mining,mining, eithereither duedue to the mines themselves or toto thethe creationcreation ofof large large artificialartificial lakeslakes toto provideprovide cheap cheap hydro-electrichydro-electric powerpower for aluminiumaluminium production.production.
The susceptibilitysusceptibility to to firefire of thethe seasonalseasonal swampswamp forestforest on peatypeaty soilssoils duringduring exceptionally dry years mustmust alsoalso bebe mentioned.mentioned.
Inventory campaigns to identify new areas for exploitation can be divided into three main periods:
Between 19041904 andand 1925 the newlynewly establishedestablished ForestsForests DepartmentDepartment conductedconducted inventories: chieflychiefly inin thethe forest at MoraMora inin thethe North-WestNorth-West and inin thethe deepdeep forest along the Lawa railway.railway.
Between 1949 and 1959 the useuse ofof photo-interpretation photo-interpretation techniquestechniques allowedallowed a more ambitious programmeprogramme,, concentratedconcentrated chiefly chiefly in in thethe northernnorthern areaarea of thethe country. TheThe inventory inventory coveredcovered 260 000000 haha atat aa raterate ofof 2%,2 %, withwith aa subtractionsubtraction diameter of 25 cm. TheThe commercialcommercial volume per hectare is of the order ofof 2525 toto 3 30 in3.m •
A special inventory of permanentpermanent and seasonalseasonal swampswamp forests has alsoalso beenbeen carriedcarried out. TheThe areasareas richrich inin large-diameter large-diameter Virola surinamensissurinamensis have been exploitedexploited by BSHBSH (Bruynzeel Wood Company).Company). - 52 -
InIn the seventies, FAO gavegave itsits assistanceassistance forfor anan inventoryinventory ofof the the South-WestSouth-West andand South-East wnes.zones. TheThe totaltotal areaarea inventoriedinventoried was 440 000 ha,ha, withwith aa samplingsampling rate ofof 0.25%0.25% andand aa subtraction subtraction diameterdiameter of 2525 cm.cm. The totaltotal commercialcommercial volume is aroundaround 4545 m3/ham3/ha andand thethe volumevolume actuallyactually felledfelled isis estimatedestimated atat 16 m3/ha.m3/ha.
Other smaller inventories have also been carried out, bothboth byby privateprivate companiescompanies withwith a view toto exploitationexploitation and by thethe ForestryForestry ServiceService forfor forestforest researchresearch purposes.purposes.
FRENCH GUIANAGUIANA
Until 1975 thethe agriculturalagricultural areaarea ofof thethe territoryterritory waswas 33 300300 ha,ha, i.e.i.e. 0.04%0.04% ofof thethe totaltotal land area. TheThe prevailing prevailing farming farming method method was was "slash-and-burn" "slash-and-burn" subsistencesubsistence farming.farming.
A rural developmentdevelopment programme ("("Green Green Plan") was initiated in 19751975 toto meetmeet thethe local market demand forfor foodfood crops,crops, fruitfruit andand meat,meat, andand toto developdevelop some export crops (rice, soya, cassava, etcetc...... ). ).
InIn 1988 the agricultural areaarea had increasedincreased toto 15 000000 haha (0.15(0.15% % of the total area), but the clearance rate (900(900 haha perper year)year) waswas decreasingdecreasing duedue toto thethe difficultiesdifficulties encounteredencountered in beef production. OnlyOnly rice-growingrice-growing inin polderspolders inin thethe marshlandsmarshlands hadhad reallyreally developed,developed, whilst traditional food-crops remained very stationary.stationary.
Guyana isis thus in aa mostmost unusualunusual agriculturalagricultural situationsituation for SouthSouth America.America. NoNo logging concern runs thethe riskrisk ofof se,eing seeing its concessionconcession invaded by farmers.
What is more,more, thethe landland tenuretenure systemsystem isis uncomplicated.uncomplicated. VirtuallyVirtually all thethe availableavailable land is privateprivate StateState property,property, soso farmersfarmers mustmust obtainobtain aa concessionconcession or longlong leaselease fromfrom thethe administration before they can clear it.it.
After the botanicalbotanical reconnaissancereconnaissance workwork conductedconducted inin thethe eighteentheighteenth centurycentury underunder AUBLET, and untiluntil 19601960 underunder BENA,BENA, thethe firstfirst inventoriesinventories werewere carriedcarried outout between between 19521952 and 1957,1957, over 50 000000 haha atat aa raterate ofof 0.5%, 0.5%, by by the the BAFOG BAFOG (Bureau(Bureau AgricoleAgricole etet ForestierForestier Guyanais) to supply its pilot saw-millsaw-mill at St.St. LaurentLaurent dudu Maroni.Maroni.
In 19621962 the Forestry Service beganbegan aa III1/1 000°0000 samplingsampling campaign campaign inin the NorthNorth ofof the territory, extendingextending 100100 kmkm inlandinland fromfrom thethe coast.coast.
Subsequently, in in 19741974-75,-75, thethe ONF (Office NationalNational desdes Forets)Foréts) and the CTFTCTFT (Centre Technique Forestier Tropical) inventoriedinventoried 120120000 000 haha at a raterate ofof 0.8% 0.8% toto determinedetermine the paper pulppulp andand timbertimber potential.potential.
In 1976,1976, inin thethe frameworkframework ofof the the "Gre,en "Green Plan",Plan", newnew inventoriesinventories werewere conductedconducted over 412 000 ha, at a samplingsampling rate of 0.2%.
Thanks to these inventories, itit waswas possible:possible:
- to estimate thethe "useful"useful mainstem"mainstem" volumevolume forfor eacheach zone;wne; -to determine thethe variabilityvariability ofof thethe forests'forests' floristicfloristic composition;composition; -- 53 -
- toto establish a unifiedunified paper-pulp table giving the "gross mainstem"mainstem" volume for treestrees of less thanthan 8080 cmcm inin diameter.diameter.
For example,example, thethe findingsfindings ofof thethe 19761976 inventoryinventory ofof the the KOUROUKOUROU SINNAMARYSINNAMARY regionregion make it possible to estimateestimate the mean exploitable standingstanding stock,stock, i.ei.e.. 2020 treestrees per hectare for a volumevolume ofof 7070 m3m3 with an exploitableexploitable diameter of 50 cm.cm.
In the short term, thethe informationinformation obtainedobtained isis adequate with regard toto thethe exploitation problems of forest enterprises of all types. ButBut fromfrom thethe scientificscientific standpoint,standpoint, andand inin thethe longlong term,term, from thethe economiceconomic standpointstandpoint also, it isis necessarynecessary toto expandexpand thethe inventoriedinventoried zone on bothboth sides of thethe forestforest accessesaccesses thatthat areare progressivelyprogressively openedopened up.up. The ONFONF hashas beenbeen engagedengaged inin thisthis work since 1986.
6. THETHE AMAZONIAN AMAZONIAN COUNTRIESCOUNTRIES
BRAZIL
Without anyany detailed discussion ofof all thethe negativenegative aspects that thethe problemproblem ofof deforestation entails,entails, wewe needneecl onlyonly mentionmention thatthat 97%97% of the 6161 millionmillion hectarehectare AtlanticAtlantic coastal forest has been converted to farmland, and that this must be prevented in Amazonia, where the deforestation figures vary according to thethe surveysurvey methodsmethods used:used: firefire estimatesestimates basedbased onon satellite imagesimages withwith aa widewide margin ofof error.error. The also vary in accordance with the reference zoneswnes considered: legal AmazoniaAmazonia or closed moist forest, andand withwith thethe observationobservation datesdates andand periods...periods... TheThe result result is is a a sort sort of of war war of of conflicting conflicting statistics, statistics, andand toto avoidavoid gettinggetting caught up in thesethese hostilitieshostilities we wishwish toto stress that the nature of thethe problemproblem doesdoes notnot change, whatever the deforestation raterate may bebe (5 or 15%15% ).
We mustmust recallrecall thatthat inin additionaddition toto agricultural agricultural clearingclearing thethe AmazonianAmazonian regionregion contains important mineral deposits, whose extraction seriously imperils thethe forests in thethe regions concerned (the(the openingopening upup ofof roads,roads, miningmining andand constructionconstruction timbertimber requirements,requirements, clearing for agricultural uses,uses, ...... ). ).
The forestforest inventories,inventories, carriedcarried outout principallyprincipally byby SUDAMSUDAM (Superintencia(Superintencia dodo Desenvolvimiento dede Amazonia) with the assistance of the formerformerIBDF IBDF (now(now absorbedabsorbed byby IBAMA: Instituto do Meio AmbienteAmbiente et dosdos RecursosRecursos NaturaisNaturais Renovaveis),Renovaveis), dealtdealt aboveabove allall with uplandupland forestforest regionsregions onon thethe vergeverge ofof agricultural agricultural oror industrial industrial colonization. colonization. These inventories areare veryvery limited inin scope andand areare not easily comparable. TheThe potentialpotential of thethe Varzea, onon thethe otherother hand,hand, hashas nevernever beenbeen establishedestablished althoughalthough thisthis typetype ofof forestforest isis thethe chiefchief source of timbertimber inin Amazonia.Amazonia.
Considering there are around 500500 treetree speciesspecies inin thethe AmazonianAmazonian forest, onlyonly 55 toto 8%8 % of themthem areare exploited.exploited. TheThe most most sought-after sought-after inin the the upland upland forests forests belong belong to to the the Meliacea.e Meliaceae family. - 54 --
BOLIVIA - COLOMBIACOLOMBIA
To thethe bestbest ofof our our knowledge, knowledge, nono statisticsstatistics areare availableavailable forfor BoliviaBolivia withwith regardregard either to already exploited areas, or toto thethe areaarea ofof forestedforested landland cleared,cleared, deforesteddeforested or givengiven over to landland settlement.settlement.
Nonetheless, deforestation due to settlementsettlement by thethe populationspopulations ofof AndeanAndean originorigin occurs on aa largelarge scale.scale. It was initially encouragedencouraged andand guidedguided byby governmentalgovernmental measures,measures, and subsequentlysubsequently the pace ofof deforestationdeforestation due toto shiftingshifting cultivationcultivation grewgrew moremore rapidrapid because of thethe lowlow andand short-livedshort-lived fertilityfertility of thethe soilssoils inin question.question.
The situation is the same in Colombia,Colombia, in spitespite of thethe TropicalTropical ForestForest ActionAction PlanPlan drawn up forfor thisthis countrycountry (TFAP).(TFAP).
ECUADOR
In thisthis countrycountry thethe coastalcoastal forestforest couldcould havehave constitutedconstituted anan importantimportant managedmanaged resource for thethe country'scountry's woodwood industries,industries, butbut thisthis opportunityopportunity hashas been lost because of the conflict between the forest industry and legallegal oror illegalillegal landland settlementsettlement forfor farming.farming.
The deforestation raterate isis uncertain, but it hashas beenbeen ascertained,ascertained, forfor example,example, thatthat over 418418000 000 haha of thethe northeasternnortheastern forestsforests (Amazon(Amazon basin)basin) hadhad beenbeen occupiedoccupied betweenbetween 19711971 and 19751975 by farmersfarmers (with(with nono propertyproperty title)title) usingusing thethe roadsroads openedopened upup forfor oiloil drilling.drilling.
This forestforest shrinkageshrinkage alsoalso affectsaffects thethe protectedprotected stands,stands, sincesince thethe Ecuadorian Ecuadorian Government is currently directingdirecting itsits internationalinternational aidaid requestsrequests andand actionaction towardstowards watershedwatershed management so as to preserve its hydro-powerhydro-power resourcesresources andand lengthenlengthen thethe workingworking lifelife ofof itsits dams.
Knowledge of the resource isis veryvery patchy,patchy, asas thethe forestforest inventoriesinventories areare localized localized andand seldom updated; we may mention thethe inventory carriedcarried out in 1975 and 19761976 in thethe SouthSouth of the country, concerning 25 25 000 000 ha ha of of mangrove mangrove swamps, swamps, 200 200 000 000 ha ha of "dry""dry" closed forest, 11 500500 000000 haha ofof sub-Andean sub-Andean landslands andand aa million million hectareshectares ofof Amazonian Amazonian forest.forest.
·VENEZUELA
The VenezuelanVenezuelan forestsforests areare subject to two typestypes of forestforest clearance,clearance, oneone duedue toto farming andand thethe otherother to to mining. mining. TheThe small isolatedisolated patchespatches ofof forest forest inin the the West West ofof the the country bear witnesswitness toto aa progressiveprogressive andand irreducibleirreducible processprocess of deforestation:deforestation: it hashas beenbeen estimated that between 19631963 and 19791979 at least 1.21.2 millionmillion hectareshectares ofof forestforest werewere clearedcleared forfor agriculture and thatthat thethe pacepace ofof this this phenomenon phenomenon hashas considerablyconsiderably increasedincreased sincesince then.then. Today the well-knownwell-known forest reservesreserves ofof TicoporoTicoporo andand Caparo,Caparo, wherewhere somesome important important forestry research hadhad beenbeen conductedconducted (particularly(particularly on plantation speciesspecies byby the School of Forestry of thethe UniversityUniversity of thethe Andes at Mena)Meria) areare livingliving onon borrowedborrowed time:time: 95%95 % percentpercent of Caparo's area,area, andand atat leastleast aa thirdthird ofof that that ofof Ticoporo, Ticoporo, areare occupiedoccupied byby aa populationpopulation of migrant farmers.farmers. - 55 --
In thethe East ofof thethe country,country, thethe dangerdanger ofof destruction destruction isis linkedlinked aboveabove allall toto thethe goldgold and diamond mines, especiallyespecially in thethe SierraSierra d'Imatacad'Imataca Reserve,Reserve, thethe largestlargest and and best-knownbest-known in the region: inin 1985,1985, 250250000 000 haha ofof its its areaarea had had alreadyalready beenbeen cededceded forfor miningmining purposes,purposes, and there exists anan imminentimminent danger ofof large-scalelarge-scale deforestation.deforestation.
PERU
The basicbasic factorfactor inin thethe destructiondestruction ofof Peru's Peru's Amazonian Amazonian forestforest isis thethe population population explosion due both to natural growth and,and, aboveabove all,all, toto migrationsmigrations fromfrom thethe Andes.Andes.
The situation is today particularly dramatic inin four areas, whichwhich exemplifyexemplify thethe majormajor forms of attack toto whichwhich thethe forestsforests areare subject.subject.
The central jungle and HuallagaHuallaga Central -- Bajo Mayo zones are locatedlocated in thethe Andean PiedmontPiedmont,, and thosethose ofof Pastaza-Tigu-AmazonasPastaza-Tigu-Amazonas and Madre dede DiosDios areare situatedsituated onon the AmazonianAmazonian plain.
Over thethe lastlast 5050 yearsyears thethe centralcentral junglejungle hashas undergoneundergone thethe onslaughtonslaught ofof aa classicclassic pioneer farming front advancing inin the wake of new roads. But on these steepsteep slopesslopes the problems of erosion,erosion, andand ofof landslides landslides aboveabove all,all, reachreach catastrophiccatastrophic proportions.proportions. It isis estimated that only 20% of the million hectares of deforested land are still in agricultural use.
In thethe HuallagaHuallaga CentralCentral -- BajoB~o MayoMayo districtdistrict thethe terrorismterrorism practicedpracticed byby SenderoSendero Luminoso (Shining Path) and thethe narco-tradersnarco-traders createscreates aa situationsituation ofof total total insecurity.insecurity. The clandestine coca plantations are estimated at 300 000 ha.ha.
Peru's oil-wellsoil-wells areare concentratedconcentrated inin thethe Pastaza-Tigre-Amazonas Pastaza-Tigre-Amazonas region.region. This industry is heavily polluting, due to the heavy metals thatthat areare washedwashed downdown the the rivers. rivers. Their concentration throughthrough thethe foodfood chainchain makes thethe locallocal fishfish inedible.inedible. Moreover,Moreover, the soils ofof the forestsforests subjectsubject toto sixsix months'months' seasonalseasonal floodingflooding areare contaminatedcontaminated andand maymay becomebecome unsuitable for cultivation.cultivation.
3 The soils of the Madre dede DiosDios regionregion containcontain about 1.51.5 g of goldgold perper irO,m , whichwhich gives them an estimated potentialpotential ofof 1 500500 t.t. The region is consequently inin the throes ofof a full-scale goldgold rush,rush, with all itsits attendantattendant damage toto thethe natural environment (road-building,(road-building, pollution of rivers byby gold-washinggold-washing sludge, shifting cultivation toto provisionprovision thethe sites, ...).... ).
At present,present, 300 000 ha areare beingbeing deforesteddeforested perper year, 60% ofof whichwhich areare inin thethe jungles of thethe AndeanAndean footfoot hills,hills, wherewhere thethe slopesslopes areare steepsteep andand thethe soils soils consequently consequently vulnerable. OverOver the the last last decade decade thethe AmazonianAmazonian populationpopulation has doubled, and it is currently estimated that 51 000 km2km2 have been destroyed overall. If thisthis situationsituation continues,continues, 1111 millionmillion hectares of Amazonian forest will have disappeared by the year 2000.
In thethe frameworkframework ofof thethe FAO-UNDPFAO-UNDP forestforest managementmanagement project for thethe VonVon Humboldt national forest, on thethe AmazonAmazon basin plains, anan inventoryinventory hashas beenbeen carriedcarried outout onon an experimental basisbasis overover anan area of 200 000 ha.
Its findings revealed that the forest'sforest's floristicfloristic compositioncomposition waswas veryvery heterogenous,heterogenous, but showed great uniformity with regard to the volumesvolumes actually exploited.exploited. TheThe inventoryinventory - 56 -- covered 300 species, but only 28 of thesethese accounted forfor 7070% % ofof the total volume.volume. Three-Three quarters of thethe commercialcommercial volume was provided byby 21 species, and regeneration growthgrowth ofof 15 species constituted 85%85 % of the stem count. The volumevolume actuallyactually exploitedexploited increased from 15 to 30 m3/ham3/ha duringduring the coursecourse of the project, as 20 newnew speciesspecies were added to the listlist ofof valuable commercial species.species.
No other exploratoryexploratory surveysurvey inventoryinginventorying a largelarge areaarea hashas be,enbeen reported.
7. GENERALGENERAL CONCLUSIONS CONCLUSIONS
In mostmost of thesethese countries,countries, deforestationdeforestation is a mattermatter of concern and a very sensitivesensitive issue fromfrom thethe politicalpolitical andand ecologicalecological standpoints,standpoints, even if notnot alwaysalways ofof catastrophic catastrophic proportions. ButBut some some regions,regions, suchsuch asas CentralCentral America,America, faceface aa highlyhighly criticalcritical situationsituation due to thethe disappearancedisappearance ofof protection forestsforests on on steepsteep slopesslopes thatthat playplay aa vital role inin soilsoil conservation.
The classicclassic scenarioscenario is asas follows:follows: openingopening of tracks,tracks, landland settlementsettlement with forest clearance, thenthen cultivationcultivation for aa fewfew years,years, followedfollowed by by extensiveextensive grazing.grazing.
This process isis fosteredfostered byby severalseveral factors:factors :
population increase (in some cases exceeding 33% % per annum),annum), lack of economic value placed on forest stands,stands, the mostmost seriousserious are thethe structuresstructures ofof thethe agriculturalagricultural economyeconomy (a fewfew largelarge landowners freezing access to farmlands and opposing agrarian reform) andand thethe governmental policiespolicies of certaincertain countries, which incentivate agriculturalagricultural development to the detrimentdetriment ofof forests.forests.
Deforestation is not caused exclusively byby farmers' land-hunger;land-hunger; mining is also an important factor inin thethe destructiondestruction ofof natural natural forests.forests.
The consequences of deforestation and its multiple implications with regardregard to forest management areare discussed in the following chapter and in thethe conclusions.conclusions. - 57 --
V.v. ECONOMIC FACTORS AND WOOD PROCESSINGPROCESSING
1. GENERAL INTRODUCTIONINTRODUCTION
The chief objectobject of thisthis studystudy isis thethe managementmanagement of thethe moistmoist forestsforests ofof tropicaltropical America. The documents drawn up for each country and serving as referencereference materialmaterial for this purpose werewere thusthus concernedconcerned essentiallyessentially withwith forestforest issues.issues.
However, wewe cannotcannot overlook the fact thatthat forestforest problemsproblems havehave theirtheir originorigin inin thethe economic and social situations of the countries concerned: if it isis truetrue thatthat "there"there is is nono woodwood without trees", itit isis equallyequally truetrue thatthat therethere areare "no"no treestrees withoutwithout woods".woods".
Only the properly evaluatedevaluated economic interest of thethe benefits that forests can provide (and our present economiceconomic methodsmethods leave usus very poorly equippedequipped toto quantifyquantify thesethese benefits) can makemake itit possiblepossible toto decidedecide toto allocateallocate thethe necessarynecessary andand adequateadequate human,human, technicaltechnical andand financialfmancial resources toto forestforest management,management, protectionprotection andand valorization.valorization.
If forestsforests mustmust be preserved,preserved, and one hashas anyany realreal intentionintention of doingdoing so,so, thisthis isis principally inin orderorder toto perpetuateperpetuate theirtheir benefits,benefits, whichwhich includeinclude in in thethe firstfirst rankrank the the satisfaction satisfaction of woodwood useuse needs,needs, whetherwhether forfor fuelwood,fuel wood , timber,timber, roundwoodroundwood oror industrialindustrial wood,wood, whichwhich should therefore bebe accuratelyaccurately known.known.
In other words,words, thethe resourcesresources necessarynecessary forfor forestforest managementmanagement cancan onlyonly bebe granted granted to forestersforesters byby thethe politicalpolitical establishment,establishment, and ifif thethe latterlatter isis notnot adequatelyadequately informedinformed (by(by economists or experts) ofof thethe importanceimportance of thisthis workwork forfor thethe presentpresent andand futurefuture population,population, the responsibilityresponsibility mustmust bebe borneborne byby thethe forestryforestry professionprofession (in(in thethe broadestbroadest sense). sense).
Thus, despite the limitedlimited quantityquantity ofof informationinformation collected,collected, wewe considerconsider it indispensable toto provide our readersreaders withwith somesome rudimentaryrudimentary notionsnotions onon thethe economicseconomics ofof wood andand itsits processingprocessing inin tropicaltropical America.America.
We are veryvery muchmuch awareaware ofof thethe limitslimits ofof thisthis exposition,exposition, whichwhich cannotcannot bebe moremore thanthan a veryvery modestmodest introductionintroduction toto thethe issuesissues itit touchestouches upon.upon.
In the light of thisthis survey,survey, threethree fundamentalfundamental observationsobservations must be made:
(a) The economic interest of the preservation of tropical American forests has not yet been firmly established. ThisThis mustmust bebe done,done, becausebecause otherwiseotherwise thethe pursuitpursuit of miningmining will encounter only minorminor obstacles, and it isis impossibleimpossible at thisthis time to determinedetermine thethe consequencesconsequences to whichwhich thisthis willwill givegive rise.rise.
(b) The wood industries of tropical America appear very little known, as theythey have been the objectobject of onlyonly aa fewfew surveyssurveys (knowledge(knowledge ofof thethe existenceexistence ofof whichwhich extends beyond the frontiers of the country concerned),concerned), whichwhich areare inin mostmost casescases very limitedlimited inin scope.scope. - 58 -
It would thusthus be necessarynecessary toto foreseeforesee andand implementimplement a seriesseries ofof studies studies ofof the the timber (and(and fuelwood)fuel wood) sector in eacheach ofof thesethese countriescountries wherewhere informationinformation isis least available.available.
It isis inin factfact essentialessential toto lcnowknow howhow thethe populations'populations' forestforest produceproduce andand woodwood needs are evaluated.evaluated. How is harvesting planned, conducted, andand recordedrecorded ...... ? ? What sequences areare involved, andand who areare thethe intermediariesintermediaries andand directdirect participants inin the processingprocessing and marketingmarketing of forestforest produceproduce andand woodwood products? How areare thesethese activitiesactivities perceivedperceived byby thethe locallocal administrations administrations (forests, industry, crafts, domesticdomestic trade, foreign trade, finance, ...)... ) andand whatwhat policies have been formulatedformulated for thethe woodwood sectorsector ofof thethe economy?economy?
(c) The tropical American countriescountries coveredcovered byby thisthis survey vary greatly in their forest and woodwood utilizationutilization situations.situations.
But as aa whole,whole, andand thisthis is indeedindeed paradoxical,paradoxical, since they possesspossess a veryvery considerable part of the planet's tropicaltropical forest resources (651.6 million hectares ofof closed forest, i.e. 56.0%56.0% ofof the the correspondingcorresponding areas of thethe planetplanet in 1985,1985, withwith a population of only 335.8 millionmillion inhabitants),inhabitants), thethe countriescountries examinedexamined inin thisthis surveysurvey are notnot fullyfully ableable toto satisfysatisfy theirtheir ownown woodwood needs,needs, andand theirtheir aa balancebalance ofof trade trade deficit in this sectorsector totalstotals US$US$ 242242 million.million. (See(See tabletable overleaf).overleaf).
Leaving aside the details which readers will find further on in the specific paragraphs on each country,country, wewe merelymerely notenote thatthat onlyonly fivefive ofof the the 17 17 geographic geographic unitsunits surveyedsurveyed havehave aa trade balance surplus for thesethese products:products: aboveabove allall Brazil (with a surplussurplus ofof overover US$ 730 million), followed byby Bolivia, Guyana,Guyana, HondurasHonduras andand FrenchFrench Guiana.Guiana. TheThe otherother twelve have deficitsdeficits that amountamount to aa cumulativecumulative totaltotal ofof around around US$US$ oneone billion billion (996.9 millionmillion in 1987).1987).
We think that, althoughalthough thisthis chronicchronic deficitdeficit maymay inin somesome casescases bebe hardhard toto overcomeovercome (as in Panama and El Salvador),Salvador), self-sufficiencyself-sufficiency shouldshould nonethelessnonetheless constituteconstitute a prioritypriority goalgoal within thethe reach of mostmost ofof thethe countriescountries concerned,concerned, on thethe conditioncondition that a degreedegree ofof rationalization be be introducedintroduced intointo the harvesting,harvesting, processing plant supplysupply circuits andand distribution networks of wood productsproducts.. ThereThere willwill remainremain thethe difficultdifficult problemproblem ofof thethe paper and paper pulppulp deficit.deficit.
But wood harvesting and processing (often on an artisanalartisanal basis)basis) areare sectorssectors ofof thethe economy which should attract thethe attentionattention of the governments of thesethese countries,countries, asas theythey cancan provide a positivepositive andand solidsolid contributioncontribution toto thethe developmentdevelopment ofof thethe economiceconomic fabric,fabric, particularlyparticularl y in rural areas.areas. - 59 -
SOME BASIC ECONOMIC INDICATORSINDICA TORS (Second half of thethe 1980s)1980s)
Balance ofof foreign Value of forestforest Value of forestforest trade for forestforest AreaANa coveredcovered by Population Country or product importsimports product exports products closed forests (millions) geographic unit US$ 1I 000000 US$USS 1I 000 USSUS$ 1I 000 (1 000 ha)hal
Guyana 27102 710 88000 000 + 55290 290 1818465 465 0.8
Suriname 83108 310 22666 666 --56445 644 1414818 818 0.4
French Guiana 11087 087 2 169169 + 10821 082 33895 895 0.1
Subtotal 1210712 107 1283512 835 + 728 4217842 178 1.3
Brazil 232232957 957 963963373 373 + 730730416 416 350200350 200 141.4141.4
Bolivia 5 100100 1818999 999 + 13 899 4343570 570 6.7
Colombia 110110887 887 1414011 011 - 9696 876876 22300 300 29.5
Ecuador 107107690 690 1515342 342 -92348- 92348 1255012 550 9.9
Peru 5710957 109 33355 355 - 53 754754 6868320 320 20.220.2
Venezuela 246 048048 0 - 246 048048 3131245 245 1818.3.3
Subtotal 759759791 791 1 015015080 080 - 255 289 548185548 185 22.6
Belize 3 193193 657 - 2 536536 13091 309 0.2
Costa Rica 61 103103 1212361 361 --4874248 742 13131 313 2.6
EIEl Salvador 2152521 525 25972 597 - 1818928 928 118 4.9
Guatemala 4343822 822 94589 458 - 34 364 39923 992 6.4
Honduras 2407624 076 2625126 251 + 4 175175 33423 342 4.7
Nicaragua 10 566 25692 569 - 7 7 997997 39003 900 3.53.5
Panama 8484885 885 676 - 8484209 209 33985 985 2.3
Subtotal 249249170 170 5656956 569 - 192 601 1796417 964 26.6
Mexico 319305319 305 1388413 884 --305421305 421 4343270 270 81.9
Subtotal 568 475 7070453 453 - 498 022 6161234 234 108.5
TOTAL 1 340340373 373 10963681 096 368 - 242 005005 651651597 597 335.8 - 6060- -
2. THE ISTHMUSISTHMUS ANDAND CARIBBEANCARIBBEAN COUNTRIES:COUNTRIES:
COSTA RICA - NICARAGUANICARAGUA - PANAMAPANAMA - ELEL SALVADOR SALVADOR -- HONDURASHONDURAS -- GUATEMALA
The state of thethe resourceresource
Without repeating whatwhat hashas alreadyalready beenbeen said,said, these countries cancan as a wholewhole be considered to have a limited potential. ItIt should, however,however, probablyprobably proveprove sufficient sufficient toto satisfysatisfy their populations' demanddemand forfor wood,wood, eveneven though though somesome limitedlimited internationalinternational andand interregionalinterregional transfers maymay be required.required.
The achievement of self-sufficiencyself-sufficiency will necessarily require somesome vigorousvigorous forestforest plantation schemesschemes (particularly(particularly in CostaCosta Rica,Rica, ElEl SalvadorSalvador andand Panama),Panama), andand thethe rationalization of harvestingharvesting inin naturalnatural forestsforests withwith regardregard bothboth toto planningplanning (management(management andand development plans) and to thethe methodsmethods andand techniquestechniques employed.employed.
Harvesting
Today harvestingharvesting is principallyprincipally orientedoriented towardstowards fuelwood:fuelwood: inin thesethese countriescountries harvesting for fuelfuel andand charcoalcharcoal accountsaccounts forfor aa totaltotal ofof over over 24 24 million million n-13 m3 (24.15 in'm3 inin 1987), which covers 57% of thethe region'sregion's energyenergy requirements.requirements. WoodWood isis thethe solesole householdhousehold fuel usedused byby 72%72% ofof the the population, popUlation, andand still accounts forfor 35% ofof industrialindustrial fuelfuel consumptionconsumption..
In thethe samesame year,year, lessless thanthan 2.42.4 million million ni3m3 ofof timbertimber waswas cut,cut, andand 360360 000000 in3m3 ofof other roundwoodsroundwoods (for miscellaneousmiscellaneous uses and mines).mines).
Two countries dominate the fieldfield inin timbertimber exploitation:exploitation: NicaraguaNicaragua andand Honduras,Honduras, both with production levels inin the vicinity ofof 800800 000000 mm3/year.3/year. Costa Rica and, to a lesserlesser extent, PanamaPanama eacheach produceproduce lessless thanthan halfhalf this this amountamount (275(275 toto 300300 000 000 m3/year). m3/year).
Species harvested:harvested:
The chiefchief commercialcommercial or marketablemarketable speciesspecies areare obtainedobtained principallyprincipally from thethe Atlantic moist evergreen forests:forests:
COSTA RICA: Prioria copaifera,copaifera, CarapaCarapa guianensis,guianensis, DipterixDipterix panamensis,panamensis, SimaroubaSimarouba glauca, CedrelaCedrela odorataodorata andand CordiaCordia alliodora.alliodora.
PANAMA: asas well asas thosethose listedlisted above,above, thethe following following areare also also logged: logged: SwieteniaSwietenia macrophylla, BombacopsisBombacopsis quinatum,quinatum, PiethecoelobiumPiethecoelobium excelsum,excelsum, ...
The list isis eveneven longerlonger inin thethe casecase ofof Honduras, Honduras, GuatemalaGuatemala andand Nicaragua,Nicaragua, whichwhich harvest their pine-forestspine-forests as well.well. - 61 --
EIEl Salvador logslogs onlyonly PinusPinus oocarpa, oocarpa, GliricidiaGliricidia sepium,sepium, IngaInga spp.,spp., CordiaCordia alliodora,alliodora, Enterolobium cyclocarpuincyclocarpum and the mangrovemangrove speciesspecies Rhizophora mangle and LagunculariaLaguncularia racemosa.
Wood processing
Apart from fuel, whichwhich accounts forfor most ofof the harvest,harvest, thethe woodwood loggedlogged is processed almost exclusively (93%)(93 %) into sawnsawn timber by a multitudemultitude of moremore or lessless seasonalseasonal sawmills, small or me,dium-sizedmedium-sized (10(10 toto 2020 m3/day and and withwith lessless thanthan 55 employees),employees), usually inadequately outfittedoutfitted withwith old andand inefficientinefficient equipment.equipment. In additionaddition to thisthis typetype ofof enterprise, oriented chiefly towards the rural and minor urban markets, there is also a more efficient industrial sector, withwith large, well-equippedwell-equipped saw-mills,saw-mills, butbut itit isis afflictedafflicted by a chronicchronic log supply problem and (usually)(usually) poorpoor organization.organization.
Sawn timbertimber productionproduction totalstotals about 1.2 million m3/ham3/ha (1.167(1.167 in 1987), approximately 1919% % of which is exported (particularly from Honduras, where pine remains competitive in in spitespite ofof thethe alreadyalready mentionedmentioned handicaps with with regardregard toto the state andand accessibility of the resource).resource).
This industry sufferssuffers variousvarious problems:problems:
the relative lack of governmentgovernment interestinterest inin forestsforests and woodwood processingprocessing activities (uncontrolled access to land by peasant farmers isis aa featurefeature ofof thesethese countries);countries);
- overexploitation of the mostmost accessibleaccessible forests;forests;
the heavy cost of access infrastructures (roads(roads and bridges) thatthat are insufficientlyinsufficiently utilized since logginglogging isis seasonalseasonal onlyonly (dry(dry season);season);
- enterprises thatthat areare somewhatsomewhat poorlypoorly managedmanaged and employ an underskilled labour force of temporarytemporary workers,workers, thethe consequencesconsequences being:being:
insufficient valorization of thethe products,products, an archaic andand defectivedefective marketingmarketing system;system; narrow rangerange ofof speciesspecies exploited;exploited; very poor planningplanning ofof operations;operations; poorly maintainedmaintained and obsoleteobsolete plant;plant; badly utilizedutilized andand inefficientinefficient methodsmethods andand equipment,equipment, highhigh harvestingharvesting andand haulage costs;costs; all resulting in an overalloverall inabilityinability to assure aa regularregular andand low-pricedlow-priced supplysupply ofof products of adequateadequate quality for thethe processingprocessing units.units.
Considerable improvements couldcould bebe quickly brought about in thisthis situationsituation byby applying thethe measures alreadyalready indicatedindicated inin severalseveral reportsreports,, on thethe conditioncondition that in eacheach country those in charge (in publicpublic administration,administration, andand above allall in thethe privateprivate sector)sector) are fully convinced of thethe ne,edneed for same and havehave sufficientsufficient meansmeans atat theirtheir disposal.disposal. - 62 --
There isis alsoalso aa smallsmall plywoodplywood industryindustry (totalling(totalling 64 000 m3/yearm3/year forfor all fivefive countries, i.e. oneone unitunit perper country) country) whichwhich suppliessupplies thethe domesticdomestic demanddemand (see(see casecase studystudy below).
Other types of panels are manufacturedmanufactured inin onlyonly oneone ofof thesethese countriescountries (Costa(Costa Rica),Rica), which produces about 15 000000 mm3/year3/year of of particle-board particle-board and and about about 7 7 000 000 m e3 of of veneer veneer leavesleaves (sliced), approximately a thirdthird ofof thesethese productsproducts beingbeing exported.exported.
The domestic demand for wood materials is thus satisfied without significant imports (25 000 m3/year,m3/year, 90% of whichwhich is sawnsawn timbertimber andand thethe restrest plywood).plywood).
The secondsecond processingprocessing sectorsector consistsconsists ofof small small artisanalartisanal workshopsworkshops (furniture-(furniture making, joinery, carpentery,carpentery, tool-malcing) tool-making) thatthat constituteconstitute aa veryvery livelylively economiceconomic fabricfabric whichwhich should be encouragedencouraged,, developed, andand assistedassisted towardstowards technicaltechnical amelioration, ItIt suppliessupplies the domestic market with products (furniture, etc.) ofof rusticrustic appearanceappearance but adequate quality, that have the advantage of being affordable by a large portionportion of thethe populationpopulation and meet their essential needs (it would be a mistakemistake to discourage this sector or toto presspress itit intointo large-scalelarge-scale exports).
These workshops are inin thethe mechanizedmechanized craft stagestage (using(using mechanizedmechanized equipmentequipment forfor machining, but assembling and finishing thethe productsproducts byby hand), and it isis throughthrough thisthis typetype of processing unit thatthat realisticrealistic andand solidsolid developmentdevelopment could be achieved in this sectorsector forfor the countries inin question.question.
Impact on thethe nationalnational economyeconomy
In Panama, forfor instance,instance, thethe TFAPTF AP revealsreveals thatthat thethe National National AccountancyAccountancy SystemSystem is not ableable toto computecompute thethe valuevalue ofof forestforest products;products; in addition,addition, processedprocessed woodwood productsproducts are ascribedascribed an "original"original forest"forest" valuevalue thatthat failsfails toto taketake intointo accountaccount thethe material'smaterial's yieldyield (necessarily less than 100%)100%) inin thethe manufacturingmanufacturing unit.unit.
In addition, statisticsstatistics on thethe harvestingharvesting of fuelwood,fuelwood, charcoal,charcoal, polespoles andand lumberlumber forfor local use seldomseldom ifif everever exist,exist, althoughalthough thisthis typetype ofof harvesting harvesting accountsaccounts forfor 80%80% ofof wood wood exploitation in thethe IsthmusIsthmus countries.countries.
The underevaluationunderevaluation ofof this sector is so greatgreat thatthat productsproducts of forestforest originorigin (forest(forest industry) are estimated at not more thanthan 1%1 % ofof thethe GDPGDP inin Panama.Panama.
This underestimatedunderestimated and apparently veryvery low contribution, asas compared to that of agriculture and animal husbandry,husbandry, had led to aa prejudiceprejudice againstagainst forests,forests, whichwhich werewere (and(and still are) viewed as an obstacle to national development, or at any rate to increasing thethe GDP.
An example of forestforest logginglogging
This concerns logging, commencedcommenced inin 1985,1985, inin thethe forestedforested partpart ofof the the riverriver Sabales,Sabales, an affluent of thethe SanSan JuanJuan riverriver inin Nicaragua.Nicaragua. -- 63 -
The chief object of thisthis logging concern conductedconducted by COREX S.S.A A.,., aa direct agencyagency of CORFOP,CORFOP, is toto supplysupply thethe country'scountry's oneone and and onlyonly veneer-peeling veneer-peeling plant,plant, locatedlocated atat Tipitapa, 2525 km fromfrom ManaguaManagua at thethe farfar northeasternnortheastern endend ofof LakeLake Nicaragua.Nicaragua. ThisThis processing unit, which was nationalized in 19791979 and placed under CORFOP's supervision,supervision, produces aroundaround 1010 000 000 rrO/year. m3/year.
As the zonezone inin questionquestion hadhad undergoneundergone onlyonly small-scalesmall-scale family logging prior to COREX S.A.S.A.'s 's arrival,arrival, aa certaincertain numbernumber ofof stemsstems ofof Cedrela Cedrela odorataodorata oror Swietenia Swietenia macrophylla areare available forfor logging. But most of the cutcut isis mademade upup ofof Virola Virola sebifera,sebifera, Carapa nicaraguensisnicaraguensis andand C.C. guianensis,guianensis, TerminaliaTerminalia amazonia,amazonia ,Vochysia Vochysia hondurensis,hondurensis, Manilkara sapotasapota......
The logs are floatedfloated downdown thethe SanSan JuanJuan river andand rightright acrossacross LakeLake NicaraguaNicaragua (with(with a last haulage phase by timber-truck toto TipitapaTipitapa thatthat significantlysignificantly increases the overall cost).
In 1988,1988, thethe logs were collected by Caterpillar-typeCaterpillar-type tracked vehicles of up toto 125 HP and conveyed to the flotation yard by MackMack timber-tuckstimber-tucks (200 HP). TheThe mainmain accessaccess tracktrack was opened by the only D 65 (140 HP) in runningrunning order, andand thethe fleetfleet ofof timber-tnickstimber-trucks and skidders numbered onlyonly somesome fifteenfifteen operationaloperational vehicles,vehicles, whosewhose maintenancemaintenance waswas assuredassured by Swedish aid covering, in particular, thethe supplysupply ofof sparespare parts.parts.
In spite ofof thesethese constraintsconstraints andand difficulties,difficulties, thisthis operationoperation managesmanages toto extractextract 3030 toto 40 000 rn3m3 ofof logslogs perper yearyear,, although it operates only in thethe shortshort drydry seasonseason fromfrom FebruaryFebruary to early May.
The meanmean volume extracted fromfrom thethe forestforest isis around 10 in'm3 perper hectare,hectare, whichwhich means that the average annual cut area isis fromfrom 44 000000 toto 55 000000 hectares,hectares, fullyfully inventoriedinventoried inin advance to identify the valuable tees thatthat havehave attainedattained harvestableharvestable size.size.
The mostmost damaging aspectaspect isis that, for each forest hectare logged,logged, 30 to 4040% % of the basal area isis destroyeddestroyed duedue toto technicaltechnical andand organizationalorganizational shortcomings:shortcomings:
in the firstfirst place, thethe lacklack ofof road road infrastructuresinfrastructures allowingallowing year-roundyear-round access to the forestforest imposesimposes narrow seasonalseasonal limitslimits onon logging (only four monthsmonths per year), andand thethe chiefchief consequencesconsequences ofof thisthis are:are: underutilizationunderutilization ofof equipment, equipment, interruption ofoflog log supply,supply, considerableconsiderable technicaltechnical unemployment,unemployment, thethe needneed toto useuse temporary (and poorly-skilled)poorly-skilled) personnel, andand workwork (especially(especially exploratoryexploratory surveys) that progresses by "fits"fits andand starts"starts" underunder badbad sitesite conditions;conditions;
the above is aggravated by collection,collection, transporttransport andand track-openingtrack-opening fleetsfleets thatthat areare under-dimensioned, obsoleteobsolete (with aa few exceptions) and hard toto maintainmaintain andand repair under locallocal conditions.conditions.
MEXICO
Logging in tropical forests has,has, sincesince thethe beginningbeginning ofof thisthis century,century, beenbeen basedbased preferentially onon thethe extractionextraction ofof two two Meliaceae, Meliaceae, SwieteniaSwietenia macrophyllamacrophylla (Caoba)(Caoba) andand Cedrela odorata (Cedro(Cedro Rojo),Rojo), byby bothboth domesticdomestic andand foreignforeign enterprises.enterprises. - 6464 -
Between 1950 and 1960,1960, annualannual tropicaltropical woodwood productionproduction amountedamounted toto 69 69 000 000 rn3 m' of valuable timber (almost(almost all all CaobaCaoba and and CedroCedro Rojo) Rojo) and and 64 64 000 000 rn3 m3 of lessless valuablevaluable species.species. This levellevel has remainedremained more oror lessless the samesame asas regards the valuablevaluable woods:woods: 86 000000 m leyear.3/year.
The exploitable diameter is 55 cmcm for Caoba and Cedro Rojo, and from 35 to 40 cm for the other species.species. There areare aboutabout thirtythirty ofof thethe latter,latter, thethe mostmost frequentlyfrequently marketedmarketed of which are:
Maculia (Tabebuia(Tabebuiarosea), rosea), ChacaChaca (Bursera (Bursera simaruba), simaruba), Jobo Jobo (Spondias (Spondias monbin), monbin), SaacSaac chaca (Gilibertia(Gilibenia arborea), AmapolaAmapola (Pachira(Pachira fastuosa),Jastuosa), RamonRamon (Brosimum (Brosimum alicastrum), CeibaCeiba (Ceiba(Ceiba pentandra),pentandra), PichPich (Enterolobium(Enterolobium cyclocarpum),cyclocarpum), Machiche (Lonchocarpes castilloi),castillo!), Tzalam Tzalam (Lysiloma (Lysiloma bahamensis),bahamensis), Chechen Chechen negro negro (Metopium (Metopium browne!),brownei), Siricote (Cordia(Cordia dodecandra),dodecandra), GranadilloGranadillo (Dalbergia(Dalbergia retusa),retusa), PuctePucte (Bucida(Bucida buceras), baribari (Calophyllum(Calophyllum brasiliense),brasiliense), andand GuanacasteGuanacaste (Schizolobium(Schizolobium parachybum).
In Mexico, mostmost ofof the the woodwood harvestharvest isis for for fuelwood fuelwood (14.5(14.5 tnillion million m3/year). m3/year).
As regards timbertimber wood, 90%90 % of thethe 4.34.3 millionmillion m3m3 exploitedexploited per year is fromfrom coniferous forests (Pines);(Pines); thethe samesame appliesapplies toto industrialindustrial woodwood (pulp-wood:(pulp-wood: 2.52.5 millionmillion m3/ha)m3/ha) and pit-props.
In the wood industry,industry, sawingsawing is is by by far far the the mostmost prominent prominent activity,activity, and producesproduces 2.4 millionmillion m3/year,m3/year, including 170170 000000 m3m3 of laminates. AA smallsmall quantityquantity (330(330 000000 m3)m3) of importsimports supplements the local market deficit. The amount of products exported is very small.
The secondsecond placeplace isis occupiedoccupied byby thethe paper-pulppaper-pulp industries.industries. TheyThey produceproduce aroundaround 600 000 tonnes/year, which isis still not enoughenough to satisfy the domestic demanddemand (350 000 tonnes/year are imported).imported).
Paper andand cardboadcardboad manufacturingmanufacturing (2.6(2.6 millionmillion tonnes/year),tonnes/year), althoughalthough rapidlyrapidly increasing (it has doubled since 1976), is also insufficient for the domestic market's demand (imports total 150150 000 tonnes/year).tonnes/year).
The production of wood-based panels is dominated by particle-boards (425000(425 000 m3/m3/year)year) andand plywoodplywood panelspanels (290(290 000000 m3/m3/year).year). TheseThese twotwo tyes of panelspanels areare produced forfor the domesticdomestic market (the particle-boards in in theirtheir entirety,entirety, andand 9595% % of thethe plywoods); a few importsimports (15(15 toto 2020 000 000 m3/year)m3/year) makemake upup thethe domesticdomestic supplysupply deficitdeficit inin relation to demand.
According toto a surveysurvey conductedconducted byby CNIDS,CNIDS, 126126 plywood plywood factoriesfactories and 165 sawmills utilized tropical woods in Mexico in 1987,1987, butbut werewere operatingoperating farfar belowbelow theirtheir maximum capacity.
It is very probable,probable, althoughalthough wewe havehave notnot beenbeen ableable toto obtainobtain anyany definitedefinite infomationinfomation on this point, that the domestic second processing market (especially for furniture and joineryjoinery items) is very activeactive andand occupiesoccupies aa largelarge numbernumber ofof small- small- oror medium-sized medium-sized workshopsworkshops in - 6565 --
or nearnear urbanurban centrescentres (particularly(particularly in the ValleyValley of MexicoMexico where 40% of thethe country'scountry's industry is located)located) and an equallyequally largelarge numbernumber ofof intermediariesintermediaries andand tradesmen.tradesmen.
BELIZE
A total of 45%45 % ofof Belize'sBelize's forestsforests belongbelong toto privateprivate companies,companies, and only the mostmost inaccessible or leastleast productiveproductive areare State-owned.State-owned.
Belize's productiveproductive forestforest (especially(especially as as regardsregards Mahoga.ny) Mahogany) isis ownedowned almostalmost entirelyentirely by aa smallsmall numbernumber ofof private private operators.operators. AA single single company company (Belize(Belize EstateEstate andand ProduceProduce Company) heldheld 253 800 ha inin 1984.1984. ThisThis situationsituation considerablyconsiderably limitslimits thethe possibilitypossibility of government controlcontrol of logging, althoughalthough the companiescompanies themselves mustmust feelfeel the need to ensure the permanent availability of these natural resources.resources.
For overover 200200 hundredhundred years,years, Belize'sBelize's chiefchief export export hashas beenbeen MahoganyMahogany (Swietenia(Swietenia macrophylla) and Ceder (Cedrela odorata),odorata), inin thethe form of logs. They are exploited atat aa rate of 2 toto 55 stemsstems perper haha inin thethe forestsforests concerned,concerned, i.e.i.e. aroundaround 55 to to 6 6 m3/ha m3/ha onon average.average.
For approximatelyapproximately the last hundredhundred years, thethe naturalnatural pinepine forestsforests (Pinus(Pinus caribea)caribea) have also been subject to intensive exploitation, and the young stands are all tootoo frequentlyfrequently damaged byby fires. TheThe productionproduction policy followed sincesince 19511951 givesgives riserise to thethe rapidrapid degradation ofof the stock, with regard not only to Mahogany andand Cedar, but to the Pines in the natural stands as well.well.
The other products extracted from Belize'sBelize's forestsforests were:were:
achras latexlatex (above(above allall fromfrom A.A. zapota)zapota) for for chewing-gum chewing-gum manufacturemanufacture (which(which dropped from 235 tonnes/year in thethe early 1930s1930s toto zerozero inin 1988);1988); andand
seeds ofof Pinus caribaea, varvar HondurensisHondurensis (decreasing)(decreasing) and ofof Pinus patulapatula var. Tecunhmanii (constantly increasing).increasing).
The wood harvest consists chiefly of fuelwood (126(126000 000 m3m3 inin 1987), but from the value standpoint timber (29 000000 in'm3 inin 1987,1987, stillstill comprisingcomprising overover 50%50% ofof Mahogany Mahogany andand Cedar)Cedar),, isis heavilyheavily predominant.predominant.
The production and exportation of logs havehave droppeddropped considerably over thethe last tenten years (respectively(respectively 46 000000 andand 77 000000 rri3m3 in 1980, as comparedcompared withwith thethe figuresfigures givengiven aboveabove for 1987).1987).
The processingprocessing industry is limitedlimited toto saw-mills,saw-mills, whosewhose production and exports are also decreasing (22 000 me 3produced produced and and 2 2000 000 rri3 m3 exportedexported inin 1985,1985, 1414 000000 in3 m3 producedproduced and 1 000 exported in 1987).1987).
Serious efforts are stillstill requiredrequired toto extendextend thethe rangerange ofof wood wood speciesspecies usedused locallylocally andand to increase awareness of the economic interest of this forest soso thatthat adequateadequate meansmeans can be allocated to itsits developmentdevelopment oror maintenance.maintenance. - 66 -
PUERTO RICO
Puerto Rico can provideprovide aa snapshotsnapshot ofof thethe economiceconomic factorsfactors andand thethe woodwood processingprocessing industry typical of mostmost CaribbeanCaribbean ArchipelagoArchipelago countries.countries.
Investments in the processing industries are limited by thethe perper hectarehectare lowlow volumevolume of commercial spieces and the absence of forestforest infrastructure.infrastructure.
Haulage by articulated tractors causes erosion and cablecable systemssystems are tootoo costly.costly.
Domestic production is consequently veryvery low, and all wood-derivedwood-derived products are bought ready-madeready-made in in thethe UnitedUnited States.States. TheThe tradetrade deficit ofof thisthis sectorsector isis aroundaround US$ 500 million; it is thethe secondsecond highesthighest importimport itemitem afterafter foodstuffs.foodstuffs.
3. THE GUYANESEGUYANESE REGIONREGION COUNTRIESCOUNTRIES
SURINAME
Forest exploitation: until 1947,1947, forestforest exploitationexploitation was limited to the fellingfelling of thethe most valuable and easily accessible trees by smallsmall privateprivate operators,operators, worlcingworking the edges of farming areas and along river banks. The work waswas carried out very largelylargely by handhand and the country imported wood.
After the war productionproduction increasedincreased underunder thethe initiativeinitiative of thethe ForestryForestry ServiceService andand BSH, firstfirst reachingreaching self-sufficiencyself-sufficiency level andand subsequentlysubsequently allowing quite largelarge exports.exports. Management effortsefforts first concentrated onon plantations, untiluntil 1978-80, then extended toto the management of natural forests.forests.
The utilizationutilization of naturalnatural standsstands dependsdepends onon theirtheir commercialcommercial woodwood contentcontent andand onon logging conditions.
Mangrove forests playplaya a primary role in protectingprotecting the coasts from erosion, andand are a source ofof fuelwood.fuelwood.
The freshwaterfreshwater swampswamp forestforest providesprovides mainlymainly pulp-woodpulp-wood (Virola(Virola surinamensis).surinamensis) . Logging conditions, which do not yetyet allowallow muchmuch mechanization,mechanization, are veryvery difficult.difficult. TheThe system is asas follows:follows:
the trees are felledfelled byby chain-saw,chain-saw, the logs are launchedlaunched byby winchwinch intointo channels,channels, they are thenthen floatedfloated down thethe rivers.rivers.
The volumes currently extracted are aroundaround 22 500500 rri3m3 perper year.
In the swamp forests, harvesting is virtually limited to Carapa spp.spp. andand occasionallyoccasionally Mora excelsa, Tabebuia serratifolia, Eschweilera spp. and Hura crepitans. TheThe volumes cutcut depend to a largelarge extentextent onon thethe marketmarket outletsoutlets (Mora(Mora forfor thethe westernwestern railwayrailway sleepers).sleepers). - 67 -
Logging is concentrated in the upland forests according to the richness of their stock of commercial species.species. TheThe exploitationexploitation systemsystem isis traditional:traditional:
the trees are felledfelled byby chain-saw,chain-saw, the logs are collectedcollected inin shortshort lengthslengths byby wheeledwheeled articulatedarticulated tractorstractors they are thenthen transportedtransported on roadsroads builtbuilt byby thethe ForestryForestry Service,Service, andand finallyfinally floated down rivers.
The industries are concentratedconcentrated in thethe coastalcoastal plain aroundaround ParamariboParamaribo and NieuwNieuw Nickerie. Some thirtythirty smallsmall saw-millssaw-mills workwork chieflychiefly for thethe domesticdomestic market,market, butbut thethe sectorsector as a wholewhole isis dominateddominated by BSH.
With itsits twotwo modernmodern saw-inillssaw-mills andand itsits plywoodplywood andand particle-boardparticle-board factory,factory, it accounts forfor 50% ofof sawnwoodssawnwoods and 100%100% ofof panelboards,panelboards, and isis thethe onlyonly significantsignificant exporter.
Production was concentrated on ten species until 1970,1970, butbut hashas sincesince diversified,diversified, andand 3 today 30 speciesspecies are inin regularregular use.use. AfterAfter reaching reaching 300300 000 000 rri3, m , thethe harvestharvest hashas droppeddropped toto 200 000 mm33 inin thethe last few years, but only 8%8 % isis exportedexported in thethe formform ofof logs.logs. WoodWood isis traditionally very widely used in housing, but at present, duedue toto thethe virtualvirtual monopolymonopoly ofof BSH BSH and the poor structure ofof thethe woodwood processingprocessing sector,sector, sawnsawn timbertimber hashas becomebecome prohibitivelyprohibitively expensive for low-costlow-cost housing.housing.
Logging costs
The mobilizationmobilization costscosts areare highhigh,, due to thethe lowlow numbernumber ofof exploitableexploitable treestrees per hectare, thethe distancedistance fromfrom processingprocessing plantsplants and the poorpoor organizationorganization of harvestingharvesting operations. TheThe average average cost cost per per m3 m3 ofof logs logs delivered delivered toto thethe saw-mill saw-mill yardyard isis estimatedestimated atat US$ 80-90, brokenbroken downdown asas follows:follows:
- inventory : 3% - roads : 17%17% felling : 5% - collection : 35%35% - road transport : 13%13% _ floating : 9%
- taxes : 7% - supervision : 11%11%
Better-organized collection could reduce this item byby 20%.20%.
The CELOS Silvicultural System (CSS), described in the "CASE STUDY", hashas notnot yet been applied on a full-scalefull-scale basis. The trialstrials coveredcovered 200200 haha andand thethe costscosts areare estimatedestimated at US$ 100-140100-140 perper hectare.hectare. TheThe productivityproductivity gaingain isis estimatedestimated at 1I toto 22 m3/ham3/ha per year, i.e. an extra 20 m3m3 in 20 years. AA promisingpromising productivityproductivity gain is thusthus obtained at a lowerlower cost,cost, even though there is nono marketmarket forfor thethe less-valuedless-valued species.species. -- 68 --
The marketsmarkets
About 7575% % of thethe totaltotal production,production, expressedexpressed inin m3m3 of round woodwood isis usedused locally.locally. The rest is exportedexported eithereither inin thethe CaribbeanCaribbean oror toto WesternWestern Europe.Europe.
- The sawnwoods are sold chiefly on the domestic market.market. Only 10% are exported.
- 60% of thethe plywoodsplywoods andand particicle-boardsparticicle-boards manufacturedmanufactured by BSHBSH are exportedexported to the CaribbeanCaribbean area, despitedespite competitioncompetition fromfrom South-EastSouth-East AsianAsian products.
- 80% of the harbour-worksharbour-works timber is exported to the Netherlands, andand thethe restrest toto Europe.
In the lastlast fewfew yearsyears thethe woodwood industryindustry hashas lostlost portionsportions ofof itsits marketmarket inin thethe locallocal building industry, due toto lossloss ofof competitivitycompetitivity inin relationrelation toto otherother buildingbuilding materials,materials, whilstwhilst exports are stagnating.stagnating.
FRENCH GUIANAGUIANA
Forest utilization and forestforest industries:industries: GuyaneseGuyanese forest productionproduction hadhad forfor aa gre,atgreat many years been centered aroundaround twotwo harvestingharvesting operations:operations:
- the extractionextraction of rosewoodrosewood essenceessence byby distilling chipschips fromfrom thethe wood ofof a member of thethe LaureaceaeLaureaceae familyfamily (Aniba(Aniba parviflora);parvijlora);
- harvesting ofof balata nibberrubber byby thethe bleedingbleeding andand coagulationcoagulation of latexlatex fromfrom thethe boles of Manilkara bidentatabidentata (Sapotaceae).(Sapotaceae).
Both experienced heavy cyclic fluctuations inin production levels due toto priceprice variations on the international markets and labour problems (the "gold rush").
The exhaustion of the resourceresource andand thethe creationcreation ofof synthetic synthetic productsproducts broughtbrought aboutabout the decline and subsequentsubsequent disappearance, in the sixties, of thesethese twotwo harvests.harvests.
Until 19601960 thethe GuyaneseGuyanese forestforest economyeconomy remainedremained embryonicembryonic (sawn(sawn lengths,lengths, artisanal saw-mills)saw-mills) although the BAFOG (Bureau Agricole et Forestier dede Guyane)Guyane) hadhad already carried outout technologicaltechnological trials and setset upup aa pilotpilot saw-mill.saw-mill.
Between 1960 and 1970, the arrivalarrival ofof largelarge logginglogging concernsconcerns operatingoperating inin AfricaAfrica and seekingseeking opportunities for geographicgeographic diversification,diversification, atat aa timetime whenwhen thethe AfricanAfrican nationsnations were gaining their independence, increased production leapsleaps andand bounds.bounds. ItIt reached a peak of 70 000 em in3 in 1969. 1969. The The wood wood was was exported exported in in logs logs to to the the European European market,market, asas onlyonly thethe Rougier company had set upup aa vene,er-peelingveneer-peeling plant (which operatedoperated until 1986). But the difficulty of extraction, the lowlow volumesvolumes available per hectare andand thethe costcost ofof labour labour inducedinduced these large logging concerns toto pursue theirtheir activitiesactivities inin AfricaAfrica oror toto shiftshift toto SoutheastSoutheast Asian,Asian, 3 and in 19701970 thethe volumevolume ofof logs logs extractedextracted fellfeU backback toto 3030 000 000 rri3. m • - 69 -
From 19761976 onwards, thethe "Green"Green Plan"Plan" gavegave newnew impetusimpetus toto forestforest activitiesactivities through three initiatives:initiatives:
- The paper-manufacture projects, which did not progressprogress beyondbeyond thethe feasibilityfeasibility study phase as they proved unrealistic from both the economic and the sciological standpoints, did lead to the inventoryinventory of over 400 000000 ha.ha.
- The peeling and plywoodplywood industry regained some ground but thethe factoryfactory waswas closed in 1986.1986.
- The establishmentestablishment ofof a saw-millsaw-mill was mademade thethe conditioncondition forfor obtainingobtaining forestforest permits, and along withwith aa wholewhole seriesseries ofof financialfinancial assistanceassistance measuresmeasures mademade it possible toto stabilize thethe volumevolume atat aroundaround 8080 toto 10 000 m3m3 inin logslogs.. These are fully processed on the spot to supply the Caribbean marketmarket and aa rapidlyrapidly growinggrowing locallocal marketniarket to supply the large public works projects under way here.
The secondsecond processingprocessing industry is beginningbeginning to develop,develop, inin particularparticular throughthrough thethe construction of wood frameframe houseshouses andand thethe malcingmaking of woodenwooden floorsfloors andand mouldings.mouldings.
The breakdown of saw-millssaw-mills according toto size was as follows in 1987:1987:
Production capacitycapacity Number operating 10 000 toto 2020 000000 m3m3 5 5 000 toto 1010 000000 m3m3 4
less than 55 000 000 m3 m3 6
Markets for different products: between 1960 and 19801980 the exporting of logslogs waswas the mostmost remunerativeremunerative outlet for thethe bestbest organizedorganized enterprises.enterprises. SinceSince thenthen thethe PublicPublic Authorities have made an effort toto orientorient productionproduction towards local processing so as to givegive forest products a higher addedadded valuevalue andand toto developdevelop industriesindustries inin GuyanaGuyana toto meetmeet locallocal needs.needs.
In 1980,1980, 4848 100100 m3m3 of logslogs werewere exportedexported as againstagainst 227227 m3m3 in 1987. The trendtrend for sawn timbers is naturally thethe reverse:reverse: 66 500500 m3m3 exported in 19801980 asas comparedcompared toto 1515 018018 m3m3 in 19871987 (sawnwoods(sawnwoods and finishedfinished products).products).
Today mostmost ofof the the datadata obtaine,c1 obtained concernsconcerns "saw-milling","saw-milling", i.e.i.e. thethe productionproduction andand marketing of sawn timber, planksplanks andand planedplaned products,products, pre-machinedpre-machined inin somesome cases.cases.
The other processing sectorssectors werewere stillstill onlyonly marginalmarginal inin 19871987 andand eludedeluded statisticalstatistical measurement.
* Sawnwood market: The domestic market, which absorbed over 60% ofof overalloverall production inin 1987, continues to grow thanksthanks to thethe pace ofof buildingbuilding activities.activities. - 70 --
Over 80% ofof thethe sawnwoodsawnwood soldsold onon thethe GuyaneseGuyanese marketmarket goes to thisthis sector.sector. SinceSince 1985 the construction ofof wood frame houses and the useuse ofof roofroof shinglesshingles havehave assuredassured aa market for speciesspecies previouslypreviously considered as secondarysecondary (Gonfolo(Gonfolo and Wapa).
The demand for sawnwood forfor carpentery,carpentery, industrial joinery,joinery, door-frames,door-frames, etc.etc. rose considerably with thethe commencementcommencement of thethe large-scalelarge-scale buildingbuilding worksworks connectedconnected with thethe Space Centre extension programme. The remaining 20% of thethe sawnwoodssawnwoods are used by the artisanal furniture-makingfurniture-making trades. This diversifieddiversified second-processingsecond-processing industry is likely toto expand in the comingcoming years.years.
The export market is dominated by the French Antillas (95%(95 % of sawnwood exports). There are a numbernumber of problemsproblems with marketingmarketing of these products: unfamiliarity of the woods on thethe internationalinternational market,market, difficultiesdifficulties inin exportingexporting adequateadequate quantities quantities ofof sawnwoodssawnwoods oror other products on a regular basis...basis ...
* Markets for other wood-derivedwood-derived products: In 1987,1987, thethe majoritymajority ofof the the machinedmachined products (1 800800 m3)m3) was absorbed by thethe locallocal market,market, asas againstagainst onlyonly 500500 ni3 m3 despatched despatched to thethe Antillas,Antillas, whichwhich remainremain thethe onlyonly exportexport outlet.outlet.
The manufacturemanufacture of veneers and plywoodsplywoods ceasedceased entirely in 19861986 whenwhen thethe onlyonly manufacturing unitunit waswas closedclosed down.down . AllAll panellingpanelling mustmust nownow bebe importedimported fromfrom metropolitanmetropolitan France or BrazilBrazil (3(3 000000 m3m3 in 1987).1987).
The potential demand on the local marketmarket,, together with the Antillean market, should be between 4 and 66 000 m3/yearm3/year if the buildingbuilding industry forecasts areare accurate. GuyanaGuyana could produce 10 000 m3m3 per year,year, ifif thethe currentcurrent studiesstudies andand manufacturingmanufacturing unitunit projectsprojects prove feasible.feasible.
4. THE AMAZONIANAMAZONIAN ANDAND ANDEANANDEAN COUNTRIESCOUNTRIES
BRAZIL
Wood harvestingharvesting
The quantity of timber extracted is extremely variable and,and, on average, it wouldwould be misleading to give figuresfigures higher than 1010 m3/ham3/ha for the mobilizationmobilization ofof this resource over large areas.areas.
The wood industries are suppliedsupplied from fourfour majormajor sources:sources:
the clearance of areas destineddestined forfor agriculturalagricultural recovery;recovery; - logging permits forfor privateprivate forestsforests subjectsubject toto managementmanagement plans;plans; - artisanal logginglogging in thethe Varzea;Varzea; - and alsoalso illegalillegal andand uncontrollableuncontrollable logging,logging, particularlyparticularly inin thethe classifiedclassified forestsforests and reserves.reserves. -- 71 -
The supply channels followed can be divideddivided intointo threethree types:types:
directly byby the industriesindustries themselvesthemselves,, the the rarestrarest method:method: 5 5 toto 10%10 % of woodwood enterprises; through private intermediaries: thethe commonestcommonest system, adoptedadopted byby three-quartersthree-quarters of wood enterprises;enterprises; - a mixture of the previousprevious two forfor thethe remainder.remainder.
Wood utilizationuti! ization
Brazil is one ofof thethe world'sworld's largest largest woodwood producers,producers, particularlyparticularly withwith regardregard toto tropical woods; however, thethe contribution of its resourcesresources to foreign tradetrade isis veryvery small.small.
A very large proportionproportion ofof the the woodwood harvestharvest isis consumedconsumed asas fuelwoodfuel wood andand charcoalcharcoal ((overover 175175 millionmillion m3/year,m3/year, 18 of whichwhich are fromfrom Amazonia),Amazonia), particularly by the iron andand steel industry.
In additionaddition,, a large portionportion ofof thethe industrialindustrial roundwoodroundwood harvest consistsconsists of pit props and poles. Lastly,Lastly, BrazilBrazil producesproduces almostalmost 40 millionmillion m3/yearm3/year ofof timber, 53% ofof whichwhich consists of pinewoods, andand 2929 millionmillion in3m3 are fromfrom thethe AmazonianAmazonian regions.regions.
In additionaddition to thesethese woodwood products,products, thethe AmazonianAmazonian forestforest suppliessupplies manymany otherother products of various kindskinds (foods,(foods, medicines,medicines, cosmetics).cosmetics).
As regardsregards timbertimber fromfrom broadle,aved broadleaved species inIn log form, Brazil imports 50 000000 m3/yearm3/year andand exportsexports only only 10 10 000 000 1113/year. m3/year.
On thethe whole,whole, thethe countrycountry consumesconsumes by farfar thethe greatestgreatest partpart ofof its its products, products , andand external trade, althoughalthough by nono meansmeans negligible,negligible, onlyonly involvesinvolves aa smallsmall proportionproportion ofof itsits output:
- Its sawmillssawmills produce 1818 millionmillion m3m3 ofof sawn timber, 2.9% ofof which which isis exported,exported, and thethe domesticdomestic marketmarket also also absorbs absorbs about about 300 300 000 000 1113 m3 of imports.imports.
- Paper-pulpingPaper-pUlping and paper andand cardboardcardboard manufacturemanufacture areare thethe two two most most active active and and dynamic wood industries afterafter the sawmillsawmill sector: theythey produceproduce 3.93.9 millionmillion tonnes and 4.7 millionmillion tonnestonnes respectively.respectively. AA relativelyrelatively largelarge proportionproportion ofof their their output is exportedexported (21%(21 % andand 13%13% respectively).respectively). SmallSmall quantitiesquantities are alsoalso imported (40(40 andand 260260 000000 tonnes/yearstonnes/years respectively).respectively).
- The heavyheavy industriesindustries engagedengaged inin woodwood panelpanel manufacturemanufacture operateoperate atat roughlyroughly comparable levels (with(with veryvery smallsmall oror non-existentnon-existent imports).imports).
- Plywoods are the mostmost importantimportant of thesethese products:products: 900900 000000 m3/year,m3/year, 2525% % of which are exported.exported.
Particle-boards followfollow closelyclosely inin their wake: 660 000 m'/yearm3/year withwith negligiblenegligible external trade volumes.volumes. - 72 --
Fibre panelspanels have risenrisen overover thethe last fewfew yearsyears to a ceilingceiling level ofof 750000750 000 m3/year,m3jyear, slightly less than a thirdthird ofof whichwhich (29%)(29%) isis exported.exported.
- Lastly,Lastly, thethe veneeringveneering industryindustry hashas quitequite aa largelarge outputoutput (220(220000 000 m3/year),m3jyear), 28%28% of whichwhich isis exported.exported.
BOLIVIA
In theory,theory, aa managementmanagement planplan isis necessarynecessary toto obtain a logging permit, withwith a cutting schedule basedbased on a detaileddetailed preliminary inventory. But in practice, this involves atat best a preparatory surveysurvey toto identifyidentify thethe mostmost advantageousadvantageous logging sites, and no form of resourceresource renewal isis everever contemplatedcontemplated (and(and whatwhat isis more,more, thethe meansmeans toto ensureensure compliancecompliance withwith thesethese plans are lacking).lacking).
At present, thethe durationduration ofof logginglogging permits is only one to threethree years...years ...
The woodwood industryindustry isis composedcomposed essentiallyessentially of:
small sawmills that process only mara and a few valuable woods, or else produce building timber (using a larger range ofof species)species) fromfrom logslogs obtained from areas cleared forfor landland settlement;settlement; second processing workshops;workshops; individual operators who cut and sawsaw directly inin thethe forestforest (often(often illegally);illegally); andand a very smallsmall numbernumber ofof medium-sizedmedium-sized enterprises whichwhich utilizeutilize wood resources in a slightlyslightly moremore integratedintegrated fashion.fashion.
As has often been remarked, access to thisthis resource isis difficultdifficult due to the lack of an adequate road network, andand timbertimber extractionextraction is necessarilynecessarily limited to four oror fivefive monthsmonths per year.year.
Logging is insufficiently or badly organized, large quantitiesquantities of materialmaterial are lostlost atat the point or originorigin oror inin transit,transit, thethe sawingsawing yieldyield isis lowlow andand thethe processingprocessing centrescentres are inin most cases too far away from the resource...resource ... TheThe cumulativecumulative effecteffect ofof allall thesethese problemsproblems is the already mentioned decrease in thethe stockstock of valuablevaluable speciesspecies thatthat stillstill assureassure somesome marginmargin of profit.profit.
- The woodwood harvestharvest servesserves aboveabove allall forfor fuelwoodfuel wood inin thisthis high-altitudehigh-altitude ruralrural country: low-incomelow-income Bolivians, with theirtheir closedclosed autarchicalautarchical economiceconomic system,system, depend very heavilyheavily on woodwood forfor theirtheir domestic domestic fuelfuel supply:supply: approximatelyapproximately 1.2 million m3m3 (1.23(1.23 inin 1987) ofof wood is harvested each year for this purpose.
About 10% of thisthis volumevolume goes toto sawmillssawmills (136(136000 000 m3m3 inin 1987)1987),, and 10% of the latter figure givesgives thethe roundwoodroundwood volume.volume.
Less than halfhalf (40%)(40%) ofof thethe sawnsawn timbertimber outputoutput (95(95 000000 m3m3 inin 1987)1987) isis consumedconsumed locally; the remaining 60% isis exported.exported. -- 73 -
Lastly,Lastly, thethe oneone smallsmall plywoodplywood productionproduction unit (with anan output of aa fewfew thousandthousand m3/e/yearyear - -8 8 000 000 in in 1987) 1987) isis not not quite quite sufficient sufficient toto supply thethe domesticdomestic market forfor thisthis productproduct (about aa thousandthousand m3/ e/yearyear areare imported).imported). Around aa thousandthousand m3/ e/yearyear ofof veneerveneer productsproducts are exported.
COLOMBIA
The wood industries in Colombia are characterized chiefly by thethe veryvery lowlow volumevolume ofof foreign trade and thethe limitedlimited satisfactionsatisfaction of thethe stillstill fairlyfairly smallsmall domesticdomestic market.market.
It is also note,dnoted thatthat thethe mangrovemangrove forestsforests have already been overexploited toto produceproduce charcoal.
According to the available statistics (FAO - 19871987 Yearbook of Forest Products)Products) the production ofof industrial timber logslogs has beenbeen stagnatingstagnating for severalseveral yearsyears atat aroundaround 2.7 millionmillion m3,m\ whereaswhereas itit exce,ededexceeded 3 million m3m3 inin 1980 (with thethe already mentioned risks of over-exploitation). There is no foreign trade inin thisthis item.item.
The species exploited areare thethe "Cedro" (Cedrela odorataodorata && spp.),spp.), thethe "Mora""Mora" (Chlorophora tinctoria)tinctoria),, thethe "Abarco""Abarco" (Cariniana(Cariniana pyriformis),pyriformis), thethe "Roble""Roble" (Tabebuia(Tabebuia pentaphylla and Termina/jaTerminalia amazonia), the "Tangaré""Tangare" (Carapa guianensis),guianensis) , severalseveral typestypes of "Cangar€""Cangaré" (Dialianthera gracilipes, D. otoba, D.D. macrophylla,macrophylla, VirolaVirola carinata)carinata),, thethe "Nato""Nato" (Mora spp.)spp.) forfor pit-props,pit-props, the "Sajo""Sajo" (Campnosperma(Campnosperma panamensis),panamensis), thethe "Machare""Machare" (Symphonia globulifera),globulifera) , the "Cativo" (Prioria coparfera),copaifera) , the "Guasco" (Cordia alliodora),alliodora),......
The woodwood undergoesundergoes threethree typestypes ofof industrial industrial processing:processing:
Sawing, which produces sufficient sawn timber for the domestic marketmarket (around(around 720 000000 me/year),3/year), its its only only customer. customer.
Panel manufacturemanufacture (particle-boards, plywoods, fibre-boards), withwith outputs of around 50 000, 40 000 and 2020000 000 e/yearm3/year respectively. respectively. The The plywood plywood industryindustry is declining, whilst thethe particle-board plants are increasingincreasing theirtheir output.output.
Paper andand cardboardcardboard production,production, whichwhich hashas recentlyrecently beenbeen ste,eplysteeply increasedincreased (to(to around 480480 000000 tonnes/ye,ar)tonnes/year) to restrict importsimports (150(150000 000 tonnes/yeartonnes/year inin 1987).1987).
The products areare probablyprobably usedused chieflychiefly asas packagingpackaging forfor agriculturalagricultural produce.produce.
ECUADOR
With a populationpopulation about half that of neighbouringneighbouring Peru, EcuadorEcuador harvestsharvests twicetwice as much timber-woodtimber-wood (economy(economy stimulatedstimulated by oiloil resources).resources). - 74 -
Logging and woodwood processing,processing, whichwhich havehave developeddeveloped considerably over the lastlast decade, are bothboth activeactive withwith potentialpotential forfor futherfuther development:development:
- The privateprivate industrialindustrial fabric isis dynamicdynamic and various,various, rangingranging fromfrom smallsmall hand-hand run artisanal sawmills (North-West(North-West regions,...)regions, ... ) to mechanized industrial enterprises such as PlywoodPlywood Ecuatoriana oror Baltek inin thethe citiescities (the(the latterlatter manufactures and exports products made of balsa Ochroma lagopus)./agopus).
- The privateprivate industrialindustrial sector contributes contributes directly oror throughthrough reforestationreforestation companies to the restockingrestocking or even,even, inin somesome cases,cases, thethe establishmentestablishment of thisthis resource (forest(forest plantations).plantations).
With itsits 6.36.3 millionmillion tri3m3 (in 1987), the fuelwoodfuelwood harvest (firewood(firewood and charcoal) is almost three timestimes (in(in volume)volume) greater thanthan thethe tnnbertimber harvestharvest (2.3(2.3 millionmillion m3)m3) for the samesame year.
The timbertimber processingprocessing industry ISis diversified, although sawingsawing is heavily predominant:
- The quite vigorous domestic marketmarket (building,(building, furnishing, furnishing, joinery, joinery, ruralrural craftscrafts...) ... ) is suppliedsupplied fromfrom thethe locallocal sawmills.sawmills. OnlyOnly aa smallsmall proportionproportion (less thanthan 3 3 30 000000 m3)m ) ofof the sawmills'sawmills' totaltotal outputoutput (1.26(1.26 millionmillion m3m of sawnsawn timberstimbers inin 1987) is exported.
- With aa plywoodplywood outputoutput ofof 85 85 000000 rri3 m3 and almost equal output of particle-boardsparticle-boards (80000(80 000 m3),m3), the woodwood panelpanel industriesindustries and theirtheir doinesticdomestic marketmarket areare quitequite considerable. (Only(Only 1515 000000 m3m3 andand 22 000000 m3m3 respectivelyrespectively areare exported).exported).
A small output of veneerveneer leavesleaves completescompletes the woodwood industries'industries' range.range.
The present deficitdeficit inin thethe woodwood se,ctor'ssector's balance of trade, as inin otherother countriescountries inin thisthis region, isis duedue toto paper andand cardboard products,products, asas thethe domesticdomestic market'smarket's importimport requirementsrequirements amount to 1010 000000 tonnestonnes ofof paperpaper pulppulp andand overover 140140 000000 tonnestonnes ofof paper paper andand cardboardcardboard (despite the local industry's outputoutput ofof overover 5050 000000 tonnestonnes ofof these these products).products).
PERU
Wood-harvesting in Peru is heavily dominated by the fuelwood sector (6.5 million mm33 inin 1987); industrial logs for non-sawnwoodnon-sawnwood usesuses account forfor less thanthan 100100000 000 m3/yearm3/year (93 000 in 1987).1987).
The timber-woodtimber-wood harvestharvest (1.1(1.1 millionmillion m3/yearm3/year inin 1987)1987) isis destineddestined almostalmost exclusively for processingprocessing intointo sawnwoodssawnwoods (535 000 M3m3 producedproduced in in 1987)1987) forfor thethe domesticdomestic market (only 22 000 mm33 werewere exported),exported), and and the supplysupply is supplemented by aa smallsmall quantityquantity of imports (7(7000 000 tn3 m3 inin 1987,1987, reducedreduced byby 3.63.6 overover thethe lastlast tenten years).years). -- 75 -
A veryvery slightslight portionportion ofof the the log log harvest harvest supplies supplies a asmall small plywood plywood industry industry (23000(23 000 m e3 producedproduced inin 1987, exclusively forfor the locallocal market)market) andand veneerveneer industryindustry (9000(9 000 me 3in in 1987, 1987, of of which which 1 1 000 000 were were exported).exported).
Paper-pulp isis mainly imported (44(44 000000 tonnes in 1987,1987, as againstagainst 11 000000 tonnestonnes produced locally in the samesame year).year).
The local paper-making industry (163(163 000 tonnestonnes inin 1987)1987) mustmust be supplementedsupplemented by imports (amounting toto one-third of totaltotal paper consumptionconsumption inin 1987)1987) toto meetmeet thethe domesticdomestic demand.
VENEZUELA
The fuelwood harvest is lessless extensiveextensive in Venezuela,Venezuela, aa majormajor oil-productingoil-producting nation,nation, than inin other countriescountries inin thisthis regionregion (only(only about about 700 700 000 000 m3/ e/year).year).
Timber is also notnot aa particularlyparticularly intensiveintensive sector sector (630000 (630 000 m e3 per per yearyear onon average),average), and has been stagnatingstagnating for overover tenten years.years.
The wood processing industriesindustries produce a widewide rangerange ofof products: products:
sawnsawnwoods: woods: 300 300 to to 350 350 000 000 m e3 perper year;year;
- particle-boards: aboutabout 100000100 000 m e3 per per year;year;
- plywoods: 40 40 000 000 m e3 per per year;year;
fibre-boards: 1818 000000 me3 per per year; year;
- paper-pUlp:paper-pulp: 8 000000 tonnestonnes perper year;year;
- paper and cardboard:cardboard: aboutabout 675675 000000 tonnestonnes perper year.year.
Their primary objectobject is toto supplysupply thethe domesticdomestic marketmarket and keep importsimports as lowlow as possible.possible. SomeSome importsimports areare stillstill aa necessitynecessity forfor allall thesethese productsproducts (except(except forfor fibre-boardsfibre-boards andand particle-boards):particle-boards): over over 50 50 000 000 m3/ e/yearyear ofof sawnwoods,sawnwoods, 15 toto 2020 000 m3/e/yearyear of of plywoods, plywoods, 5 000 m3/e/yearyear of of veneer veneer leaves, leaves, 295295 000000 tonnes tonnes ofof paper paper pulp,pulp, withwith regardregard onlyonly toto 1st1st processing products.products.
Imports are alsoalso necessarynecessary toto satisfysatisfy thethe locallocal demanddemand forfor 2nd2nd processingprocessing products.products. These include nearly 200 000 tonnes of paper and cardboard, andand also furniture, etc...etc...
No wood product exports are reportedreported inin thethe statisticsstatistics collectedcollected by FAO.FAO. - 76 -
VI. RESEARCHRESEARCH
Applied research and closed forest management projects are frequently inseparable, as silvicultural programmes for the enhancement ofof forest stands are only carried out on an experimental basis or on aa veryvery smallsmall scalescale inin thethe tropicaltropical AmericanAmerican countries.countries.
Despite thisthis overlappingoverlapping of researchresearch andand developmentdevelopment projects, wewe havehave attemptedattempted in the following pages to focusfocus exclusivelyexclusively on thethe experimental trialstrials toto furtherfurther technicaltechnical andand scientific knowledge.knOWledge.
1. THE ISTHMUSISTHMUS ANDAND CARIBBEANCARIBBEAN COUNTRIESCOUNTRIES
NICARAGUA.NICARAGUA, PANAMA,PANAMA. COSTA RICA,RICA. HONDURAS,HONDURAS. GUATAMALAGUATAMALA AND EL SALVADORSALVADOR
Research has been orientedoriented chieflychiefly towardstowards plantationplantation silviculturesilviculture oror agroforestry.agroforestry.
Natural forest research is confinedconfined in mostmost of thesethese sixsix countriescountries toto investigationinvestigation of the compositioncomposition,, naturenature andand potentialpotential of thethe forestsforests andand stands,stands, oftenoften withwith aa viewview toto logging.logging.
In the absence of a researchresearch programmeprogramme coveringcovering thethe IsthmusIsthmus countries as a whole,whole, some experimental projects havehave beenbeen conductedconducted onon aa nationalnational scale.scale.
In Guatemala, thethe researchresearch projectsprojects undertakenundertaken with FAO assistance from thethe early sixties onwards in thethe forestsforests ofof the the PetenPeten regionregion havehave beenbeen virtuallyvirtually abandoned.abandoned.
In Honduras, thethe ACDI/COHDEFORACDIICOHDEFOR trialstrials integratedintegrated withwith managementmanagement havehave comecome to nothing.nothing.
In NicaraguaNicaragua an ecologicalecological research project should,should, inin principle,principle, bebe implementedimplemented with Swedish Cooperation (SAREC) aidaid and with the participationparticipation of CATIECATIE andand UCAUCA (Universidad Centroamericana), inin the heart of the "Parque"Parque Internacional"Internacional" of La PazPaz inin thethe Rio San Juan moistmoist forest. ItIt coverscovers researchresearch onon naturalnatural regeneration,regeneration, thethe phenologyphenology ofof thethe principal species and the impact of forest exploitation, and also enrichmentenrichment plantingplanting trialstrials forfor logged compartments.compartments.
In Panama only one research project can be mentioned: aa study of Cativo (Prioria copaifera)copafjera) formations,formations, conductedconducted inin thethe seventies.seventies.
This alarming situationsituation is explainedexplained byby lacklack ofof. government government interest,interest, fundingfunding andand researchers, whichwhich thethe TFAPTFAP (TROPICAL(TROPICAL FORESTRYFORESTRY ACTIONACTION PLAN) measuresmeasures are seekingseelcing to to remedy. remedy. ItIt mustmust bebe recalled,recalled, moreover, that the Isthmus has major assetsassets inin the form of regionalregional organismsorganisms such as thethe IICAIICA andand CATIE,CA TIE, whosewhose actionaction in thethe ForestryForestry Research andand DevelopmentDevelopment fieldfield mustmust bebe develope,ddeveloped and given international backing.
The CATIECATIE (Centro(Centro AgronomicoAgronomico TropicalTropical dede InvestigaciónInvestigaci6n yy Enseñanza)Enseiianza) is responsible for thethe onlyonly successfulsuccessful natural forest research programme in the region.region. - 77 -
This programme is beingbeing conductedconducted in CostaCosta Rica,Rica, andand concernsconcerns bothboth secondarysecondary forests (at Sarapiqui) and primary forests (at(at Guapiles). ItIt is based on a networknetwork ofof one-one hectare observation andand measurement plots plots toto monitor the structurestructure and evolutionevolution of diffferent types of stands (and particularly their reconstitutionreconstitution after clear felling 25, 1515 andand 2 years previously).
These experiments, whichwhich commencedcommenced in 1985,1985, areare beginningbeginning toto communicatecommunicate their findings afterafter the three annualannual measurementmeasurement campaignscampaigns from from 19871987 toto 1989 carriedcarried outout at SarapiquiSarapiqui.. TheseThese findings (Finegan(Finegan B.B. andand Sabogal C.,C., 19881988 and Finegan,Finegan, 1991)1991) chieflychiefly concern thethe growth, mortality andand new growth ofof thethe differentdifferent species, and alsoalso thethe productivity ofof 15 and 2525 year-oldyear-old even-agedeven-aged plantations;plantations; theythey constituteconstitute thethe foundationfoundation for the directives issued on thethe managementmanagement of the region's secondarysecondary forestsforests (see(see nextnext chapterchapter on forest management).management).
In additionaddition,, thethe evolutionevolution andand dynamicsdynamics ofof high-altitude high-altitude standsstands ofof oalc oak (Quercus spp.)spp.) in thethe TalamancaTalamanca CordilleraCordillera areare alsoalso beingbeing monitored.monitored. Lastly,Lastly, thethe TropicalTropical StudiesStudies Organisation (TSO), composed principally of United States universities andand the university ofof Costa Rica, isis conductingconducting fundamentalfundamental research on the forestforest ecosystemecosystem inin thethe SarapiquiSarapiqui region (La Selva station), in thethe AtlanticAtlantic forestforest zone.
MEXICO
In thethe YucatanYucatan peninsula,peninsula, thethe forestsforests consideredconsidered impoverishedimpoverished byby selectiveselective fellingfelling of valuablevaluable speciesspecies have,have, since the sixties,sixties, undergoneundergone ineffectualineffectual attemptsattempts atat forestforest enrichment with Caoba and CedroCedro rojorojo byby thethe openopen stripstrip planting planting method.method.
Natural regeneration trials hadhad failedfailed withwith thesethese twotwo sun-lovingsun-loving species,species, which require largelarge openingsopenings inin thethe forestforest andand havehave difficultydifficulty inin copingcoping withwith competitioncompetition fromfrom herbaceousherbaceous,, shrub and tree regrowth.regrowth.
Forestry research properproper inin thethe tropicaltropical zonezone waswas commencedcommenced in 19681968 by INIFAPINIFAP (Instituto Nacional de Investigaciones Forestales y Agropecuarias), whichwhich undertookundertook thethe firstfirst floristic, botanical and woodwood anatomyanatomy studiesstudies andand alsoalso establishedestablished plantationsplantations ofof TeakTeak (Tectona graruiis)grandis) and Cedrela odorata.
Commencing in 1981,1981, aa networknetwork ofof 20 20 permanentpermanent one-hectareone-hectare plotsplots waswas establishedestablished in thethe coastalcoastal areaarea ofof the the GulfGulf of of Mexico Mexico toto study study untoucheduntouched forestforest ecosystemsecosystems and theirtheir evolution.evolution. It hashas providedprovided muchmuch informationinformation onon theirtheir phenologicalphenological characteristics,characteristics, seedseed dissemination andand highhigh evergreenevergreen forestforest structure.structure. AtAt thethe samesame time,time, researchresearch hashas alsoalso beenbeen carried out onon thethe regenerationregeneration ofof CedrelaCedrela odorata.odorata.
The currentcurrent researchresearch projects are orientedoriented towards the studystudy ofof globalglobal forestforest dynamics, thethe growth ofof valuablevaluable speciesspecies and,and, moremore particularly,particularly, thethe impactimpact onon regenerationregeneration of different felling rates at QuintanaQuintana Roo (Snook L.CL.C.,., 1991).1991). - 78 --
BELIZE
Forestry researchresearch inin BelizeBelize isis atat presentpresent followingfollowing thethe oppositeopposite approachapproach toto whatwhat would appear optimum:optimum: as itit isis concentratingconcentrating onon plantationplantation silviculturesilviculture whilst research in closed broadleaved forestsforests (especially(especially thosethose underunder managementmanagement plans) isis neglected.neglected.
It isis truetrue that that the the means means and and opportunities opportunities toto applyapply thethe findings findings obtainedobtained inin broadleaved forests are limited due to the forestforest ownershipownership structure, ...
It is likelylikely thatthat thethe archives of thethe forestryforestry researchresearch departmentdepartment containcontain aa wealthwealth of material in thisthis regardregard whichwhich shouldshould bebe moremore fullyfully exploited.exploited.
PUERTO RICO
Forestry researchresearch inin PuertoPuerto RicoRico cancan bebe subdivided subdivided intointo twotwo successivesuccessive phases:phases:
From 19201920 toto 1950, faced with thethe erosionerosion problemproblem researchresearch workwork waswas concentrated chiefly onon the germinationgermination and plantingplanting of nativenative andand introducedintroduced species (100 locallocal spe,ciesspecies and 350 exotic species).species).
From 19501950 onwards,onwards, moremore prominenceprominence has beenbeen givengiven toto ecologicalecological andand botanical rese,arch,research, closely linked to endemism and naturenature protectionprotection problems.problems.
MARTINIOUEMARTINIQUE AND GUADALOUPEGUADALOUPE
Research in these two islands has followedfollowed a pattern similar to that of PuertoPuerto Rico:Rico: thethe majority of trialstrials dealdeal moremore specificallyspecifically withwith plantationplantation silviculture,silviculture, especially that of Mahogany (Swietenia spp.),spp.), but some research isis alsoalso conductedconducted onon thethe naturalnatural (assisted)(assisted) regeneration of some closed forest species, thethe mostmost importantimportant of whichwhich isis thethe "Poirier","Poirier", Tabebuia palida.
TRINIDAD ANDAND TOBAGOTOBAGO
Moist forest research began many years ago in Trinidad on an empirical basis, as was the case early inin thisthis centurycentury inin mostmost tropicaltropical countriescountries underunder thethe "colonial"colonial wing".wing".
Trials were carried outout withwith an informalinformal "let's"let's seesee whatwhat happens"happens" approach,approach, withoutwithout setting up anyany elaborateelaborate experimentalexperimental procedures procedures (replication, (replication, plots, plots, uniformuniform treatments, treatments, ...... ). ).
In 19561956 aa trialtrial waswas conductedconducted inin aa forest forest logged logged in in 1942 1942 and and subsequently subsequently regenerated by thethe "shelterwood"shelterwood system".system". - 79 --
Five treatmentstreatments werewere appliedapplied withwith fivefive replicationsreplications (on(on one-hectareone-hectare plots).plots). The differences between between silvicultural silvicultural treatments treatments do do not not seemseem veryvery evident in thethe lightlight of thethe last analyses in 1987.1987. ExceptExcept forfor thisthis localizedlocalized experimentationexperimentation in the Arena forest, no other recent researchresearch hashas beenbeen attemptedattempted withwith regardregard toto naturalnatural forestforest management.management.
On the other hand,hand, afterafter thethe nationalnational inventoryinventory carriedcarried outout betweenbetween 19781978 andand 1980,1980, a network of 159159 permanentpermanent andand periodicallyperiodically mea.suredmeasured plotsplots hashas been progressively setset up in forestforest standsstands fromfrom 19831983 onwards.onwards.
Most have beenbeen thethe objectobject ofof two two oror three three measurement measurement campaigns.campaigns. It mustmust bebe emphasized that this network is quitequite exceptional in tropical America, as aa monitoringmonitoring andand decisional tool for forestforest managementmanagement programmes.programmes.
2.2. THE GUYANESEGUYANESE REGIONREGION COUNTRIESCOUNTRIES
GUYANA
In directdirect lineline withwith thethe conceptsconcepts ofof "sustainability" "sustainability" andand "biodiversity","biodiversity", a majormajor research programme is foreseenforeseen inin thisthis country:country :the the Guyana Guyana Rainforest Rainforest Sustainability Sustainability Programme (GRSP).(GRSP) .
Its object is toto studystudy thethe changeschanges inin forestforest dynamicsdynamics and plant-animal relations after the harvesting of various forestforest products.products.
This programme isis based on procedures,procedures, yet toto bebe established,established, thatthat willwill allowallow comparison between the followingfollowing typestypes ofof treatment: treatment:
undisturbed control plot,plot, selective exploitation for timber, - harvesting of non-woodnon-wood produce,produce, - exploitation plus produceproduce harvestingharvesting ......
Each treatment willwill bebe repeated threethree timestimes on on very very large large plots plots (2 (2 xx 22 km, i.e.i.e. 400 ha each).each). TheirTheir impact impact on on the the ecosystem ecosystem will will bebe evaluated evaluated throughthrough thethe collectioncollection ofof datadata on thethe populationspopulations of animalanimal andand plantplant speciesspecies ofof ecologic ecologic and/orand/or notablenotable ecologicecologic importance.
The programmeprogramme site will bebe nearnear KurupukariKurupukari andand willwill bebe implementedimplemented inin thethe framework of thethe Tropical ForestsForests ActionAction PlanPlan andand thethe CommonwealthCommonwealth TropicalTropical SustainableSustainable Forestry Programme.Programme.
SURINAME
The first silvicultural trials were carried out in 1904,1904, when the Forestry Service was first established. TheyThey concernedconcerned naturalnatural andand artificialartificial regeneration,regeneration, andand werewere abandonedabandoned in 1925 when the department was abolishedabolished.. In 1947,1947, researchresearch showedshowed thatthat nativenative speciesspecies could - 80 -
attain a diameter of 3030 cmcm inin 3030 years,years, butbut inin 19491949 thethe ServiceService directeddirected itsits effortsefforts towardstowards silviculture in· man-mademan-made wooded areas.
The Caribbean pine (Pinus caribaea hondurensis)hondurensis) waswas introduce,dintroduced inin 1949. ItIt growsgrows well except on the very poor white soils inin thethe forestforest belt.belt. TheThe youngyoung pinespines are plantedplanted after thethe sites havehave undergoneundergone mechanicalmechanical clearing,clearing, windrowing and and burning,burning, atat intervals ofof 3.5 x 2.22.2 mm toto 33 xx 2.752.75 m. m. TheThe tending tending required required until until the the canopy canopy closescloses isis assuredassured by both mechanical (rotavor) and chemical means.
The pine plantationplantation programme was abandoned in 1978,1978, because ofof its labour and maintenance costscosts andand thethe lowlow growth raterate of the older plantationsplantations due to the soils'soils' poorpoor mineral content.
There are todaytoday about 8 000 ha of pines, thethe majoritymajority of whichwhich are in aa veryvery poorpoor state.
The broadleavedbroad leaved speciesspecies plantedplanted includeinclude both both indigenous indigenous tre,es: trees:
Virola surinamensis Simarouba amara Cedrela odorata and exotic species:species:
Cordia alliodoraalliodora Eucalyptus spp. Aucoumea kleineana.
The various species werewere planted singlysingly oror mixed withwith pines,pines, inin strips oror inin enrichment plantings.plantings. In allall casescases thethe tendingtending operations,operations, whichwhich cannotcannot bebe mechanized,mechanized, became prohibitively expensiveexpensive andand thethe stands,stands, whichwhich covercover a total of around 3 500 ha, areare virtually unproductive.unproductive.
The pine plantations areare very costly (US$ 1 000 per ha in 1973). The twotwo majormajor expenditure items are mechanicalmechanical clearingclearing andand tending.tending. Their costcost hashas beenbeen constantlyconstantly increasing, whilstwhilst productionproduction hashas prove,c1proved lower lower than than had had been been foreseen foreseen (11 (11 m e/ha/year3/halyear insteadinstead of 1313 m3/ha/year).m3/halyear). AsAs thethe energyenergy costcost hashas beenbeen risingrising steadilysteadily sincesince 1973, pine regenerationregeneration has consequentlyconsequently beenbeen abandoned.abandoned.
Enrichment withwith broadleavedbroadleaved speciesspecies requiresrequires lengthylengthy andand carefulcareful tendingtending forfor somesome fifteen years; thethe costcost perper hectarehectare consequentlyconsequently amountedamounted toto aboutabout US$US$ 11 000000 inin 1978, and thisthis ledled toto thethe abandonmentabandonment ofof thisthis techniquetechnique atat thethe endend ofof the the seventies.seventies.
Natural regeneration:regeneration: SilviculturalSilvicultural trials trials conducted conducted in in the the fifties fifties and and sixties sixties involved involved poisoningpoisoning off undesirableundesirable species and creeper removal.removal. TheThe initialinitial responseresponse ofof thethe mainmain species was good (diameter increment of 1 cm per year), but the regrowth was very vigorous andand requiredrequired excessivelyexcessively costlycostly workwork toto savesave thethe futurefuture stock.stock. TheThe single-cycle single-cycle systemsystem waswas thusthus tootoo energeticenergetic at thethe start.start. -- 81 -
Analysis led to the proposal of a multi-cyclemulti-cycle system with three thinnings: thethe first immediatelyimmediately afterafter exploitation,exploitation, thenthen anotheranother eighteight yearsyears afterwards,afterwards, the last 1616 yearsyears later,later, andand aa second harvest 2020 yearsyears afterafter thethe first.first. TheThe intensity intensity ofof the the thinningsthinnings dependsdepends on the finalfinal basalbasal area desired and thusthus requiresrequires aa preliminarypreliminary inventory.inventory.
In 1976, trialstrials conductedconducted over 25 haha showedshowed satisfactorysatisfactory growth ratesrates (1(I cm/yearcm/year inin diameter) and reasonable costs.costs.
ThisThis te,chnique,technique, namednamed thethe CELOS Silvicultural SystemSystem (CSS),(CSS), gave rise toto newnew logginglogging techniquestechniques in the CELOS Harvesting System (CHS). TheThe CELOSCELOS systemsystem isis describeddescribed in detail in thethe CASECASE STUDY.STUDY.
FRENCH GUIANA
The silviculturalsilvicultural trialstrials carried out inin FrenchFrench GuianaGuiana havehave successivelysuccessively followedfollowed three different researchresearch approaches.approaches.
In thethe fifties,fifties, aa firstfirst studystudy projectproject on on thethe regeneration regeneration conditionsconditions ofof timber timber species species was begun, basedbased on:on:
- observation plotsplots toto monitor the effects of logging on the balancebalance of thethe treetree population;
- plantations onon smallsmall areas,areas, either in strips or overover thethe fullfull sitesite afterafter manualmanual clearance. BothBoth indigenousindigenous species (Angelica, Carapa,Carapa, Cedrela, ...)... ) and and exoticexotic species (Teak, Swietenia, Caribbean Pine) were used.used.
The native species subsequently proved a total failure, and of the exotics, onlyonly PinusPinus caribaea gavegave validvalid resultsresults (15(15 toto 2121 m3/ha/yearm1/halyear at thethe ageage ofof 66 years).years).
In 1975, industrialindustrial projectsprojects forfor paper-pulppaper-pulp plantsplants foresawforesaw the total utilization, in the initial phase, of thethe primary forest species over large areas (15(15000 000 halyear).ha/year). TheThe subsequent subsequent cycles were to be provided for byby fast-growingfast-growing exotic species, as natural regrowth produces few speciesspecies ofof sufficientsufficient density.density.
The trials,trials, conductedconducted by thethe ONFONF andand aboveabove allall thethe CTFT,CTFT, hadhad twotwo prioritypriority objectives:objectives:
to discoverdiscover suitablesuitable species and provenances, oror create hybrids to produceproduce the greatest possible amount of high-densityhigh-density wood;wood;
to perfectperfect silviculturalsilvicultural techniquestechniques that wouldwould assureassure maximummaximum yieldsyields underunder economical conditions.conditions.
The speciesspecies testedtested were:were: PinusPinus caribaea,caribaea, Eucalyptus Eucalyptus urophylla, urophylla, AcaciaAcacia mangium, mangium, A. auriculiformis,auriculiformis, etc.etc. - 82 --
In a wider perspective,perspective, itit isis evidentevident thatthat thethe onlyonly efficaciousefficacious silviculturalsilvicultural techniquestechniques are those that do not expose the soil, butbut inin thisthis case the work necessary to establish and tend the plantation cannot be done by mechanical means, and when labour expenses are taken into account the costcost pricesprices becomebecome prohibitive.prohibitive.
None of thethe speciesspecies testedtested couldcould provide aa highhigh enoughenough yield to makemake thethe reforestation of largelarge areasareas aa profitableprofitable enterprise.enterprise.
Consequently, in the early 1980s,1980s, silviculturalsilvicultural researchresearch beganbegan toto concentrateconcentrate onon thethe evolution of natural standsstands afterafter logging,logging, andand thusthus onon thethe improvement improvement techniques techniques describeddescribed in thethe CASECASE STUDYSTUDY onon thethe PARACOUPARACOU SITE.SITE.
33.. THE AMAZONIANAMAZONIAN ANDAND ANDEANANDEAN COUNTRIESCOUNTRIES
BRAZIL
Silvicultural research projects are conductedconducted both byby thethe officialofficial researchresearch agenciesagencies and by majormajor companiescompanies that own largelarge minesmines and vast tractstracts ofof forestedforested land.land.
Two types ofof silviculturalsilvicultural approachapproach cancan bebe distinguished: distinguished:
multi-cycle silviculture focused on timbertimber harvesting;harvesting;
-a farfar moremore radicalradical typetype ofof silviculture silviculture basedbased onon bothboth timbertimber and and fuelwood fuelwood harvesting. All these projects are concentratedconcentrated in thethe uplandupland closedclosed forests.forests.
MultiMulti-cycle-cycle silviculture research is conductedconducted by:by:
- EMBRAPAEMBRAP A in thethe TapajosTapajos nationalnational forest area; - INPAINP A ne,arnear Manaus SUDAM andand FCAP at Curua-UnaCurua-Una (see(see CASECASE STUDIESSTUDIES on thesethese threethree experimental programmes).programmes).
The operations requiredrequired areare define,c1defined in in termsterms ofof more or lessless intensiveintensive harvestingharvesting involving removalremoval ofof from from 1515 toto 35%35 % of of the the basal basal areaarea forfor trees trees of of exploitable exploitable diameterdiameter onon the Tapajos sites and from 30 toto 40%40% ofof thethe basalbasal areaarea atat ManausManaus onon thethe INPAINPA plots.plots.
Data is collected on growth by diameter classes, on the amount of regeneration, andand on both naturalnatural mortalitymortality andand thatthat duedue toto exploitationexploitation damage.damage.
Silvicultural trials by mining companiescompanies:: thethe miningmining companies are large consumers of fuelwood or charcoal. Hence,Hence, inin additionaddition toto timber,timber, theythey areare alsoalso interestedinterested inin harvestingharvesting the lowerlower storeys.storeys. -- 83 -
Florestas Rio DoceDoce (FDR),(FDR), aa subsidiarysubsidiary companycompany ofof CVRDCVRD andand MineracaoMinera~ao Rio do Norte,Norte, is the mostmost activeactive withwith fivefive sites:sites:
Sites StateState Type of forest Area LinharesLinhares Espiritu Santo Atlantic coastal forest 2000020 000 haha Buriticupu Maranhao MoistMoist upland forest 10 000000 ha MarabaMaraba Para " "II 1700017 000 ha
A~ailandiaAçailandia Para II" II" 22000 000 haha Combretas Para " II" --
The types ofof treatmenttreatment receivedreceived cancan bebe subdividedsubdivided intointo threethree classes:classes:
no logging, control plotplot withwith monitoredmonitored growthgrowth ratesrates andand forestforest dynamics;dynamics;
- clearclear fellingfelling and single-cyclesingle-cycle harvestingharvesting thatthat cancan evolve, if anan appropriateappropriate harvesting schedule is foreseen, into "coppicing""coppicing" forfor fuelwoodfuelwood uses;uses;
harvesting of bothboth large-diameterlarge-diameter woodwood (timber)(timber) andand smallsmall diameterdiameter woodwood (fuelwood). AA variable variable amount amount of of medium-diameter medium-diameter stockstock isis leftleft standingstanding so that the stand can developdevelop into a "coppice-with-standards""coppice-with-standards" in which thethe upper storeystorey is harvested forfor timbertimber andand thethe lowerlower oneone forfor fuelwood.fuelwood.
In all these cases, creepers are systematicallysystematically cut and, in the coastal forest, leaf-litter removed to allow regenerationregeneration toto becomebecome established.established.
The first findingsfindings indicateindicate thatthat thethe regenerationregeneration isis veryvery vigorousvigorous andand enrichmentenrichment byby planting is unnecessaryunnecessary andand costly.cost! y.
The veryvery existenceexistence of thesethese veryvery enterprisingenterpnsmg trialstrials isis anan extremelyextremely positivepositive development, but aa widerwider perspectiveperspective isis indispensableindispensable beforebefore thesethese methodsmethods cancan bebe proposed for large-scalelarge-scale use.use.
COLOMBIA
The principalprincipal researchresearch programmeprogramme forfor forestforest managementmanagement inin ColombiaColombia waswas conducted between 1975 and 19801980 in the framework of an FAO/UNDP/INDERENAFAOIUNDP/INDERENA ProjectProject which aimed toto establishestablish aa favourablefavourable contextcontext forfor experimentalexperimental plantationplantation andand naturalnatural forestforest silviculturesilviculture initiatives all alongalong thethe coastal fringe,fringe, inin thethe mostmost vulnerablevulnerable areaarea ofof the the country.country. - 84 --
The various initiatives undertaken in the framework of this Project came up against all kindskinds ofof technical,technical, administrativeadministrative and logistic difficulties, andand after four or fivefive years'years' work mostmost ofof thethe trialstrials werewere leftleft unfinished unfinished oror had had barelybarely begun,begun, andand consequently consequently thethe findings were partial or provisionalprovisional forfor lacklack ofof medium-term medium-term follow-up.follow-up.
Nonetheless, in the case of naturalnatural forest, aa goodgood knowledgeknowledge of the environment and the existing ecosystems was obtained, and although the findings with regard toto heterogeneousheterogeneous closed forestforest werewere insufficientinsufficient (the(the clearclear fellingfelling oror selective selective exploitationexploitation trialstrials werewere barelybarely commenced), it waswas possiblepossible toto drawdraw upup technical technical recommendationsrecommendations forfor thethe GuandalGuandal andand Catival forests.
The GuandalGuandal (described(described previously), in which DialyantheraDialyanthera gracilipesgracilipes andand Campnosperma panamensispanamensis areare the twotwo predominantpredominant species, covered about halfhalf aa millionmillion hectares in thethe 1970s.1970s. This typetype ofof forestforest isis veryvery dynamicdynamic andand regeneratesregenerates well: it isis necessary to ensure thatthat fellingfelling does notnot exceedexceed 60%60 % ofof thethe exploitableexploitable stockstock soso asas toto leaveleave enough seed-bearers, and then toto carrycarry outout thinningsthinnings onon aa selectiveselective basisbasis inin thethe upperupper storeystorey and to thin out the lower storey (early(early onon andand removingremoving less than 40% of the stems)stems) in order to improve the stand's quality and reduce competition forfor growth.growth. Lastly,Lastly, carecare must must bebe takentaken not toto alteralter thesethese slow-drainingslow-draining soilssoils duringduring harvestingharvesting operations, soso as toto avoidavoid dryingdrying detrimental to the dynamics of thethe forestforest ecosystem.ecosystem.
In thethe casecase ofof Catival Catival forest, forest, the the excessive excessive opening-up opening-up ofof traditional traditional logginglogging definitively prevents the regenerationregeneration ofof the the valuablevaluable species,species, whosewhose se,edlings seedlings require somesome shelter for theirtheir initialinitial growth.growth.
It was thusthus necessary to reconsiderreconsider the mannermanner in which timber harvesting is to be conducted, by decreasingdecreasing its intensityintensity and/or applyingapplying alternate strip methods...methods ... butbut thesethese aspects still remain to bebe defined,defined, specifiedspecified andand testedtested byby experimentation.experimentation.
A research operation inin coastalcoastal forestforest isis underwayunderway inin thethe BAJO CALIMA concession held by thethe firmfirm SMURFITSMURFIT CARTONCARTON DEDE COLOMBIA. COLOMBIA.
Some thirty plots measuring 0.10.1 hectareshectares eacheach havehave beenbeen setset upup inin thethe compartmentscompartments clear-felled by thisthis paper-manufacturingpaper-manufacturing companycompany sincesince 1974.1974. The measurementsmeasurements andand observations are are similarsimilar toto those carriedcarried outout in CostaCosta Rica, andand aimaim toto determinedetermine thethe modalities ofof natural forest reconstitutionreconstitution andand foresee the fellingfelling cyclecycle forfor durabledurable exploitation (Faber - Langendoen,Langendoen, 1990).1990).
After twelve years, thethe findingsfindings showshow that 46% ofof thethe originaloriginal basalbasal areaarea andand 36%36% of the biological diversity of species have been attained; but the regeneration consists largely of pioneeringpioneering or colonizingcolonizing species and,and, even after thirty years, wouldwould still bebe farfar fromfrom reconstituting the floristicfloristic composition of thethe so-calledso-called "climax""climax" forest.forest.
It would take at least 6060 yearsyears toto restorerestore thethe standstand toto aa statestate resemblingresembling thatthat existing existing before itit waswas logged.logged. - 85 --
Two exploitation models have thus been envisaged, with fellingfelling cycles of 3030 andand 60 years respectively, itit beingbeing imperativeimperative inin bothboth casescases toto keepkeep thethe forestforest aroundaround thethe loggedlogged sectors untouched so as toto assureassure enoughenough seedseed stockstock forfor thethe regenerationregeneration ofof mature mature oror climax climax forest species.species.
Note: this initiativeinitiative is notnot receivingreceiving anyany externalexternal (financial)(financial) aid.
ECUADOR
- Esmeraldas Project
Most of thethe closedclosed forest forest researchresearch work has been carried out in thethe frameworkframework of international projects,projects, the most important of which, in termsterms ofof bothboth resultsresults andand seniority,seniority, is thethe five-yearfive-year FAOFAO forestryforestry developmentdevelopment projectproject atat ESMERALDASESMERALDAS inin thethe NoroccidenteNoroccidente Region (see Manejo ForestalForestal finalfinal report,report, R.G.R.G. Dixon, 1971).1971).
In addition to pure oror enrichmentenrichment plantationplantation trials withwith locallocal oror introducedintroduced species,species, a studystudy (from(from 19651965 toto 1966)1966) waswas conductedconducted onon thethe effectseffects on thethe dynamicsdynamics ofof naturalnatural regeneration of variousvarious typestypes ofof silvicultural silvicultural treatment:treatment:
felling of all treestrees ofof overover 1515 cmcm diameterdiameter (as(as inin paperpaper pulppulp exploitation);exploitation);
traditional timbertimber exploitationexploitation with twotwo thinning rates concerning non-marketable species (by devitalization, leavingleaving thethe treetree standing).standing).
In spitespite ofof thethe shortshort time-scale, time-scale, it waswas possiblepossible toto ascertain,ascertain, twotwo ye.arsyears afterafter treatment, thatthat heavyheavy fellingfelling (paper-pulp(paper-pulp model)model) gave rise toto an explosiveexplosive proliferation of thethe colonizing species most often found in artificially clearedclea.red areas: areas: Cecropia,Cecropia, Ochroma, VismiaVismia and Trichospenna;Trichosperma; andand thatthat thethe reconstitutionreconstitution of the valuablevaluable stock will only occur over a long period (the usefuluseful speciesspecies should be freedfreed fromfrom encroachingencroaching plants to speedspeed upup theirtheir growth).
The areasareas thatthat hadhad receivedreceived treatmentstreatments combiningcombining traditionaltraditional logginglogging plus thinnings underwent measurement andand observation afterafter a one-year interval: regenerationregeneration was found to bebe moremore harmoniousharmonious (no(no radicalradical floristicfloristic differencesdifferences as comparedcompared toto thethe untoucheduntouched compartment) in spite of the large-scale disappearancedisappearance (55%)(55 %) ofof the the pre-existingpre-existing regenerationregeneration plants and seedlings, due to thethe exploitationexploitation of the upper storey.
Due to lacklack ofof long-termlong-term follow-upfollow-up and interest on the partpart ofof thethe authorities,authorities, thisthis research programme failed to provideprovide thethe expectedexpected data.data.
- Plantation silviculture
After this firstfirst seriesseries ofof trials trials concerningconcerning thethe dynamicsdynamics ofof natural natural forestforest stands,stands, research prioritiespriorities werewere totallytotally diverte,ddiverted toto plantationplantation silviculture.silviculture. Today Ecuador is aa country that aimsaims towardstowards "effective""effective" reforestation;reforestation; the mainmain speciesspecies usedused are:are: CordiaCordia alliodora,alUodora, TectonaTectona grandis,grandis, PinusPinus radiata,radiata, PinusPinus patula, patula, Eucalyptus Eucalyptus globulus,globulus, OchromaOchroma ------
- 86 -
lagopus and SchizolobiumSchizolobium parahyba. parahyba. TheThe latterlatter speciesspecies (the(the Pachao)Pachao) isis expectedexpected to havehave a "great future", asas itit growsgrows wellwell inin plantations,plantations, withwith anan excellentexcellent yield,yield, andand itit suppliessupplies a good wood for peeling.peeling.
The plantationsplantations have soso farfar beenbeen establishedestablished onon small,small, veryvery scatteredscattered manuallymanually cleared sites.sites. TheThe implementation implementation ofof large-scale large-scale plantingplanting campaignscampaigns will thereforetherefore require the development of techniquestechniques that are notnot yetyet well-knownwell-known or adequatelyadequately testedtested inin Ecuador.Ecuador.
PERU
Until recently, thethe forestforest plantationsplantations werewere concentratedconcentrated inin heavilyheavily populatedpopulated zoneszones with degraded forest cover, i.e. inin thethe AndesAndes andand onon thethe coast.coast.
The firstfirst trialstrials concerningconcerning thethe artificialartificial regenerationregeneration ofof closed closed forestforest utilizedutilized fast-fast growing, local oror importedimported species.species. TheThe principalprincipal speciesspecies usedused were:were:
Cedrelinga catenaeformiscatenaefonnis Swietenia macrophylla Clarisia racemosaracemosa Tectona grandis TerminaliaTenninalia spp.spp. Simarouba amara
However, thesethese plantationsplantations never coveredcovered anyany largelarge areas:areas:
Forestry researchresearch inin closedclosed forestforest beganbegan inin 19421942 atat the the TingoTingo MariaMaria experimental experimental station, which later becamebecame the UniversidadUniversidad agrariaagraria dede la jungla de TingoTingo Maria.Maria. The principal parties engagedengaged in researchresearch activitiesactivities include:include:
- The AgrarianAgrarian Bank, atat Yura,Yura, - The La MolinaMolina FacultyFaculty of Forestry,Forestry, The schoolschool for forestryforestry technicianstechnicians atat Iquitos,Iquitos, The nationalnational faculty of forestry,forestry , The FAOFAD managementmanagement project for A.A. vonvon HumboldtHumboldt NationalNational ForestForest (CASE(CASE STUDY) - The InstituteInstitute for ResearchResearch andand DevelopmentDevelopment ofof thethe AmazonAmazon (IIAP)(IIAP) atat Iquitos.Iquitos.
The trials conductedconducted are numerous,numerous, butbut theythey lacklack coordinationcoordination andand areare concentratedconcentrated essentially on fast-growingfast-growing reforestationreforestation species for timbertimber production.production.
Recent trials on thethe aturalatural regenerationregeneration ofof tropical tropical forestforest havehave beenbeen conductedconducted underunder the Palcazu project, andand areare describeddescribed inin detaildetail inin thethe CASECASE STUDY.STUDY. -- 87 -
The IIAP is conductingconducting an originaloriginal researchresearch programme toto promotepromote thethe productionproduction of food and servicesservices by thethe forest.forest. Its chief featuresfeatures are:are:
inventory of cspeciesspecies andand ecosystems,ecosystems, study of fruit-bearing forest trees. sociosocio-economic-economic studystudy of local palms;palms; utilization of the AguajeAguaje (Mauritia(Mauritia flexuosa)flexuosa) utilization and conconservatiuon servatiuon ofof phytogenetic resources.
VENEZUELA
The first large-scalelarge-scale forestryforestry researchresearch inin VenezuelaVenezuela involvedinvolved plantationplantation silviculture at researchresearch stationsstations suchsuch as CaparoCaparo oror TicoporoTicoporo (already(already mentioned);mentioned); it gavegave riserise toto somesome large plantationplantation schemesschemes utilizing fast-growing speciesspecies,, and particularly Pinus caribaea.caribaea.
InIn 1988 the plantations coveredcovered aa total areaarea of around 257 000 ha, 124124000 000 of whichwhich were plantedplanted byby CONARE,CONARE, aboutabout 100100 000000 byby CVGCVG (Corporación(Corporaci6n VenezolanaVenezolana dede Guayana)Guayana) and the restrest byby variousvarious mixedmixed oror privateprivate enterprises.enterprises.
NaturalNatural forest research was initiallyinitially conductedconducted "statically" toto studystudy thethe undisturbedundisturbed forest ecosystemecosystem (structure,(structure, botanybotany,, ...... ) ) andand hashas onlyonly recentlyrecently extendedextended toto natural regeneration trials inin thethe forestsforests ofof Ticoporo,Ticoporo, SanSan PedroPedro andand Imataca,Imataca, basedbased onon clear-fellingclear-felling treatments in long narrow strips (10, 30 or 4040 mm wide),wide), inin thethe samesame spirit as the trials carried out at Palcazu in Peru.Peru.
The findingsfindings are notnot yetyet available,available, butbut itit isis alreadyalready recognizedrecognized thatthat thisthis silviculturalsilvicultural approach is feasible only when all the wood stock can be put toto useuse (for(for instance,instance, toto makemake charcoal).
In addition, trialstrials areare beingbeing conductedconducted on thethe samesame sitessites withwith aa viewview toto improvingimproving the regenerationregeneration patterns of forests selectivelyselectively exploitedexploited forfor timber.timber. TheyThey foreseeforesee creepercreeper removal, weedingweeding andand standingstanding devitalizationdevitalization of excessexcess treestrees withwith nono commercialcommercial future.future.
These silviculture operations appear to be thethe mostmost effective,effective, butbut theirtheir numbernumber andand intensity must be proportioned inin relationrelation toto variousvarious constraintsconstraints concerningconcerning notnot onlyonly costscosts butbut also, andand aboveabove all,all, thethe pragmatic pragmatic possibilities possibilities ofof large-scale large-scale implementation.implementation.
Note: TheThe chief chief problem problem posed posed by by these these experimental experimental trials trials is is unquestionably unquestionably thethe difficulty difficulty of ensuringensuring rigorousrigorous long-termlong-term follow-up.follow-up.
4. OVERALL SUMMARY OF RESEARCHRESEARCH
InIn manymany countries, little or nono researchresearch hashas beenbeen conductedconducted onon howhow the forestforest ecosystem functions and its dynamicsdynamics in relationrelation toto humanhuman oror silviculturalsilvicultural intervention.intervention. - 88 --
In Central America,America, thethe onlyonly experimentationexperimentation on thesethese themesthemes is that carried out by CATIE in CostaCosta RicaRica inin secondarysecondary forestforest andand high-altitudehigh-altitude standsstands ofof oak.oak.
The secondary forest trialstrials gavegave riserise toto twotwo managementmanagement options, oneone leadingleading upup toto clear felling after aboutabout fiftyfifty yearsyears (with(with twotwo intermediateintermediate cuts)cuts) andand thethe otherother foreseeing foreseeing partial exploitation by 20-year20-year rotationrotation (with(with thinningthinning ofof secondary secondary species).species).
Some other countriescountries in thisthis regionregion havehave attemptedattempted such trials, butbut oftenoften withoutwithout adequate follow-up.follow-up. InIn PuertoPuerto Rico,Rico, however,however, somesome silvicultural silvicultural rulesrules areare beingbeing appliedapplied inin secondary forestforest based on estimatedestimated standingstanding timber volume in thethe dominantdominant storey.storey. The researchresearch onon regenerationregeneration inin thethe logged-overlogged-over closedclosed forestsforests ofof the the Amazonian Amazonian andand Guyanese regions has been basedbased onon twotwo approaches:approaches:
- regeneration ofof the lowerlower storeystorey consistingconsisting of seedlingsseedlings and small trees in relation to thethe totaltotal oror partial partial opening-up opening-up ofof the the canopy canopy (upper (upper storey), storey), accompanied by silvicultural operations (creeper cutting, freeing from encroaching plants, ...)... ) inin favourfavour ofof the the valuablevaluable species;species;
and monitoringmonitoring the growth ofof the medium,medium, large or smallsmall treestrees inin thethe upperupper storey, in relation to to more oror less intensive extraction schemesschemes (different exploitable diameters for timber, oror typestypes ofof utilization utilization suchsuch asas fuelwood),fuelwood), with thinning of thethe upperupper storeystorey toto enhanceenhance itsits quality quality by by removing removing unusable unusable secondary species.species.
The regenerationregeneration trialtrial findingsfindings cancan bebe veryvery brieflybriefly summarizedsummarized asas follows:follows:
the clear fellingfelling of alternatealternate strips of forest,forest, asas carriedcarried outout atat Imataca Imataca andand Ticoporo in VenezuelaVenezuela or at anan earlierearlier datedate inin Ecuador,Ecuador, resultedresulted inin onlyonly slightslight improvement, as itit involvesinvolves destructivedestructive exploitationexploitation that isis onlyonly justifiedjustified whenwhen all thethe originaloriginal stockstock isis recuperable,recuperable, andand givesgives riserise toto poorlypoorly stockedstocked secondarysecondary bush of greatlygreatly reducedreduced biologicalbiological diversity;diversity;
the partialpartial opening-upopening-up of thethe canopycanopy byby variousvarious proceduresprocedures doesdoes redynamizeredynamize regeneration atat ground level, butbut thethe effectivenesseffectiveness ofof freeingfreeing saplingssaplings andand valuable stems from weedsweeds and competitors is notnot alwaysalways proved,proved, exceptexcept inin thethe case of the ArenaArena project inin Trinidad,Trinidad, whichwhich certainlycertainly showsshows thethe effectivenesseffectiveness of the shelterwoodshelterwood system,system, butbut alsoalso thethe highhigh costscosts involved.involved.
Most of thethe trialstrials whichwhich investigateinvestigate thethe effectseffects ofof moremore oror less less intensiveintensive logging,logging, with or without improvement thinnings,thinnings, havehave beenbeen conducted in Suriname, BrazilBrazil and French Guiana.
In Suriname,Suriname, thethe CELOSCELOS programmeprogramme hashas developeddeveloped aa 20-year 20-year multi-cycle multi-cycle system system with partial logginglogging andand threethree successivesuccessive thinningsthinnings ofof secondary secondary species.species. Trials havehave alsoalso been conducted to definedefine aa lessless destructivedestructive logginglogging system.system. - 89 --
In Brazil, trialstrials suchsuch asas thosethose conductedconducted at TAPAJOS,TAPAJOS, for example, example, confirm the previous finding: treestrees reactreact positivelypositively toto thethe opening-upopening-up of the canopy, at least in terms of diameter increments.
The more recent trials conducted by INPINPA A at Manaus and PARACOUPARACOU in Guyana areare beginning to produce their firstfirst quantifiedquantified resultsresults afterafter silviculturalsilvicultural treatments,treatments, whichwhich tallytally in all casescases withwith thosethose previouslypreviously reported; this has given rise to an initialinitial seriesseries ofof pilotpilot management schemesschemes thatthat applyapply thethe recommendedrecommended thinningthinning techniquestechniques afterafter timbertimber harvesting.
In conclusion,conclusion, thethe cumulativecumulative findingsfindings obtained in aa piecemealpiecemeal fashionfashion herehere andand there, wouldwould constituteconstitute a preciousprecious sourcesource ofof silvicultural silvicultural information,information, ifif properlyproperly updated;updated; a detailed critical studystudy groupinggrouping allall thisthis experimentalexperimental datadata wouldwould certainlycertainly bebe aa massivemassive task,task, but shouldshould bebe includedincluded amongstamongst ourour presentpresent priorities.priorities. It wouldwould makemake itit possiblepossible toto consolidate forestryforestry development projectsprojects andand avoid repeatingrepeating unnecessaryunnecessary and costlycostly operations that often havehave nono hopehope ofof success.success. -- 90-90 -
VII. MANAGEMENTMANAGEMENT PROGRAMMES PROGRAMMES ANDAND PROJECTSPROJECTS
1. OVERVIEW
Before discussing forest management inin tropical America, it seemsseems opportuneopportune toto quote from R. SCHMIDT'sSCHMIDT's introductionintroduction toto thethe subjectsubject inin hishis articlearticle entitledentitled "Tropical"Tropical RainRain Forest Management: A Status Report", published in issue 156 of "Unasylva""Unasylva" (1987):(1987):
"There"There areare currently no large-scalelarge-scale sustainedsustained yieldyield managementmanagement programmesprogrammes beingbeing implemented in in thethe vast closed broad-leaved forestsforests of tropicaltropical America.America. ThisThis isis certainlycenainly not forfor lacklack ofof resources: resources: inin 1985,1985, tropicaltropical AmericaAmerica hadhad anan estimatedestimated 491.8 millionmillion ha.ha. ofof productiveproductive closedclosed broadleabroadleavedforests, ved forests, ofof which 54.54.7 7million million haha have been logged over. TheThe currentcurrent absenceabsence ofof this this typetype ofof management management isis certainlycenainly not becausebecause ofof lack lack ofof experimentation, experimentation, recommendationsrecommendations andand attempts at pilotpilot demonstration programmes eveneven thoughthough moremore effectiveeffective effortseffons need to be conceived and designed.designed. ""
In addition, loolcinglooking at the 1988 study commissioned by ITFO (International(International Tropical Forest Organization), in particularparticular thethe documentdocument entitledentitled "No"No TimberTimber WithoutWithout Trees":Trees": Sustainability inin thethe TropicalTropical Forest"Forest" (D.(D. POORE, 1989), we find T.T. SYNNOT,SYNNOT, authorauthor ofof the chapter on South America and thethe caribbean,caribbean, summingsumming up thethe situationsituation inin nono uncertainuncertain terms:
"However, from from thethe viewpoint ofof professionalprofessional forestry, forestry, thisthis consultantconsultant hashas not identified anyany case ofof operational operational TMFTMF managementmanagement forfor sustainablesustainable timbertimber production inin anyany membermember countrycountry exceptexcept Trinidad and Tobago.Tobago. EvenEven inin Trinidad,Trinidad, management isis not intensive,intensive, but itit fulfilsfulfils thethe criteria,criteria, althoughalthough silviculturalsilvicultural treatments are rarelyrarely appliedapplied andand management management planplan prescriptionsprescriptions areare not not followed followed in strictest detail. InIn otherother countries,countries, inin spitespite ofof strikingstriking advancesadvances duringduring thethe past tenten years oror more,more, thethe following following componentscomponents are generallygenerally weakweak oror lacking:lacking: advanceadvance planning of the the locationlocation andand intensityintensity of thethe annualannual cutcut supervisionsupervision andand controlcontrol toto ensure that thethe cuttingcutting follows the planning; and protection of the areaarea toto limitlimit unplanned activitiesactivities includingincluding settlementsettlement and uncontrolleduncontrolled logging."logging. "
This (partial)(partial) conclusion waswas thethe outcome ofof the author'sauthor's 19881988 studystudy ofof forestforest management (in(in thethe conventional sensesense ofof the term) inin thethe rainforestsrainforests ofof Brazil, Brazil, Bolivia,Bolivia, Ecuador, Honduras, Peru,Peru, andand TrinidadTrinidad andand Tobago.Tobago.
All thingsthings considered,considered, itit appearsappears thatthat althoughalthough appliedapplied researchresearch projectsprojects are notnot numerous in proportion to thethe entityentity ofof thethe problemsproblems posedposed byby thethe forestforest ecosystemecosystem andand itsits degradation/destruction, thethe technical technical tools tools needed needed toto establishestablish sustainedsustained managementmanagement systems systems are indeed available.available.
Given the importance ofof thethe deforestationdeforestation problemproblem inin mostmost ofof the the tropicaltropical AmericanAmerican countries, one approach to its solution,solution, oror atat leastleast mitigation,mitigation, isis throughthrough directdirect governmentalgovernmental interventionintervention.. A moremore recentrecent approachapproach isis toto delegatedelegate forestforest managementmanagement toto thethe landowners, landowners, concessionaires oror local communities entitled to use thisthis resource.resource. - 9191 --
In effect, thethe realreal problemproblem isis posedposed byby humanhuman constraints,constraints, whichwhich cancan bebe summedsummed upup in a question: WhatWhat isis forestforest managementmanagement supposedsupposed toto achieve?achieve?
Experience shows that it isis unnreasonableunnreasonable to entrust forestforest managementmanagement to anyanyone one entity: goverment agency, private sector or thethe ruralrural population.population.
This accountsaccounts forfor thethe emergenceemergence todaytoday ofof communitycommunity managementmanagement projects, where the local populationpopulation undertakesundertakes toto managemanage thethe forestforest ecosystemecosystem withwith governmentgovernment support;support; technical and financial aid fromfrom internationalinternational organizations,organizations, non-governmentalnon-governmental organizationsorganizations and bilateral cooperation agencies;agencies; andand assistanceassistance fromfrom researchresearch andand developmentdevelopment centres.centres.
Among all thethe communitycommunity actionsactions conductedconducted by locallocal populations,populations, wewe maymay mentionmention three which directly concernconcern thethe useuse andand improvementimprovement ofof natural natural forestforest stands:stands:
Mexico's QuintanaQuintana Roo Pilot Forestry ProjectProject (one(one ofof thethe casecase studiesstudies presented in this document);document); the Forest Cooperatives formedformed inin Brazil and Peru (the(the bestbest knownknown being thethe one set up in thethe PalcazuPalcazu Valley,Valley, alsoalso presentedpresented amongamong our casecase studies),studies), andand mostmost recently in CostaCosta Rica;Rica; the reserves established in Brazil (notably in Acre State) for long-term production of rubber and Brazil nuts, and in HondurasHonduras for thethe productionproduction of pine resin.
These operations taketake duedue accountaccount ofof such such frequentlyfrequently repeatedrepeated recommendationsrecommendations as:as:
(a) To curtailcurtail deforestation,deforestation, the firstfirst stepstep isis toto developdevelop andand implementimplement a generalgeneral landland management policy (not limited to forests).forests). (b) To stimulatestimulate thethe ruralrural community'scommunity'S participationparticipation inin projectsprojects aimedaimed atat enhancingenhancing andand utilizing forest resources, andand provideprovide adequateadequate training.training. (c)(e) To ensureensure properproper coordinationcoordination amongamong thethe organizationsorganizations andand institutionsinstitutions involved in forest management (giving them the resources to apply theirtheir policies).policies). (d) To organizeorganize andand orientorient farmingfarming practicedpracticed inin thethe vicinityvicinity ofof forestsforests (a(a determiningdetermining factor for thethe welfarewelfare ofof thethe forestforest itself).itself). (e) To intensifyintensify thethe silviculturalsilvicultural researchresearch (practical(practical eveneven moremore thanthan scientific)scientific) whichwhich cancan supply the informationinformation neededneeded toto developdevelop soundsound forestforest managementmanagement plansplans (also(also considering experience gained in foreignforeign countries).countries). (f) To carefullycarefully analyseanalyse thethe marketingmarketing andand utilizationutilization networksnetworks forfor unprocessed unprocessed products, in orderorder toto developdevelop thethe resourceresource toto thethe bestbest advantage advantage (reduction(reduction of material losses,losses, diversificationdiversification of species,species, etc).etc). (g) To implementimplement a realreal trainingtraining efforteffort atat allall levels,levels, notnot overlooking overlooking thethe environmentalenvironmental aspect.
2. THE ISTHMUSISTHMUS ANDAND CARIBBEANCARIBBEAN COUNTRIES:COUNTRIES: NICARAGUA,NICARAGUA. ELEL SALVADOR,SALVADOR. GUATEMALA.GUATEMALA, HONDURAS,HONDURAS. PANAMA,PANAMA. COSTACOSTA RICARICA
The forests ofof CentralCentral AmericaAmerica undergoundergo nono silviculturalsilvicultural treatment,treatment, onlyonly selectiveselective removal of timber andand fuelwood.fuelwood. - 92 --
This isis thethe resultresult notnot onlyonly ofof the the financial financial situationsituation outlinedoutlined earlier, butbut alsoalso ofof relatively timid legislation that merelymerely requiresrequires logginglogging (not(not mangement)mangement) plans toto includeinclude estimates ofof production potentialpotential and and felling felling rates rates.. Moreover, Moreover, there there is is aa great lack of competent locallocal personnel and suitable equipment, notwithstanding all all thethe effortsefforts ofof the international organization,organization, whosewhose short- or medium-termmedium-term incentiveincentive projects areare rarelyrarely followed up after theirtheir conclusion.conclusion.
At present, thethe onlyonly attemptattempt atat silviculturalsilvicultural mangementmangement ofof aa rainforestrainforest isis thethe proje-ctproject on second-growthsecond-growth forests being conductedconducted by CATIECATIE (Centro(Centro AgronómicoAgron6mico Tropical de Investigaci6nInvestigación y Enseñanza).Enseiianza). It involvesinvolves abandoned lands, formerlyformerly farmed and/orand/or grazed,grazed, where even-aged first-generationfirst-generation treetree standsstands havehave developeddeveloped spontaneously.spontaneously.
Two different regimesregimes areare envisaged:envisaged:
- The mono-cyclicmono-cyclic system, in viewview ofof producing producing fuelwood,fuelwood, ruralrural construction construction wood, and possibly timber. UnderUnder thisthis plan,plan, thethe treestrees areare clear-felledclear-felled atat ageage 4040 to 55 (depending(depending on stand dynamics and site quality), after twotwo thinningsthinnings (at(at age 16 and age 28-32), to improveimprove thethe growthgrowth of thethe finalfinal stand.stand.
After finalfinal felling,felling, thethe planplan providesprovides forfor managementmanagement ofof the the existingexisting regeneration.regeneration.
This system isis being developeddeveloped onon anan experimentalexperimental basis,basis, andand naturallynaturally hashas notnot beenbeen widely applied; nonetheless, it is already apparent that it would be easy to promotepromote in a contextcontext wherewhere reductionreduction of thethe IsthmusIsthmus countries'countries' forestforest potentialpotential will renderrender even intermediateintermediate thinningsthinnings cost-effective.cost-effective.
- The poly-cyclic system, applied in thethe highest quality stands to benefit a number of merchantablemerchantable timber species. For instance,instance, inin aa 180-hectareI80-hectare forestforest aroundaround 40 yearsyears old, itit isis proposed,proposed, afterafter thethe firstfirst tenten years,years, toto successivelysuccessively fell all trees with diameters of 50 cm or more;more; andand toto designatedesignate 20 or soso plotsplots correspondingcorresponding to a 20-year logging cyclecycle.. As each plot comes up in turnturn forfor thethe annualannual coupe,coupe, all thethe highhigh gradegrade tre,estrees at least 40 cm inin diameterdiameter are cut,cut, andand thethe unsaleableun saleable trees of secondarysecondary species,species, whichwhich wouldwould otherwiseotherwise competecompete withwith thethe remainingremaining valuable trees, areare partiallypartially eliminated.eliminated.
From thethe economiceconomic standpoint,standpoint, this system should be perfectlyperfectly viable if woodwood processing facilities are located nearby (shipping(shipping costs being one of thethe majormajor factors working against the rational managementmanagement of timber products).
In effect, itit shouldshould bebe pointedpointed outout thatthat thethe successsuccess ofof forest forest management management according according to thethe techniquestechniques outlined aboveabove dependsdepends onon thethe promotionpromotion (and(and financialfinancial support)support) of small wood-processing enterprises locatedlocated nearnear thethe sourcesource ofof raw-material raw-material supply.supply.
This development model seemsse,ems to to bebe thethe onlyonly valid one for mostmost tropicaltropical regionsregions seeking self-sufficiency, especiallyespecially inin CentralCentral America (whatever the advocates ofof mammoth industrial proje,ctsprojects oror hard-currency-earning exportsexports may think). -- 93 -
In conclusion, what is mainly at stake in thethe IsthmusIsthmus countries'countries' forest policies isis the ongoing development of utilizable (or currently utilized)utilized) natural forests. TheThe entityentity of this stake is considerable,considerable, forfor itit involvesinvolves forestforest areasareas thatthat cancan (still)(still) bebe countedcounted in millions of hectares, andand whosewhose destruction translatestranslates not only intointo environmentalenvironmental imbalance, butbut also into a lossloss ofof potential potential woodwood production,production, aggravatedaggravated by thethe disappearance of thethe productionproduction system.system.
Integral conservation has provedproved inadequateinadequate to preservepreserve thethe forestforest patrimony,patrimony, andand it isis nownow admittedadmitted thatthat thethe permanancepermanance ofof the the forestforest e,cosystemecosystem can be assured only if it becomes thethe objectobject ofof developmentdevelopment and permanent activity in thethe field.field. InIn otherother words, only production forests areare respected inin the long run:run: thosethose inin whichwhich thethe local population has anan immediateimmediate interest,interest, andand whosewhose ownershipownership isis clearly established.
In Guatemala, for instance,instance, thethe ruralrural peoplepeople havehave protectedprotected thethe TotonicapanTotonicapan forestsforests because of the benefits they provide (T. Veblen,Veblen, 1978);1978); thethe samesame cancan bebe saidsaid forfor thethe Maria Tecum Forest, whichwhich belongsbelongs toto anan enlightenedenlightened andand respectedrespected municipalitymunicipality (G. Budowsky, 1982).1982).
Some new programmesprogrammes thatthat integrateintegrate populationspopulations and multiplemultiple uses ofof thethe forestforest ecosystem have recently been established with international and nationalnational aid;aid; amongamong them are the projects undertakenundertaken by the FECAFOR cooperativecooperative and thethe GUINOPEGUINOPE programme isis Honduras, andand thethe COSEFORMA,COSEFORMA, BOSCOSABOSCOSA andand ASACODE/ANAIASACODEI ANAl projects in CostaCosta Rica.Rica.
MEXICO
The concept of forestforest managmentmanagment plans has been establishedestablished to some degree, withwith the empirical principles of overall estimation of stand growth in preparationpreparation forfor poly-cyclicpoly-cyclic felling systems (every 20 and 3030 years).years).
These systems have not produced the expectedexpected results.results. At present, Mexico's forest management plans merely establish annual fellingfelling unitsunits.
Protected areas fallfall intointo fivefive categories:categories:
- National parks (at leastleast 11 000000 ha).ha). - National monuments (less than 1 000 ha). - Ecological reserves, partially affected by humanhuman action.action. - Biosphere reserves,reserves, established pursuantpursuant toto Unesco's ManMan andand BiosphereBiosphere Programme; one example is "Montes"Montes Azules," createdcreated inin 1978.1978. - Recreational parks,parks, locatedlocated near cities.cities.
In thethe tropicaltropical regions,regions, thethe proportionproportion ofof protectedprotected areasareas is presentlypresently aroundaround 9 percent but shouldshould soon increaseincrease toto 2828 percent.percent. - 94 -
The NationalNational ForestForest CommissionCommission (CONAFOR) givesgives pnontypriority to largelarge projectsprojects conducted byby citizenscitizens'' groups: EJIDOSIillDOS (rural communities) inin thethe StatesStates ofof Vera Cruz, Tabasco, OaxacaOaxaca andand Chiapas,Chiapas, andand aboveabove allall QuintanaQuintana Roo, toto implementimplement Mexico's TropicalTropical Forestry Action Plan.
In parallel,parallel, thethe "Declaración"Declaraci6n de TecpanTecpan de GaleanaGaleana sobre los bosques y selvas de Mexico" (published in "La Jornada" inin JuneJune ofof 1988)1988) presentspresents thethe forestryforestry activitiesactivities ofof overover twenty peasant organizations and draws attention to the importance of theirtheir participation in the management and supervision of Mexico's forests.forests.
One well-know and internationally-supportedinternationally-supported exampleexample isis thethe Quintana Roo Pilot Forest Plan, whichwhich isis conductedconducted forfor anyany byby the the local local population population (ejido (ejido membersmembers working working communal lands).
The Quintana RooRoo project isis describeddescribed inin detaildetail amongamong thethe casecase studiesstudies presentedpresented inin section VIII.
BELIZE
In thethe naturalnatural broadleavedbroadleaved forest,forest, logginglogging rulesrules provideprovide forfor aa minimum minimum fellingfelling diameter but areare incomplete:incomplete: logginglogging is notnot monitoredmonitored toto safeguardsafeguard thethe youngeryounger trees,trees, minimum logging diameters seennseem notnot to have been rationally defined in view of establishingestablishing a regeneration cycle, andand itit doesdoes notnot appearappear thatthat aa sufficientsufficient numbernumber ofof highhigh gradegrade saplingssaplings are left afterafter felling.felling.
In the natural pine forests,forests, poly-cyclicpoly-cyclic fellingfelling at minimumminimum diameters is inappropriate because the speciesspecies are light-demanding.light-demanding. HereHere clear felling would be better,better, providedprovided nurseries are maintainedmaintained andand firesfires areare effectivelyeffectively controlledcontrolled toto encourageencourage regeneration.regeneration.
Forest servicesservices have an importa.ntimportant rolerole toto play inin thisthis domain,domain, butbut numerousnumerous requirements mustmust be met:met: accurateaccurate inventories,inventories, knowledgeknowledge of annualannual growthgrowth rates,rates, determination of appropriate methodsmethods (logging cycle, rational diameter limits, etc.) and forest administration (licensing, record-keeping, controls, etc.)etc.) gearedgeared toto thesethese methods.methods.
To ourour knowledge,knowledge, onlyonly oneone attemptattempt atat forestforest managementmanagement isis presentlypresently underunder wayway in Belize.Belize.
It is being conductexlconducted inin thethe frameworkframework ofof thethe "Programme for Belize",Belize" , andand involvesinvolves conservation andand managementmanagement ofof the the RioRio BravoBravo forestforest inin thethe northwesternnorthwestern partpart ofof the the country.country.
Until recently,recently, the forestforest waswas loggedlogged byby thethe BelizeBelize EstateEstate andand ProduceProduce Company;Company; Mahogany and Cedar are the major high grade species. In 1988,1988, The Programme for Belize, a non-profitnon-profit organization, received a governmentgovernment mandate toto manage partpart of thethe forestforest (120000(120 000 ha)ha).. The Rio Bravo sitesite waswas toto becomebecome anan importantimportant areaarea forfor conservingconserving and managing the country's naturalnatural resources.resources. - 95 -
In the main, thisthis isis aa subtropicalsubtropical broadleavedbroadleaved forestforest growinggrowing onon aa loamyloamy substrate.substrate. Stand composition and structure varies widely, andand wildife diversity is high (for instance,instance, thethe forest is frequented by 367 species of birds). HumanHuman activities are numerous inin the peripheral areas: shiftingshifting cultivationcultivation highlyhighly selectiveselective logging, plantationplantation of fast-growingfast-growing species,species, andand soso forth. NumerousNumerous Mayan archaelogicalarchaelogical sitessites havehave alsoalso beenbeen discovered in the area.
Against this background, thethe RioRio BravoBravo project waswas intended toto promotepromote permanentpermanent economic development and lasting conservation. Theoretically, revenuesrevenues fromfrom sustainedsustained forest utilization, harvestharvest ofof variousvarious productsproducts and tourismtourism areare thereforetherefore supposedsupposed toto covercover management, research andand trainingtraining expenses.expenses.
How does this actually work out? AccordingAccording to thethe latest information on thethe projectproject (see bibliography), thethe resourceresource inventoryinventory isis inpreparationinpreparation andand managementmanagement goalsgoals havehave beenbeen defined as follows:follows:
maintenance ofof subsistance farming to retainretain thethe locallocal population;population; - intensive and supervised logging based on aa preliminarypreliminary inventory;inventory; - extraction of non-woodnon-wood products (chicle(chicle inin particular);particular); - preservation of total reservereserve areas;areas; - establishment of an ecological research station;station; - archaeological excavations; - development of ecotourism.ecotourism.
At present there are numerousnumerous obstaclesobstacles toto implementingimplementing a managementmanagement plan of this kind, butbut alsoalso waysways toto overcomeovercome them.them. ForFor instance,instance, governmentgovernment grantsgrants ofof propertyproperty rightsrights outside the area can curtail encroachment. MoreMore generally,generally, thethe presencepresence ofof project project activitiesactivities in thethe forestforest (inventories,(inventories, tourism,tourism, research)research) willwill makemake itit possiblepossible toto keepkeep downdown illegalillegal activities.
But the two main obstacles are the lacklack of understandingunderstanding on the part ofof thethe publicpublic of some government officials concerning the "freezing""freezing" ofof landland andand thethe threartthreart ofof population population growth or foreignforeign investorsinvestors intentions.intentions. Efforts mustmust thereforetherefore be mademade toto increaseincrease publicpublic awareness ofof the importance ofof the Rio BravoBravo project, and itsits placeplace inin nationalnational landland management must be constantly emphasized in political circles.
PUERTO RICORICO
The country's forestryforestry managementmanagement plans are basedbased onon twotwo guidingguiding principles:principles:
Achieving self-sufficiencyself-sufficiency in in food food requiresrequires workingworlcing around around 350 350 000 000 haha of farmland with modernmodern productionproduction techniques.techniques. Infrastructure and urbanurban areasareas occupy 120120 000 ha.ha.
- It isis estimated that 445 000 haha shouldshould be left wooded, on account of their slope (> 4040 %) %) or or to to protect protect watercourses watercourses andand reservoirs.reservoirs. - 96 -
Accordingly, about half of the island'sisland's areaarea hashas anan establishedestablished rolerole asas forestlandforestland earmarked for conservationconservation andand production.production.
220 000 ha are characterizedcharacterized by difficult features (slopes, lack of water, etc.),etc.), soso theirtheir functions must be limited toto conservation andand recreation.recreation. InIn fact,fact, insularityinsularity has led to a very pronounced endemismendemism affecting both flora (13 endangered speciesspecies and 22 threatened with extinction) and faunafauna (especially(especially birds).birds).
200 000 haha of farmerfarmer farmlandfarmland areare clearlyclearly moremore suitedsuited toto forest,forest, butbut consideringconsidering thethe small quantity ofof standing timber, the onlyonly conceivableconceivable forest economy atat this time isis fuelwood and construction wood.
The forestforest inventoryinventory indicatesindicates smallsmall volumesvolumes per hectarehectare andand difficultdifficult logginglogging conditions. Standing volumes in second-growth forests must therefore be increased by means of cost-effective techniques.techniques.
An estimation of standingstanding volume in the dominant storey makesmakes it possiblepossible to definedefine a numbernumber ofof possiblepossible actions:actions:
if the standingstanding volumevolume isis sufficient,sufficient, thinningthinning promotes thethe growthgrowth ofof finalfinal cropcrop trees. ConsideringConsidering the ratio betweenbetween crown andand bole diameters, 4 treestrees perper 20 x 2020 mm sectionsection isis thoughtthought adequate.adequate.
if the standing volume is insufficient, thethe understoreyunderstorey mustmust bebe assessedassessed dependingdepending on its quality, oneone ofof twotwo lineslines ofof action action shouldshould bebe taken:taken:
if abundant, cleaningcleaning andand subsequentsubsequent thinning;thinning; if insufficient,insufficient, either complete reforesting, line enrichment, or limited intervention pending naturalnatural regeneration.regeneration.
A privateprivate enterpriseenterprise waswas launched on on thethe easterneastern coastcoast inin 1987 with a 1212 toto 15 000 haha concessionconcession for thethe purposepurpose ofof supplyingsupplying royal mahogany (Carapa hondurensis)hondurensis) forfor the production ofof qualityquality products;products; thethe fellingfelling cyclecycle is is expecte,d expected toto bebe 1515 years.years.
MARTINIQUE ANDAND GUADALOUPEGUADALQUPE
These two islands have the benefit ofof aa well-structuredwell-structured Forest Service, much trimmer than in otherother CaribbeanCaribbean islands.islands.
Forest managementmanagement began in 1920 with the creation of thisthis service,service, InIn Martinique,Martinique, the 1010 000000 hectareshectares ofof State-owned State-owned forestforest (Piton(Piton dudu CarbetCarbet andand dede lala Pelé,e)Pelee) are groupedgrouped asas follows:
Biological reserves,reserves, representing moremore thanthan aa third of the total area (created(created to protect thethe environment,environment, floraflora andand fauna).fauna). - 9797 --
- Production forests:forests: 1 500 ha of mahoganymahogany plantations operatedoperated forfor the sale of standing timber.timber.
Intermediate forests:forests: 500500 to 1 000()()(} haha ofof low low gradegrade stands stands enrichedenriched withwith indigenous species.species.
Protection forests, playing anan erosion control role on fragilefragile soilssoils andand steepsteep slopes: around 3 000()()(} haha plusplus 22 000()()(} haha ofof mangroves. mangroves.
Moreover, privately-owned forests forests areare subject to regulationsregulations on clearanceclearance forfor farmingfarming..
As in continental countriescountries such asas Costa Rica, very significant efforts are made to promote ecotourism in the forestsforests andand theirtheir recreationalrecreational role.role.
The same principles and actions apply in Guadeloupe. Here forests occupy somewhat more land thanthan inin Martinique:Martinique: thethe State-oWnedState-owned forest amounts toto 30 000()()(} hectares,hectares, withwith 5 000()()(} haha ofof mangroves mangroves andand aroundaround 44 000()()(} haha of mahoganymahogany plantations. Guadeloupe's NationalNational Park coverscovers mostmost ofof these these woodlands.woodlands.
TRINIDAD ANDAND TOBAGOTOBAGO
Of all thethe tropical AmericanAmerican countries, TrinidadTrinidad hashas thethe oldestoldest forestryforestry traditiontradition andand one of thethe bestbest andand mostmost experiencedexperienced ForestForest Services.Services. InIn addition,addition , itit isis thethe onlyonly oneone ofof these these countries whichwhich practicespractices sustainedsustained forestforest managementmanagement inin thethe conventionalconventional sensesense ofof thethe termterm (T(T.. SYNNOT, 1988),1988), despitedespite thethe failingsfailings mentionedmentioned at thethe beginningbeginning of thisthis chapter.chapter.
In fact,fact, aroundaround 7575 000()()(} he,ctareshectares ofof forestlandforestland areare currentlycurrently underunder management:management: aa significant partpart of the country's productiveproductive forests.forests. 1616 000()()(} haha ofof thesethese forestsforests areare consideredconsidered completely regeneratedregenerated afterafter logging, thanks to thethe applicationapplication ofof variousvarious silviculturalsilvicultural management systems:systems: thethe open range or selectionselection system, thethe periodicperiodic blockblock systemsystem withwith silvicultural marking, and their variants; andand thethe shelterwoodshelterwood system (no longer in use).use).
The firstfirst forestforest managementmanagement projectsprojects werewere designeddesigned inin 1935,1935, butbut silvicultural silvicultural techniques havehave changed andand foest managers have enjoyed a widewide latitudelatitude ofof choice. choice. Management techniques have been regularly modifiedmodified and adapted to specificspecific contexts; theythey may be briefly describeddescribed asas follows:follows:
Open range system: sincesince thethe 1920s,1920s, thisthis hashas beenbeen thethe oneone mostmost widelywidely appliedapplied to control logginglogging operations, and it isis stillstill usedused inin certaincertain productionproduction forests.forests. Under this system,system, permitspermits are grantedgranted toto fellfell aa limitedlimited volumevolume andand numbernumber ofof trees in areas specifiedspecified by thethe ForestForest Service;Service; thethe ServiceService controlscontrols thethe selectiveselective logging in relation to the potential of finalfinal cropcrop trees.trees. Monitoring and control are not always conducted systematically, and in poorer areas thethe systemsystem sometimessometimes leads to thethe forest'sforest's definitivedefinitive depletion,depletion, andand eventualeventual conversionconversion toto plantations.plantations. - 98 --
In an improved version, blocks are created in order toto distributedistribute logginglogging impact more evenly. The openopen rangerange systemsystem withinwithin blocks has been applied in northern Trinidad's MoraMora forestforest sincesince 1948.1948.
- Periodic block systemsystem with silvicultura!silvicultural marking: This modelmodel isis moremore intensiveintensive than the open rangerange system,system, andand puts puts truetrue silviculturesilviculture into effect. TheThe ForestForest Service designates (or marks) all of the trees it believes should be felled in order to maintain a satisfactory forest structure (adequate distribution of final crop trees and seedbearers),seedbearers), culling defective andand lowlow grade trees.trees. ThisThis systemsystem waswas launched in 1976, but isis notnot reallyreally effectiveeffective because it has proved very difficult to persuade concessionaires to makemake the effort toto cutcut worthlessworthless trees.trees.
The system has lately been improved with compulsory felling incentivated by tax benefits.benefits.
This is the modelmodel presently recommended, with felling cycles of 25 to 30 years.years. Stand yields are expectedexpected toto be lowerlower thanthan underunder thethe shelterwoodshelterwood systemsystem (which(which is nono longerlonger applied)applied) butbut higherhigher thanthan thethe 11 m3/ha/year m3/halyear estimatedestimated for thethe openopen range system.system.
Shelterwood system: This system, wll known throughout the tropics, is described here onlyonly brieflybriefly becausebecause it waswas appliedapplied to fewerfewer thanthan 33 000000 hectareshectares beforebefore being abandoned inin 1978,1978, duedue mainlymainly to thethe dramaticdramatic declinedecline ofof demanddemand forfor charcoal after 1950.1950.
Over the threethree yearsyears ofof treatmenttreatment (climber(climber cutting, logging,logging, markingmarking trees for culling), much of thethe lowerlower andand upperupper storeysstoreys waswas removedremoved byby charcoalcharcoal producers, maldngmaking these operations easy and inexpensiveinexpensive (in fact, thethe systemsystem largely depended on theirtheir contribution).contribution).
The mostmost important instance of the application of this system was in thethe ArenaArena forest, startingstarting inin 1929.1929. DevitalizationDevitalization (by(by poisoning)poisoning) waswas graduallygradually intensifiedintensified as itit becamebecame moremore andand moremore difficultdifficult toto ensureensure cuttingcutting forfor charcoal.charcoal.
3. THE GUYANESEGUYANESE SHIELDSHIELD COUNTRIESCOUNTRIES
SURINAME
Since 1960, the Forest ServiceService has been doing its best,best, withwith thethe aidaid ofof FAOFAO andand UNDP, toto managemanage thethe country'scountry's forestsforests scientifically.scientifically. ButBut atat thethe governmentgovernment level,level, therethere isis no legislativelegislative supportsupport forfor this effort, and thethe ServiceService can pursuepursue itsits goalsgoals onlyonly throughthrough agreements with other governmentgovernment agencies.agencies. -- 99 -
Forest managementmanagement in Suriname has gone through four stages:stages:
before the SecondSecond WorldWorld War,War, locallocal forestryforestry waswas influencedinfluenced byby projectsprojects conducted by the DutchDutch inin aa highlyhighly populatedpopulated regionregion ofof Indonesia. Indonesia. IndustrialIndustrial plantations were encouraged, and the naturalnatural forestforest waswas leftleft unmanaged.unmanaged.
followingfollowing thethe establishment ofof aa wood processing industry and the opening of access tracks, thethe highesthighest gradegrade tre,estrees inin thethe forestforest werewere slcimmedskimmed off. ConcernConcern about futurefuture harvestsharvests ledled toto significant contributionscontributions ofof foreignforeign aidaid for reforestation programmes.programmes.
- the plantations proved to be less productive and more costly than expected. Most important, they did not fillfill thethe samesame ecologicalecological role as thethe naturalnatural forest.forest. AA return toto useuse ofof natural natural forestsforests becamebecame imperative.imperative.
two options were open. The first waswas toto gogo backback toto thethe forestsforests whosewhose best trees had been skimmedskimmed off and harvestharvest thethe smallsmall amountamount ofof woodwood availableavailable onceonce again, thethe secondsecond waswas toto developdevelop aa silviculture silviculture thatthat wouldwould enableenable sustainedsustained production.
The second option waswas chosen,chosen, andand throughthrough aa considerableconsiderable researchresearch effort,effort, Suriname developed its Celos ManagementManagement System, described among thethe casecase studiesstudies presentedpresented inin sectionsection VIII.
Because of the events that occurred inin thisthis countrycountry inin 1983,1983, thethe system system isis notnot widely widely applied today, andand itit appearsappears thatthat thethe researchresearch compartmentscompartments havehave notnot beenbeen monitoredmonitored sincesince 1986.
In fact,fact, onlyonly thethe pinepine plantationsplantations havehave beenbeen managed,managed, andand concessionsconcessions areare subjectsubject to basic managementmanagement rules:rules:
Division into units of 200200 toto 300300 haha andand designdesign ofof a a roadroad network.network. - Logging quotas, but nono penaltiespenalties for abandoningabandoning logs in thethe forest.forest. Supervision by forestryforestry officers,officers, butbut limitedlimited toto inspectioninspection timbertimber yards.yards. - Data gatheringgathering in viewview ofof furtherfurther silviculturalsilvicultural treatments,treatments, butbut nono obligationobligation forfor concessionaires to apply them.them.
Forests reservedreserved forfor futurefuture logginglogging are markedmarked outout onon maps,maps, butbut areare handicappedhandicapped by their distance and smallsmall quantityquantity ofof standingstanding stock.stock.
Nine natural reserves and nationalnational parks cover 570 000 ha,ha, andand tenten moremore. reserves reserves are planned.planned. PursuantPursuant toto thethe HuntingHunting OrdinanceOrdinance ofof 1954,1954, thesethese unitsunits areare managedmanaged byby thethe Forest Service. - 100 -
FRENCH GUYANAGUYANA
Despite the shelving of paper-production projects and the generally prohibitiveprohibitive costcost of plantations in tropical rainforests, thethe conceptconcept ofof forest forest managementmanagement isis stillstill evolvingevolving inin thethe Republic of Guyana. Local forestryforestry organizationsorganizations leanlean moremore towardstowards applying silviculture to natural standsstands afterafter logginglogging thanthan radicallyradically transformingtransforming them.them. (Demographic(Demographic pressurepressure isis relatively modest.)
Timber production in Guyana is mainly limited to the coastal areas. OnlyOnly thethe largestlargest trees of merchantablemerchantable species areare harvested, in the proportion of 7 toto 1515 m3/ham3fha for aa totaltotal biomass on the orderorder ofof 350350 m3/ha.m3 fha.
As to forest management, at present thethe NationalNational ForestForest BureauBureau (Office(Office NationalNational desdes Forets,Forêts, thethe agencyagency chargedcharged withwith inanagingmanaging thethe GuyaneseGuyanese forest)forest) isis directingdirecting itsits activitiesactivities towards the implementationimplementation ofof management plansplans inin the coastal forestsforests (slightly(slightly over a million hectares), inin order toto establishestablish logginglogging there.there. ThisThis policypolicy restsrests onon thethe followingfollowing facts:facts:
annual fellingsfellings areare made overover anan area of 10 000 hectares, and the overall return on investmentinvestment decreasesdecreases sharplysharply asas crewscrews have to traveltravel furtherfurther andand furtherfurther inland;
there is anan evidentevident depletiondepletion ofof high-gradehigh-grade speciesspecies toto thethe benefitbenefit ofof unsaleableunsaleable secondary species (reduction(reduction ofof botanicalbotanical diversity);diversity);
- research stationsstations (of(of which Paracou, describe('described belowbelow among the casecase studies,studies, isis the mostmost important)important) areare beginningbeginning toto supplysupply findingsfindings toto helphelp definedefine aa silviculturalsilvicultural method enabling sustained timber prodution in the natural forest.
Accordingly, in 19831983 thethe NationalNational ForestForest BureauBureau undertookundertook aa developmentdevelopment project funded by thethe GuyanaGuyana RegionalRegional council. TheThe projectproject consistsconsists of managingmanaging twotwo pilot forests:forests:
Risquetout: 4 500 haha locatedlocated nearnear MacouriaMacouria Organabo: 13 000 haha locatedlocated nearnear St.St. LaurentLaurent dudu Maroni.Maroni.
The silviculturesilviculture envisaged inin thisthis projectproject willwill requirerequire onlyonly limited limited financial financial inputs.inputs. After the merchantablemerchantable treestrees areare harvested, aroundaround 400 400 haha aa year willwill bebe thinnedthinned byby devitalizing thethe unsaleableun saleable species.species.
The financial inputs needed to implementimplement this silviculturesilviculture will be carefullycarefully plannedplanned and the methodsmethods of intervention refined to enable their application toto largerlarger areas, closer in size toto thethe 1010 000000 haha involvedinvolved inin annualannual coupes.coupes. ThisThis low-costlow-cost silviculturesilviculture shouldshould promotepromote the growth of average treestrees ofof currentlycurrently oror potentiallypotentially merchantablemerchantable species,species, enablingenabling aa returnreturn to logginglogging in the coastal forests after 30 to 50 years' time.time.
The NationalNational Forest BureauBureau isis cooperatingcooperating withwith itsits reseachreseach partnerspartners (INRA(INRA andand CTFT) toto obtainobtain thethe maximummaximum amountamount ofof informationinformation fromfrom thesethese pilotpilot projects.projects. PermanentPermanent control plots will be setset upup inin thethe pilot pilot forests forests toto assess assess thethe impact impact of of the the silvicultural silvicultural treatments and testtest thethe effectivenesseffectiveness and applicabilityapplicability of researchresearch findingsfindings on aa largerlarger scale.scale. - 101101 --
Lastly, thethe BureauBureau hashas scheduledscheduled aa managementmanagement programmeprogramme forfor 1992-941992-94 coveringcovering 21 forests for a totaltotal ofof aroundaround 105105 000000 ha.ha.
The programme will be applied toto 15 000000 ha in 1992, 3030000 000 in 19931993 and 60 000 in 1994.1994.
The management of each forest isis basedbased onon thethe followingfollowing principles:principles:
mapping, overalloverall andand detailed;detailed; inventory, marlcingmarking of treestrees forfor harvestingharvesting andand systematicsystematic thiningthining (silvicultural(silvicultural treatment); - creation of mainmain andand secondarysecondary roads;roads; sale of standingstanding timber onon lotslots averagingaveraging 250250 ha,ha, atat pricesprices determined determined accordingaccording to species.species.
The programme's successsuccess and itsits integrationintegration in thethe GuyaneseGuyanese timbertimber industryindustry will make it possiblepossible to preserve 5 toto 66 millionmillion hectareshectares ofof virginvirgin forestforest fromfrom allall humanhuman penetration. This isis consideredconsidered essentialessential toto safeguardsafeguard thethe environment.environment.
4. THETHE AMAZONIAN AMAZONIAN AND AND ANDEAN ANDEAN COUNTRIES COUNTRIES
BRAZIL
The subject of forest management in Brazil has already been outlined in the previous chapters. Two different typestypes of projectproject are beingbeing conducted, one, inin thethe TapajosTapajos forestforest andand the other inin thethe AntimariAntimari forest.forest.
TAPAJOS: in 1978,1978, thethe BrazilianBrazilian GovernmentGovernment andand FAOFAO initiatedinitiated thisthis wide-wide ranging project as aa long-termlong-term pilotpilot demonstrationdemonstration inin thethe TapajosTapajos NationalNational Forest, locatedlocated inin thethe AmazonAmazon Basin.Basin. The goalgoal waswas toto utilizeutilize thethe ecosystemecosystem for multiple purposes, includingincluding timber production,production, applying "natural""natural" silviculturalsilvicultural treatments. The projectproject waswas precededpreceded byby aa seriesseries ofof inventories inventories andand silviculturalsilvicultural experiments conductedconducted jointly jointly by by the the Brazilian Brazilian Government Government andand FAOFAO in the 1950s andand '60s.'60s. TheThe preliminary preliminary feasibility feasibility study, study ,which which included included a a sensitivity sensitivity analysis, had shownshown that a highhigh internal rate ofof returnreturn couldcould bebe maintainedmaintained even in thethe case ofof uncreasinguncreasing operatingoperating costs and a sharpsharp declinedecline inin woodwood prices.prices.
A full managementmanagement planplan waswas developed,developed, talcingtaking thethe recommendationsrecommendations ofof forestryforestry experts into account. AccordingAccording to thethe 19781978 inventory,inventory, thethe TapajosTapajos forestforest hadhad 54 m3/ham3/ha of roundwoodround wood with diameter breast high over 4545 cm,cm, ofof which which 3636 ni3 m3 belonging toto 28 high-grade species. In 1979,1979, experimentalexperimental fellingfelling over 6464 haha yielded 72 m3/ha,m3/ha, of whichwhich 64 in3m3 of commercial species. The gross volumevolume ofof trees withwith diametersdiameters over 5555 cm waswas 132132 m3/ha.m3/ha. TheThe finalfinal projectproject reportreport (UNDP/FAO, 1983)1983) presentedpresented thethe resultsresults ofof the the fullfull detaileddetailed studystudy conductedconducted byby - 102102 -
15 international expertsexperts andand 30 Brazilian researchers. The report indicated that it would be technicallytechnically feasible and economically viable to create thethe permanentpermanent canopy in selected Amazonian areas comparable to the Tapajos National Forest. The studies provided important data on operations. AccordingAccording toto oneone assessment,assessment, felling yielded 27 000 rri3m3 in in 1980, 1980, 25 25 000000 mrri33 in in 1981 1981 and and 17 17 000 000 m e3 inin 1982.1982.
The 1982 UNDPUNDP/FAO/FAO reviewreview missionmission notednoted thethe optimism and spirit of enterprise reigning among project personnel, butbut pointedpointed outout thatthat actualactual forestforest managementmanagement had not yet begun.begun. ItIt observedobserved thatthat toto makemake suresure thethe TapajosTapajos timbertimber wouldwould be processed, itit wouldwould bebe essentialessential toto controlcontrol factoryfactory inputsinputs fromfrom externalexternal sources.sources. In general, thethe region'sregion's factoriesfactories alreadyalready hadhad aa sufficientsufficient supply of logs, thanksthanks to clearingclearing operationsoperations subsidizedsubsidized by thethe InstitutoInstituto NacionalNacional de ColonizaçaoColoniza~o e Reforma Agraria: felledfelled logslogs werewere recoveredrecovered fromfrom thethe roadsideroadside practicallypractically cost-cost free.free. TheThe missionmission concludedconcluded thatthat itit wouldwould nonethelessnonetheless bebe possiblepossible toto managemanage Tapajos profitably, andand thatthat failurefailure toto commence commence commercial commercial exploitationexploitation byby mid-1983mid-1983 would be cause forfor concern.concern.
Since 1985, the projectproject has been gearedgeared mainlymainly towards thethe drydry region of northeastern Brazil. The Government isis pursing a study project at Tapajos, but management for sustainedsustained industrial production waswas atat aa standstillstandstill untiluntil 1989.1989.
At that point, thethe projectproject waswas revisedrevised inin viewview ofof utilizing utilizing 11 000 hectareshectares ofof virginvirgin forest over a five-yearfive-year period; thethe resultsresults toto datedate areare toto bebe appliedapplied toto establishestablish sustained management overover an area of 132132 000000 hectares.hectares.
ANTIMARI: this project is beingbeing developeddeveloped inin thethe AntimariAntimari NationalNational Forest,Forest, located in the State of ACRE. ItIt waswas launchedlaunched inin 19891989 byby FUNTACFUNTAC (Fundaçao(Funda<;ao de Tecnologia do Acre), a StateState organizationorganization that operates with the support of ITTO (International(International Tropical TimberTimber Organization).Organization).
The project aims to work out a multiple-usemultiple-use model of forest developmentdevelopment,, taking into account thethe socio-economicsocio-economic context and environmentalenvironmental impact. AntimariAntimari isis a productionproduction reservereserve inin whichwhich thethe hydrological,hydrological, botanical,botanical, edaphic,edaphic, socialsocial andand economic effects of developmentdevelopment areare monitoredmonitored andand controlled.controlled. Current operations includeinclude veryvery largelarge harvests ofof rubber, Brazil nuts and woodwood thatthat employ local labour and involve considerable effortsefforts by CNS (Conselho(Conselho NacionalNacional de Seringueiros).Seringueiros).
Preliminary studies (still(still inin course)course) envisageenvisage thethe harmoniousharmonious developmentdevelopment ofof thesethese resources "for" andand "by""by" thethe locallocal people,people, byby meansmeans ofof silvicultural silvicultural andand logging schemes that aimaim toto establishestablish sustainedsustained managementmanagement of thethe wholewhole ecosystem.ecosystem. - 103103 -
COLOMBIA
A management projectproject was implemented fromfrom 19651965 toto 1970 on aroundaround a millionmillion hectares of low-altitudelow-altitude rainforest inin thethe SerraníaSerranfa SanSan Lucas, betweenbetween thethe RíoRio MagdalenaMagdalena and the RíoRio Cauca.Cauca.
The goal was to maintain and improve stand productivity by successive low-intensity fe1lings.fellings. Unfortunately, the site was abandoned in 1970 for securitysecurity reasonsreasons (R.(R. Schmidt,Schmidt, 1987).
By contrast, thethe forestsforests ofof GuandalGuandal andand Catival,Catival, whosewhose silviculturesilviculture isis becomingbecoming better known,known, havehave nono managementmanagement plansplans despitedespite theirtheir economiceconomic potential,potential, theirtheir relativelyrelatively large area and theirtheir structure,structure, whichwhich wouldwould makemake managementmanagement techniquestechniques easy to apply.
LastlyLastly,, SMURFIT CARTON DEDE COLOMBIA, a paper-manufacturing company with logging operations inin the Pacific coast rainforests, has a 6161 000000 hectarehectare concessionconcession at BajoBajo CaliCalima, rna, of whichwhich 60%60% areare devoteddevoted to usesuses otherother thanthan pulp,pulp, somesome areas beingbeing reservedreserved for the local population and others "fully protected." TheThe remainingremaining 2424 000000 hectareshectares areare destineddestined for pulp production (the(the companycompany consumesconsumes 8080 000000 ni3m3 ofof wood per annum) on a thirty-yearthirty-year felling cycle. Logging operations are carried out viavia suspendedsuspended cable to reduce their impact on the land. Unfortunately,Unfortunately, thethe pressurepressure ofof human human populationpopulation isis suchsuch thatthat ruralrural peoplepeople havehave already occupiedoccupied some of thethe clear-felledclear-felled are,asareas (M(M.. KiernanKiernan etet ai.,al., 1991).1991).
ECUADOR
After the opportunity to manage the Pacific forests was missed, and no management project similar to FAO's atat ESMERALDASESMERALDAS waswas commenced,commenced, thethe AmazonianAmazonian forestsforests are nownow the only prospectiveprospective objectobject ofof management. management.
They cover an area of moremore thanthan 1010 millionmillion hectares, ofof whichwhich moremore thanthan 33 millionmillion lie above 600 metresmetres (premontane(premontane forests) and 7 millionmillion are rainforests.rainforests. Two-thirdsTwo-thirds ofof thethe region isis underunder concessionconcession toto forestforest industries.industries. TheThe AIMAAlMA usersusers associationassociation hashas establishedestablished guidelines favourable toto the notion of sustainedsustained management,management, but the situationsituation is clearlyclearly compromised by by pressurepressure fromfrom farmersfarmers whowho taketake advantageadvantage of of roadsroads builtbuilt byby the oiloil companies.companies. In 1989,1989, deforestationdeforestation was estimated toto proceed atat the rate of 7575 000000 hectareshectares a year.year.
However,However, thethe followingfollowing protected areas exist in thethe Cordillera:Cordillera:
Parque Nacional Podocarpus Parque NacionalNacional SangaySangay - Reserva EcológicaEcologica Cayambe-Coca and in Ecuador's AmazonAmazon area:
- paiqueParque Nacional YasuniYasuni - Reserva de producciónproduccion faunísticafaunfstica Cuyabeno.Cuyabeno. -- 104 -
At present, Ecuador's TropicalTropical ForestryForestry ActionAction Plan is attemptingattempting to improve the situation byby encouraging rural community projectsprojects to protect the forestsforests (primarily(primarily atat thethe watershed level, inin viewview ofof lengthening lengthening damdam lifetimes).lifetimes).
BOLIVIA
There exists no forestforest managementmanagement inin the true sensesense of thethe term,term, thoughthough severalseveral operations havehave beenbeen attempted; forfor instance,instance, thethe CDF conducted trialtrials's inin the El ChoreChore Forest Reserve, butbut theythey werewere avandonedavandoned duedue toto pressurepressure fromfrom settlers.settlers.
Most silviculturalsilvicultural activities concernconcern purepure wood plantationsplantations rather thanthan forestforest enrichment strips.
Among the projects which support the lumber industry, wewe maymay mention:mention:
a project to get a better return from aa 66 000000 haha forestforest locatedlocated in thethe Sacta valley; the forest is the property of Cochabamba's UniversidadUniversidad MayorMayor dede SanSan SimonSimon and thethe projectproje,ct benefitsbenefits fromfrom outsideoutside aidaid andand support fromfrom the University's SchoolSchool of Forestry (Escuela(Escuela TécnicaTecnica SuperiorSuperior Forestal);Forestal);
community associations andand cooperatives havehave been created at ZaporoZaporo (since(since 1982) andand Lomerio (since 1984) for improved farmingfarming andand forestforest management;management; 72 000 ha areare involvedinvolved at ZaporoZaporo andand 7272 000000 atat Lomerio;Lomerio;
similar projects are beingbeing created with CDFCDF support.support.
The mostmost importantimportant projectproject isis thethe oneone beingbeing developeddeveloped inin thethe LosLos Chimanes Chi manes area.area. Itn envisagesenvisages a preliminarypreliminary managementmanagement plan covering more thanthan 570570 000000 ha,ha, ecologicalecological research at thethe BENIBENl biological biological station,station, andand anan environmental environmental educationeducation andand trainingtraining campaign.
More particularly, sustainedsustained use of woodwood resourcesresources isis toto commencecommence inin agreementagreement with lumber concerns that havehave permits to operateoperate inin thethe region.region. AA special special silviculturalsilvicultural research programmeprogramme willwill provideprovide indispensableindispensable supportsupport forfor rebuildingrebuilding thethe woodwood potential.potential. The projectproject isis supervisedsupervised byby an an interorganizational interorganizational technicaltechnical commissioncommission andand receivesreceives substantial aidaid from thethe InternationalInternational ConservancyConservancy Foundation,Foundation, thethe InternationalInternational TropicalTropical Timber Organization, andand otherother sources.sources.
As in mostmost countries of this region, thethe privateprivate sectorsector doesdoes not seesee the advantage of medium-term investments in forest management,management, and isis stillstill lessless disposeddisposed toto investinvest inin long-long term plans. OnlyOnly taxtax incentivesincentives couldcould modifymodify thisthis situation,situation, butbut anyany newnew (beneficial) (beneficial) provision in thisthis directiondirection wouldwould bebe doomeddoomed to failurefailure inin thethe absenceabsence ofof aa preliminarypreliminary (and(and urgently ne,eded)needed) planplan governing settlement and landland use.use.
In addition,addition, nono forestforest policypolicy cancan bebe appliedapplied andand enforcedenforced withoutwithout firstfirst assemblingassembling the necessarynecessary resourcesresources (especially(especially well-trainedwell-trained and efficientefficient personnel)personnel) andand technicaltechnical competence (at present the levellevel ofof knowledgeknowledge is poor,poor, nationalnational inventoriesinventories areare inadequateinadequate - 105105 --
or non-existent, researchresearch isis inadequate).inadequate). EffortsEfforts toto increaseincrease thethe extensionextension of reserved forestsforests and protectprotect thethe nationalnational forestforest heritageheritage willwill makemake nono sensesense andand havehave nono realreal impactimpact unlessunless these obstacles areare overcome.overcome.
PERU
Several large-scale forest development projectsprojects suchsuch asas FAO'sFAO's von HumboldtHumboldt projectproject and thethe PalcazuPalcazu projectproject (cf.(cf. the casecase studiesstudies below)below) areare designeddesigned toto establishestablish forestforest management based initially on zoningzoning andand subsequentlysubsequently on thethe applicationapplication ofof silviculturalsilvicultural techniques to achieve sustainedsustained forestforest production.production.
But in reality,reality, thesethese landland managementmanagement projectsprojects areare unableunable toto resistresist demographicdemographic pressure andand uncontrolleduncontrolled clearance for farming.farming. TheThe futurefuture ofof forestforest managementmanagement willwill depend in the firstfust instanceinstance on whetherwhether Peru is ableable toto formulateformulate and enforce a clear and realistic agricultural developmentdevelopment policy.policy.
VENEZUELA
The establishment of Forest ManagementManagement PlansPlans isis mandatorymandatory onon bothboth State-ownedState-owned and privately owned forestlands. TheThe only difference isis in thethe typetype ofof contractcontract involved;involved; long-term contracts for managingmanaging State forests, job contracts for privateprivate owners.
Management plansplans must meet a "minimum"minimum standard" as regardsregards projectedprojected fellingfelling rates and annual production estimates. AsAs a rule, privateprivate andand mixedmixed enterprises retainretain forestry experts to developdevelop theirtheir managementmanagement plans. The plansplans mustmust includeinclude preliminary estimates of the forest resource;resource; describedescribe thethe physicalphysical andand ecologicalecological environment, including access roads and logging tracks; specifyspecify fellingfelling methodsmethods andand schedulesschedules and illustrateillustrate notnot only the economic and industrialindustrial aspects,aspects, butbut alsoalso silvicultura]silvicultural treatments,treatments, forestforest researchresearch andand monitoringmonitoring programmes.
While the "minimum"minimum standard" is theoreticallytheoretically complete and detailed, in practice it is difficult for managementmanagement plans toto meetmeet it. ForFor oneone thing,thing, resourceresource estimationestimation methodologymethodology is generally inadequate,inadequate, duedue toto thethe lacklack ofof maps maps andand photo-interpretation,photo-interpretation, andand toto thethe difficultydifficulty of samplesample verification.verification. The same can bebe saidsaid forfor thethe otherother itemsitems supposedlysupposedly coveredcovered in management plans.plans.
The defectdefect ofof thisthis arrangementarrangement isis thatthat logginglogging contractors,contractors, backedbacked byby forestryforestry experts, areare actuallyactually leftleft toto theirtheir ownown devices.devices.
In principle,principle, managedmanaged forests are divideddivided intointo annualannual coupecoupe compartments,compartments, but compartmental productionproduction potentialpotential is is nevernever thethe samesame fromfrom yearyear to year, oror failsfails toto matchmatch the established species andand quality quotas,quotas, which may be met by logginglogging inin thethe adjacentadjacent compartments. What isis more,more, thethe mostmost accessibleaccessible compartmentscompartments areare normallynormally overtopped.overtapped. Of course these effects are inevitable inin any kind of planning, but they do go to showshow thethe administrative andand impracticalimpractical character character of of thesethese plansplans,, which thethe forest service tends to - 106106 --
rubber-stamp ratherrather than verify. AsAs toto silviculturalsilvicultural treatments,treatments, in thethe absenceabsence ofof testedtested protocols the concessionnaire isis not obliged to apply them, only to set upup trialstrials (during(during thethe first two yearsyears of thethe permit).permit).
By way of example,example, inin thethe 3.23.2 million million hectarehectare ImatacaImataca ForestForest Reserve,Reserve, aroundaround 920 ()()()000 ha areare presentlypresently underunder managementmanagement plans and thethe samesame numbernumber willwill bebe broughtbrought under management in the future,future, attestingattesting toto aa considerableconsiderable organizationalorganizational efforteffort onon thethe partpart of thethe forestforest administration.administration. ButBut inin additionaddition toto thethe deforestationdeforestation problemproblem mentionedmentioned earlier, it isis necessarynecessary toto considerconsider thatthat thesethese forestforest managementmanagement plans can have no real impactimpact (in terms of economic, socialsocial andand ecologicalecological benefits)benefits) unlessunless theythey are firmlyfirmly grounded onon integralintegral and consolidated studies of the resource, of its effective mobilization, of the markets, of the local environment, and so forth;forth; thatthat is,is, onon accurate accurate analysesanalyses ofof the the whole whole wood wood industryindustry (Master Plan). Lastly,Lastly, itit must must bebe rememberedremembered thatthat ififthe the concessionnaireconcessionnaire hashas reallyreally envisagedenvisaged a fellingfelling cycle of 2020 oror 3030 yearsyears (or(or shorter),shorter), hehe wouldwould notnot useuse thethe excuse excuse ofof inadequate inadequate knowledge andand justjust set up a handfulhandful ofof silviculturalsilvicultural trials whichwhich would serve mainlymainly as an alibi. - 107107 -
VIII. CASECASE STUDIESSTUDIES
I.1. CASE STUDY NO.NO.1 1:: SURINAMESURINAME -- THETHE CELOS CELOS MANAGEMENTMANAGEMENT SYSTEMSYSTEM
Lack of success in converting forests into plantations led the Suriname Government, in collaboration with the Netherlands, to inquireinquire intointo thethe possibilitypossibility of developingdeveloping a forestforest management system suited to the ecological conditions of the naturalnatural lowlandlowland ecosystem. AsAs an overall design requisite, managementmanagement goals and resources would have to bebe adapted toto fitfit the ecological realities. The systemsystem is thereforetherefore based on twotwo majormajor elementselements - strict controlcontrol of utilization (the CelosCelos HarvestingHarvesting System),System), andand furtherfurther silviculturalsilvicultural operationsoperations (the(the CelosCelos Silvicultural System) -- which, taken together, makemake upup thethe CelosCelos ManagementManagement System.System.
1.1 The Celos HarvestingHarvesting SystemSystem (CHS)(CHS)
The purpose of thethe CelosCelos HarvestingHarvesting System is to reduce the costs and damages ofof forest utilization. Damage to thethe soilsoil andand thethe remainingremaining growinggrowing stockstock hashas beenbeen reducedreduced byby strict .control of logginglogging operations.operations. Costs have decreaseddecreased due to betterbetter planningplanning ofof operations, with thethe timbertimber companiescompanies assistedassisted by silviculturalsilvicultural experts.
The CHS proceedsproceeds asas follows:follows:
full inventory of exploitableexploitable trees;trees; - preparationpreparation of a compartment plan indicating thethe locationlocation ofof treestrees toto be felled, future logging tracks and stockyardsstockyards.. The selection ofof trees for felling is mademade in collaboration with a silviculturalsilvicultural expert who generallygenerally limitslimits thethe totaltotal volumevolume to 2020 oror 3030 m3/ha;m3/ha; felling (aligned ifif possible) isis organized soso as toto limitlimit damagedamage andand facilitatefacilitate haulage (logs should fall at an angle of 1010 toto 60060° toto thethe closestclosest track);track); logs (less than 60 cm in diameter) are dragged out as farfar as possible,possible, toto limitlimit thethe passage of heavy-dutyheavy-duty e,quipmentequipment through the forest; the logs are thenthen hauledhauled toto thethe stocicyardsstockyards on permanentpermanent trackstracks whichwhich are usedused for each successivesuccessive silviculturalsilvicultural operation; the trees are numberednumbered after felling so that the outflow from the forest can be controlled.
As regards soil damage, less thanthan 15%15 % ofof thethe surfacesurface areaarea isis affected,affected, comparedcompared toto 25%25 % inin conventionalconventional logginglogging operations.operations.
1.2 The CelosCelos SilviculturalSilvicultural SystemSystem (CSS)(CSS)
The system was designed pursuant toto a series of experiments andand measurements.measurements. TheThe following sectionsection outlinesoutlines thethe history of thisthis researchresearch andand describesdescribes thethe systemsystem finallyfinally adopted.
1.21.2.1.1 History of researchresearch leadingleading toto thethe CSSCSS
The experimental site is located at Mapane and Kabo, 100 km from Paramaribo. TheThe region is characterized by annual rainfall ofof 2 000 toto 22 500500 mmmm andand veryvery poorpoor soilssoils (high(high r
- 108108 --
aluminium content, low phosphorus and potassium). The forest has a wealthwealth ofof speciesspecies (at(at Kabo, 108108 speciesspecies werewere countedcounted onon oneone hectare),hectare), andand thethe livingliving phytomassphytomass amountsamounts to 480 tlha.t/ha. The livingliving phytomass phytomass represents fromfrom 7070 to 90%90% ofof the the ecosystem's ecosystem's totaltotal phytomass (with the notablenotable exceptionexception of nitrogen).nitrogen).
Four successivesuccessive experimentsexperiments werewere conductedconducted inin thisthis ecosystem:ecosystem:
The first, whichwhich beganbegan in 1965,1965, waswas designeddesigned to studystudy the feasibilityfeasibility of a mono-mono cyclic system.system. OperationsOperations consisted of cullingculling secondarysecondary speciesspecies thatthat limitedlimited sapling regeneration and growth. TheThe twotwo post-loggingpost-logging operationsoperations werewere cuttingcutting creepers and thinning.thinning. AfterAfter 1414 yearsyears ofof measurements, measurements, thethe systemsystem showedshowed itsits potential for encouraging the regeneration ofof high gradegrade species. However, the structure of thethe resultingresulting standstand waswas muchmuch altered,altered, andand silviculturalsilvicultural costscosts werewere prohibitive.prohibitive.
The second approach consistedconsisted ofof monitoringmonitoring aa lightly-loggedlightly-logged forestforest toto whichwhich nono further silviculturesilviculture was applied. NineNine yearsyears of measurement sufficed to show that high-value species were growing relativelyrelatively slowly.slowly. TheThe growthgrowth raterate compared compared toto mortality was judged too slowslow toto serveserve asas aa basisbasis forfor sustainable sustainable management. management.
In thethe thirdthird experiment,experiment, severalseveral differentdifferent silviculturalsilvicultural treatmentstreatments werewere testedtested on lightly logged 0.640.64 ha plots. TwoTwo typestypes ofof thinningthinning (20(20 -- 40) were combinedcombined with 3 typestypes ofof clearingclearing (A(A DD S):S):
Type 2020 thinning:thinning: performed inin yearyear 00 on trees with diametersdiameters ofof 2020 cmcm andand more Type 40 thinning:thinning: performed inin year 0 onon treestrees withwith diametersdiameters of 4040 cmcm andand more Type A clearing:clearing: clearing of 25 em2 plots around the mostmost promisingpromising treestrees Type D clearing:clearing: systematic clearingclearing ofof saplings withwith diametersdiameters ofof overover 22 or 5 cm (D2 or D5)D5) Type S clearing: clearing of east-west strips
Tree growthgrowth andand ecologicalecological and economiceconomic parameters were measured annually over a period of 12 years. The "20"20 ++ D5"D5" treatment treatment was was judgedjudged best.best.
. In the fourth experiment, the "20"20 ++ D5" D5" treatments treatments waswas triedtried outout on on aa "life-size""life-size" 16 ha plot. TheThe resultsresults areare tootoo recentrecent forfor aa definitive definitive assessment,assessment, but it isis possible to estimate the gains as comparedcompared to the control plot. -- 109 -
Control 20 ++ D5D5 treatmenttreatment Increased volume of commercial species 0.20.2 m3m3 2.0 m3m3 (m3fha/yr)(m3/ha/yr) Mortality rate 2.0% 1.4 to 2.6% (% of incidence)incidence)
Hence the "ideal" treatmenttreatment is as followsfollows (see figure):
1st thinning I1 year after logginglogging (to+,):(to+I): secondarysecondary trees over 30 cm in diameterdiameter areare eliminated by devitalizationdevitalization (poisoning).(poisoning).
2nd thinning at t0+8:to+8: secondarysecondary treestrees overover 10 cmcm in diameter are devitalized.devitalized.
3rd thinningthinning atat t0+17:to+17: clearance clearance of of somesome undesirableundesirable treestrees and creepers.
t0+20:to+20: second second logging.logging.
The projected development of the total basal area is shownshown in thethe followingfollowing figure.
30 -, co .c N .s 20 All species co co co~ TI Commercialornmercta1 co 10 species al ____~spec;.s ,L--
E RR ------R R E E
I I I I 1 1 t 0 1 5 8e 16 20 YtaarsVN" to.A B C 0 E F PromoProfile indexnoex
Proje-ctedProjected developmenl development of of basalbasal an:aarca ofof all speciesspecies and of basalbasal artaarea ofof commercial commercial species,species. underundcr tilethe Celos Silvicultural SystemSystem propersedproposed forfor thetile MapaneMapane region. Time of:of: e SUCCESSION OF TREATMENTSTREATMENTS Year 0: BeforeBefore treatmenttreatment (commercial(commercial speciesspecies shownshown withwith shadedshaded crowns) (m) 40 B - year 2 30 .20 10 10 20 30 40 50(m) Year 2: AfterAfter fellingfelling (trees(trees nosnos 6666 andand 75)75) and and thinning thinning ofof "non-commercial" "non-commercial" treestrees withwith diameters of over 3030 cmcm (m) 40 C - year 7 30 10 20 30 40 50(m) Year 7: JustJust beforebefore se,condsecond thinning (growth of commercialcommercial species) - 111 - (m) 00 20 '0 Year 9:9: After secondsecond thinningthinning (culling(culling "non-commercial""non-commercial" treestrees with diametersdiameters ofof overover 10 cm) (m)oo (m) 4-0 - E -J'Nr 15 so30 20 10'0 " o '0 20 30 5O(m) Year 15:15: After a third light thinning (tree(tree no.no. 71 fell= naturalnatural mortality)mortality) (m) FF-~iIl'20yeas 20 10 20 30 40 504m) Year 20: After creepercreeper removalremoval inin thethe 17th17th yearyear andand fellingfelling ofof two two otherother high-gradehigh-grade treestrees (nos. 20 and 94). TheThe remainingremaining standstand has a largelarge numbernumber of futurefuture trees,trees, withwith a goodgood representationrepresentation ofof so-called so-called secondarysecondary species.species. - 112112 - 1.3 Mono- or poly-cyclepoly-cycle system?system? The mono-cyclicmono-cyclic system isis particularly intensive.intensive. TheThe basalbasal area is reducedreduced from 28-30 to 3.53.5 m2/ha!m2/ha! InIn thesethese conditions,conditions, aa stockstock ofof seeds seeds andand seedlingsseedlings ofof merchantable merchantable species isis vital for the futurefuture (the(the next coupe is 60 or 8080 yearsyears ahead).ahead). Two mainmain factorsfactors explainexplain thethe rejectionrejection ofof thisthis method:method: - very highhigh costscosts ofof the the cleaningcleaning andand creeper-cuttingcreeper-cutting neededneeded forfor seedlingseedling survival;survival; generally slowslow standstand growth.growth. In addition,addition, thethe damagedamage thatthat thethe secondsecond logginglogging willwill probably probably produceproduce seemsseems tootoo great. Lastly,Lastly, thisthis long-termlong-term operationoperation cannotcannot restrest onon reliablereliable projectionsprojections aboutabout thethe stabilitystability of wood prices. Preference waswas thereforetherefore givengiven toto thethe poly-cyclicpoly-cyclic systemsystem defineddefined afterafter research. research. Under thisthis system,system, mostmost ofof the the standstand consistsconsists ofof trees trees ofof commercial commercial speciesspecies withwith diametersdiameters between 20 and 30 cm.cm. TheseThese representrepresent thethe futurefuture standstand andand afterafter 2020 yearsyears shouldshould attainattain aa diameter of 45 cm (exploitable(exploitable diameter). IfIf tenten treestrees areare felledfelled perper hectarehectare inin thethe firstfirst coupe,coupe, fifteen to twenty future trees mustmust remainremain in thethe stand.stand. ThisThis systemsystem appearsappears toto bebe low-cost low-cost and easier toto implement.implement. As to thethe ecologicalecological aspect,aspect, thethe still-unpublishedstill-unpublished findings of recent studies seem to indicateindicate that thethe system does not greatlygreatly affect thethe relevantrelevant parameters.parameters. There is little nutrient loss,loss, changes inin birdbird populationspopulations occuroccur butbut withoutwithout apparentapparent consequences,consequences, specificspecific diverstydiversty isis slightly reduced but stillstill high,high, andand thethe applicationapplication ofof very very smallsmall quantitiesquantities ofof chemicals chemicals (2 1/ha)lIha) does not damagedamage thethe ecosystem.ecosystem. InIn short,short, thethe negativenegative ecologicalecological effectseffects of thisthis silvicultural system areare very slight, and it protectsprotects thethe forest betterbetter whilewhile sharplysharply increasing its e,conomiceconomic value. 1.4 Conclusions The Celos Management System (CHS + CSS)CSS) seemsseems economicallyeconomically andand ecologically appropriate forfor thethe managementmanagement ofof permanentpermanent forestsforests underunder acceptableacceptable marketmarket conditions.conditions. AtAt present, however, a systemsystem ofof thisthis kindkind cannotcannot bebe envisagedenvisaged inin countriescountries wherewhere woodwood harvested during clearance for farmingfarming isis dumpeddumped onon thethe marketmarket atat cut-rate cut-rate prices. prices. The systemsystem also offers a significantsignificant advantage to logging contractors: production per hectare is higherhigher andand moremore regular.regular. InIn addition,addition, permanentpermanent trackstracks cancan bebe opened,opened, andand transport costs do notnot increaseincrease asas fellingfelling sites'sites areare shiftedshifted furtherfurther intointo thethe forest.forest. By way of example, aa permanentpermanent forestforest ofof 5050 000000 haha managedmanaged underunder thethe CMSCMS cancan sustain a mid-sized timber industry: 150150 people can thus be employedemployed in silviculture.silviculture. This kind of forest thusthus hashas aa placeplace ofof its its ownown inin thethe managementmanagement ofof land land lyinglying betweenbetween protectedprotected areas and production areas.areas. - 113113 - Bibliography De GRAAF, N.R.,N.R. , 1990.1990. ManagingManaging Natural Natural Regeneration Regeneration for for Sustained Sustained TimberTimber Production Production in Suriname: TheThe CelosCelos Silvicultura!Silvicultural and HarvestingHarvesting System.System. Man andand BiosphereBiosphere Series,Series, vol. 6. De GRAAF, N.R.N.R. andand VanVan ROMPAEY,ROMPAEY, R.,R., 1990. 1990 .The The Celos Celos Experiments Experiments onon SilvicultureSilviculture with Natural Regeneration. AtelierAtelier de Cayene.Cayene . . 2. CASE STUDY NO.2:NO. 2: RESEARCHRESEARCH ON CLOSED FOREST MANAGEMENT IN THE BRAZILIAN AMAZON Brazil hashas longlong experienceexperience inin managingmanaging closedclosed forests.forests. ThisThis researchresearch commence,d commenced inin 19581958 atat the CURUA-UNA station with technical assistance from FAO. SilviculturalSilvicultural studiesstudies on closed forestsforests conductedconducted byby twotwo otherother researchresearch organizations,organizations, EMBRAPAEMBRAPA (EMPRESE(EMPRESE BRASILEIRA DE PESQUISAS AGROPECUARIAS) and INPA (INSTITUTO(lNSTITUTO NACIONAL DE PESQUISAS DA AMAZONIA)AMAZONIA) also give a better understandingunderstanding of the possibilities of sustained management ofof thethe natural forest. The majormajor contributions to date are as follows:follows: 2.1 CURUA-UNA The CURUA-UNA forest research stationstation is located near SANTAREM in the State of PARA (2°23' S,S, 54°24'54°24' W). W). At At present present it it is is being being run run by by SUDAM SUDAM (Superintendencia (Superintendencia dede Desenvolvimiento dada Amazonia) withwith technical assistance fromfrom the forestry departmentdepartment of FCAP (Faculdade de ciencias Agrarias dodo Para).Para). From 19581958 to 1967, research at Curua-Una was conducted by FAO.FAO. Several trials havehave beenbeen conducted:conducted: a. TSS (Tropical(Tropical ShelterwoodShelterwood System)System) This silviculturalsilvicultural techniquetechnique was was established established In in 19611961 on on anan area ofof 6.256.25 hectareshectares (250 x 250 m). TheThe stepssteps werewere asas follows:follows: * two to four yearsyears beforebefore logging, logging, the the canopy canopy was was opene,c1 opened byby poisoningpoisoning 2525 largelarge trees and 40 toto 4242 smallersmaller treestrees ofof non-commercial non-commercial species.species. * LoggingLogging.. * A few years later andand untiluntil 1967,1967, silviculturalsilvicultural treatmentstreatments werewere appliedapplied inin thethe upperupper storeystorey.. * At present,present, thethe standstand isis dominated dominated mainlymainly byby Quaruba Quaruba verdadeira verdadeira (Vochysia(Vochysia maxima), as well as MarupaMarupa (Simaruba(Simaruba amara),amara), Morototo (Didymopanax(Didymopanax morototoni) and Cupiuba (Goupia(Goupia gZabra),glabra), withwith treestrees upup toto 5555 cmcm inin diameter.diameter. - 114114 - Attempts atat enrichment with Anderson type plots have not produced satisfactorysatisfactory results except with AndirobaAndiroba (Carapa(Carapa guianensis),guianensis), though here there havehave beenbeen problemsproblems ofof bifurcation atat 10 m due to borers.borers. b. Natural regeneration inin strips (after(after commercialcommercial exploitation andand felling flush to thethe ground in 19591959 on a 44 haha area)area) This waswas anan attemptattempt toto reclaimreclaim thethe second-growth second-growth forestforest withwith light-demandinglight -demanding pioneer and non-pioneernon-pioneer commercial species. The species which are mostmost abundantabundant and grow fastest toto aa diameter of 60 cm are Morototo, QuarubaQuaruba and Cupiuba.Cupiuba. BifurcationBifurcation of somesome Cupiuba reduces their commercial value. This treatmenttreatment was costliercostlier thanthan expectedexpected because of fellingfelling andand haulinghauling expenses.expenses. c. Selective felling management systems FromFrom 19701970 to 1981,1981, logginglogging operationsoperations were conductedconducted onon two 100-hectarel00-hectare plots.plots. A FCAPFCAP team is now monitoringmonitoring the adult stand and natural regeneration. AccordingAccording to a preliminary analysis, only 10% of thethe biomassbiomass felledfelled during thethe operationsoperations was sold.sold. DuringDuring the felling and hauling of eight or nine trees/hectare, aa totaltotal ofof 3 3 700700 m2/ham2/ha werewere cleared. Ten years after logging,logging, thethe naturallynaturally regeneratedregenerated stockstock ofof commercialcommercial speciesspecies hashas grown by 59%. Average girth growth is 0.42 cm/year;cm/year; startingstarting inin thethe fourthfourth year,year, thesethese valuesvalues beginbegin toto diminish. Studies have beenbeen conductedconducted onon interspeciesinterspecies interactions. Seven distinct forest associations werewere identified onon sevenseven sitessites overover anan areaarea ofof 100 ha. AtAt present,present, aa large-large scale pilot management projectproject isis beingbeing setset upup atCurua-Una.at Curua-Una. In 1987,1987, 11 000000 haha werewere inventoried; thethe logginglogging will bebe donedone byby aa privateprivate contractor.contractor. 2.2 Tapajos National Forest EMBRAPA-BELEM's ForestryForestry Department Department has has conductedconducted researchresearch onon naturalnatural forestforest management in in TapajosTapajos NationalNational Forest Forest (2°45' (2°45' S,S, 55°00'55°00' W, atat KmKm 67),67), whichwhich occupiesoccupies 600 000000 haha in thethe statestate ofof Para, Para, 6565 km km south south of of Santarem Santarem between between the the Cuaba-Santarem Cuaba-Santarem highway and the Tapajos River.River. AA numbernumber ofof experimental experimental compartmentscompartments werewere setset up:up: a. Km. 6767 -- InIn aa 64-hectare64-hectare compartment,compartment, creeperscreepers werewere cut cut and and undesirableundesirable dominant dominant trees trees girdled (76%(76% effectivenesseffectiveness afterafter 33 years);years); dual-intensitydual-intensity commercialcommercial logginglogging (exploitable diameters of 4545 andand 5555 cm)cm) waswas conductedconducted inin 1979.1979. LoggedLogged volumevolume waswas 7575 m3/ham3/ha (of(of which 64 in'm3 commercialcommercial species),species), oror 1616 trees/ha,trees/ha, belongingbelonging toto 6363 species.species. Monitoring over a period of eighteight yearsyears afterafter logginglogging showedshowed thatthat averageaverage girthgirth growthgrowth in the 297 speciesspecies present inin thethe compartmentcompartment was 0.5 cm/year.cm/year. - 115115 -- Growth of the same order waswas foundfound for the group ofof 2929 commercialcommercial species considered. At the species level, growth varies greatly. Pioneer speciesspecies grow fastest, generally more than 1 cm/year. ByBy contrast,contrast, thethe growthgrowth ofof climax climax speciesspecies isis inin thethe orderorder ofof 0.1 0.1 cm/year.cm/year. · During the period from 19811981 to 1983,1983, average annual growth in basal area for 45 andand 5555 cm treatments waswas 0.260.26 me/ha/yr2/ha/yr andand 0.130.13 e/ha/yrm2/ha/yr respectively respectively for for commercial commercial species, 1.461.46 m e/ha/yr2/ha/yr andand e/ha/yrm2/ha/yr for for all all species. species. Light strongly influences growth.growth. TreesTrees growgrow up to 200200 timestimes fasterfaster inin fullfull sunlightsunlight than in diffused oror lateral light. The beneficial effect of opening the canopy endsends threethree oror fourfour years after logging,logging, althoughalthough certaincertain speciesspecies continuecontinue toto growgrow rapidlyrapidly eveneven eighteight yearsyears thereafter. The logginglogging waswas consideredconsidered tootoo intensiveintensive forfor sustainedsustained poly-cyclepoly-cycle management.management. A 30-year projection (to 33 years after logging) showed thatthat asas things stand,stand, no further logginglogging willwill bebe possible atat thethe end of thethe cycle.cycle. However,However, it wouldwould be possiblepossible ifif silvicultural treatment were applied,applied, andand providedprovided otherother commercialcommercial speciesspecies appe,arappear on the market. bb.. Km. 114114 -- ExperimentalExperimental compartmentcompartment ofof 144144 hectareshectares loggedlogged inin 1982 with fourfour treatments: . TiT1 -- logginglogging of of commercial commercial speciesspecies withwith diametersdiameters exceedingexceeding 4545 cm.cm. . T2 - logginglogging ofof speciesspecies withwith diameters exceeding 55 cm, plusplus 30%30% reductionreduction of the basalbasal area;area; T3 -- logginglogging ofof species species withwith diametersdiameters exceedingexceeding 5555 cm,cm, plusplus 50%50% re,ductionreduction of the basalbasal area;area; . T4 -- logginglogging ofof speciesspecies withwith diametersdiameters exceeding 55 cm, plusplus 70%70% reductionreduction of the basal area. Several different research projects are underunder way:way: - Study of the impact of logginglogging on thethe standstand - Study of phytosociologicalphytosociological andand ecologicalecological parametersparameters - Regular inventories. c. Km. 83 - 1I 000000 hectarehectare comportmentcomportment toto studystudy thethe technicaltechnical andand economiceconomic feasibilityfeasibility of a poly-cyclicpoly-cyclic mangementmangement system.system. ExploitationExploitation commencedcommenced inin 19871987 withwith low-intensitylow-intensity felling ofof 35 toto 4040 m3/ha,m3/ha, or sixsix trees/ha.trees/ha. - 116116 - Devitalization (by(by cutting notches and spraying arboricide intointo them)them) willwill reducereduce thethe basalbasal area to aa thirdthird ofof itsits presentpresent size,size, andand willwill bebe followedfollowed at intervalsintervals of eight to ten years by other silviculturalsilvicultural treatments in a 20 toto 2525 yearyear cycle.cycle. 2.3 ZF2 This rainforestrainforest managementmanagement projectproject is beingbeing conductedconducted by thethe INPAINPA ForestryForestry Department onon aa 21 000000 haha concessionconcession which the Institute acquiredacquired inin 1970. TheThe site is locatedlocated aboutabout 9090 Iankm northnorth ofof ManausManaus inin thethe StateState ofof AmazonasAmazonas (2°37' (2°37' S,S, 60°'09'60°'09' W).W). The project involves an area of 72 ha situated around the INPINPAA camp on Track ZF2. It includesincludes threethree 24-he,ctare24-hectare blocks,blocks, isolatedisolated fromfrom eacheach other.other. EachEach block is mademade of sixsix contiguous 4-hectare4-hectare compartments. Fifty-meter-wide bufferbuffer strips around the compartments eliminate borderborder effects. Measurements areare made on 15 one-hectare plots, since the threethree outer plots are notnot considered.considered. All treestrees withwith diametersdiameters ofof 1010 cmcm oror more more have have been been inventoried, inventoried, identified,identified, numbered and mapped. Measurement heights are painted on the trees.trees. Merchantable species represent a thirdthird ofof thethe inventoriedinventoried population,population, whichwhich totalstotals 324 species excluding palms and creepers. The inventory of naturalnatural regenerationregeneration showedshowed that there isis anan inadequateinadequate stockstock ofof saplings in the firstfirst juvenile phase (diameter less than 5 cm, heightheight 30 cmcm oror more),more), butbut thethe stock of saplingssaplings inin thethe secondsecond juvenilejuvenile phasephase (diameter(diameter overover 44 cm)cm) isis satisfactory.satisfactory. Girdling trials on 29 species produced aa mortality raterate of 68.568.5% % at thethe endend ofof twotwo years. In 19871987 andand 1988,1988, logginglogging operationsoperations werewere carriedcarried outout withwith threethree differentdifferent 3 3 3 intensities, namelynamely onon exploitableexploitable diameters ofof 55,55, 5050 and and 4040 cm; cm; 24 24 m3, m , 3030 m3 m andand 4444 m3m were felled per hectarehectare repectively,repectivel y, or 5, 88 andand 1616 treestrees perper hectare.hectare. Logging and hualinghualing hadhad aa considerableconsiderable impactimpact onon thethe standstand (from(from 77 to to 17 17 tre,es trees withwith diameters of 1010 cmcm oror moremore dieddied forfor eacheach treetree felled).felled) .27% 27% ofof the the trees trees felle,d felled werewere mainlymainly calibrated on AngelimAngelim palrapedra (Dinizia (Dinizia excelsa)exce/sa) andand TanimbucaTanimbuca (Buchenavia(Buchenavia parvifolia).parvijolia). 2 Logging created gaps rangingranging fromfrom 3636 rn2,m\ to 2 500 m2,m , 80% of whichwhich are lessless thanthan 600 m2.m2• According toto the mostmost recentrecent inventoryinventory (1991),(1991), thethe standstand reactedreacted stronglystrongly toto exploitation.exploitation. The growth rate rose,rose, mainlymainly toto thethe benefitbenefit ofof small- small- andand medium-sizedmedium-sized treestrees (10(10 toto 40 cm).cm). AsAs regardsregards thethe merchantablemerchantable species,species, diameterdiameter growthgrowth increasedincreased from 0.2 cm/yrcm/yr before logging to 0.4 cm/yrcm/yr after.after. - 117117 - Recruitment was greatlygreatly stimulated;stimulated; notnot onlyonly havehave manymany pioneerpioneer speciesspecies appeared,appeared, but alsoalso merchantablemerchantable species (1 stem/yr on the controlcontrol plot,plot, 44 stems/yrstems/yr onon thethe exploited exploited plots. Mortality due to thethe long-termlong-term effects of logging was still quite high in 1990,1990, but the 19911991 inventoryinventory showsshows itit hashas sincesince fallenfallen offoff sharply. sharply. In thethe 1010 toto 4040 cm cm diameter diameter class,class, thethe balance balance ofof merchantable merchantable treestrees variesvaries fromfrom 1.20 to 1.801.80 m3/ham3/ha after treatments, whichwhich are stillstill undifferentiated.undifferentiated. In thethe controlcontrol plot,plot, thethe balance is 0.60 m3/ha.m3/ha. Bibliog_raphy:Bibliography: COIC A., HIGUCHIHIGUCHI N.,N., VELOSO,VELOSO, J.,J., 1991. 1991. ComportamentoComportamento aposapos exploraçaoexplora~ao florestalforestal dede una floresta densa unida na Amazonia: Projeto dede manejo florestalforestal da ZF2.ZF2. INPA/CTFT.INPA/CTFT. DUBOIS, J.C.L. 1991.1991. SilviculturalSilvicultural ResearchResearch in thethe Amazon.Amazon. FAO.FAO. DUBOIS, J.C.L., 1987.1987. AvaliagaoAvalia~ao dede parcelasparcelas esperimentaisesperimentais de regeneraçaoregenera~ao naturalnatural ee artificial nas reservas florestais de curua Una e PalhaoPalhao - EstadoEstado do Para,Para, RelatorioRelatorio IICAI1CA - Tropicos, 23 pp.pp. HIGUCHI, N.,N., MARCHMARCH 1990.1990. ManejoManejo sustentadosustentado dada florestafloresta tropicaltropical umidaumida dede terreterre firmefirme na regiaoregiao dede ManausManaus (Amazonas).(Amazonas). AtelierAtelier dede Cayenne.Cayenne. JANKAUSKIS, J.,J., 1990.1990. AvaliaçaoAva1ia~ao de tecnicas de manejo florestalforestal -- SUDAMSUDAM -- Belem.Belem. JARDIM, F.C.S., DOSDOS SANTOS,SANTOS, J.,J., COIC,COIC, A.,A., MARCH MARCH 1990. 1990. Efeitos Efeitos do do anelamentoanelamento de especies indesejaveis sobre a regeneraçaoregenera~ao naturalnatural dede especiesespecies comerciais. AtelierAtelier dede Cayenne.Cayenne. SILVA, J.N.M.,J.N.M., etet al.at. GrowthGrowth ofof a a Logged Logged OverOver Tropical Tropical RainRain ForestForest ofof the the BrazilianBrazilian Amazon -IUFRO, Conference on GrowthGrowth and YieldYield in Tropical Mixed/Moist Forests.Forests. KualaKuala Lumpur, 2222 pp.pp. SILVA, J.N.M. andand WHITMORE,WHITMORE, T.C.,T.C., 1990. 1990. Prospe,cts Prospects ofof sustained sustained yieldyield managementmanagement inin the Brazilian Amazon.Amazon. 3. CASE STUDY NO.NO.3: 3: REPUBLICREPUBLIC OFOF GUYANAGUYANA -- THETHE PARACOU PARACOU PROJECTPROJECT The projectproject titled "SILVICULTURAL"SILVICULTURAL RESEARCH ON CLOSEDCLOSED FORESTFOREST STANDS" commenced inin 1983 with thethe aimaim ofof answering answering twotwo questionsquestions posedposed byby forestforest managers: "What are the possibilities for rebuildingrebuilding standstand potentialpotential after initialinitial logging?logging? What simple and low-cost steps can be takentaken toto encourageencourage thethe growthgrowth ofof merchantable merchantable speciesspecies andand thereby ensure sustainedsustained timbertimber production?"production?" - 118118 -- The projectproject waswas setset upup byby CTFT CTFT (Centre (Centre Technique Technique ForestierForestier Tropical),Tropical), aa department of CIRADCIRAD (Centre(Centre dede CoopérationCooperation InternationaleInternationale enen RechercheRecherche AgronomiqueAgronomique pour leIe Développement),Developpement), inin collaborationcollaboration with INRAINRA (Institut(lnstitut NationalNational de lala RechercheRecherche Agronomique),Agronomique), whichwhich isis charged with studying understorey regeneration (tress with diameters of less than 1010 cm).cm). The mainmain purposes of the studystudy are: to develop andand testtest simplesimple silviculturalsilvicultural techniques:techniques: thinningthinning andand logging;logging; to studystudy thethe effecteffect ofof thesethese treatmentstreatments on thethe behaviourbehaviour and growth of various species;specIes; to studystudy thethe evolutionevolution of standsstands as aa wholewhole (mortality,(mortality, naturalnatural regrowthregrowth of saplings, effect on creepers and regrowth, andand soso forth),forth), againagain inin relationrelation toto thethe silvicultural treatments;treatments; to verifyverify thethe favourablefavourable oror unfavourableunfavourable growthgrowth ofof seedlingsseedlings andand saplingssaplings (regeneration); to quantifyquantify thethe effecteffect ofof thethe variousvarious treatmentstreatments onon production,production, definedefine thethe treatment best suited toto thethe physicalphysical andand yieldyield constraints,constraints, andand determinedetermine thethe gains that cancan bebe achievedachieved thereby.thereby. 3.1 Project descriptiondescription The project is located inside CIRAD's Paracou-SinnamaryParacou-Sinnamary concession,concession, aroundaround fortyforty kilometres from the city ofof Kourou.Kourou. At the outset,outset, thethe sitesite comprisedcomprised 108108 haha ofof primary primary evergreenevergreen forestforest divideddivided into 12 square compartments ofof 9 ha each, plotted out after a detailed survey of an area of overover 450 ha, includingincluding aa soilsoil surveysurvey byby ORSTOMORSTOM (French(French InstituteInstitute ofof Scientific Scientific ResearchResearch forfor Cooperative Development) and a count of allall treestrees ofof merchantable merchantable species.species. Sitting priorities were asas follows:follows: - Possibility of measurementmeasurement and exploitation: adequateadequate presencepresence ofof allall sizes of high-valuehigh-value species;species; - Representativity of the soil: mainly shallow drainagedrainage basement, as this is the type of cover on almostalmost 80% of the nation'snation's land.land. To datedate 6262 treetree speciesspecies havehave beenbeen botanicallybotanically identifiedidentified (there are probablyprobably aroundaround 300 within thethe projectproject area),area), butbut moremore exhaustiveexhaustive identificationidentification is inin course.course. Fifty-eight of thethe identificationidentification speciesspecies havehave be,enbeen labelledlabelled "PRINCIPAL","PRINCIPAL", and formform a groupgroup thatthat includesincludes bothboth currrentlycumently marketed marketed timbertimber species species andand other other technologically technologically valuable species for whichwhich demanddemand isis still low. At presentpresent only 20 or soso speciesspecies areare marketed. GenerallyGenerally speaking, thethe angelicaangelica tree (Dycorinia(Dycorinia guianensis)guianensis) accounts for aa thirdthird of totaltotal productionproduction volume; Qualea rosearosea andand OcoteaOcotea rubra,rubra, takentaken together,together, accountaccount forfor another third. InIn otherother words,words, onlyonly three three species species makemake up up two-thirdstwo-thirds ofof total total loglog production.production. -- 119 - Species found frequently in Paracou:Paracou: % of basalbasal areaarea Licania spp. and Parinari spp.spp. Chrysobalanaceae 12% Eschweilera spp. Lecytidaceae 11% Eperua spp.spp. Caesalpiniaceae 9% Qualea rosea and RuizterianaRuiZleriana albiflora Vochysiasceae 5% Vouacapoua americana Caesalpiniaceae 3% Dicorynia guianensis Caesalpiniaceae 1% Number of trees withwith diametersdiameters ofof over 1010 cm: 83/ha (principal(principal species)species) 608/ha (all(all species)species) Corresponding basal area: 14 m%am2/ha (principal species) 31 m2/ham2/ha (all species)species) Corresponding volume: 173 m3/ham3/ha (principal species) 360 m3/ham3/ha (all species)species) Initial measurements andand treetree localization werewere completedcompleted inin 1984, after the nine compartments hadhad been marked off.off. All treestrees withwith diametersdiameters of 1010 cmcm oror moremore werewere fullyfully identifiedidentified inin thethe centralcentral 66.25.25 ha (250 x 250 m)m) plotsplots inin eacheach compartment;compartment; that is, overover aa totaltotal of 75 hectares. All of the approximately 46 000 trees, whetherwhether belongingbelonging toto principal speciesspecies or not,not, were numbered, identifiedidentified (if(if belongingbelonging toto principalprincipal species)species) andand localizedlocalized accordingaccording to thethe conventional system of perpendicularperpendicular coordinates.coordinates. Girth measurements have been made annually sincesince 1984 atat the height of 1.301.30 m.m. 3.2 Silvicultural treatments and their impactimpact An initial me,asurementmeasurement campaigncampaign waswas carriedcarried outout inin the virgin forest over aa periodperiod of twotwo years,years, upup toto thethe thirdthird inventoryinventory andand thethe demarcationdemarcation ofof testtest plots.plots. A seriesseries ofof fourfour treatmentstreatments (applied(applied overover thethe wholewhole ofof the the 9-hectare9-hectare plot)plot) beganbegan inin 1986 and were repeatedrepeated threethree times:times: First treatment:treatment: ConventionalConventional logging,logging, extended extended toto severalseveral speciesspecies ofof tested tested technologicaltechnological value for whichwhich demanddemand isis stillstill lowlow (minimum(minimum exploitableexploitable diameterdiameter variedvaried betweenbetween 40 andand 60 cm, dependingdepending on thethe species).species). The fellingfelling raterate averagedaveraged 1010 treestrees perper hectare,hectare, yieldingyielding 50 m3/ham3/ha of timber.timber. - 120120 -- 77.77:: A ..Fur; 2!iOM ;.:%71 2 0 M Ec,g porygoii/i:iii:. --- II 4141 v °W\ NI CENTRAL PLOT (6.25 HA) BUFFER ZONE GIVEN THE SAME f>::.~:::·.1 BUFFER ZONE GIVEN 11IE SAME DIVIDED INTO 4 SQUARES •.• ~ .• TREATMENTTRF.A TMENT AS THEmE CENTRALCENTRAL PLOTPLOT 0 CONTOUR UNES ' /' I CONTOUR UNES [;::J I CREEICCREEK _ SWAMPY AREA V /' --i EQUIDISTANTEQUlDISTANT2.5 2.5 MM .----rja- DIAGRAM OF A 9-HECTARE9-HECTARE PLOTPLOT Second treatment: LoggingLogging operationoperation identicalidentical toto thethe precedingpreceding one,one, butbut withwith complementarycomplementary thinning, effected by devitalizingdevitalizing secondarysecondary species without technological value, as well asas some malformed trees of thethe principalprincipal species,species, withwith diametersdiameters overover 4040 cmcm (devitalization(devitalization accomplished byby notching the trees and applyingapplying arboricides).arboricides). ThinningThinning eliminatedeliminated around 30 trees/ha, or 8080 m3/ha.m3/ha. Third treatment: LoggingLogging ofof the same kinds of timbertimber as before, butbut alsoalso ofof secondary secondary species with diametersdiameters ofof 40 to 50 cm for use as fuelwood, plus thinning of trees belonging to secondary speciesspecies with diametersdiameters ofof over over 5050 cm.cm. This operation producedproduced nearlynearly 3030 m3/ham3/ha 3 fuelwood (20 trees/ha) and devitalized 14 trees, oror 5050 m3,m , per hectare.hectare. Fourth treatment: TheThe forest is leftleft untoucheduntouched and servesserves asas aa permanentpermanent control forfor quantifying the effects of thethe threethree previousprevious treatments.treatments. - 121121 -- The followingfollowing drawingdrawing depictsdepicts thethe secondsecond treatment:treatment: TREATMENT COMBININGCOMBINING LOGGINGLOGGING ANDAND THINNINGTHINNING (Crowns of valuablevaluable speciesspecies areare shade,d)shaded) Logging I Stand status beforebefore andand afterafter treatment:treatment: . Following are thethe approximateapproximate percentagespercentages of basalbasal areaarea reductionsreductions byby logging,logging, thinning andand incidentalincidental damage:damage: 1stI st tre,atment:treatment: 1717% % of the basal area 2nd treatment: 42%42 % ofof the the basalbasal areaarea 3rd treatment: 47%47% ofof thethe basalbasal areaarea -- 122 - 1st15t treatment 2nd treatmenttreatment 3rd treatment Principal All Principal All Principal All Stand before NN/hai h. 172172.1.1 595595.1.1 172.9 612.7 164.6 613.3 treatment BA/h.BAJha 13.46 30.46 1313.63.63 13.64 31.8031.80 31.72 Felled trees Nih.N/ha 10.1 10.1 10.9 10.9 14.7 28.9 BA/h.BA/ha 3.25 3.25 3.81 3.81 4.13 6.30 Broken trees NN/hai h. 17.1 69.4 17.5 74.5 28.9 133.5 BAIh.BA/ha 0.64 1.94 0.75 2.19 1.05 3.623.62 DevitalizedDevitalized trees Nih.N/ha 0.0 0.0 4.4 28.8 5.1 15.015.0 BAIh.BA/ha 0.00 0.00 1.40 7.41 1.84 5.03 Total "eliminated""eliminated" Nih.N/ha 27.2 79.5 32.8 114.2 48.7 177.4 BA/h.BA/ha 3.89 55.19.19 5.96 7.02 14.95 13.41 Stand after NN/hai h. 144144.9.9 515.5 140.1140.1 498.5 115.9 435.9 treatment BA/h.BA/ha 9.57 25.27 7.67 6.62 16.85 18.31 Intact trees Nih.N/ha 128.7 454.0 122.5 439.5 93.6 343.7 BA/haBA/ha 8.53 22.52 6.69 5.44 1313.26.26 16.08 Damaged treestrees Nih.N/ha 1616.2.2 61.5 17.6 59.0 22.3 92.2 BA/h.BA/ha 1.041.04 2.75 0.980.98 2.232.13 1.18 3.59 NN/ha/ha = numbernumber perper hectare;hectare; BA/haBAlha == basalbasal areaarea perper hectarehectare Felling and hauling damaged the stands (trees uprooted or broken, damageddamaged crownscrowns and boles) and disrupted the soil (compacting, ruts, and soso forth).forth). MortalityMortality duedue toto logginglogging operations is proportional to their intensity, which entails the destructiondestruction ofof 66 to 12%12 % of the basal area, or thethe deathdeath ofof 66 oror 77 treestrees withwith diametersdiameters overover 1010 cmcm forfor eacheach treetree logged.logged. Logging-related mortality may continue for somesome years,years, asas treestrees thatthat have have be,en been wounded or canted or otherwiseotherwise weakenedweakened slowlyslowly die off.off. By contrast, devitalization causes little damage to neighbouring trees (less than one tree with diameter over 1010 cmcm forfor eacheach devitalizeddevitalized tree).tree). ThreeThree yearsyears afterafter thisthis treatment,treatment, 90% of the devitalized trees are deaddead (the(the sapotaceaesapotaceae are thethe mostmost resistant).resistant). TheThe eliminationelimination of largelarge treestrees byby devitalizationdevitalization causescauses minimumminimum damagedamage while achievingachieving the purposepurpose ofof opening the canopy.canopy. - 123123 -- As to the timbertimber yield,yield, onlyonly 3030 m3/ham3/ha were transported toto thethe sawmill,sawmill, asas againstagainst thethe inventoried potential of nearlynearly 7575 m3/ha.m3/ha. Trees were declassifieddeclassified throughout thethe logginglogging operation: operation: 25 25 m e3 remainedremained standing,standing, and of the 50 m3m3 felled,felled, 2020 me 3were were abandoned abandoned duringduring thethe operationoperation (due(due to cracks, rotted hearts, breakage, hauling losses,losses, wastage,wastage, andand soso forth), despite the care takentaken inin thethe framework ofof a research project. CertainCertain speciesspecies such as Eperua spp.spp. areare characterizedcharacterized byby a very low marketabilitymarketability factor.factor. 3.3 Principal results The most re-centrecent datadata werewere generatedgenerated by the 1990 measurement campaign (four(four yearsyears after logging and three after thinning).thinning). AlthoughAlthough these early results are onlyonly provisional, theythey are already highlyhighly promising.promising. In the control plot, thethe balance,balance, inin termsterms ofof basalbasal areaarea andand volume,volume, turnedturned positive for the firstfust timetime sincesince 1987,1987, duedue toto aa significantsignificant decreasedecrease ofof naturalnatural mortalitymortality linked to the fluctuations of a balancedbalanced stand.stand. Regarding the firstfirst treatinenttreatment (exploitation,(exploitation, timber), thethe numbernumber ofof saplingssaplings withwith aa diameter ofof 10 cm oror moremore (regrowth)(regrowth) waswas twicetwice as greatgreat asas inin controlcontrol plots.plots. TheThe overalloverall growth trendtrend waswas ofof the samesame order,order, increasingincreasing (for(for the the principal principal species) species) from from 0.51 0.51 m e/ha3/ha between 1988 and 19891989 toto 0.910.91 m3/ham3/ha between 19891989 and 1990.1990. As to thethe otherother twotwo treatments,treatments, thethe balancebalance isis stillstill clearlyclearly positivepositive becausebecause thethe effecteffect of devitalizationdevitalization on mortalitymortality is stillstill operatingoperating despitedespite thethe sharpsharp increaseincrease inin regrowthregrowth andand individual tree growth (these(these standsstands areare stillstill stabilizing).stabilizing). A comparision of averageaverage individualindividual incrementsincrements in thethe principalprincipal speciesspecies showsshows thatthat the treestrees reactreact favourablyfavourably toto harvestingharvesting andand eveneven moremore whenwhen logginglogging isis combinedcombined withwith thinning. In 1990,1990, thethe incrementincrement (compared(compared to thethe control)control) waswas nearlynearly 60%60% inin harvestedharvested stands andand 100% in thosethose which had also been thinned.thinned. Stand opening by harvesting and especially by thinning leads to aa veryvery favourablefavourable reaction in the great majoritymajority of species,species, especiallyespecially asas regardsregards thethe smaller-smaller- andand medium-sizedmedium-sized trees.tre,es. ByBy contrast,contrast, thethe treatmentstreatments have practically no effect on the dominant trees, which are subject to little competition from the surroundingsurrounding stand.stand. Of course the treestrees dodo notnot allall reactreact toto thethe treatmenttreatment immediately,immediately, or in thethe samesame way. Reactions are affected by manymany different factors (genetic,(genetic, pedological, and so forth). Even under whatwhat appearappear toto bebe identicalidentical conditionsconditions (type(type ofof silviculture,silviculture, species,species, size), the rate of diameter growth will vary from tree to tree. OnOn untreateduntreated plots, while most individuals ofof the same species and size grow at the same rate, somesome willwill growgrow muchmuch faster.faster. Harvesting and thinning increases the ratio of fast-growing to slow-growingslow-growing individuals. The same holds for regrowth:regrowth: moremore stemsstems attainattain aa 10-cmlO-cm diameterdiameter afterafter thesethese treatments.treatments. -- 124124 - Natural mortality, the original mechanism of forest self-regeneration (by windthrowing), is aa veryvery importantimportant phenomenonphenomenon butbut unfortunatelyunfortunately one whichwhich isis difficultdifficult toto quantify. It has notnot beenbeen possiblepossible toto establishestablish anyany connectiionconnectiion between the naturalnatural mortalitymortality rate and thethe intensityintensity ofof standstand opening:opening: treestrees ofof allall sizessizes diedie onon bothboth treatedtreated andand untoucheduntouched plots. UnlikeUnlike diameterdiameter growthgrowth andand regrowth,regrowth, naturalnatural mortalitymortality isis aa discontinuous discontinuous event-event related phenomenon that can be evaluated only over very longlong periodsperiods ofof observation,observation, justjust as in climatology.climatology. The effort neededneeded toto reachreach aa betterbetter understandingunderstanding ofof windthrowingwindthrowing andand die-backdie-back is all the more necessarynecessary inin lightlight ofof thethe factfact thatthat productionproduction losseslosses due toto mortalitymortality cancan bebe quitequite large, andand maymay significantlysignificantly reducereduce oror eveneven cancelcancel outout thethe exploitableexploitable potential.potential. These findings, whichwhich are similarsimilar toto thosethose fromfrom thethe CELOSCELOS projectproject inin SurinameSuriname andand the INPINPA A project at ManausManaus inin Brazil,Brazil, havehave mademade itit possiblepossible toto taketake stepssteps towardstowards sustainedsustained management ofof the forest ecosystem based on technicaltechnical resultsresults thatthat havehave beenbeen increasinglyincreasingly confirmed in the frameworkframework ofof GuyaneseGuyanese forestforest managementmanagement (illustrated earlier). Bibliography BARITEAU, MM.. andand SCHMITT,SCHMITT, L.,L., 1990.1990. GestionGestion dede l'écosystème l'ecosysteme forestierforestier guyanais.guyanais. Etude de la1a croissancecroissance et dede la1a regenerationregeneration naturellenaturelle (dispositif(dispositif de Paracou). INRA/CTFT:INRA/CTFT: Bois etet ForetsForas desdes Tropiques,Tropiques, No. 220.220. GAZEL, M., 1983.1983. CroissanceCroissance desdes arbresarbres et productivitéproductivite des peuplements enen foretfora equatoriale de Guyane. 30 p. SCHMITT, L., 1989.1989. EtudeEtude desdes peuplementspeuplements naturelsnaturels enen for&foret densedense guyanaise.guyanaise. MiseMise enen application des traitements sylvicolessylvicoles sursur Iele dispositif dede Paracou.Paracou. CTFT, 51 p.p. SCHMITT, L. 1990.1990. EtudeEtude desdes peuplementspeuplements naturels en foraforet densedense guyanaise.guyanaise. PresentationPresentation des premierspremiers résultatsresultats obtenusobtenus deuxdeux annéesannees aprèsapres applicationapplication desdes traitementstraitements sylvicoles.sylvicoles. CTFT, 25 p. 4. CASECASE STUDYSTUDY NO.NO.4: 4: PERUPERU THE ALEXANDERALEXANDER VONVON HUMBOLDTHUMBOLDT NATIONALNATIONAL FOREST MANAGEMENT PLAN 4.1 Overview In 19711971 thethe PeruvianPeruvian GovernmentGovernment requestedrequested UNDPUNDP financingfinancing forfor aa demonstrationdemonstration forest-management project inin thethe AlexanderAlexander vonvon HumboldtHumboldt NationalNational ForestForest in in thethe AmazonianAmazonian 1 -- 125 - basin plain. The long-termlong-term goals of thisthis project,project, whichwhich waswas conductedconducted from 19741974 to 19781978 (under(under thethe aegisaegis of FAO), were: to increaseincrease sustainedsustained yields from thethe nationalnational forestsforests viavia demostrationsdemostrations of management, improvement, protectionprotection andand logginglogging techniques;techniques; to maximize social and economic benefits via the developmentdevelopment of an organizedorganized wood industry. The project's short-termshort-term goalsgoals were:were: to determine whether itit wouldwould bebe technicallytechnically and economically possible to create a complex of wood-basedwood-based industries;industries; to study thethe regenerationregeneration ofof marketable marketable species;species; to draw upup aa managementmanagement planplan forfor thethe vonvon HumboldtHumboldt NationalNational Forest;Forest; to conduct feasibilityfeasibility studies;studies; to train personnel at allall staffstaff levels.levels. 4.2 Brief description The decision to create thisthis forestforest inin thethe LoretoLoreto andand HuanucoHuanuco districtsdistricts ofof the the SelvaSelva del PerilPeru region into a natural forest was taken in June 1965. In 1974,1974, itsits areaarea waswas fixedfixed at 652000652 000 hectares, ofof whichwhich 610610 000000 werewere consideredconsidered availableavailable for management:management: 5700057 000 haha of protection forest andand 553553 000000 haha allocatedallocated forfor logging,logging, plantationsplantations andand agro-foresty.agro-foresty. Von Humboldt is a (very)(very) moistmoist closedclosed forest,forest, withwith rainfallrainfall varyingvarying betweenbetween 33 200200 and 5 500500 mm/year.mm/year. AroundAround twentytwenty speciesspecies belongingbelonging toto thethe Bombacaceae, Bombacaceae, Moraceae,Moraceae, Sapotaceae, Lauraceae, CaesalpiniaceaeCaesalpiniaceae andand Lecythidaceae families account for 50%50 % ofof thethe tree population.population. There hadhad beenbeen littlelittle traditionaltraditional logginglogging of high-grade species, due toto thethe difficultydifficulty of extracting the products (to(to Pucallpa). TheThe speciesspecies in pointpoint were:were: Caoba Swietenia macrophylla Cedar Cedrela odorata - Ishpingo Amburana cearensis Tornillo Cedrelinga catenaeformis 4.3 Project development DGFF (Dirección(Direcci6n General Forestal y Fauna)Fauna) markedmarked outout aa 200-hectare 200-hectare pilotpilot demonstration areaarea where various nurseries, camps and trials werewere establishedestablished in 1974.1974. A seriesseries of inventoriesinventories waswas mademade inin 19711971 accordingaccording toto differentdifferent criteriacriteria (starting(starting fromfrom diameters of 30 cm). TheThe exploratoryexploratory workwork showedshowed that out of 300300 speciesspecies counted,counted, 88 alone represented 4242% % of thethe totaltotal treetree population,population, averagingaveraging 2121 perper hectare.hectare. - 126126 - Moreover, sawnwoodsawnwood volumevolume was concentrated inin aroundaround twentytwenty speciesspecies averagingaveraging 21.21.7 7 m3/ha;m3/ha; the most frequentfrequent were:were: Eschweileira spp. (Machimango) 4.2 m3/ham3/ha Chorisia spp.spp. (Lupuna) 2.3 m3/ham3/ha Pterocarpus spp.spp. (palisangre)(Palisangre) 2.6 m3/ham3/ha CopaijeraCopaifera spp. (Copaiba) 3.5 m3/ham3/ha - ¡JuraHura crepitanscrepitans (Catahua) 0.8 m3/ham3/ha - Brosimum spp. (Chimicua and Panguana) 2.2 m3/ham3/ha During the project DGFF and FAO inventoriedinventoried a 2%2 % samplesample of fourfour 5050 000-hectareOOO-hectare blocks (pre-defined byby thethe 19711971 survey)survey) whichwhich presumablypresumably hadhad thethe bestbest development development potential. Comment: 2525% % sample was also inventoriedinventoried within the 200-hectare pilotpilot area,area, and two specific regenerationregeneration surveyssurveys werewere mademade ofof threethree size classes (0(0 to 3 ni m height,height, 33 m m heightheight up to 1414 cm diameter,diameter, 1515 toto 3939 cmcm diameter).diameter). All these inventoriesinventories showedshowed that thethe forest'sforest's botanicalbotanical compositioncomposition waswas highlyhighly heterogenous, but commercialcommercial volumesvolumes werewere veryvery homogenous. homogenous. Twenty-oneTwenty-one speciesspecies accounted for three quarters ofof thethe commercialcommercial volume, and regeneratedregenerated trees of 1515 speciesspecies represented 85 percent of thethe numbernumber ofof stems.stems. CommercialCommercial volumevolume increasedincreased fromfrom 1515 toto 30 m3/ham3/ha overover the period of the project because 20 newnew speciesspecies were added toto thethe listlist ofof highhigh grade species.species. EconomicEconomic analysis analysis indicatedindicated thatthat anan investmentinvestment ofof 26 26 millionmillion USUS dollarsdollars wouldwould be neededneeded toto completecomplete the project;project; thethe internalinternal rate ofof returnreturn waswas estimatedestimated atat 1212 toto 17 percent,percent, and cashcash flowflow waswas alwaysalways positive.positive. The managementmanagement plan allocated different zones to agrosilviculture, plantations, the natural production forest and thethe protectionprotection forest.forest. FromFrom thethe silvicultural silvicultural standpoint,standpoint, management of the production forest was based on a 60-year rotation and a 30-year rotationrotation felling cycle. 4.4 The managementmanagement planplan A considerable research effort, with all kindskinds of trials,trials, waswas undertakenundertaken toto verifyverify thethe recommendations dictateddicta.ted byby thethe managementmanagement plan.plan. As regards the study of standstand dynamicsdynamics in particular, aa groupgroup ofof 75 75 permanentpermanent plotsplots werewere availableavailable butbut unfortunatelyunfortunately werewere neitherneither monitored nor protectedprotected (they(they werewere largelylargely destroyeddestroyed byby farming).farming). The Management Plan proper was designed in great detail (J.L. MassonMasson etet al,ai, 1979);1979); the major components were: Application period:period: five years (with(with reviewreview everyevery fivefive years)years) Goals: protection for sustainedsustained timbertimber productionproduction permanent supply to industryindustry - 127127 - expansion of timbertimber marketsmarkets reforestation in degraded areasareas establishment of a complementarycomplementary researchresearch programmeprogramme creating a largelarge numbernumber ofof jobsjobs forfor thethe neighbouringneighbouring workforce.workforce. Land allocation to fourfour uses,uses, withwith identificationidentification andand demarcationdemarcation of:of: production forest areasareas protection forest areasareas unusable areasareas (occupied by five "native" communities or farming) Major techniques:techniques: A 60-year60-year rotation (with(with anan interiminterim coupecoupe afterafter 3030 years)years) waswas establishedestablished inin relation to the 1010 000 m3m3 explotaibleexplotaible yearlyyearly inin blocksblocks ofof 6 700 hectares (average extraction: 1515 m3/ha).m3/ha). Definition of reforestation, stripstrip enrichmentenrichment and agroforestryagroforestry techniques.techniques. Survey and listinglisting ofof commercialcommercial species,species, andand definitiondefinition ofof thethe relevantrelevant extraction andand processingprocessing methods.methods. Procedures: Calculation ofof production potential: counts, maps, estimatesestimates of productivity.productivity. Road network: density calculation,calculation, definitiondefinition of newnew mainmain andand secondarysecondary roads,roads, etc. Logging: establishment of blocks, allocations, contracts and supervision.supervision. Cost calculation, personnel management,management, etc.etc. 4.5 Outcome of the project Although the Management Plan was wellwell designed and the economic indicatorsindicators werewere favourable, therethere waswas aa lacklack ofof dynamism dynamism whenwhen itit cainecame toto actuallyactually implementingimplementing it, andand thethe actions were not carried outout asas planned.planned. For one thing, peasantspeasants occupied many exploited areas,areas, including research plots, for shifting cultivation. One of thethe mainmain technicaltechnical benefits was that the DGFF shoulderedshouldered a large partpart ofof everything involve,dinvolved in thethe variousvarious experimentsexperiments andand trials:trials: demonstration inventories,inventories, production of forest silviculture, road-opening,road-opening, bridge-building, and so forth. When the project ended inin 1979,1979, post-plantationpost-plantation operationsoperations andand mostmost ofof the the researchresearch and developmentdevelopment programmes were halted. ButBut inin 1981 another projectproject supportedsupported byby Japanese aid (AICA)(AICA) tooktook overover thethe vonvon HumboldtHumboldt experimentalexperimental station.station. The newnew projectproject includesincludes plantationplantation andand enrichmentenrichment trials,trials, nurseries, road maintenance/improvement, and and reactivationreactivation of of the surviving FAO/DGFF researchresearch plots.plots. Around a thousandthousand hectareshectares have been plantedplanted or enrichedenriched sincesince 19821982 (with(with somesome success).success). - 128128 - Unfortunately, thethe postpost harvestharvest recommendations contained in the Management PlanPlan have not been followed at the country level. AlthoughAlthough annual-coupe blocks or compartments have been established on on thethe basic of aa 40-year40-year cycle,cycle, DGFFDGFF isis unableunable toto controlcontrol concessionnaires logging operations.operations. In conclusion, it wouldwould seem that the project'sproject's failurefailure was notnot duedue toto technicaltechnical factors. It waswas duedue mainlymainly toto thethe lacklack ofof determination determination and/orand/or financialfinancial resources; in short,short, to itsits failurefailure toto receivereceive sufficientsufficient prioritypriority atat thethe nationalnational level.level. Bibliography MASSON, J.L.,J.L., dede MILDE,MILDE, R.,R., BAZAN,BAZAN, F.,F., FORRESTER,FORRESTER, G.,G., 1979.1979. DemostraciónDemostraci6n de manejo y utilizaci6nutilización integral de bosques tropicales. Plan dede manejomanejo parapara elel bosquebosque nacionalnacional Alexander von Humboldt. FAO, Rome,Rome, 6161 p.p. andand appendices.appendices. De MILDE, R.,R., 1976.1976. TablasTablas de de volumen. volumen. BosqueBosque nacionalnacional A.A. vonvon Humboldt.Humboldt. DocumentoDocumento de trabajo no.no. 8, 1414 p.p. De MILDE,MILDE, R.,R., 1978. 1978. Algunas Algunas observaciones observaciones sobresobre lala composición composici6n deldel bosquebosque húmedohumedo tropical. 1010 p.p. 5. CASECASE STUDYSTUDY NO.NO.5: 5: PERUPERU THE PALCAZUPALCAZU VALLEYVALLEY PROJECTPROJECT 5.1 Overview The PICHIS-PALCAZUPICHIS-PALCAZU projectproject waswas conductedconducted inin the frameworkframework of aa globalglobal integrated rural developmentdevelopment programme; until 19881988 itit receivedreceived financialfinancial supportsupport fromfrom USAID and technical supportsupport fromfrom TSCTSC (Tropical(Tropical ScienceScience CentreCentre ofof Costa Costa Rica).Rica). Commencing inin 1989, the project was run with the country'scountry's ownown resourcesresources for development of the Palcazu valley, whichwhich coverscovers anan areaarea ofof approximately approximately 295295 000000 hectares.hectares. The forestry componentcomponent waswas givengiven thethe tasktask ofof implementing implementing sustainedsustained managementmanagement of wood resources through thethe systemsystem ofof openingopening stripsstrips fullyfully exploitedexploited byby clear-fellingclear-felling (Fajas de aprovechamiento a tala rasa). Work commenced in 19831983 with a preparatory and training programme, and inin 19851985 the firstfirst twotwo stripsstrips werewere clear-felledclear-felled onon anan experimentalexperimental basis, inin orderorder toto studystudy standstand regeneration and reformation.reformation. Other works werewere undertakenundertaken in parallel: inventories, road-opening,road-opening, constnictionconstruction of a timber processing and utilizationutilization unit.unit. -- 129 - This seriesseries ofof actionsactions waswas implementedimplemented through the creation of an initialinitial forestryforestry cooperative (Cooperativa Forestal Yanesha)Yanesha) whose members belong to the five communities directlydire,ctly involved involved in in thethe overall project. SeveralSeveral otherother organizations,organizations, for instanceinstance thethe Fundaci6nFundación Peruana parapara la Conservaci6nConservación dede lala Naturaleza,Naturaleza, gradually addedadded their contributions, which became vitalvital afterafter USAID fundingfunding waswas withdrawnwithdrawn inin lightlight ofof thethe site'ssite's insecurity. 5.2 PrinciplesPrinciples The project waswas designeddesigned to achieveachieve sustainablesustainable rural developmentdevelopment based on forest tractstracts felled and developeddeveloped by ruralrural communities.communities. The proposedproposed techniquestechniques are base-dbased onon thethe clear-felling ofof strips 20 toto 5050 metresmetres wide; thethe cooperativescooperatives are toto fellfell oneone adjacentadjacent (but(but notnot contiguous)contiguous) strip each year. year. In theory, thethe cooperativescooperatives shouldshould bebe ableable toto sellsell thethe wholewhole biomassbiomass forfor sawnwood,sawnwood, construction woodwood (fencing,(fencing, poles,poles, etcetc.),.), fuelwood oror charcoal. It isis alsoalso expectedexpected thatthat regrowth of thethe secondarysecondary forestforest willwill preservepreserve thethe biologicalbiological diversitydiversity andand environmentalenvironmental rolerole of the climax forest. Lastly,Lastly, aa new new harvestharvest isis envisagedenvisaged atat thethe endend ofof 30 30 ye,ars,years, after thinningsthinnings forfor stand improvement.improvement. 5.3 Methodology The methodologymethodology was developed in Costa Rica on the basis of studiesstudies conductedconducted in secondary forests reformedreformed afterafter clearfellingc1earfelling (and(and abandonment).abandonment). The strips areare 2020 toto 5050 metresmetres wide;wide; theirtheir length length dependsdepends onon locallocal topographytopography andand product removal logistics. The first twotwo stripsstrips felledfelled measuredmeasured 20 x 70 and 50 xx 100100 metres.metres. After felling, the logs were dragged out by ox teams;teams; thethe largestlargest logslogs werewere sawnsawn lengthwiselengthwise to facilitate this operation. RoundwoodRoundwood waswas positionedpositioned at thethe sideside of thethe tracktrack andand trucked to thethe processingprocessing unit.unit. ConstructionConstruction woodwood waswas chemicallychemically treated; other woodwood was processed for charcoal.charcoal. AA BoucherieBoucherie typetype wood-impregnation wood-impregnation unitunit waswas installedinstalled at Shirimangazu, near Iscozacin, toto treattreat constructionconstruction woodwood withwith aa copper/chromium/arseniccopper/chromium/arsenic productproduct,, andand aa cooperativecooperative sawmillsawmill waswas builtbuilt onon thethe samesame site.site. New strips werewere felledfelled startingstarting inin 1988,1988, bringingbringing thethe treatedtreated areaarea toto aa totaltotal ofof several several hectares. 5.4 Project results and outlook The narrow clear-felled stripsstrips resembleresemble scarsscars whichwhich thethe surrounding untoucheduntouched forest should rapidly recolonize. InIn fact, carefulcareful biologicalbiological monitoring ofof these plots or stripsstrips confirmed that at Palcazu,Palcazu, asas everywhereeverywhere else,else, thethe forestforest regeneratesregenerates vigorouslyvigorously ifif notnot subjected toto fire, grazinggrazing andand farming.farming . - 130130 -- Strip widthwidth influencesinfluences the diversity of regeneration, which is muchmuch higher on thethe lO-metre10-metre outerouter swath bordering the forest. MoreMore thanthan half of the speciesspecies regenerate by young sprouts and stump shoots, and only 13%13 % of themthem through strict vegetative regeneration. The shade-demanding speciesspecies typicaltypical of of thethe original forest grow backback almostalmost exclusivelyexclusively by shoots, thethe pioneerpioneer speciesspecies solelysolely byby seeding.seeding. TheThe mainly mainly light-demanding light-demanding intermediateintermediate species regenerate in bothboth ways.ways. Unfortunately, pioneer speciesspecies ofof nono technologicaltechnological valuevalue (Alchornea,(Alchornea, Cecropia,Cecropia, Vismia) representrepresent thethe >last'vast majoritymajority ofof the regenerationregeneration stock and numerousnumerous and costlycostly silvicultural treatments willwill bebe required if the more important species are to be grown. All things considered, biologicalbiological diversitydiversity doesdoes notnot seemseem toto bebe definitely definitely ensuredensured byby this system.system. The project deservesdeserves creditcredit forfor beingbeing relativelyrelatively innovative,innovative, asas itit waswas amongamong thethe firstfirst to suggestsuggest newnew approachesapproaches (full(full useuse ofof the the biomass) biomass) involvinginvolving locallocal populationspopulations andand motivating them to take upup thethe managementmanagement of theirtheir ownown forestforest resources. resources. However, aa numbernumber ofof uncertainties uncertainties remain:remain: - the feasibility of organizingorganizing thethe harvestharvest ofof widely-separated widely-separated strips;strips; - the possibility of treating and processing a significantsignificant number of treestrees ofof allall typestypes and categories;categories; - the outlook for profitableprofitable salesale ofof thethe wholewhole felledfelled biomass;biomass; the commercialcommercial and biologicalbiological value of thethe second-growthsecond-growth forestforest afterafter thirtythirty years. According to experts, the project requires considerable outside aid to succeed. One of thethe problemsproblems connected with the development of the local cooperative is that it must pay labour to workwork thethe forestforest andand needsneeds loansloans to meetmeet thethe payroll,payroll, asas productproduct salessales are veryvery laborious and difficult.difficult. Lastly, itit mustmust bebe emphasizedemphasized thatthat inin aa continentcontinent wherewhere youngyoung secondarysecondary forestsforests areare proliferating, the projectproject is neither innovative nor conservancy-mindedconservancy-minded asas regards development of thethe ecosystem.ecosystem. Bibliography (SEE PERU in thethe appendix).appendix). - 131131 -- 6. CASECASE STUDY STUDY NO.NO.6 6:: MEXICOMEXICO THE QUINTANAOUINTANA ROOROO PILOTPILOT PROJECTPROJECT 6.1 Overview Until 1983,1983, thethe forestforest inin thethe southernsouthern part ofof thethe StateState ofof QuintanaQuintana Roo waswas worked by aa logginglogging contractorcontractor underunder aa 29-year29-year permitpermit thatthat included included bothboth State-ownedState-owned andand city-city owned land. land. The contractor paidpaid royaltiesroyalties andand conductedconducted highlyhighly selectiveselective logginglogging mainlymainly confinedconfined to well-knownwell-known commercial species:species: CaobaCaoba andand Cedar.Cedar. Extraction amounted to 20 000 rrNyearm3/ year and waswas conductedconducted in aa ratherrather disorderlydisorderly manner over half aa millionmillion hectares.hectares. This unfortunatelyunfortunately classicclassic pattern,pattern, followedfollowed toto the detrimentdetriment of truetrue regionalregional development andand benefiting fromfrom laxity on thethe partpart inspectioninspection bureaus,bureaus, waswas completelycompletely overhauled inin 1983 (when the permit expired, thanks toto the work of thethe formerformer forestforest research department (INIF)(INIF), , supported byby German aid and aboveabove allall byby thethe felicitous felicitous initiative of thethe StateState governor.governor. After the departure of thethe logginglogging contractor, a "Plan"Plan PilotoPiloto Forestal"Forestal" waswas designeddesigned and implemented to organize thethe developmentdevelopment of products andand ofof the the existingexisting processingprocessing unit,unit, and to establish landland usesuses thatthat wouldwould promotepromote anan ecologicalecological balancebalance compatible compatible with with sustainedsustained production byby and for thethe benefitbenefit ofof the the locallocal population,population, groupedgrouped inin forestforest producers'producers' cooperatives working communal land.land. In Mexico, this type of groupgroup isis calledcalled anan EJIDO.EJIDO. 6.2 The QuintanaOuintana Roo Forest This is a semi-deciduous forest with rainfall of 11 200 mm/yr and a dry season lasting from fivefive toto sevenseven months.months. ItIt isis locatedlocated onon flatflat landland andand isis particularlyparticularly richrich inin MahoganyMahogany (Swietenia macrophylla)macrophylla) and Sapodilla (Manilkara zapota),zapota) , species which typify this kind of formation. HistoricallyHistorically thethe forestforest has has beenbeen highlyhighly disrupteddisrupted byby humanhuman activitiesactivities andand cyclones,cyclones, similarly to what we observed above with regard to thethe forestsforests ofof Belize.Belize. Chicle,Chicle, latexlatex andand mahogany wood from the twotwo aforementionedaforementioned species were thethe cornerstones of thethe economyeconomy in thethe southernsouthern part ofof thethe State.State. 6.3 Goals and principlesprinciples The project's primaryprimary goalgoal isis toto helphelp locallocal communitiescommunities organizeorganize themselvesthemselves to profitably exploitexploit thethe forest inin theirtheir territory,territory, so asas toto avoidavoid thethe classicclassic patternpattern ofof deforestation for shiftingshifting cultivation.cultivation. This entailed a set of technicaltechnical goals such as sustained management,management, thethe development of a marketmarket forfor lowerlower gradegrade species,species, andand soso forth.forth. - 132132 - In practical terms,terms, aidaid consistedconsisted onon thethe oneone handhand ofof providingproviding thethe equipmentequipment needed by the Ejidos to work thethe forestsforests andand toto supplysupply thethe existingexisting processing units, andand onon thethe other of supportsupport forfor ejidoejido activitiesactivities byby thethe highlyhighly motivatedmotivated agentsagents ofof SARHSARH (Secretaría(Secretaria de Agricultura y de RecursosRecursos hidraulicos).hidraulicos). Out of the areas's totaltotal ofof 300 300 000000 hectares,hectares, thethe tenten ejidosejidos initiallyinitially involvedinvolved selectedselected 120 000 on whichwhich toto conductconduct theirtheir activities,activities, based on aa 25-year2S-year fellingfelling cyclecycle (on aa corresponding number ofof blocks),blocks), andand nono silvicultura!silvicultural treatments.treatments. 6.4 Research Sustained management depends depends on on thethe ability of MahoganyMahogany to regenerateregenerate afterafter logging. Findings fromfrom currentcurrent researchresearch onon regenerationregeneration dynamicsdynamics (heavily(heavily supportedsupported byby British aid) should reorientreorient oror influenceinfluence thethe basicbasic conceptsconcepts involvedinvolved inin thisthis operation.operation. 6.5 Status of thethe PilotPilot PlanPlan The numerous results obtainedobtained afterafter thethe project'sproject's initial yearsyears are difficult toto list exhaustively: From the technicaltechnical standpoint, itit was possible toto fitfit the ejidos out with the necessary logging equipment,equipment, establish limitslimits on soilsoil and forestforest utilization,utilization, makemake inventories of fellingfelling potential and implementimplement reforestation. HoweverHowever,, felling, extraction and transporttransport methodsmethods havehave notnot yetyet beenbeen wellwell mastered.mastered. Still more important successes were represented by the generation of cash income (for thethe ejidos),ejidos), expansionexpansion of thethe rangerange ofof exploitedexploited speciesspecies (profiting(profiting by thethe commercial appeal of a steady and guaranteed supply of high grade species) and, most important,important, the creationcreation ofof anan atmosphereatmosphere ofof confidence confidence andand partnershippartnership among thethe locallocal populations.popUlations. The main drawbacks are that it willwill notnot bebe possiblepossible toto maintainmaintain thethe currentcurrent logginglogging rate over thethe longlong term,term, expeciallyexpecially asas regardsregards thethe highesthighest gradegrade species,species, andand thatthat silvicultural silvicultural treatments to improveimprove thethe growthgrowth ofof logged logged standsstands havehave notnot beenbeen plannedplanned oror implemented. implemented. Bibliography GALLETTI, H.A. andand ARGUELLES,ARGUELLES, A.,A., 1987.1987. LaLa experiencia experiencia enen elel aprovechamientoaprovechamiento de las selvasselvas enen elel estadoestado dede QuintanaQuintana Roo,Roo, México:Mexico: DelDel modelomodelo forestalforestal clásicochisico aa unun modelomodelo forestal alternativo. Ponencia presentada enen el TallerTaller InternacionalInternacional sobresobre SilviculturaSilvicultura y Manejo de Selvas, Chetumal, Mexico. SARH - COFAN - FAO,FAO, MayMay 11-21.11-21. SNOOK,SNOOK, L.C.,L.C. , 1991.1991. OpportunitiesOpportunities andand ConstraintsConstraints forfor SustainableSustainable TropicalTropical Forestry:Forestry: Lessons from the Plan Piloto Forestal, QuintanaQuintana Roo,Roo, Mexico.Mexico. 24 pp.pp. -- 133 - IX. GENERAL SUMMARY - CONCLUSION Assessment: After thethe foregoing pages, readers will have toto agree that notwithstanding allall the numerous research andand developmentdevelopment projects undertakenundertaken here andand there in LatinLatin America,America, inin mostmost ofof the the countries countries tropicaltropical forestforest managementmanagement existsexists onlyonly inin theory, and hashas practicallypractically nevernever beenbeen putput inin practicepractice inin thethe field, field, though though governments governments require submission of a forestforest managementmanagement plan before issuingissuing anan logginglogging permit.permit. Generally speaking, these plans are limited to a resource inventoryinventory andand a descriptiondescription of harvesting operations andand hypotheticalhypothetical silvicultura!silvicultural works.works. ThisThis cancan bebe ascribedascribed toto severalseveral causes: failure to traintrain forestryforestry agentsagents inin management,management, aa generallygenerally poorpoor undertandingundertanding of tested management techniques,techniques, and timber companies' lack ofof interestinterest inin long-termlong-term forestforest management set against the quickerquicker profitsprofits ofof intensive intensive logging.logging. Forest utilization permits vary from country toto country,country, andand withinwithin anyanyone one countrycountry depend on criteria such as the size of the exploitable area, the duration of thethe concession, the logger's obligationsobligations to renew thethe resource,resource, landland ownership,ownership, and so forth.forth. This is thethe casecase inin CostaCosta Rica,Rica, forfor instance,instance, whichwhich asas ofof 1983 1983 requiresrequires thethe establishment ofof management plans;plans; these are of variousvarious kinds:kinds: - simple logging contract applicable to farmingfarming oror grazinggrazing areas;areas; logging permitpermit applicable to forest areas, withwith oror withoutwithout thethe optionoption ofof changing changing land use (to(to farming);farming); contract for logging in plantations or in national forest reservesreserves (State(State property): for simple utilization ifif the area is less than 100 ha; or a management contract if the area is over 100100 ha.ha. Suriname has clearlyclearly establishedestablished silviculturalsilvicultural rules forfor sustainedsustained mangementmangement (the(the CELOS system;) eveneven ifif they havehave notnot beenbeen putput intointo practice,practice, theythey shouldshould serveserve asas anan example for other countries.countries. In Brazil, nono loggedlogged forestsforests areare underunder large-scalelarge-scale managementmanagement plansplans.. Research on silviculture and management has shownshown whatwhat problemsproblems managementmanagement plansplans couldcould encounter.encounter. Sustained management seems possible, but interesting a timbertimber companycompany inin thisthis activityactivity isis a moremore thanthan formidableformidable task.task. In 1987, a trialtrial salesale ofof standing standing timbertimber inin aa mappedmapped andand inventoriedinventoried forestforest forfor whichwhich a mangementmangement plan had beenbeen deviseddevised waswas attemptedattempted in thethe TapajosTapajos forest.forest. OnlyOnly oneone logging/processinglogging/processing company company was was interested, interested, and and only only for for an an areaarea ofof 100 ha, becausebecause thethe management costscosts were dissuasive. In Bolivia too, attempts atat large-scalelarge-scale forestforest managementmanagement areare thwartedthwarted by by the the absence absence of research findings and the timber companies' lack of financial interest inin the system. One integrated management projectproject isis under way in thethe ChimanesChimanes forest.forest. - 134134 -- In Venezuela, all managementmanagement plans must comply with a certaincertain number of directivesdirectives and be approved by an EvaluationEvaluation Committee formed by the Ministry. TheThe directivesdirectives requirerequire demarcation of the exploitation area; resource description (inventory and maps on a scale of 1:1:10 10 000000 or 1:501:50 000);000); determinationdetermination of thethe managementmanagement method,method, withwith definitiondefinition of compartments andand silviculturalsilvicultural operations (selective(selective fellingfelling andand pursuit of natural regeneration or enrichment); registration of operationsoperations in aa forestforest registry,registry, andand economiceconomic assessment.assessment. Current improvements alsoalso include marking future crop treestrees forfor protectionprotection andand isolation; map localization of trees to be felled, in order toto planplan extraction routes; reportsreports on volumes actually extracted (volume(volume tablestables andand verification).verification). These directives are beingbeing applied particularly in the TicoporoTicoporo andand Imataca forests,forests, notwithstanding conflicts with farming and miningmining interests.interests. In PeruPeru the Alexander vonvon Humboldt forestforest waswas the subjectsubject of aa remarkableremarkable management planplan designed inin 19791979 with thethe fullfull supportsupport ofof technical technical andand socio-economicsocio-economic data. Unfortunately,Unfortunately, lacklack ofof interest interest inin thisthis typetype ofof operation operation hashas mademade itit impossible impossible toto eithereither confirm or dispute the project's validity;validity; perhaps itit waswas tootoo advancedadvanced for its times.times. The Palcazu site is involvedinvolved in anan integratedintegrated pilotpilot managementmanagement project,project, where the forest belongingbelonging to indigenousindigenous rural communitiescommunities is managedmanaged by aa locallocal cooperativecooperative thatthat combines ownership, logging and processing. However, the model is fragilefragile andand requiresrequires outside aid. In Mexico, thethe mostmost interestinginteresting projectsprojects areare those those undertalcen undertaken byby locallocal cooperativescooperatives (ejidos) whichwhich manage thethe resources of theirtheir "own""own" forests;forests; thethe mostmost significantsignificant andand promising example is the Quintana Roo Plan Piloto Forestal. Trinidad, whichwhich hashas implementedimplemented trulytruly sustainedsustained managementmanagement of itsits productionproduction forests, offersoffers notnot onlyonly anan outstandingoutstanding exampleexample butbut proofproof positive positive thatthat forestforest managementmanagement isis feasible and profitable. Lastly, thethe RepublicRepublic ofof GuyanaGuyana isis commencingcommencing aa projectproject ofof sustainable sustainable forestforest management grounded on solidsolid research.research. All thingsthings considered,considered, itit appears that the presentpresent statestate ofof knowledgeknowledge is notnot insignificant:insignificant., thatthat numerousnumerous scenariosscenarios have beenbeen tested (with successes andand failures);failures); and that whoever the actors, whateverwhatever thethe goals,goals, andand whereverwherever thethe sitesite (in(in community-ownedcommunity-owned or State-State owned or privately-owned forests), thethe implementationimplementation of mangeinentmangement plans depends most ofof all on national andand internatinalinternatinal willwill andand determination.determination. Conclusion: Tropical AmericaAmerica asas aa wholewhole sufferssuffers fromfrom thethe handicapshandicaps inherentinherent inin allall developing countries: the problems of survivalsurvival thatthat faceface rapidly-growingrapidly-growing populations,populations, the problems of creatingcreating wealth,wealth, jobsjobs andand expertiseexpertise inin economiceconomic development,development, which become so acute that thethe concernsconcerns oror ambitionsambitions ofof forestforest administrationadministration officers are hardlyhardly talcentaken into account in a normal context of long-termlong-term planning.planning. -- 135135 - On the otherother hand,hand, aa readingreading ofof national national reportsreports showsshows thatthat deforestationdeforestation is a permanent problem that affects all of Latin America's moistmoist tropicaltropical forests.forests. The international public, alerted byby conservationists,conservationists, hashas takentaken anan attitudeattitude towardstowards thisthis problem which maymay not be entirelyentirely rational;rational; initially thethe most important stepstep isis to classify and quantify thethe phenomenon.phenomenon. In fact,fact, whilewhile excellentexcellent botanicalbotanical andand ecologicalecological studies have beenbeen conductedconducted to determine forest types, therethere havehave beenbeen nono systematicsystematic inventoriesinventories whichwhich wouldwould provideprovide knowledgelcnowledge ofof thethe areasareas covered by each type, and above all theirtheir evolution.evolution. ThereThere existexist onlyonly more or lessless accurateaccurate estimatesestimates whichwhich areare regularlyregularly quotedquoted inin variousvarious documents.documents. On the other hand, thethe phenomenonphenomenon of deforestationdeforestation mustmust be described according to the intended land use; forfor instance:instance: shiftingshifting cultivationcultivation andand thethe returnreturn to a secondarysecondary forest whichwhich maymay self-enrichself-enrich with light-demanding species and gaingain economiceconomic value;value; the trend toto pastures,pastures, yearlyyearly burningburning andand subsequentsubsequent erosion;erosion; - establishment ofof permanentpermanent cropscrops (coffee,(coffee, cocoa,cocoa, agroforestry, etc). Such a classificationclassification would make it possiblepossible toto measuremeasure thethe ecologicalecological impactimpact ofof deforestation, to determinedetermine minimum areas areas toto be setset asideaside asas reservesreserves toto maintainmaintain biodiversity, andand lastly,lastly, to knowknow thethe final economiceconomic outcome ofof thethe twotwo options:options: conservation/evolution and deforestation.deforestation. The phenomenonphenomenon ofof deforestion isis due in thethe firstfirst instanceinstance toto thethe basicbasic politicalpolitical factorfactor ofof populationpopulation growth, eithereither onon sitesite (in(in thethe IsthmusIsthmus countries),countries), oror inin thethe demographicdemographic reservoirsreservoirs consistingconsisting of thethe AndeanAndean forestforest andand northeasternnortheastern BrazilBrazil aroundaround thethe Amazonian Amazonian forest. FacedFaced withwith thisthis populationpopulation pressure,pressure, thethe conservationconservation legislationlegislation enactedenacted inin allall thesethese countries and the administrativeadministrative structures derivedderived therefromtherefrom seemseem altogetheraltogether ineffectiveineffective in the field. ThereThere areare threethree possible possible policy policy options,options, depending depending onon populationpopulation density: density: (a) The IsthmusIsthmus countriescountries havehave inin commoncommon aa highhigh populationpopulation densitydensity thatthat entails entails problemsproblems of fuelwoodfuelwood and timber supply. Land is becomingbecoming a scarce input, andand thethe effectseffects ofof erosion can be considerable.considerable. In thisthis context,context, aa policypolicy ofof settingsetting asideaside protectionprotection forestsforests isis imperative,imperative, andand shouldshould bebe accompaniedaccompanied byby intensiveintensive forestforest managementmanagement and thethe fostering of agro-forestry activities.activities. (b) In thethe AmazonianAmazonian countries,countries, population densitydensity is is low in thethe forestforest area,area, whichwhich constitutes a de facto reserve ofof land.land. ZoningZoning thethe areaarea on on soundsound scientificscientific bases bases shouldshould make it possible to direct agriculturalagricultural settlementsettlement towardstowards thethe mostmost fertilefertile lands,lands, developdevelop logging inin the permanentpermanent forest,forest, and preservepreserve areas whichwhich are criticalcritical fromfrom thethe standpoint of ecology andand biologicalbiological diversity.diversity. -- 136 - By contrast, there isis nono problemproblem ofof clearanceclearance forfor farmingfarming inin thethe sparselysparsely populatedpopulated GuyaneseGuyanese bloc.bloc. Forest managementmanagement is thus essentially a technical problem, and the legislation of Suriname and thethe RepublicRepublic ofof GuyanaGuyana isis adaptedadapted toto thisthis situation.situation. This dichotomy, which reflects the difference in population density, is repeatedrepeated in the silviculturalsilvicultural andand managementmanagement optionsoptions concerningconcerning the desirabledesirable forestforest economyeconomy andand research projects in thesethese areas.areas. I In the densely populated countries,countries, thethe pressurepressure onon land isis high, like the need for wood. Accordingly,Accordingly, herehere itit isis necessarynecessary toto apply apply intensive intensive silvicultural silvicultural andand managementmanagement techniques. By contrastcontrast,, whenwhen populationpopulation density is lower only extensive techniquestechniques are possible, and forest exploitation remains the manager's mainmain tool in thethe relevantrelevant areas. Demarcation,Demarcation, organization and control ofof concessionsconcessions shouldshould allowallow large-scalelarge-scale managementmanagement by annualannual coupes (as in Trinidad). 1 1 From the standpointstandpoint of the forest economy, the Isthmus countries areare now (or soon will be) facing problems of woodwood supply.supply. Accordingly,Accordingly, theythey needneed toto exploitexploit existingexisting forests as effectively as possible in order to reduce wood costs (for instance by extending the logging season toto the wholewhole year),year), andand firmlyfirmly decidedecide forfor thethe autarchicautarchic optionoption asas regardsregards woodwood productsproducts.. This willwill makemake itit possiblepossible to develop small wood industries andand crafts,crafts, increase the return from forestforest production,production, andand therebythereby betterbetter protectprotect thethe forestforest andand itsits ecosystems.ecosystems. The AmazonianAmazonian countries,countries, whichwhich still still havehave vastvast forested areas,areas, needneed to askask themselves whetherwhether it it isis inin their best interestsinterests or notnot toto maintainmaintain or eveneven toto developdevelop aa classical forestry activity in the tropics, withwith opportunitiesopportunities for export in somesome cases. AtAt anyany rate, itit isis importantimportant toto controlcontrol logginglogging andand thereforetherefore toto acquireacquire (at(at thethe nationalnational oror regionalregional level) thethe necessarynecessary modernmodem toolstools (remote(remote sensingsensing andand radar).radar). It is alsoalso necessarynecessary toto rationalize techniques andand circuits inin order to increase the timber companies' profit margins, of which a part shouldshould gogo towardstowards aa separateseparate nationalnational budgetbudget forfor reinvestmentreinvestment inin thethe forests. forests. As to forestryforestry research,research, inin countriescountries wherewhere populationpopulation densitydensity is highhigh itit shouldshould bebe aimed at intensive silviculturesilviculture and regeneration in naturalnatural forests.forests. InIn fact,fact, thethe considerable considerable demand for wood products allowsallows heavy intervention in the stands, for whichwhich thethe necessarynecessary manpower is alsoalso available.available. In the countriescountries wherewhere populationpopulation density is low, researchersresearchers shouldshould prefer insteadinstead a very extensiveextensive approach toto forestforest problems,problems, andand workwork primarlyprimarly onon inventoryinventory andand controlcontrol techniques, on measuringmeasuring thethe impactimpact ofof logginglogging andand improvementimprovement thinningthinning on stands, andand onon forest uses and products. 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FADFAO TECHNICAL PAPERSPAPERS FAO FORESTRYFORESTRY PAPERSPAPERS 1 Forest utilizationutilization contracts on public tand,land, 1977 30 Tropical forest resources,resources, 19821982 (E (E FF S)S) IE(E F S)SI 31 Appropriate technology in forestry, 19821982 (E) (E) 2 PlannPlanninging forestforest roadsroads andend harharvestingvesting syssystems,tems, 32 Classification and ddefinitionsefinitions of forest products,products, 1977 (EIE FF S)S) 1982 (Ar/E/F/S)IAr/E/F/S) 3 World list of forestryforestry schools,schools, 19771977 (E/F/S)(E/F/S) 33 Logging of mountain forests, 19821982 (E (E FF S)5) 3 Rev.Rev. 1. World list ofof forestryforestry schools,schools, 19811981 (E/F/S)(E/F/5) 34 Fruit-bearingFruit-bearing forest trees, 19821982 (E IE FF S)5) 3 Rev.Rev. 22.. World list ofof forestryforestry schools,schools, 19861986 (E/F/S) (E/F/S) 35 Forestry in China, 1982 (C(C E)E) 44/1/1 WorldWorld pulp andand paperpaper demand, supply and trade 36 Basic technologytechnology in forest operations, 1982 (EIE FF S)5) - Vol.Vol. 1,1 . 19771977 (E IE FF S)S) 37 Conservation and developmentdevelopment ofof tropicaltropical forest 4/2 World pulp dnddnd paperpaper demand, supplysupply and trade resources, 1982 (E(E FF S)51 - Vol.Vol. 2,2.1977 1977 (E IE FF S)S) 38 Forest productsproducts pricesprices 1962-1981962-1981, " 19821982 (E/F/S)(E/F/S) 5 The markmarketingeting of tropical wood, 19761976 (E(E S)SI 39 Frame sawsaw manual, 1982 (E)IE) 6 National parksparks planning, planning, 1976 1976 (E (E F F S S*)· .) 40 Circular saw manual, 19831983 (E)IE) 7 Forestry for local community development, 1978 41 Simple technologies for charcoal making, 1983 (ArIAr EE FF S)S) IE(E F S) 8 Establishment techniquestechniques for forestforast plantations,plantations. 42 Fuelwood supplies in the developing countries, 1978 (ArIAr CC E"E' FF S)S) 1983 (ArIAr EE FF S)S) 9 Wood chips - production,production, handling,handling. transport,transport, 43 Forest revenue systems in developing countries,countries, 1976 (CIC ES)E S) 1983 (EIE FF S)S) lO10/1ll Assessment of logginglogging costs from forest 4444/1/1 Food and fruit-befruit-bearingering forest speciesspecies ininventoriesventories in the tropics - 1. 1 .Examples Examples fromfrom easterneastern Africa,Africa, 19331983 (E (E FF S)5) - 1.1. Principles Principles andand methodology,methodology, 19781978 (E(E FF S)SI 4444/2/2 Food and fruit-bfruit-bearingearing forest speciesspecies 1010/2/2 Assessment of logging costs from forest - 2.2. Examples Examples fromfrom southeasternsoutheastern inventories in the tropics Asia,Asia. 19841984 (E IE FF S)S) - 2.2. Data Data collectioncollection and and calculations,calculations, 19781978 (E IE FF S)SI 44/3 Food and fruitfruit-bearing-bearing forest species - 3.3. Examples Examples 111 1 Savanna afforestationafforestation in Africa, 19771977 (E (E F)FI from Latin America,America, 19861986 (E (E .S) 51 12 ChinaChina:: forestry supposupportrt for agriculture, 1978 (E)(E) 45 EstablishingEs tablishing pulp and paper mills, 1983 (E)IE) 13 FForestorest productsproducts prices 1960·1977,1960-1977, 19791979 (E/F/S)(E/F/S) 46 Forest products prices 1963-1982, 1983 1983 (E/F/S) (E/F/S) 14 Mountain forest roadsroads anda nd harvesting, 1979 (E)IE) 47 TeTechnicalchni cal forestry education - designdesign andand 14 Rev.Rev. 1. LoggingLogging and transport in steep terrain, 19851985 (E) (E) implementation, 19841984 (E IE FF S)5) 15 AGAGRISRIS forestryforestry -- worldworld cataloguecatalogue of informationinformation 48 Land evaluation for forestry,forestry, 19841984 (C IC EE FF S)5) and documentation services,services, 19791979 (E/F/S) (E/F/S) 49 Wood extraction withwith oxenoxen andand agriculturalagricultural 16 China: integratedintegrated wood processingprocessing industries, 19791979 tractors, 19861986 (E (E FF S)SI IE(E F S) 50 Changes inin shiftingshifting cultivation inin Africa,Africa, 19841984 (E IE F)F) 17 Economic anaanalysislysis ofof forestryforestry projects, 1979 50/1 Changes inin shiftingshifting cultivation in Africa (EIE F S)S) - sevenseven case-studies, 1985 (E)IE) 1717 Sup. 1. EconomicEconomic analysis ooff forestry projects: 511151/1 Studies on the volume and yield of tropical forest case studies, 19791979 (EIE S)S) stastandsnds - 1.1 . DryCry forestforest formations,formations, 19891989 (E (E F)F) 17 Sup.Sup. 2. EconomicEconomic analysis of forestry projects:projects: readings,readings, 52/1 Cost estimating inin sawmillingsawmi1ling industries:industries: guidelines, guidelines, 1980 (CIC E)E) 1984 (E)IE) 18 ForestForest products prices 1960-1978, 19801980 .(E/F/S) (E /F/S) 5252/2/2 FieldField manual onon cost estimationestimation in sawmilling 19/1 Pulping and paper-making propertiesproperties of industries, 19851985 (E) (E) fast-growingfast-grovving plantation woodwood speciesspecies 53 Intensive multiple-usemUltiple-use forestforest management management in in Kerala,Kerala, - Vol.Vol. 1,1. 19801980 (E) IE) 19841E1984 (E FF S) 1919/2/2 Pulping and paper-making propertiesproperties of 54 PlanificaciónPlanificaci6n del dedesarrollosarrollo forestal, 1984 (S) (5) fast-growing plantationplantation woodwood speciesspecies 55 Intensive multiple-use forest managementmanagement inin thethe - Vol.Vol. 2,2. 19801980 (E) IE) tropics, 19851985 (EIE FF S)S) 20 Forest tree improvement,improvement, 19851985 (C IC EE F F S)S) 56 Breeding poplars for disease resistance, 19851985 (E) (E) 2020/2/2 A guide to forestforest seedseed handling,handling, 19851985 (E(E SS )) 57 Coconut wood - processingprocessing and and use,use, 19851985 (E IE S)5) 21 Impact on soils of fast-growingfast-growing speciesspecies inin lowlandlowland 58 5awdoctoSawdoctoringring manual, 1985 (E(E S)5) humid tropics, 19801980 (E (E FF S)S) 59 The ecological effectseffects of eucalyptus, 1985 22/1 Forest volume estimation and yield predictionprediction Ie(C E F S)S) - Vol.Vol. 1.1 .Volume Volume estimation,estimation, 19801980 (C IC EE FF S)S) 60 Monitoring and evaevaluationlu etion of participatory foreforestrystry 22/2 Forest volume estimationestimation and yield predictionprediction projects, 18851985 (EIE FF S)5) - Vol.Vol. 2.2. Yield Yield prediction,prediction, 19801980 (C (e E E FF S)5) 61 Forest products prices 1965·1984,1965-1984, 19851985 (E/F/S) (E /F/S) 23 Forest productsproducts prices 1961-1980,19811961-1980, 1981 (E/F/S)(E /F/S) 62 World list of institutionsinstitutions engagedengaged in forestryforestry andand 24 Cable lloggingogging systems, 1981 (C(C E)E) forest productsproducts research,research, 19851985 (E/F/S) (E /F/S) 25 Public forestryforestry administrations in Latin America,America, 63 Industrial charcoal making, 19851985 (E)(E) 1981 (E)IE) 64 Tree growgrowinging by rural people, 1985 (Ar(Ar EE FF S)5) 26 Forestry and rural development, 1981 (EIE FF S)S) 65 Forest legislation inin selarteselertedd African countries,countries, 27 Manual ofof forest inventory, 19811981 (EIE F)F) 198619861EF) (E F) 28 Small and medium sawmills in developing countries, 66 Forestry extension organization, 1986 (C(C EE S)5) 198119811ES) (ES) 67 Some medicinalmedicinal forestforest plants of Africa andand Latin 29 World forest products, demand and supplysupply 19901990 America, 19361986 (E)(E) and 2000.2000, 19821982 (EIE FF S) 68 Appropriate forest industries,indus tries, 19861986 (E)(E) 69 Management ofof forest industries, 19861986 (E)(E) 92 Forestry policies in Europe -- an analysis, 1989 (E)IE) 70 Wildland fire management terminology.terminology, 1986 93 Energy conservation in the mechanical forest IE/F/S)(E/F/S) industriindustries,es, 19901990 (EIE S)51 71 World compendium of forestry andand forestforest productsproducts 94 Manual on sawmill operationaloperational maintenance,maintenance, research institutions,institutions, 19861986 (E/F/S)(E/F/S) 1990 (E)IE) 72 Wood gas as engine fuelfuel,, 1986 (EIE S)S) 95 Forest products prices 1969·1969-1988, 1988, 19901990 (E/F/S) (E/F/S) 73 Forest products:products: world outlook projectionsprojections 96 Planning and managing forestry research:research: guidelinesguidelines 1985-2000, 19861986 (E/F/S) IE/F/S) forfor managers,managers, 19901990 (E) IE) 74 Guidelines forfor forestry information processing,processing, 97 Non-wood forest products: thethe wayway ahead, ahead, 1986 (E)IE) 19911ES)1991 (ES) 75 An operational guide to the monitoringmonitoring andand 98 Les plantations àill vocation dede boisbois d'osuvred'ceuvre enen evaluation of social forestry inin India,India, 19861986 (E) (E) Afrique intertropicale humide, 1991 (F)(F) 76 Wood preservation manual, 19861986 (E) IE) 99 Cost control in forest harvestingharvesting andand roadroad 77 DatabookDatebook on endangeredendangered tree andand shrubshrub speciesspecies construction, 19921992 (E) IE) and provenances, 1986 (E)IE) 100 Introduction toto ergonomicsergonomics in forestry inin developingdeveloping 78 Appropriate wood harvestingharvesting inin plantationplantation forests,forasts, countries, 19921992 (E)IE) 1987 (E)IE) 101 Management and conservation of closed forests in 79 Small-scaleSmall·scale forest-based processing enterprises, tropical America,America, 19931993 (E IE FF S)51 1987 (EIE FF S)5) 102 Research managementmanagement inin forestry,forestry, 19911991 (E)IE) 80 Forestry extension methods.methods, 1987 (E)IE) 103 Mixed and pure forest plantations in the tropics and 81 GuidelinesGuidelines forfor forest policy formulation, 19871987 (C (C E)E) subsubtropics, tropics, 19921992 (E) IE) 82 Forest productsproducts prices 1967·1986,1967-1986, 19881988 (E/F/S) (E/F/S) 104 Forest products prices 1971-1990,19921971-1990, 1992 (E) (E) 83 Trade inin forestforest products: a study of the barriersbarriers 105lOS Compendium of pulp and paper training andand faced by thethe developing countries, 19881988 (E)IE) research ininstitutions,stitutions, 1992 (E)IE) 84 Forest products:products: world outlook projectionsprojections 106 Economic assessment ofof forestry project impacts, 1987·20001987-2000 - productproduct andand countrycountry tables,tables, 1988 1992 (E)IE) I(E/F/S)E/F/S) 107 Conservation of genetic resources in tropical forest 85 ForForestryestry extension curricula, 19881988 (E/F/S) (E/F/S) management: PrinciplesPrinciples and concepts, 19931993 (E) IE) 86 Forestry policies in Europe, 1988 (E)IE) 108 A decade ofof wood energy activitiesactivities within the 87 Small-scaleSmall·scale harvesting operations of woodwood andand Nairobi Programme ofof Action,Action, 19931993 (E)IE) non-wood forest productsproducts involvinginvolving ruralrural people,people, 1988 (EIE FF S)5) Availability: JuneJune 1993 88 V1anagementvlanagement ofof tropicaltropical moist forests in Africa,Africa, 1989 (EIE FF P)P) ArA< Arabic Multi!Multil - Multilingual 89 Review of forest management systems of tropicaltropical C Chinese Out of print Asia, 1989 (E)IE) E English In preparation 90 ForestrForestryy andand foodfood security, 1989 (Ar(Ar EE SI51 F French 91 Design manual onon basic wood harvesting p Portuguese technology, 19891989 (EIE FF S)5) S5 Spanish !Published(Published onlyonly as FAOFAD Training Series, No,No. 18)18) The FAO Technical Papers sreare eveilableavailable throughthrough the suthorizedauthorized FAO Sales AgentsAgents or directly from DistributionDistribution andand SalesSales Section, FAD,FAO, VialeViale de//edelle Terme di Caracalla,Cerecalla, 00100 Rome,Rome, Ira/y,Italy.