Identifying and Using Hundreds of Woods Worldwide

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WOOD! IDENTIFYING AND USING HUNDREDS OF WOODS WORLDWIDE

ERIC MEIER Table of Contents

hen it comes to those who work with wood, there At that point, a line had been drawn in the sand. I Wseems to be generally two classes of people: scien- determined that as I made an effort to learn (and there- tists and craftsmen. This book was written for the latter. after teach others) about scientific wood data and iden- What I have found in my own personal observation tification, I didn’t need to consult with the “other side” of those that work with wood is that the first class of to see what would be most helpful to them: I was the people, the scientists, are almost drowning in knowl- other side! I realized that I was a woodworker, and not edge. Yet the craftsmen, through no particular fault a scientist—and for my purposes, that was not neces- of their own, are suffering in a relative dearth of solid sarily a bad thing. facts and scientific understanding. A friend of mine who works in Bible translation Books on the subject of wood usage and identifica- once told me that in order for a translation to be op- tion have all come from one of two very opposite poles. timally readable and usable for native peoples, it ul- Either there have been craft-oriented books filled with timately must be written by someone whose mother pretty pictures, but with very weak or vague and im- tongue is in the native language, or else it will seem practical statements, such as “this wood is strong, awkward, foreign, and inarticulate. hard, and moderately stable,” or else there have been I am of the opinion that a very similar phenome- thinly-veiled scientific books, burying the uninitiated non happens whenever any attempt is made from the in grainy, black-and-white microscope images and con- scientific community to condescend and “write down” fusing terminology. to craftspeople: the information trying to be relayed is As I began researching and writing this book, many very good and useful, but it’s spoken from an entirely questions began circling in my head. “Can’t a book exist different background and mindset, and is almost com- that features both vivid and accurate pictures, and also pletely lost in translation. solid, usable facts and information on wood species? It’s therefore my hope and intention with this book What’s practically applicable to the realm of woodwork- to act as an interpreter in a way, and to traverse the ing and related trades,s, and wwhathat shoshoulduld be left to vastvast anandd somewsomewhathat iintimidatingntimid territory of scientific the fastidious and exactingacting eeyesyes of scientists?scientists?”” wood knowledge,knowledge, and openope a fresh pipeline of practi- In the midst of thesethese myriadmyriad questions, I calcal insiinsightght for those who stand to most directly ben- was debating whetherr or not to get a microscope efitefit frfromom it:it: woodwowoodworkers.rker and delve into the wworldorld of microscomicroscopicpic wowoodod InIn our “laboratory,”“laboratory,” you’ll find no clean white identification. Here Iwas, was, probably probably one one of of the the big big-- smockssmocks or stuffystuffy cocollars.lla Come on in, shake the gest wood “nuts” around,und, utterly fascinated by thethe sawdustsawdust from yyourour hhair, brush off those wood many types and varietieseties of wood, when I had an chipschips from youryour shoulders,shou and take a moment epiphany. “If I personallyally don’t have anyany desire to buybuy to learn a bitbit more about the material that’s and learn to use a microscopeicroscope to help identifyidentify wood, probablyprobably rightright underunder your nose: WOOD! then why in the worldld wouwouldld I ever expect anyone else to either?”

Mopane, Olive, Verawood, and Yellow Poplar veneer fountain pen Foundations: 1 What is Wood?

t’s common knowledge that wood comes from trees. Softwoods (conifers) tend to have needle or scale- IWhat may not be so apparent is the structure of the like foliage, though in some uncommon instances, wood itself, and the individual elements that make they can have rather broad, flat leaves, such as Kauri up any given piece of lumber. Unlike a mostly homog- (Agathis australis). Most softwood trees are evergreen, enous piece of polystyrene, MDF, or other man-made however, a few conifers, such as Bald-cypress (Taxodi- material, wood is an organic material, and has many um distichum), lose their foliage in the autumn, hence distinct characteristics which will be helpful to learn. the “bald” prefix in the common name. Softwoods tend to have a single, dominant, straight HARDWOODS AND SOFTWOODS trunk with smaller side branches, referred to as an ex- An immediate and broad distinction that can be made current form—this cone-shaped growth form helps between types of trees (and wood) is the label of hard- trees in temperate climates shed snow. Again, there are wood or softwood. This is somewhat of a misnomer, several conifers that are an exception to this growth as the label is actually just a separation between angio- form, such as Cedar of Lebanon (Cedrus libani). sperms (flowering plants such as maple, oak, or rose- The confusion in labels arises in that the wood of wood), and conifers (cone-bearing trees such as pine, angiosperms is not always hard—a glaring example is spruce, or fir). Balsa (Ochroma pyramidale), which is technically classi- Hardwoods (angiosperms) have broad-leaved foli- fied as a hardwood. Conversely, the wood of conifers is age, and tend to be deciduous—that is, they lose their not necessarily always soft —an example of a relatively leaves in the autumn. (However, many tropical hard- hard softwood would be Yew (Taxus spp.). However, wood species exist which are evergreen—they main- as a rule of thumb, hardwoods are of course generally tain their leaves year-round.) Additionally, hardwood harder than softwoods, and the label is still useful to trees tend to have a branched or divided trunk, referred distinguish between two broad groups of trees and cer- to as a dendritic form. tain characteristics of their wood.

The spruce tree pictured to the left is a good rep- resentation of a conifer with evergreen, needle-like foliage and a single, dominant trunk. Their long, straight trunks and lightweight timber make softwoods well-suited for structural building purposes. On the right is an oak tree—with a branching form, and leaves that drop seasonally—which is characteristic of most angiosperms. Their higher density and rich heartwood colors make hardwoods well- suited for furniture and decorative woodwork.

CHAPTER 1 | Foundations: What is Wood? 1 In this cross section of Green Ash (Fraxi- nus pennsylvanica), the sapwood section Sapwood is disproportionately wider than most hardwood species. In some tree species, Pith the sapwood is less than one inch thick, with the remaining trunk being com- Heartwood posed of heartwood. Ash (Fraxinus spp.), along with maple (Acer spp.), birch (Bet- Bark ula spp.), and a handful of other woods, are utilized mainly for their wide, light- Cambium colored sapwood. Conversely, the darker heartwood is normally the commercially valuable part of the tree, as in domestic species such as Black Walnut (Juglans nigra) and Black Cherry (Prunus serotina).

leaves and branches, there are growing points at the TREE GROWTH tips of the stems and roots, called apical meristems. When considering a tree’s growth—whether a tiny These growing points, through cell division, are respon- sapling, or a one-thousand-year-old giant—there are sible for the vertical growth in trees. many features that are common to all species. Besides Additionally, sandwiched between the bark and the the basics of the roots, the main stem (trunk), and the inner wood is a thin layer or sheath called the lateral meristem or vascular cambium—usually referred to simply as the cambium. This tiny, seemingly magical layer is responsible for practically all of the horizontal growth on a tree. The cambium consists of reproductive cells that, by cell division, forms new bark outward, and latewood zone new wood inward. latewood tends to be denser, and has smaller and less fre- It is the seasonal growing activity of the cambium quent pores (hardwoods) or that is responsible for the formation of growth rings smaller diameter tracheids seen in wood. In temperate zones, the cambium is most (softwoods) active in the spring—this wood is sometimes referred to as springwood or earlywood, with growth slowing earlywood zone in the summer (called summerwood or latewood), earlywood tends to be less dense, and has larger pores and completely ceasing in the winter. These differences (hardwoods) or larger diam- in growing cycles from year to year form annual rings, eter tracheids (softwoods) which are a reasonably accurate indicator of a tree’s age. Note the much wider earlywood zone in softwoods such In tropical zones, where temperature and season- as the Redwood (Sequoia sempervirens), pictured on the al variations are minimal, wood can completely lack left (10×), as compared to hardwoods like Paulownia (Paulownia tomentosa), on the right. When a tree grows slower than average (perhaps due to an unfavorable At left is a 10× endgrain growing site), both the earlywood and latewood zones view of Avodire (Turræan- become proportionately condensed. This diﬀerence ex- thus africanus), a tropical plains why slower growing softwoods tend to be stronger African hardwood species. (the weaker earlywood zones are narrower), while slower Note the overall lack of dis- growing ring-porous woods like oak or ash tend to be cernible growth rings or ear- weaker (the stronger latewood zones are narrower). lywood and latewood zones.

2 Foundations: What is Wood? | CHAPTER 1 discernible rings, or they may correspond with various the heartwood’s resistance to rot and decay, and give it rainy seasons, and thus are more safely referred to as added stability and hardness. (Sapwood has virtually growth rings, and not strictly as annual rings. no resistance to decay.) From a biological standpoint, it’s easy to see the benefits that heartwood brings to SAPWOOD AND HEARTWOOD the tree as it grows taller and broader. Incidentally, As the cambium forms new wood cells, they develop many of these same benefits translate into advantages into different sizes, shapes, and orientations to per- for woodworkers as well. form a variety of tasks, including food storage, sap However, it should be noted that the transition conduction, trunk strength, etc. When a tree is young, area from sapwood to heartwood, commonly referred certain cells within the wood are alive and capable of to as sapwood demarcation, can vary from gradual conducting sap or storing nutrients—this wood is re- to very abrupt: this can be important in wood projects ferred to as sapwood. where decay resistance is needed. A clear line of demar- After a period of years (the number can greatly vary cation helps prevent the inadvertent inclusion of sap- between species of trees), the tree no longer needs the wood, and minimizes the risk of subsequent rotting or entire trunk to conduct sap, and the cells in the cen- structural damage. tral part of the stem, beginning at the core (called the pith), begin to die. This dead wood which forms at the center of the trunk is thus called heartwood. The transition from sapwood to heartwood is ac- Notice the very subtle transition from sapwood companied by the accumulation of various deposits to heartwood on the and substances, commonly referred to as extractives. upper sample of Black Most notably, these extractives are responsible for Walnut (Juglans nigra) as giving the heartwood its characteristic color: the jet- compared with the very black color of ebonies (Diospyros spp.), the ruby-red of sharp line of demarcation Bloodwood (Brosimum rubescens), and the chocolate- on Amazon Rosewood brown of Black Walnut (Juglans nigra)—each owe their (Dalbergia spruceana) on vivid hues to their respective heartwood extractives. the bottom. Without extractives, the sapwood of nearly all species of wood is a pale color, usually ranging from white to a straw-yellow or gray color. But heartwood extractives are responsible for more PLANES OR SURFACES OF WOOD than just color: extractives increase (to varying degrees) When discussing processed wood and lumber, it’s nec- essary to understand which surface of the wood is being referred to. Working within the scope of the growth rings and their orientation within the tree’s trunk, there are three primary planes, or surfaces, that are en- countered in processed wood. The first wood surface is the endgrain (which is by far the most useful plane for wood identification purposes). This surface is sometimes referred to as the transverse surface, or the cross section. This plane is mostly self-explanatory: in processed lumber, it’s the section where a board is typically viewed on its end, and circular growth rings may be clearly observed. For the sake of simplicity and clarity, all references in this book Heartwood extractives, like those found in this sample of will refer to this wood plane as simply the endgrain. Tulipwood (Dalbergia decipularis), provide a cornucopia of colors and unique wood properties. (10×)

CHAPTER 1 | Foundations: What is Wood? 3 The reason for such naming is that when sawing a Flatsawn surface log, it may be sawn into quarters along the length of the log, forming four long, triangular, wedge-shaped pieces. Next, boards are sawn from each wedge on alternating sides, resulting in boards which (when viewed from the endgrain) have growth rings that are perpendicular to the face and run vertically. Again, for simplicity and clarity, most references in this book will refer to this wood plane as the quartersawn surface. This is perhaps not the standard scientific Endgrain Quartersawn terminology used, but it’s the most common descrip- surface surface tion used among sawyers and woodworkers. The third and final surface is the tangential sur- This sample of Butternut Juglans( cinerea) models the three wood surfaces well. Note the straight and consistent face. (Think of the wordtangent: the wood surface is grain pattern shown on the quartersawn surface as com- more or less on a tangent with the growth rings.) This pared to the relatively wild ﬂatsawn surface. plane is sometimes called the flatsawn or plainsawn surface. The reason for such naming comes again from the The second primary wood plane is the radial sur- process of sawing the log. The normal or “plain” method face. (Think of the wordradiate: this wood surface radi- of sawing a log is to cut straight through in a repetitious ates out from the center of the log like spokes on a wheel, sequence, leaving the log flat throughout the entire pro- and crosses the growth rings at a more-or-less 90° angle.) cess. (This is also sometimes called through-and-through This surface goes by a number of names, and is sometimes sawing.) Most subsequent references in this book will re- called vertical grain, or the quartersawn section. fer to this wood plane as the flatsawn surface.

Quartersawn 13 6 4 12 7 2 11 5 10 3 9 1 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1 Flatsawn

Two methods to saw a log: on the left is an example of a quar- sawing or plain-sawing. This method produces the least amount ter-sawing sequence. The log is first cut into quarters, and then of waste and the widest possible boards. Portions of the middle each quarter is cut on alternating sides to keep the grain as close few boards would be nearly quartersawn, though the pith and to vertical as possible, though the grain of the last few smallest first few growth rings in the center (called juvenile wood) are boards aren’t perfectly vertical. On the right is an example of flat- very unstable.

4 Foundations: What is Wood? | CHAPTER 1 GRAIN APPEARANCE the endgrain is visible—a reasonably accurate predic- Although quartersawn and flatsawn surfaces are named tion of the appearance of the face of the board can be after their original method of sawing, in practice, the made. Likewise, in many instances where only the face terms typically just refer to the angle of the growth grain of a board is visible, the endgrain may be extrapo- rings on a piece of processed lumber, with anything lated by “reading” the grain pattern. Each grain cut has approaching 90° being referred to as quartersawn, and varying strengths and weakness, and is used in differ- anything near 0° generally considered as flatsawn, re- ent applications. gardless of how the log was actually milled. Quartersawn boards are very uniform in appear- There’s sometimes an intermediate angle com- ance and are good for long runs of flooring where the monly called riftsawn or bastard grain, which cor- boards need to be butted end-to-end with minimal dis- responds with growth rings angled between approxi- ruption in appearance. Quartersawing also produces mately 30° to 60°. Although it’s called riftsawn, sawyers the stablest boards with the least tendency to cup or today will rarely, if ever, specifically saw up a log in warp with changes in humidity, which is very useful order to get such an angle—usually the name merely in many applications, such as for the rails and stiles of serves as a convenient term to describe wood that is raised panel doors. However, because of the extra han- not perfectly quartersawn. dling involved with processing the log, and the higher Additionally, the term face grain usually denotes waste factor, quartersawn lumber tends to be more ex- the most predominant/widest plane on any given piece pensive than flatsawn lumber. of lumber (excluding the endgrain), and does not refer Most would agree that flatsawn boards—with to any specific cut. By observing the angle of the growth their characteristic dome-shaped cathedral grain— rings—as when looking at a stack of boards where only tend to yield the most visually striking patterns (and it

Reading the grain: note the appearance of the face grain of characteristic “cathedral” grain pattern. On the right, Western these three boards, as well as their corresponding endgrain Hemlock (Tsuga heterophylla) has a section on the left that is surfaces beneath. On the left, Beli (Julbernardia pellegrini- flatsawn, grading down to riftsawn, as reflected on the face ana) is almost perfectly quartersawn, resulting in a straight, of the board, which appears flatsawn on the wild portion on narrowly spaced, and uniform grain pattern. In the middle, the left, and closer to quartersawn on the straighter and more Ponderosa Pine (Pinus ponderosa) is flatsawn, resulting in a uniform portion on the right.

CHAPTER 1 | Foundations: What is Wood? 5 should come as no surprise that many veneers are also In the same way that quartersawn surfaces radiate rotary-sliced from logs to reproduce this appearance). out from the center of the log (hence the term radial Flatsawn boards are also available in wider dimensions surface), rays are also oriented in the same direction; than quartersawn stock, and are well-suited to applica- for this reason, although rays are always technically tions such as raised or floating panels, or other areas present in the wood, they become most visible and pro- where width or appearance are important. nounced on quartersawn surfaces. (Additionally, end- Riftsawn wood lies somewhere between these grain drying checks also tend to occur along the rays.) two aforementioned types. It has a uniform appearance that is very similar to quartersawn wood—and it’s nearly as stable too. On large square posts, such as those used for table legs, riftsawn wood has the added benefit of appearing roughly the same on all four sides (since the growth rings on each of the surfaces are all at approximately 45° angles to the face), whereas quartersawn squares would have two sides that display flatsawn grain, and two with quartersawn grain. The rays seen in this 1× endgrain view of Lacewood RAYS (Panopsis spp.) are so large and prevalent, they could easily be mistaken for growth rings. A discussion on quartersawn and riftsawn lumber would not be complete without mentioning the most significant visual distinction between the two: presence (or absence) of rays—or perhaps more accurately, But even though virtually all woods have rays, only the conspicuous presence of rays on the face of the board, species with wide, conspicuous rays will produce dra- known commonly as ray fleck, or ray flakes. matic ray fleck on the quartersawn surface. Perhaps the largest rays are found on woods like Leopardwood (Roupala montana) and Lacewood (Panopsis spp.), so named for the superb ray fleck seen on their quartersawn surfaces. Domestic woods like oak (Quercus spp.) and sycamore (Platanus spp.) also have easily observable rays. Other woods have more modest ray fleck, such as cherry (Prunus spp.) or elm (Ulmus spp.). Many other species, such as ash (Fraxinus spp.), walnut (Juglans spp.), and chestnut (Castanea spp.), as well as most softwoods, lack visible ray fleck patterns. It should be noted that ray fleck is not always greet- ed with enthusiasm: the very same feature that may entice a person to purchase quartersawn oak may also repel another away. In some instances—such as for hardwood floors where a subdued or consistent grain pattern may be desired—ray fleck may be viewed as objectionable or distracting. For this reason, riftsawn woods, most commonly White Oak (Quercus alba), are Note the lighter colored rays radiating out from the pith in occasionally offered as a means to reap the benefits of this sample of Holm Oak (Quercus ilex). Ray fleck is only ap- uniformity and stability of quartersawn lumber with- parent in areas on the face of the board that are nearly perfectly quartersawn, with the flat and rift sawn areas on the left out the sometimes distracting rays. two thirds obscuring the rays under a lower profile.

6 Foundations: What is Wood? | CHAPTER 1 Building on Basics: 2 Wood and Moisture

erhaps the most important aspect of woodwork- as the wood’s movement in service, that’s responsi- Ping deals with the relationship between wood and ble for so much mischief and so many malfunctions in moisture. The most skilled builder may plane, chisel, or woodworking. otherwise finesse a wood project into a flawless work, When a tree is first felled, it’s considered to be in but if wood moisture is ignored, all will be for naught. the green state, denoting its maximum moisture lev- Joints will pop loose, wide glued-up panels will warp el. This moisture exists in two different forms: as free or split, and flooring planks will retract and reveal un- water that’s contained as liquid in the pores or vessels sightly gaps (or expand and buckle). of the wood itself, and as bound water that’s trapped A fundamental fact is that wood is hygroscopic. within the cell walls. This means that wood, almost like a sponge, will gain or Once a fresh log or piece of lumber is cut and ex- lose moisture from the air based upon the conditions of posed to the air, it will immediately begin losing free the surrounding environment. But not only does wood water. At this point, the wood does not yet contract or gain or lose moisture, but it will also expand or contract otherwise change in dimension since the fibers are still according to its moisture level. It’s this swelling and completely saturated with bound water. Once all the shrinking in finished wood products, often referred to free water has been lost, the wood will reach what is called the fiber saturation point, or simply FSP. Below the FSP, the wood will then begin to lose moisture in the form of bound water, and an accom- panying reduction in the wood’s physical volume will occur. In a practical sense, the wood at this point is now considered to be in a state of drying. During drying, not all of the bound moisture will be lost: just how much water is lost will ultimately de- pend upon the temperature and relative humidity (RH) of the surrounding air. At 100% rh, no bound water will be lost. At 0% rh, all the bound water in the wood will be lost, a condition known as ovendry (so-called because a kiln or oven is typically required to completely drive out all moisture). The amount of water in a given piece of wood is ex- pressed as a percentage of the weight of the water as compared to its ovendry weight. Some species of trees, The panel of this old church door has a split. The door when they are initially felled, may contain more water is located next to a radiator, exposing the wood to ex- by weight than actual wood fiber, resulting in a mois- tremely low humidity levels, which more than likely ture content (MC) over 100%. caused the panel to contract and eventually split.

CHAPTER 2 | Building on Basics: Wood and Moisture 7 Yellow Birch Betula alleghaniensis

DISTRIBUTION: Northeastern North America TREE SIZE: 65–100 ft (20–30 m) tall, 2–3 ft (.6–1 m) trunk diameter AVERAGE DRIED WEIGHT: 43 lbs/ft3 (690 kg/m3) SPECIFIC GRAVITY (BASIC, 12% MC): .55, .69 JANKA HARDNESS: 1,260 lbƒ (5,610 N) MODULUS OF RUPTURE: 16,600 lbƒ/in2 (114.5 MPa) ELASTIC MODULUS: 2,010,000 lbƒ/in2 (13.86 GPa) CRUSHING STRENGTH: 8,170 lbƒ/in2 (56.3 MPa) SHRINKAGE: Radial: 7.3%, Tangential: 9.5%, Volumetric: 16.8%, T/R Ratio: 1.3 WORKABILITY: Generally easy to work with hand and machine tools, though boards with wild grain can cause tearout during planing. Turns, glues, and finishes well. COLOR/APPEARANCE: Heartwood is light reddish brown, with nearly white sapwood. Occasionally figured ALLERGIES/TOXICITY: Birch in the Betula genus has pieces are seen with a wide, shallow curl similar to the curl been reported as a sensitizer; can cause skin and respira- found in Black Cherry (Prunus serotina). There is very lit- tory irritation. tle color distinction between annual growth rings, giving PRICING/AVAILABILITY: Very common as plywood; also birch a somewhat dull, uniform appearance. available in board form. Prices are moderate for a do- GRAIN/TEXTURE: Grain is generally straight or slightly mestic hardwood. wavy; fine, even texture with low natural luster. SUSTAINABILITY: Not listed in the CITES Appendices, ROT RESISTANCE: Rated as perishable; poor insect/ or on the IUCN Red List of Threatened Species. borer resistance. COMMON USES: Plywood, boxes, crates, turned objects, interior trim, and other small specialty wood items. COMMENTS: Frequently used worldwide for veneer and ENDGRAIN (10×) plywood. One of the highest grades of plywood—with Porosity: no inner softwood plies as fillers— diffuse-porous is referred to as BalticBaltic Birch.Birch. Arrangement: It’s technically nott a par-par- mostly radial multiples ticular species, butut is a Vessels: small to general designationon of medium, numerous plywood from RussiaRussia Parenchyma: and nearby Baltic states marginal, and such as Finland. TheThe pplieslies sometimes diffuse- in these higher gradesgrades are in-aggregates thinner and morere nunu-- Rays: narrow, fairly merous, impartingting close spacing greater stiffness aandnd Odor: none stability. Notes: individual Betula species cannot Masur Birch vase be reliably separated by Steve Earis Masur Birch Betula pendula var. carelica

pendula). It’s also sometimes known as Karelian Birch— with Karelia being a region between Finland and Russia where the figured wood is sometimes found. Once surmised to have been caused by the boring larvae of a certain beetle, Masur Birch has been shown to be hereditary,* classifying the name of the variant as Betula pendula var. carelica. Regardless of the exact cause, the resulting figure and appearance is very similar to burl wood or birdseye maple, though of a different origin. LOOKALIKES: Maple (Acer spp.) and birch may be distin- guished by comparing the size of their pores in relation to the rays (when observed from the endgrain). In maple, the widest rays are about the same width as the pores, while Masur Birch is not a particular species of birch, but is in birch the rays are noticeably narrower than the pores. rather a grain figure that is most commonly seen in * Risto Hagqvist, Curly Birch (Betula pendula var. carelica) and its Manage- Downy Birch (Betula pubescens) and Silver Birch (Betula ment in Finland, (Karkkilantie: Finnish Forest Research Institute, 2007).

AVERAGE MODULUS RELATED SPECIES DRIED JANKA OF ELASTIC CRUSHING SHRINKAGE WEIGHT HARDNESS RUPTURE MODULUS STRENGTH Radial–5% Alder-Leaf Birch 33 lbs/ft3 830 lbƒ 8,980 lbƒ/in2 1,235,000 lbƒ/in2 6,400 lbƒ/in2 Tangential–7% Betula alnoides (530 kg/m3) (3,690 N) (61.9 MPa) (8.52 GPa) (44.1 MPa) Volumetric–13% T/R Ratio–1.4 Radial–6.5% Sweet Birch 46 lbs/ft3 1,470 lbƒ 16,900 lbƒ/in2 2,170,000 lbƒ/in2 8,540 lbƒ/in2 Tangential–9.0% Betula lenta (735 kg/m3) (6,540 N) (116.6 MPa) (11.59 GPa) (58.9 MPa) Volumetric–15.6% T/R Ratio–1.4 Radial–6.5% Alaska Paper Birch 38 lbs/ft3 830 lbƒ 13,600 lbƒ/in2 1,900,000 lbƒ/in2 7,450 lbƒ/in2 Tangential–9.9% Betula neoalaskana (610 kg/m3) (3,690 N) (93.8 MPa) (13.10 GPa) (51.4 MPa) Volumetric–16.7% T/R Ratio–1.5 970 lb Radial–4.7% River Birch 37 lbs/ft3 ƒ 13,100 lb /in2 1,580,000 lb /in2 No data Tangential–9.2% (4,320 N)* ƒ ƒ Betula nigra (590 kg/m3) (90.3 MPa) (10.90 GPa) available Volumetric–13.5% *estimated T/R Ratio–2.0 Radial–6.3% Paper Birch 38 lbs/ft3 910 lbƒ 12,300 lbƒ/in2 1,590,000 lbƒ/in2 5,690 lbƒ/in2 Tangential–8.6% Betula papyrifera (610 kg/m3) (4,050 N) (84.8 MPa) (10.97 GPa) (39.2 MPa) Volumetric–16.2% T/R Ratio–1.4

Silver Birch 40 lbs/ft3 1,210 lbƒ 16,570 lbƒ/in2 2,024,000 lbƒ/in2 No data No data Betula pendula (640 kg/m3) (5,360 N) 114.3 MPa) (13.96 GPa) available available

Radial–5.2% Gray Birch 35 lbs/ft3 760 lbƒ 9,800 lbƒ/in2 1,150,000 lbƒ/in2 4,870 lbƒ/in2 Tangential–9.5% Betula populifolia (560 kg/m3) (3,380 N) (67.6 MPa) (7.93 GPa) (33.6 MPa) Volumetric–14.7% T/R Ratio–1.8

70 African Padauk Pterocarpus soyauxii

DISTRIBUTION: Central and tropical west Africa TREE SIZE: 100–130 ft (30–40 m) tall, 2–4 ft (.6–1.2 m) trunk diameter AVERAGE DRIED WEIGHT: 47 lbs/ft3 (745 kg/m3) SPECIFIC GRAVITY (BASIC, 12% MC): .61, .75 JANKA HARDNESS: 1,970 lbƒ (8,760 N) MODULUS OF RUPTURE: 16,830 lbƒ/in2 (116.0 MPa) ELASTIC MODULUS: 1,700,000 lbƒ/in2 (11.72 GPa) CRUSHING STRENGTH: 2 (56.0 MPa) 8,130 lbƒ/in ROT RESISTANCE: Rated as durable to very durable; SHRINKAGE: Radial: 3.3%, Tangential: 5.2%, excellent resistance to termites and other insects. Volumetric: 7.6%, T/R Ratio: 1.6 WORKABILITY: Generally easy to work, though tearout can occur during planing on quartersawn or interlocked grain. Turns, glues, and finishes well. COLOR/APPEARANCE: Heartwood ranges from pinkish ALLERGIES/TOXICITY: Reported as a sensitizer; can orange to deep brownish red. Most pieces tend to start cause eye, skin, and respiratory irritation. reddish orange when freshly cut, darkening substantially over time to a reddish brown (some lighter-colored pieces PRICING/AVAILABILITY: Widely imported as lumber in a age to a grayish brown). variety of sizes, as well as turning and craft blanks. Prices are in the mid range for an imported hardwood. GRAIN/TEXTURE: Grain is usually straight, but can sometimes be interlocked; coarse, open texture with SUSTAINABILITY: Not listed in the CITES Appendices, good natural luster. or on the IUCN Red List of Threatened Species. COMMON USES: Veneer, flooring, turned objects, musical instruments, furniture, tool handles, and other ENDGRAIN (10×) small specialty wood objects. Porosity: diffuse-porous COMMENTS: With a very unique reddish orange color- Arrangement: solitary ation, the wood is also called Vermillion. Unfortunately, and radial multiples this dramatic color is inevitably darkened to a deep red- Vessels: very large, dish brown color. UV-inhibiting finishes may prolong very few, orange/ (but not prevent) the gradual color-shift of this brightly brown deposits present colored wood. Parenchyma: diffuse- in-aggregates, winged, confluent, and banded Rays: narrow, close spacing Odor: pleasing scent when being worked Notes: fluoresces under blacklight; Padauk bowl ripple marks present by Steve Earis Amendoim Pear Pterogyne nitens Pyrus communis

DISTRIBUTION: Scattered throughout southern DISTRIBUTION: Central and eastern Europe; also South America widely planted in temperate regions worldwide TREE SIZE: 50–75 ft (15–23 m) tall, TREE SIZE: 20–30 ft (6–9 m) tall, 2–3 ft (.6–1 m) trunk diameter 6–12 in (15–30 cm) trunk diameter AVERAGE DRIED WEIGHT: 50 lbs/ft3 (800 kg/m3) AVERAGE DRIED WEIGHT: 43 lbs/ft3 (690 kg/m3) SPECIFIC GRAVITY (BASIC, 12% MC): .66, .80 SPECIFIC GRAVITY (BASIC, 12% MC): .52, .69 JANKA HARDNESS: 1,780 lbƒ (7,940 N) JANKA HARDNESS: 1,660 lbƒ (7,380 N) MODULUS OF RUPTURE: 15,780 lbƒ/in2 (108.8 MPa) MODULUS OF RUPTURE: 12,080 lbƒ/in2 (83.3 MPa) ELASTIC MODULUS: 1,771,000 lbƒ/in2 (12.21 GPa) ELASTIC MODULUS: 1,131,000 lbƒ/in2 (7.80 GPa) CRUSHING STRENGTH: 7,500 lbƒ/in2 (51.7 MPa) CRUSHING STRENGTH: 6,400 lbƒ/in2 (44.1 MPa) SHRINKAGE: Radial: 3.4%, Tangential: 6.0%, SHRINKAGE: Radial: 3.9%, Tangential: 11.3%, Volumetric: 10.0%, T/R Ratio: 1.8 Volumetric: 13.8%, T/R Ratio: 2.9

This wood is called by a myriad of local and regional Used in Europe much in the same way that Black Cherry names, but it’s simply marketed as Amendoim in the (Prunus serotina) is utilized in North America: as a high- United States. The wood’s overall appearance is very quality cabinet hardwood. Both woods are in the Rosaceæ similar to mahogany (Swietenia spp.), and it’s primarily or Rose family and belong to a broader category simply sold as flooring planks. Prices are in the mid range for an labeled as fruitwood. Both Pear and Cherry are similar imported South American species. visually and anatomically (though Pear tends to have Amendoim has a blunting ef- narrower rays), and the two can’t be reliably separated. fect on cutters due to its nat- Pear is sometimes steamed to deepen the pink urally high silica content. It coloration, or it’s dyed black and used as a sub- turns, glues, and finishes stitute for ebony. Larger logs are commonly well, and also responds turned into veneer for architectural purposes. well to steam bending.

208 Pear bowl by Steve Earis Distinguishing Red Oak from White Oak

Within the massive Quercus genus, oak species are sub- Besides the leaves, there are a few other ways to dis- divided into a number of sections, though all commer- tinguish between the two groupings of oak wood. cially harvested New World oaks can be placed into one TYLOSES: When viewing the endgrain, the large early- of two categories: red oak, or white oak. This division is wood pores found on red oaks are open and empty. The based on the morphology of the trees themselves—for pores of white oaks, however, are all plugged with tyloses instance, red oaks have pointed lobes on the leaves, while (bubble-like structures: discussed on page 32). Corre- white oaks have rounded lobes. But the wood also has a sponding endgrain images of red and white oak are shown few important distinctions, most notably, white oak is on their respective profiles over the next few pages. rot resistant, while red oak is not—an important detail for boatbuilding and exterior construction projects. RAY HEIGHT: When looking at the face grain, particularly in the flatsawn areas, the thin dark brown streaks running with the grain direction are rays. Red oaks will almost always have very short rays, usually between ⅛" to ½" high, rarely ever more than ¾" to 1" in height. White oaks, on the other hand, will have much taller rays, frequently exceeding ¾" on most boards.

A typical red oak leaf is shown on the left (note the pointed lobes). The rounded lobes of white oak are seen on the right.

Black Oak (Quercus velutina) is pictured on the left, and exhibits very short rays, indicative of red oak species. The At a casual glance, unfinished oak lumber will gener- image on the right shows the longer rays that are charac- ally be light brown, either with a slight reddish cast (usu- teristic of ﬂatsawn sections of the white oak species—in ally red oak), or a subtle olive-colored cast (white oak). this case, Swamp Chestnut Oak (Quercus michauxii). However, there are abnormally light or dark outliers and pieces that are ambiguously colored, making separation based on color alone unreliable —this is especially true if the wood is finished and/or stained. CHEMICAL TESTING: The process for differentiating While there is one particular species that’s com- between red and white oaks using a chemical reagent monly considered the White Oak (Quercus alba), and one (along with a recipe for mixing a solution of sodium ni- particular species that’s considered the Red Oak (Quer- trite) is described on page 22. cus rubra), in reality, oak lumber is not sold on a species level. Instead, it’s sold under a broader species grouping: either red or white.

209 White Oak Quercus alba

DISTRIBUTION: Eastern United States TREE SIZE: 65–85 ft (20–25 m) tall, 3–4 ft (1–1.2 m) trunk diameter AVERAGE DRIED WEIGHT: 47 lbs/ft3 (755 kg/m3) SPECIFIC GRAVITY (BASIC, 12% MC): .60, .75 JANKA HARDNESS: 1,360 lbƒ (6,000 N) MODULUS OF RUPTURE: 15,200 lbƒ/in2 (104.8 MPa) ELASTIC MODULUS: 1,780,000 lbƒ/in2 (12.30 GPa) CRUSHING STRENGTH: 7,440 lbƒ/in2 (51.3 MPa) SHRINKAGE: Radial: 5.6%, Tangential: 10.5%, Volumetric: 16.3%, T/R Ratio: 1.9 COLOR/APPEARANCE: Heartwood is light to medium brown, commonly with an olive cast. White to light brown sapwood isn’t always sharply demarcated from COMMON USES: Cabinetry, furniture, interior trim, the heartwood. Quartersawn sections display promi- flooring, boatbuilding, barrels, and veneer. nent ray fleck patterns. COMMENTS: Strong, beautiful, rot-resistant, easy to GRAIN/TEXTURE: Grain is straight; coarse, uneven tex- work, and economical, White Oak represents an excep- ture. tional value to woodworkers. It’s no wonder that the wood is so widely used in cabinet and furniture making. ROT RESISTANCE: Rated as very durable; frequently Connecticut’s state quarter was minted with a pic- used in boatbuilding and tight cooperage applications. ture and inscription of a famous White Oak, the Charter WORKABILITY: Produces good results with hand and Oak. In 1687, a cavity within the tree was used as a hid- machine tools. Moderately high shrinkage values, resulting place for the Connecticut Charter of 1662 to prevent ing in mediocre dimensional stability, especially in flat- its confiscation by the British. sawn boards. Can react with iron (particularly when wet) and cause staining and discoloration. Responds well to steam bending. Glues, stains, and finishes well. ENDGRAIN (10×) ALLERGIES/TOXICITY: Reported as a sensitizer; can Porosity: ring-porous cause eye and skin irritation, runny nose, asthma-like Arrangement: respiratory effects, and nasopharyngeal cancer (with oc- earlywood exclusively cupational exposure). solitary in two to four PRICING/AVAILABILITY: Abundant availability in a range rows, latewood in radial/ of widths and thicknesses, both as flatsawn and quarter- dendritic arrangement sawn lumber. Slightly more expensive than Vessels: very Red Oak (Q. rubra), prices are moder- large in earlywood, ate for a domestic hardwood. small in latewood; tyloses abundant SUSTAINABILITY: Not Parenchyma: listed in the CITES Appen- diffuse-in-aggregates dices, or on the IUCN Red Rays: narrow and very List of Threatened Species. wide, normal spacing Odor: distinct scent when being worked Quartersawn White Oak box White Oak Grouping

In addition to Quercus alba, there are several other spe- Oregon White Oak (Q. garryana), sometimes re- cies of oak that are categorized and sold interchangeably ferred to as Garry Oak, is one of the only species of oak as white oak. These species are all found in the eastern found in the Pacific Northwest region of North America. United States. It’s roughly the western equivalent to the eastern white oaks, though not nearly as widespread, nor as commer- • Swamp White Oak (Quercus bicolor) cially important. • Overcup Oak (Quercus lyrata) • Bur Oak (Quercus macrocarpa) INTERNATIONAL: In Europe, Sessile Oak (Q. petræa) • Swamp Chestnut Oak (Quercus michauxii) bears much similarity to the white oak species found in Chestnut Oak (Q. prinus) and Post Oak (Q. stellata) North America. However, being native to Europe, the are found in the same geographic region, but don’t typ- wood is much more frequently seen with English Oak (Q. ically yield quality lumber. However, when these trees robur), a tremendously popular species listed separately are found in better growing conditions, they produce on page 214. Both European species are commercially good timber and are marketed within the white oak important, and are harvested and sold for the same pur- group as well. poses as American white oaks.

AVERAGE MODULUS RELATED SPECIES DRIED JANKA OF ELASTIC CRUSHING SHRINKAGE WEIGHT HARDNESS RUPTURE MODULUS STRENGTH Radial–5.5% Swamp White Oak 48 lbs/ft3 1,600 lbƒ 17,400 lbƒ/in2 2,029,000 lbƒ/in2 8,400 lbƒ/in2 Tangential–10.6% Quercus bicolor (765 kg/m3) (7,140 N) (120.0 MPa) (13.99 GPa) (57.9 MPa) Volumetric–17.7% T/R Ratio–1.9 Radial–4.2% Oregon White Oak 51 lbs/ft3 1,640 lbƒ 10,200 lbƒ/in2 1,089,000 lbƒ/in2 7,320 lbƒ/in2 Tangential–9.0% Quercus garryana (815 kg/m3) (7,310 N) (70.3 MPa) (7.51 GPa) (50.5 MPa) Volumetric–13.2% T/R Ratio–2.1 Radial–5.3% Overcup Oak 47 lbs/ft3 1,190 lbƒ 12,600 lbƒ/in2 1,420,000 lbƒ/in2 6,200 lbƒ/in2 Tangential–12.7% Quercus lyrata (760 kg/m3) (5,290 N) (86.9 MPa) (9.79 GPa) (42.8 MPa) Volumetric–16.0% T/R Ratio–2.4 Radial–4.4% Bur Oak 45 lbs/ft3 1,360 lbƒ 10,920 lbƒ/in2 1,040,000 lbƒ/in2 5,890 lbƒ/in2 Tangential–8.8% Quercus macrocarpa (720 kg/m3) (6,030 N) (75.3 MPa) (7.17 GPa) (40.6 MPa) Volumetric–12.7% T/R Ratio–2.0 Radial–5.2% Swamp Chestnut Oak 49 lbs/ft3 1,230 lbƒ 13,760 lbƒ/in2 1,753,000 lbƒ/in2 7,200 lbƒ/in2 Tangential–10.8% Quercus michauxii (780 kg/m3) (5,460 N) (94.9 MPa) (12.09 GPa) (49.6 MPa) Volumetric–16.4% T/R Ratio–2.1 Radial–4.5% Sessile Oak 44 lbs/ft3 1,120 lbƒ 14,080 lbƒ/in2 1,518,000 lbƒ/in2 6,860 lbƒ/in2 Tangential–9.7% Quercus petræa (710 kg/m3) (4,990 N) (97.1 MPa) (10.47 GPa) (47.3 MPa) Volumetric–14.2% T/R Ratio–2.2 Radial–5.3% Chestnut Oak 47 lbs/ft3 1,130 lbƒ 13,300 lbƒ/in2 1,590,000 lbƒ/in2 6,830 lbƒ/in2 Tangential–10.8% Quercus prinus (750 kg/m3) (5,030 N) (91.7 MPa) (10.97 GPa) (47.1 MPa) Volumetric–16.4% T/R Ratio–2.0 Radial–5.4% Post Oak 47 lbs/ft3 1,350 lbƒ 13,070 lbƒ/in2 1,495,000 lbƒ/in2 6,530 lbƒ/in2 Tangential–9.8% Quercus stellata (750 kg/m3) (5,990 N) (90.1 MPa) (10.31 GPa) (45.1 MPa) Volumetric–16.2% T/R Ratio–1.8

211 Red Oak Quercus rubra

DISTRIBUTION: Northeastern United States and Southeastern Canada TREE SIZE: 80–115 ft (25–35 m) tall, 3–6 ft (1–2 m) trunk diameter AVERAGE DRIED WEIGHT: 44 lbs/ft3 (700 kg/m3) SPECIFIC GRAVITY (BASIC, 12% MC): .56, .70 JANKA HARDNESS: 1,290 lbƒ (5,700 N) MODULUS OF RUPTURE: 14,300 lbƒ/in2 (98.6 MPa) ELASTIC MODULUS: 1,820,000 lbƒ/in2 (12.50 GPa) CRUSHING STRENGTH: 6,760 lbƒ/in2 (46.6 MPa) SHRINKAGE: Radial: 4.0%, Tangential: 8.6%, COLOR/APPEARANCE: Heartwood is light to medium Volumetric: 13.7%, T/R Ratio: 2.2 brown, commonly with a reddish cast. White to light brown sapwood isn’t always sharply demarcated from the heartwood. Quartersawn sections display promi- SUSTAINABILITY: Not listed in the CITES Appendices, nent ray fleck patterns. or on the IUCN Red List of Threatened Species. GRAIN/TEXTURE: Grain is straight; coarse, uneven tex- COMMON USES: Cabinetry, furniture, interior trim, ture. flooring, and veneer. ROT RESISTANCE: Rated as non-durable to perish- COMMENTS: Arguably the most popular hardwood in able; poor insect/borer resistance. Stains when in con- the United States, Red Oak is a ubiquitous sight in many tact with water (particularly along the porous growth homes. Even many vinyl/imitation wood surfaces are ring areas). printed to look like Red Oak. WORKABILITY: Produces good results with hand and machine tools. Moderately high shrinkage values, resulting in mediocre dimensional stability, especially in flatsawn boards. Responds well to steam bending. Glues, ENDGRAIN (10×) stains, and finishes well. Porosity: ring-porous ALLERGIES/TOXICITY: Reported as a sensitizer; can Arrangement: cause eye and skin irritation, runny nose, asthma-like earlywood exclusively respiratory effects, and nasopharyngeal cancer (with oc- solitary in two to four cupational exposure). rows, latewood in radial/ PRICING/AVAILABILITY: Abundant availability in a good dendritic arrangement range of widths and thicknesses, both as flatsawn and Vessels: very large quartersawn lumber. Usually slightly less expensive than in earlywood, small White Oak (Q. alba), pric- in latewood; tyloses es are moderate absent or scarce for a domestic Parenchyma: hardwood. diffuse-in-aggregates Rays: narrow and very wide, normal spacing Odor: distinct scent Red Oak and Sapele when being worked veneer segmented bowl Red Oak Grouping

Quercus rubra (seen on facing page) is sometimes re- (Q. pagoda) and Shumard Oak (Q. shumardii) rank among ferred to more specifically as Northern Red Oak to help the strongest and highest-quality timbers in the red oak distinguish it from Southern Red Oak (Q. falcata), a spe- group. At the opposite end of the spectrum is Laurel Oak cies that’s sold interchangeably in the red oak grouping, (Q. laurifolia), which is typically only used for firewood or though the wood of the southern species is typically of as pulpwood in papermaking. inferior quality (as seen by the mechanical data below). One geographic outlier is California Black Oak (Q. kel- There are also a number of other species of oak native loggii), found on the west coast of the United States. His- to the eastern United States (listed below) which are har- torically, it’s been regarded very lowly, but more recently vested and sold within the red oak group. Cherrybark Oak efforts have been made to utilize this tree for lumber.

AVERAGE MODULUS RELATED SPECIES DRIED JANKA OF ELASTIC CRUSHING SHRINKAGE WEIGHT HARDNESS RUPTURE MODULUS STRENGTH Radial–4.4% Scarlet Oak 46 lbs/ft3 1,400 lbƒ 16,080 lbƒ/in2 1,766,000 lbƒ/in2 8,250 lbƒ/in2 Tangential–10.8% Quercus coccinea (735 kg/m3) (6,230 N) (110.9 MPa) (12.18 GPa) (56.9 MPa) Volumetric–14.7% T/R Ratio–2.5 Radial–4.7% Southern Red Oak 42 lbs/ft3 1,060 lbƒ 12,040 lbƒ/in2 1,480,000 lbƒ/in2 6,090 lbƒ/in2 Tangential–11.3% Quercus falcata (675 kg/m3) (4,720 N) (83.0 MPa) (10.20 GPa) (42.0 MPa) Volumetric–16.1% T/R Ratio–2.4 Radial–3.6% California Black Oak 39 lbs/ft3 1,090 lbƒ 8,610 lbƒ/in2 980,000 lbƒ/in2 5,640 lbƒ/in2 Tangential–6.6% Quercus kelloggii (620 kg/m3) (4,840 N) (59.4 MPa) (6.76 GPa) (38.9 MPa) Volumetric–10.2% T/R Ratio–1.8 Radial–4.0% Laurel Oak 46 lbs/ft3 1,210 lbƒ 14,330 lbƒ/in2 1,793,000 lbƒ/in2 6,980 lbƒ/in2 Tangential–9.9% Quercus laurifolia (740 kg/m3) (5,380 N) (98.8 MPa) (12.37 GPa) (48.1 MPa) Volumetric–19.0% T/R Ratio–2.5 Radial–4.4% Water Oak 45 lbs/ft3 1,190 lbƒ 16,620 lbƒ/in2 2,034,000 lbƒ/in2 6,770 lbƒ/in2 Tangential–9.8% Quercus nigra (725 kg/m3) (5,290 N) (114.6 MPa) (14.02 GPa) (46.7 MPa) Volumetric–16.1% T/R Ratio–2.2 Radial–5.5% Cherrybark Oak 49 lbs/ft3 1,480 lbƒ 18,100 lbƒ/in2 2,280,000 lbƒ/in2 8,740 lbƒ/in2 Tangential–10.6% Quercus pagoda (785 kg/m3) (6,580 N) (124.8 MPa) (15.72 GPa) (60.3 MPa) Volumetric–16.1% T/R Ratio–1.9 Radial–4.3% Pin Oak 44 lbs/ft3 1,500 lbƒ 13,860 lbƒ/in2 1,713,000 lbƒ/in2 6,750 lbƒ/in2 Tangential–9.5% Quercus palustris (705 kg/m3) (6,650 N) (95.6 MPa) (11.81 GPa) (46.6 MPa) Volumetric–14.5% T/R Ratio–2.2 Radial–5.0% Willow Oak 48 lbs/ft3 1,460 lbƒ 14,860 lbƒ/in2 1,804,000 lbƒ/in2 7,040 lbƒ/in2 Tangential–9.6% Quercus phellos (770 kg/m3) (6,490 N) (102.4 MPa) (12.44 GPa) (48.6 MPa) Volumetric–18.9% T/R Ratio–1.9 1,290 lb Shumard Oak 46 lbs/ft3 ƒ 17,830 lb /in2 2,154,000 lb /in2 No data No data (5,750 N)* ƒ ƒ (730 kg/m3) (123.0 MPa) (14.86 GPa) Quercus shumardii *estimated available available Radial–4.4% Black Oak 45 lbs/ft3 1,210 lbƒ 14,430 lbƒ/in2 1,736,000 lbƒ/in2 6,450 lbƒ/in2 Tangential–11.1% Quercus velutina (715 kg/m3) (5,380 N) (99.5 MPa) (11.97 GPa) (44.5 MPa) Volumetric–15.1% T/R Ratio–2.5

213 Modulus of Elasticity

×1,000 ×1,000 ×1,000 ×1,000 2 2 2 2 Botanical name lbƒ/in GPa Botanical name lbƒ/in GPa Botanical name lbƒ/in GPa Botanical name lbƒ/in GPa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Á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

APPENDIX C | Modulus of Elasticity masterlist 255 Bibliography

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STEVE EARIS: A professional woodturner from the United KEN FORDEN: Located in Whitethorn, California, Ken has Kingdom, Steve has access to a lot of different wood species a small hardwood mill that specializes in native Californian that are not seen nearly as frequently across the pond. As can woods. His website features slabs, flooring, molding, and be seen from the list below, he has donated quite a few sam- lumber: www.californiahardwoods.net. ples and photos of finished turnings. The author is truly in- debted to Steve’s generosity! More of his work can be found at Donations: www.steveswoodenwonders.co.uk, as well as his site of turned Myrtle Walnut, Claro skittle pins and balls: www.steveswoodenskittles.co.uk.

Donations: JUSTIN HOLDEN: From old standbys to hard-to-find rarities, Amboyna Oak, Bog Justin has donated a number of nice samples from around Ash, Olive Oak, Brown the world. He sells single pieces upwards to entire pallets Balsa Oak, English worth of exotic and tropical species through his eBay store: Birch, Masur Oak, Holm http://stores.ebay.com/exoticwoodsoftheworld. Blackwood, African Obeche Blackwood, Australian Okoume Donations: Bosse Olive Afrormosia Machiche Boxwood Osage Orange Afzelia Makore Bubinga Padauk, African Avodire Mansonia (endgrain) Bulletwood Padauk, Andaman Canarywood Wamara Cebil Pau Rosa Cedar of Lebanon Pear Cherry, Sweet Peroba Rosa MIKE LEIGHER: Located in South Carolina, Mike and his Chestnut, Horse Yellow Poplar brother Brad have a portable sawmill and process a number of Cocobolo Primavera turning blanks. Mike has donated a number of samples from Ebony, Gaboon Purpleheart domestic, ornamental, and/or naturalized trees. His website Ekki Rosewood, Amazon features great deals on hard-to-find domestic turning blanks: Elm, English Rosewood, East Indian www.turningblanks.net. Goncalo Alves Rosewood, Honduran Holly, English Rosewood, Madagascar Donations: Hornbeam, European Satinwood, East Indian Camphor Mulberry Imbuia Sheoak Chinaberry Paulownia Idigbo Silky Oak, Northern Dogwood Poplar, Rainbow Iroko Spruce, Sitka Locust, Honey Sassafras Jarrah Tambootie Magnolia, Southern Sumac Kingwood Tulipwood Maple, Ambrosia Sweetgum Laburnum Verawood Leadwood Walnut, African Lemonwood Walnut, Black (crotch) Lime, European Walnut, English Madrone (burl) Wenge DONATION KEY: Mahogany, African Willow, Black (face grain) Mansonia Yellowheart wood or veneer sample donated Maple, Quilted Yew finished wood object photo Mulberry Ziricote Myrtle, Tasmanian Index

Amendoim 21, 208 Bamboo 38, 67 A Anadenanthera colubrina 21, 61 Bambusa 67 Abies 25 Andiroba 80 Bark 2 alba 49 Angelim rajado 252 Basswood 10, 36, 242 amabilis 49 Angiosperms 1 Bayahonda Blanca 200 balsamea 27, 48 anatomy 29 Beech concolor 49 Anigre 199 American 36, 41, 129 grandis 49 Aningeria (see Pouteria) Blue 81 lasiocarpa 49 Anisotropic 9 European 129 magnifica 49 Annual rings 2 Myrtle 173 procera 49 Apitong 117 Beli 5, 149 Abura 170 Apple 162 Berchemia zeyheri 21, 68 Acacia Apricot 201 Betula 22 cambagei 21 Apuleia leiocarpa 61 alleghaniensis 69 erioloba (see Vachellia) Araucaria alnoides 70 koa 21, 33, 50 angustifolia 62 lenta 70 mangium 21, 51 araucana 62 neoalaskana 70 melanoxylon 21 cunninghamii 62 papyrifera 70 omalophylla 51 heterophylla 62 pendula 70 Acapu 250 Arborvitae pendula var carelica 70 Acer 18 Eastern 239 populifolia 70 macrophyllum 22, 54 Giant 240 pubescens 70 negundo 22, 52 Arbutus menziesii 63 Birch 22 nigrum 22, 54 Arctostaphylos pungens 64 Alaska Paper 70 pseudoplatanus 54 Ash Alder-Leaf 70 rubrum 22, 54 Black 131 Baltic 69 saccharinum 54 Blue 132 Downy 70 saccharum 11, 19, 22, 35, 43, 53 emerald ash borer 130 Gray 70 Æsculus 37, 56 European 30, 132 Karelian 70 flava 56 Green 2, 132 lookalikes 70 glabra 56 guide to 132 Masur 69, 70 hippocastanum 57 Mountain 126 Paper 70 Afara 237 Olive 132 River 70 Afrormosia 182 Oregon 132 Silver 70 Afzelia 21, 30, 57 Pumpkin 132 Sweet 70 xylocarpa 57 Swamp 131 Yellow 69 Agathis australis 1, 58 Tamo 224 Biseriate 28, 35 Ailanthus 58 White 130 Blackwood Ailanthus altissima 58 Aspen African 105 Albizia 21, 59 Bigtooth 198 Australian 21, 51 ferruginea 59 European 198 Burmese 107, 196 julibrissin 59 Quaking 18, 198 Malaysian 114 lebbeck 59 Aspidosperma polyneuron 21, 64 Bloodwood 3, 21, 74 saman (see Samanea) Astronium graveolens 21, 65 Board-foot 45 Alder Atherosperma moschatum 222 Bobgunnia fistuloides 71 European 60 Availability 45 Bocote 97 Red 36, 60 Avodire 2, 21, 245 Bois d’arc 160 Algarrobo Blanco 200 Ayan 119 Bois de Rose 104 Allergies 45 Azobe 157 Bookmatch 17 Allocasuarina 36, 59 Borassus flabellifer 72 Alnus B Bosse 136 glutinosa 60 Baikiæa plurijuga 66 Bound water 7 rubra 36, 60 Balau 226 Boxelder 22, 52 Amaranth 181 Baldcypress 27, 234 Boxwood 76 Amazique 137 Balsa 1, 174 Castelo 80 Amboyna 205 Balsamo 172 Box, Yellow 127 Brazilwood 77 Cedar (continued) Cryptomeria japonica 21, 98 Briar 124 Incense 79 Cucumbertree 161 Brosimum Japanese 98 Cumaru 21, 118 guianense 73 Lebanon 1, 26, 88 Cupressus rubescens 3, 21, 74 Northern White 27, 239 nootkatensis 99 Brownheart 250 Pecky 79 × leylandii 100 Bubinga 21, 138 Port Orford 91 Curupay 61 Buckeye 56 Spanish 87 Cybistax donnell-smithii Buckthorn 21, 217 Western Red 240 (see Roseodendron) Bulletwood 164 Yellow 99 Cypress Bulnesia Cedrela Australian 79 arborea 75 odorata 87 Bald 234 sarmientoi 75 toona (see Toona ciliata) Leyland 100 Butternut 4, 30, 145 Cedrus libani 1, 26, 88 Pecky 234 Buxus sempervirens 76 Celtis lævigata 89 D C occidentalis 36, 89 Dacrydium 100 Cabbagebark, Black 157 Centrolobium 21, 90 Dalbergia 20, 37, 43 Cæsalpinia Chakte Kok 227 baronii 104 echinata 77, 78 Chakte Viga 78 cearensis 40, 101 paraguariensis 78 Chamæcyparis cochinchinensis 102 platyloba 78 lawsoniana 91 congestiflora 101 Callitris columellaris 79 nootkatensis (see Cupressus) cultrata 107 Calocedrus decurrens 79 thyoides 91 decipularis 3, 102 Calycophyllum Chechen 21, 95, 166, 167 guide to 111 candidissimum 80 Cherry latifolia 19, 32, 103 multiflorum 80 Black 202 maritima 104 Camatillo 101 Brazilian 142 melanoxylon 105 Cambium 2 Patagonian 136 nigra 19, 32, 106 Camelthorn 21, 250 Sweet 202 oliveri 107 Camphor 93 Chestnut retusa 16, 108 Canarywood 21, 90 American 85 sissoo 109 Carapa 80 Chinese 85 spruceana 3, 109 Cardwellia sublimis 81 Sweet 85 stevensonii 33, 110 Carpinus 36 wormy 85 tucurensis 111 betulus 81 Chinaberry 165 Deciduous 1 caroliniana 81 Chlorocardium rodiei 21, 92 Degame 80 Carya Chlorophora Deglupta 127 aquatica 84 excelsa (see Milicia) Dendritic cordiformis 35, 84 tinctoria (see Maclura) growth form 1 glabra 84 Chloroxylon swietenia 21, 93 pore arrangement 31 illinoinensis 82 Cinnamomum camphora 93 Dendrocalamus asper 38, 67 laciniosa 84 CITES appendices 46 Diffuse-porous 30 myristiciformis 84 Citron-wood 238 Diospyros 3, 43 ovata 83 Cocobolo 16, 108, 229 celebica 112 tomentosa 84 Cocos nucifera 37, 94 crassiflora 18, 113 Cassia siamea (see Senna) Coffeetree 21, 31, 139 ebenum 114 Castanea Colophospermum mopane 21, 95 malabarica 115 dentata 85 Combretum mun 115 mollissima 85 imberbe 95 virginiana 37, 116 sativa 85 schumannii 95 Dipterocarpus 117 Casuarina 36, 59 Conifers 1 Dipteryx odorata 21, 118 cunninghamiana 59 anatomy 25 Distemonanthus benthamianus 119 Catalpa Coolibah 127 Distribution 40 bignonioides 86 cooperage 32 Dogwood 22, 98 speciosa 86 Cordia 97 Douglas-fir 25, 63,203 Catalpa 86 dodecandra 96 Douka 241 Cebil 21, 61 Cornus florida 22, 98 Doussie 57 Cedar 25 Cosmocalyx spectabilis 227 Durability 43 Alaskan 99 Cottonwood Dyera costulata 120 Aromatic Red 150 Black 198 Atlantic White 91 Eastern 8, 197 E Australian Red 243 Cross section 3 Earlywood 2 Eastern Red 19, 28, 150 Crushing strength 41 to latewood transition 26 Ebenopsis ebano 21, 120 Fagus Grain (continued) Ebony 3, 43, 105 grandifolia 36, 41, 129 plainsawn 4 African 113 sylvatica 129 quartersawn 5 Black and White 115 Family (taxonomy) 39 quilted 55 Brown 78 Fiber saturation point 7 reading 5 Ceylon 114 Fibrovascular bundles 37, 38 ribbon stripe 42 Gaboon 18, 113, 116 Finishes riftsawn 5 Macassar 112 evaporative 14 spalted 55 Mexican 229 moisture exclusion 11, 13 spider-webbing 96, 104, 106 Mun 115 reactive 13 spiral 42 Texas 21, 120 Fir 25 straight 42 White 116 Balsam 27, 48 tiger 18 Ekki 157 California Red 49 wavy 42 Elæagnus angustifolia 21, 121 Douglas 63, 203 Greenheart 21, 92 Elasticity 41, 255 European Silver 49 Green (moisture) 7 Elm 31 Grand 49 Grevillea robusta 134 American 246 Noble 49 Growth rings 2 Cedar 248 Pacific Silver 49 Guaiacum 18, 135 Dutch elm disease 248 Subalpine 49 Guanacaste 21, 123 English 248 White 49 Guarea cedrata 136 guide to 248 Flatsawn 4 Guibourtia 21, 138 hard 248 Fleroya (see Mitragyna) ehie 35, 137 Red 31, 247 Fluorescence 20 hymenæifolia 136 Rock 248 species list 21 Guilandina echinata (see Cæsalpinia) Siberian 248 water extract 111 Gum Slippery 247 Foliage 1 Blue 124 soft 248 Fraxinus Red 155 Winged 246 americana 130 River Red 127 Wych 21, 248 excelsior 30, 132 Rose 127 EMC 8 latifolia 132 Sap 155 Endgrain 3 nigra 131 Sweet 155 magnifying loupe 24 pennsylvanica 2, 132 Yellow 127 preparation 24 profunda 132 Gymnocladus dioicus 21, 139 Endiandra palmerstonii 121 quadrangulata 132 Entandrophragma Free water 7 H cylindricum 37, 42, 122 FSP 7 Hackberry 36, 89 utile 123 Fustic 161 Hallea (see Mitragyna) Enterolobium cyclocarpum 21, 123 Handroanthus 140 Equilibrium moisture content 8 G Hardwoods 1 Erica arborea 124 Gabon 66 anatomy 29 Erythroxylum havanense 227 Garapa 61 parenchyma 33 Eucalyptus 30 Genus (taxonomy) 39 Heartwood 3 camaldulensis 127 Gidgee 21, 51 Hemlock 25 coolabah 127 Gleditsia Eastern 244 deglupta 127 aquatica 133 Western 5, 245 diversicolor 127 triacanthos 9, 21, 133 Hevea brasiliensis 40, 141 globulus 124 Gluta 21, 23, 133 Hibiscus elatus (see Talipariti) grandis 127 Golden Chain 153 Hickory leucoxylon 127 Goncalo Alves 21, 65 Bitternut 35, 84 marginata 30, 125 Gonystylus 34, 134 Mockernut 84 melliodora 127 Grain Nutmeg 84 obliqua 127 bastard 5 Pignut 84 oleosa 127 beeswing 42 Shagbark 83 regnans 126 cathedral 5 Shellbark 84 robusta 127 contrast 27 Water 84 urograndis 126 crotch 43 Holly 143 Euxylophora parænsis 21, 128 end 3 Hophornbeam 178 Evergreen 1 face 5 Hormigo 196 Excurrent growth form 1 fiddleback 18 Hornbeam 81 Extractives 3 flame 18 Horse Chestnut 57 leachability 23 flatsawn 4 Hygroscopic 7 interlocked 42 Hymenæa courbaril 21, 142 F irregular 42 Face grain 5 mottle 42 Larix (continued) Manilkara I occidentalis 28, 154 bidentata 164 Idigbo 238 Latewood 2 zapota 164 Ilex 143 transition to 26 Mansonia 165 Imbuia 175 144 Lauan 225 Mansonia altissima 165 Intsia bijuga 21, 34, Laurel, California 249 Manzanita 64 Ipe 140 Leadwood 95 Maple 18 Ipil 144 168 Lemonwood 80 ambrosia 55 Iroko 29, Leopardwood 6, 35, 219 Bigleaf 22, 54 Ironwood Letterwood 73 birdseye 55 American 178 Libocedrus decurrens (see Calocedrus) Black 22, 54 Black 21, 152 135 177 Lignum Vitae 18, burl 55 Desert 21, Argentine 75 chemical testing 22 Itin 200 Lilac 231 curly 55, 159, 227 IUCN Red List 47 Limba 42, 237 Hard 11, 19, 22, 35, 43, 53, 217 Lime 242 identification 54, 70 J Linden 242 quilted 55 Janka hardness 41, 253 54 125 Liquidambar styraciflua 155 Red 22, Jarrah 30, Liriodendron tulipifera 156, 161 Rock 53 Jatoba 21, 31, 52, 142 120 Locust Silver 54 Jelutong 31, Black 20, 21, 32, 218 soft 35, 54 Jobillo 65 Honey 9, 21, 133 spalted 55 Juglans Water 133 Sugar 53 cinerea 4, 30, 145 157 147 Lonchocarpus 21, Sycamore 54 hindsii 19, Lophira alata 157 Marblewood 34, 252 neotropica 19, 148 146 Lophozonia 173 Marmaroxylon racemosum (see Zygia) nigra 3, Lovoa trichilioides 158 Massaranduba 164 regia 19, 147 149 Luster 43 MC 7 Julbernardia pellegriniana 5, Lyptus 126 Melanorrhoea 21, 133 Juniper 25 Lysiloma latisiliquum 21, 158 Melia azedarach 165 Alligator 149 Meranti Juniperus 25 M Dark Red 225 deppeana 149 196 150 Macacauba 107, Light Red 226 virginiana 19, 28, Macawood 196 White 226 Juvenile wood 4 Machærium 159 Yellow 226 Machiche 21, 157 Merbau 21, 34, 144 K Maclura Meristems, apical and lateral 2 Karri 127 160 229 pomifera 17, Mesquite 21 Katalox 36, 71, tinctoria 161 African 200 Kauri 1 Madrone 63 Black 80, 200 Kempas 152 Magnolia Honey 199 Keruing 117 acuminata 161 Messmate 127 Kevazingo 138 grandiflora 161 Metopium brownei 21, 166 Khaya 151 virginiana 161 Microberlinia brazzavillensis 167 Kiaat 204 168 101 Magnolia, Southern 161 Milicia 29, Kingwood 40, Mahoe, Blue 232 Millettia Kiri 180 50 Mahogany laurentii 169 Koa 21, 33, African 151 stuhlmannii 21, 32, 170 Kokko 59 Asian 117 Mimosa 59 Koompassia malaccensis 152 Cuban 231 Mitragyna 170 Korina 237 152 Genuine 230 MOE (Modulus of elasticity) 41, 255 Krugiodendron ferreum 21, Honduran 37, 40, 230 Moisture content 7 Kwila 144 Indian 243 Monkeypod 21, 50, 221 Philippine 225 Monkey Puzzle 62 L Santos 21, 172 Monocots 37 Laburnum 153 Sipo 123 Mopane 21, 95 Laburnum anagyroides 153 179 Swamp 127 Morado 159 Lacewood 6, , 219 White 219 MOR (Modulus of rupture) 41, 254 Lagarostrobos 100 Makore 241 Morus 20, 171 Lagerstroemia 153 Mallee, Red 127 tinctoria (see Maclura) Larch 25 154 Malus domestica 162 Movement in service 7 Western 28, Mangifera indica 21, 50, 163 Movingui 119 Larix 25 Mangium 21, 51 Mozambique 137 larcina 154 Mango 21, 50, 163 Mulberry 20, 171 Muninga 21, 204 Ovendry 7 Pine (continued) Myroxylon balsamum 21, 172 Eastern White 18, 28, 190 Myrtle 21, 249 P hard 186 Crepe 153 Padauk Hoop 62 Tasmanian 173 African 21, 144, 195, 207, 224 Huon 100 Andaman 205 Jack 189 N Burma 205 Jeffrey 189 Names Paela 78 Khasi 193 common 39 Palaquium 178 Limber 191 scientific 39 Palm Loblolly 187 Narra 21, 35, 206 Black 37, 72 Lodgepole 188 Nogal 148 Coconut 37, 94 Longleaf 187 Nothofagus cunninghamii 173 described 37 Maritime 193 Nyatoh 178 Red 37, 94 New Zealand Red 100 Nyssa 173 Palo Fierro 177 Norfolk Island 62 Panga Panga 21, 32, 170 Norway 192 O Panopsis 6, 179, 219 Ocote 193 Oak 6, 19, 22, 36 Parashorea 226 Parana 62 Black 213 Parenchyma Patula 193 Bog 215 aliform 33 Pinyon 191 Brown 215 apotracheal 33 Pitch 187 Bur 211 banded 34 Pond 187 California Black 213 confluent 34 Ponderosa 5, 12, 26, 189 chemical testing 22 diffuse-in-aggregates 33 Radiata 189 Cherrybark 213 diffuse (in hardwoods) 33 Red 192 Chestnut 211 diffuse (in softwoods) 28 Sand 187 English 214 lozenge 34 Scots 193 Holm 6 marginal 34 Shortleaf 187 identification 209 paratracheal 33 Slash 185 Laurel 213 reticulate 34 soft 191 Live 216 scalariform 34 Southern Yellow 27, 186 Oregon White 211 scanty 33 Spruce 187 Overcup 211 unilateral 34 Sugar 27, 191 Pin 213 vasicentric 33 Sumatran 193 Post 211 winged 34 Table Mountain 187 Red 17, 18, 43, 212 zonate 28 Virginia 187 Scarlet 213 Parota 123 Western White 191 Sessile 211 Partridgewood 170, 173, 250 Western Yellow 189 Shumard 213 Pau Ferro 159 White Cypress 79 Southern Red 213 Paulownia 2, 180 Pink Ivory 21, 68 Swamp Chestnut 211 Paulownia tomentosa 2, 180 Pinus 25, 27 Swamp White 211 Payene 178 banksiana 189 Water 213 Pear 208 caribæa 187 White 6, 19, 32, 39, 210 Pecan 82 clausa 187 Willow 213 Peltogyne 21, 34, 39, 181 contorta 188 Obeche 243 Pepperwood 249 echinata 187 Ochroma pyramidale 1, 174 Pericopsis elata 182 edulis 191 Ocotea Pernambuco 77 elliottii 185 porosa 175 Peroba Rosa 21, 64 flexilis 191 rodiei (see Chlorocardium) Persimmon 37, 116 glabra 187 Odor 20 Pheasantwood 223 jeffreyi 189 Okoume 66 Phoebe porosa (see Ocotea) kesiya 193 Old growth 46 Picea 19, 25 lambertiana 27, 191 Olea 21, 176 abies 183 merkusii 193 Olive 21, 176 engelmannii 183 monticola 191 East African 176 glauca 183 nigra 193 Russian 21, 121 mariana 183 oocarpa 193 Olneya tesota 21, 177 rubens 183 palustris 187 Orange Agate 196 sitchensis 26, 48, 184 patula 193 Orientalwood 121 Pine 25 pinaster 193 Osage Orange 17, 111, 160 Austrian 193 ponderosa 5, 12, 26, 189 Argentine 161 Beetle Kill 188 pungens 187 Ostrya virginiana 178 Caribbean 187 radiata 189 Ovangkol 35, 137 Chilean 62 resinosa 192 Pinus (continued) Prunus Redgum 155 rigida 187 armeniaca 201 Redheart 21, 227 serotina 187 avium 202 Redwood 2, 28, 224 strobus 18, 28, 190 domestica 11, 201 Relative humidity 7 sylvestris 193 serotina 6, 202 Rengas 21, 133 tæda 187 Pseudotsuga Resin canals 25 virginiana 187 menziesii 63 fusiform rays 25 Piptadenia 21, 194 Pseudotsuga menziesii 25, 203 RH 7 Piratinera guianense (see Brosimum) Pterocarpus Rhamnus 21, 31, 217 Pistachio 21, 194 angolensis 21, 204 zeyheri (see Berchemia) Pistacia vera 21, 194 dalbergioides 205 Rhus typhina 21, 217 Pith 3 indicus 21, 35, 42, 205, 206 Riftsawn 5 Pithecellobium saman (see Samanea) macrocarpus 205 Rimu 100 Plainsawn 4 soyauxii 21, 207 Ring-porous 29 Plane, London 195 Pterogyne nitens 21, 208 Ripple marks 37 Plantation Hardwood 141 Purpleheart 21, 34, 39, 181 Robinia pseudoacacia 20, 21, 32, 218 Platanus Pyinma 153 Roseodendron donnell-smithii 219 occidentalis 6, 195 Pyrus communis 208 Rosewood 20, 37 × acerifolia 195 Amazon 3, 109 Platymiscium 196 Q Bolivian 159 Plum 11, 201 Quartersawn 4 Borneo 133 Poisonwood, Black 166 advantages of 5 Brazilian 19, 32, 106 Poplar 156 Quebracho 21, 223 Burmese 107 Balsam 198 Quercus 6, 19, 22, 36 Caribbean 166 Rainbow 156 alba 6, 19, 32, 210 East Indian 19, 32, 103 Tulip 156 bicolor 211 guide to 111 White 198 coccinea 213 Guyana 228 Yellow 156, 161 falcata 213 Honduran 33, 110 Populus garryana 211 Khamphi 107 alba 198 ilex 6 Laos 107 balsamifera 198 kelloggii 213 Madagascar 104 deltoides 8, 197 laurifolia 16, 213 Panama 111 grandidentata 198 lyrata 211 Patagonian 61 tremula 198 macrocarpa 211 Santos 159 tremuloides 18, 198 michauxii 211 Siamese 102 trichocarpa 198 nigra 213 Tiete 136 Pores pagoda 213 Yucatan 111 arrangement 30 palustris 213 Rotary-slice 6, 17 chains 30 petræa 211 Rot resistance 43 clusters 30 phellos 213 Roupala montana 6, 35, 219 contents 32 prinus 211 Rubberwood 40, 141 dendritic 31 robur 214, 215 diagonal/radial 30 rubra 17, 18, 43, 212 S diffuse-porous 30 shumardii 213 Salix nigra 220 frequency 32 stellata 211 Samanea saman 21, 50, 221 radial multiples 30 velutina 213 Sapele 37, 42, 122 ring-porous 29 virginiana 216 Sapgum 155 semi-ring-porous 30 Sapodilla 164 size 31 R Sapwood 3 solitary 30 Radial surface 4 demarcation 3 ulmiform 31 shrinkage 10 Sassafras 222 Pouteria 199 Raintree 221 Sassafras albidum 222 Pricing 45 Ramin 34, 134 Satine 74 Primavera 219 Rays 6 Satinwood Princess Tree 180 aggregate 36 Asian 153 Prosopis 21 fleck 6 Brazilian 128 africana 200 fusiform 25 Ceylon 21, 93 alba 200 in hardwoods 35 Nigerian 119 glandulosa 199 in softwoods 28 West Indian 93 juliflora 200 noded 36 Schinopsis 21, 223 kuntzei 200 spacing 35 Semi-ring-porous 30 nigra 200 storied 36 Senna siamea 223 Provenance 15 width 35 Sensitizer 45 Reagent 22 Sequoia sempervirens 2, 28, 224 Seraya, White 226 Tamarindus indica 233 V Shedua 137 Tambootie 228 250 Sheesham 109 Tanga Tanga 59 Vachellia erioloba 21, Vavona 224 Shellac Tangential surface 4 75 moisture exclusion of 13 shrinkage 10 Verawood , 229 recipe 14 Taxodium distichum 1, 27, 234 Vermillion 205 Sheoak 36, 59, 119 Taxus 1, 25, 45, 235 Vertical grain 4 River 59 Teak 236 Vessel elements 29 Shittim 250 Brazilian 118 Vouacapoua americana 250 Shorea 225, 226 Burmese 236 Shrinkage Rhodesian 66 W longitudinal 10 Tectona grandis 236 Walnut African 158 volumetric 10 Terminalia 146 Silky Oak ivorensis 238 Black 3, Northern 81 superba 42, 237 Brazilian 140, 175 Southern 134 Tetraclinis articulata 238 Caribbean 158 Simira salvadorensis 21, 227 Texture 43 Circassian 147 Claro 19, 89, 147 Sipo 123 Thuja 147 Sirari 136 occidentalis 27, 239 English 19, French 147 Sissoo 109 plicata 240 148 Snakewood 73, 251 Thuya 238 Peruvian 19, 78, Softwoods 1 Thyine 238 Queensland 121 anatomy 25 Tieghemella heckelii 241 Tropical 148 earlywood transition 26 Tigerwood 65 White 145 grain evenness 27 Tigre Caspi 251 Wamara 228 parenchyma 28 Tilia 36 Wattle, Black 51 texture 26 americana 10, 242 Weathering 43 Species (taxonomy) 39 × europæa 242 Weinmannia trichosperma 251 Specific gravity 40 Timborana 21, 194 Wenge 169 Spirostachys africana 228 Tineo 73, 251 Willow 220 Springwood 2 Toona ciliata 243 Wood identification Spruce 19, 25 Toxicity 45 chemical testing 22 Black 183 Tracheids 26 color 17 Engelmann 183 Transverse section 3 grain 18 lookalikes 183 Tree of Heaven 58 history 19 Norway 183 Triplochiton scleroxylon 243 limitations 15 Red 183 T/R ratio 10 odor 20 Sitka 26, 48, 184 Tsuga 25 weight/hardness 18 White 183 canadensis 244 Workability 44 Sugarberry 89 heterophylla 5, 245 Sugi 21, 98 mertensiana 245 Y Sumac, Staghorn 21, 217 Tulipwood Yarran 51 Yellowheart 21, 74, 128, 142, 252 Summerwood 2 American 156 235 Sustainability 46 Brazilian 3, 102 Yew 1, 25, 45, Swartzia 71 Tupelo 173 benthamiana 228 Turræanthus africanus 2, 21, 245 Z cubensis 36, 71, 229 Tyloses 32 Zanthoxylum flavum 93 fistuloides(see Bobgunnia) Tzalam 21, 158 Zapote, Chico 164 madagascariensis (see Bobgunnia) Zebrano 167 Sweetbay 161 U Zebrawood 167 Sweetgum 155 Ulmus 31 Ziricote 96 Swietenia alata 246 Zygia 230 cataractæ 251 macrophylla 37, 40, americana 246 252 mahogani 231 crassifolia 248 racemosa 34, Sycamore 6, 36, 195 glabra 21, 248 Synonym 40 procera 248 Syringa vulgaris 231 pumila 248 rubra 31, 247 T thomasii 248 Tabebuia (see Handroanthus) Umbellularia californica 21, 249 donnell-smithii (see Roseodendron) Uniseriate 28, 35 Talipariti elatum 232 Utile 123 Tamarack 154 Tamarind 233