llOOI IT • 711.1 i'WOJ!'A!!
c::ua•iaTi"*iic~·u"i•~"'"l 11&1'1 (, /z. o J7 z. ... 'lllf ...... c...... J I 9JIKaL;~ ::-f'r-- ·- WQPSJ :~ •
~-·· R5095 I t±*mw£i FOREWORD
Thio voluao of Book IT of tho ^ianhattaa Hatriat Mi*tor/ hao
bora wrlttoa to prorido tho k-oador with tho background noooaoary
for a oloaror undorataading of tho auooooding — Trow of thio book.
A briof dloouooiaa of tho Indopandont roaooroh oa radioaotirlty and
nuoloar phyoloo loading up to tho dlooorary of ylutonlua la proooatod*
ao wall m tho M a tniatratiTO arroagoaoato undor whloh tho Pllo
Projoot hoo oporatod froa Joauary 194* to SI noooabor 1946. Poatureo which haro booa o o a m to aoro thaa ono phoao of tho Pllo Projoot
■ro inoludod la thla roluaa to avoid ropotltloa la ouoooodlai; roluaao.
Book IT of tho Maahattaa Dio trio* Hiotory ha* booa wrlttoa ao of IX Daooabor 1944* la aa offort to proooat a ol«ar« ooasrohoaolvo
hiotory of tho Pllo Projoot to that dato, adauto dotallo and highly t.chaioal dloouoolooo haro booa avoided whoravar poaaiblo.
Tho annaarji ooatoiao aa abotraot of ovory aaln subjoot troatod la tho toxt and lo koyod to tho tori ia auoh a aanaor that paragraph nuabaro and hoadlngo ia tho suaoary oorroopoad to tho varlouo oootloao ia tho tozt«
3*o oupploooatary aatorial, or roforoneoo aro inoludod la **\r ▼oluao. A. gloooary of torao io prooentod la Appendix a.
Othor phooao of tho hiotory of tho Pile iYojoot aro doaoribad in*
Book IT - Vbluao 2 - Raaaaroh
Book IV - Voluao S - Dooiga
Book I? • Toluao 4 - Land Aoquioitloa# H.H.5T. Book IV - I'oluro® 6 - Cons tmotio:a
Book IV - Volume 8 - Operations
31 Deooaber 1946
F 2 i M A m K DISTRICT Bln
W O K 1 7 ~ t'XLa W J T C f
vomm i - asmtm features
fAStt OF GOJJTSWtS 7ar. No* Page Ho. F o m m o SUMMARY
SECTION 1 - I N T l i O W C T m 1-1 Objective# 1 - 2 Scop® 1,1 1-3 Authorisations 1*1 1.2 sscfioK 2 * sAfiti m w w B m r s
2 - 1 Natural Radioactivity 2“2 Artificial Disintegration 2.1 2-3 Discovery and Effects of Neutrons 2.1 £■**4 Fission 2.2 2.2 SECTION 3 - AIMISTRATIOH 3-1 General 3.1 3~2 Rational Defense Research Committee (NDRC) 3.1 3-3 Offic«^>f Scientific Research and Development 3.2 3-4 Manhattan Engineer District 3*2 3-5 Administrative Jurisdiction 3.3 SECTION I* - PHASES OF TUB PILE PHOJ8CT U-l General 4-2 Research 4. 1 4-3 Development ■s*2 4-4 Design 4*3 4-5 Selection of Contractors k*3 4.3 3 . University of Chicago !;*3 b* Stone and Webster Engineering Corporation lx.ll c. a . I. du Pont de Nemours and Company, Inc* 4* 5 \ * * '.general .filaetric Company 4 -0 Coordination 4*6 M 'U-, .10,
jrW-i, Av** „? *“ . S~1 ' Oemral £#i 5-2 ^«taH?srslcal Laboratory 5 ',1 5-3 Clinton Xa'i:K»r«tc«pies 5,1 > 4 Hanford ‘Ungiwew *'oncks £ ,I S'-'XJHCH 6 - EiTSLLTCS^ICB AKD S^CBKXTT
6 -1 General 6 , 1 6 -2 /inployraent 6 , 1 distribution of iafocncatioa 6,1 6«*lj Cn-Projoot Investigation* 6,1 6-£ Physical Security 6*2 6-6 Security of Cnforreation 6*2 SECTION ? - LAW 3SHJRCMSHT AMD JURISDICTION
7-1 Oeneral 7*1 7-2 Jtariadicrfcton 7 ,1 7-3 laar Suferceaent 7 ,2
SECTION 8 - CARE OP HEAL BSTATB
3-4 General 3 * 1 8-2 Village Rsaidencea and Buaineaa .Buildings 8*1 8-3 Farma and Orcharda 0*1 34i Irrigation Dlstricta 8*2 --5 Sfcreeta and Highways 3%2 3-6 Electric Power Linsa 3.2 3-7 Railroads 3*3
SECriOM 9 - ORGANISATION AND FERSQHMBL
9 -1 General ^*1 9*2 kjirerninent 9*1 a* national Offioiala 5 , 1 b* Research Agencies 2 * 1 c* Manhattan Snginaor District % 2 2-3 Contractors ^#2 a* University of Chicago 9*2 b, K* I* du Pont da Nemours and Company, Inc*, 9*2 c, General Electric Company
- APP3NDIX A - 01035ART IHDRX
ii pl utmil-. ?h.11 -" !Dvol 'Nd tMoretJ.col 4t •'dlee, . 111/.. 11> .l a t>d ..-J.•
oai ~• .,..., <1.-1-t ....n .. tiae llOUl.4 al1 ..... u. ..,..ui.1- u oo <>t • ou1t.ule alto. a....i - c!ft1cn, • ..,.ir.lct:1_ ..i _...u ,.. ot
:tarp • • l e ~roduot lon !'acll1t1•• "1U.Ollt - benJ1t or oam;>leto ....
z. r.i-11 "wnlo dlo.>.,....l"Od l a 15~ bf II. ~l . Thl.a >Ork Wiii t»ll- b:; the llo la tl·>n or n.dilO - the J h c...... ,. !hot Ulcri ..., palaa1,., r.a1..,.. &"'1 touatice ot an a_tona 1-• aoo : .,, .. bJ" t h9 -1.11110. or • •1.ncl• al;ata er beta putlole _. "' "> u od b)' ll. !lt!L'>lrtard and ~ . Sodd;J 1" 1902. ?be 3.t'ttt!.o.1.al carvor•1c:i ot oce ohlAio•l ol tX»Ct to a notbar uu ao:occ- p' S3!¥MJ ~ '?V..hcrlord. ill lil$t. .1o rGW• h1,;:h o:Ml!:f nwlJ.a~A 'f:ll• C::O~ioed ln 1!>32 cxl J . ~w l ::::C .. TO{tO&cd tll&t. tills :-aa a ~ • .& .DOW.r:al d r f l f l f T v c v n n
by ssany attaipts to convert uranium to m m olor.ento higher in the atonic
scale by bombardment with neutron.. This work established the fact that
uraniua-235 and uranium-238 fission upon bombardment. In 1940. h o m w ,
evidence obtained proving that uranium can undergo trmnmautation to
new elements higlwr la the atoaic scale. This « u followed by the die- oovery end isolation of plutonitmu
8. Administration. . s t t o r t * were cede to Interest the Ocvernasnt
la resesroh oa uranium fission beceuse of the possible military use of
the large aaounta of energy released by fiealoa. This resulted la the
formation of the Advisory Coamittea oa Uranium. With the organisation
of the National Defense Research Committee* nuclear physics researoh oa
uranium was conducted at several universities under HDHC contracts. Xa
Oeoesaber 1941, the t&ranium Section was reorganised under the Qffioe of
Soiantifie Research and Qsveloptnent and aa "all out" effort wee begua
et the tmivereity of Chicago under the direction of Dr. A. H. Ccrspton.
The Manhattan Engineer District was organised and assuoed over-all
direotloa ef the Pile Project effective Id August 194*. The OSHD re-
.mined in charge of research until 1 Hay 1949 whea the Sushettaa Dist
rict assumed full jurisdiction over all phases of the Project*
*• p*maa< °** ***• Pile PTojcot. - The evolution of the Pile frojeot differed from the usual procedure because the urgent military need fcr plutonium did not permit the completion of the ou«ternary exhaustive research end pilot plant studies prior to design and oonetructlon of the large scale production plants. Ihe research program was conducted under the auspices of the Metallurgical Laboratory at the University of
Chicago* The separation chemistry of the Pile PTojcot was studied on a
32 11 a "'fi! .. (iltli }1'111f~!llfl ! :t!!! J.ff ti~~~.. • j
I -.e ·~;- if i~I t ~ :. ·!i •t·.. f • f
,' , ~ 1i~illjt1' 4ll ;rf ( i i i= 1 ~,,..i"'r ,; 1 1~l111~ ir ! 1 · - i i r t • .. 1 ¥ ~a i ·-
: l ~i f ! ! . ?l 1. f ! . f t I I I ; I f ;
.111~-~-i :'§! jr1f.r 1 i:Jii~!~fJJ ,,-t;firl G* a# geaurj^ . ?he objective* of th» Pile r-rojeot
diraotly affootod the >utcarr» of the ^ and It «m » th H ita i. neoes.
sary & at s tr ic t secrecy bs mintained*. fcoh onploryee*# personal
history *as cheeked and, a fte r m vXoymntt each person *a» ^ aoeea.
to only such information as wm necessary for tfas aoepUbioa o f h i*
task* Personnel wrere allowed to enter only those arsas in «hioh tfMy
worked and *ere constantly winded af their security obligati***
mT* pa^rollod by Contractors* guards and M ilita ry Polio©*
7* - ^ - ^ i>oro^aanfe and Jurisdletlctu * rhe prolan of law enforce saant and ju risd iction m » latch greater a t the SmTord Btsgineer ffcrfes
than at the itaiversity of Chicago or at the Clinton Laboratories hmwnrf
of the at** of the Project and the msaber <*f persons p loyed* Zte Jtate
of flMhtn*w aslntaiae* jurisdiction owr th* Project aal its law m m
aoforoad by the C«*fcractor*s patrolnett, afeo worn deputised by the Bentm
County sheriff* A special set of tram * mguUMm* we enacted by
the ^arraiss loners o f Beaton Comty, fb» antlre reservation was r e s tr lo -
ted and no oontraband, mmh a# oo*»rae» firearm , and U*ocr# was permitted on the plant area*
8* ^ a»tat»« • The area of the' Hanford .Ingiaeer tforfen inoludsd several ooiaaualtlee* xaany & r » and orchards* and sever*! utilities* ISwt of the dwell!*©* and business buildings mrm m o d dur5ng the construction period but have since been boarded up. at ao». wrfced for other uses* The farm and orolnrdS haw been operated by Fradoral Prison Industries. One jfrrigatioa district 1* being used ani ths other has been abandoned. The highways and railroad .have been improved suid one oleotric power line has boon diasvmtled rfhile the others
34 M i d i ii» m p t
are being maintained and aome portion* ar® ia uaa.
9# Psrsonns1. - The Pil. Projeot was formsd under
the National ?ef«nse Heseareh vosmittee and was later direoted b y a aub-
oomitfeM of the Office of Scientific Tte*earoh and Development. In
August 1942 tha Manhattan engineer District was formed and from 1 May
1943 unljtjl 51 Decsaber 1946 tha Project has been undap tha diraotioa of
'^ajor General i. R, Groves. Cel. K. D« Sichol*, as District Engineer,
and Uol* F, f, ilatthias sad it* Cel. f, J, Clarke, aa Area Engineers,
hare directed tha Sanford Baginaar Works aotlritiaa. Dr, a. S. So*pton
has served aa Diraator of tha ttetallurgio*l Projectj tha VSX Division
of tha iSaplosives Department and tha Sngineering Department of tha du
Pont Company were ia oharga of dasign and construction of tha Hanford
Engineer Storks and Clinton tabors tar las and of operation of tha Hanford
Sngineer tforke, until 31 August 1944, at which time, tha Ceneral Slaotria
Company assumed responsibility for operating tha Sanford phase of production.
35 :J.UllATTA.. ~ LllSTRlCT rttsT"BY
500I IV .. f'U.E .PnOJBD!
VOUIMS l .. :JE'.mllAL 1'KA.1'1IRBI
i-1. ·:Jb;l!~.,... - the ~·11• l'l'ojff"'b• lmollfll u 'th9 z:-10 fr•j•n
alJlil d'••ari'b94. ta ~lM aua.•4ln.= YOJm.•• ...,.. a-~ ..4 t• tar.ntpt.
t.h9 pro~ 1.nrol..-.4 1.n, tM ft'tabli91-n.• ~ & CIOll'trOlh4 ee1.fw auatai.Ding •ohal.D re9'0tlon. .. ~o dw eu.i. ~ f ,r:ir "tM proo•N• u cld:I. p. and OOiilttrut"t: "tM ...._ __, ni•••• U4 ~111& .ta91Ut1.e•, -and 'tel prnduM ithl qua-ti1ill•• d .wpla.atonJ.11a•• dl•'t•M• by .SlU:_,. ~- la U. ~ p1119d.blei tl•· l. '!hear•tieal mwl•M' ph,pioal ·~ ot the .tbe.loai _. u--.w••Soa pr..,...... .z:. 1b.e ptvaloal -4 ob9.!oa1 :r-•1..-M. •-••--r- -t• ••~ U.k a •-.11-oale lbala r•.otd• ...a W S.Gla'Ce -~ qUaJt.tl.-1.. ot' p1~mdua. a. S'Mh dn9lof en uMI •pt.1• -pbat1•• tirn.HpdGml .. ~ 111111111.d au... t:e ~ -tM• pr...... '°" i-c- ••i&J.e ot-,..ttcm. •• l'b9 ~P ot larp-.oal• 9roduot1oa plan't9 w1 thou~ O.a.et1- ~ ....,1.t. !N..... GI"' pllat plan' lri~· JJ•t-lom. ti• ?he aoqui8l td.oa ~ an .,... ol l~,. lllt"tlot•u•q l.N'p for the production plants and attendant service and housing facilities, yet remote from large centers of population, and near abundant supplies of water and electrical power* 9* The construction of intricate production plants, on which the design was ever-changing, and attendant service and housing facilities, in ths shortest pos sible time, during a period in which the supplies of labor# construction equipment, and building materials were already inadequate* ?* The full-scale operation of unorthodox production plants without the benefit of complete research or pilot plant investigations* «* Bie protection of all personnel Area the serious health hasards that aeeoapany all stages of the process* 1-3* Authorisation* a* All action in connection with the institution and prose- outicn of this project was taken under authority granted by Congress in the Acts which are described in another book (Book I)| the funds used wore likewise appropriated by Acts there described# b, Under the authority vested in hi* by these Acts, the President of the United States issued orders and authorisations which are described in the sans book (Book I)# o* Major General L* ft* Groves directed or authorised the general policies and directives under which the JJanhattan District carried out the work* The 3-1 Committee of the OSHD and the Military 1*2 Policy Comittss r.#Ut.«4 th.tr Ssural appror*! of th* b*«io dooUioas irrrolvod, as rtoordsd in tho *iaut»s of asstlags or in other documents U t iw pro jest filss« (Hook III, Appsadix Dl| i h also Ssotioa Organise tion and Fnrseaast). SECT 10# 2 - EARLY DEVELOPMENTS 2“U ^ ural R*dlo»otl7lty. - "natural radioactivity’** was dia- ooverad in 1896 by 3. Becquercl* He had wrapped a bit of a uranium salt in black paper and placed it near a photographic plate with a sheet o f silver between the aalt and the photographic plate, ifter a few hours a distinct photograph!* effect m m observed which indicate* that the uranium salt gave off setae radiation sufficiently penetrating to pass through the silver plate and affect the photographic emulsion. y Subsequent experiments with different salts of uranium proved that the emission came fro* the uranium* This work was followed lay the iso* lation of radium by P* Curie and H* Curie in 189* and the discovery that thorium, polonium, raditas* and actinium also gave off penetrat* ing radiations* A great many substances were later found to be radio* active, but practically all of these appeared to come originally S t e m either uranium or thorium* Subsequent work proved that three series of naturally radioactive elements exist* The starting materials, uraniiu&-2$®, uraaium>»288# and thorium, disintegrate naturally, forming radioactive elements lower in the atomic seal** This cycle Is re* peated until stable isotopes of lead are fcrmsd as the final products of all three series* The flret general theory of radioactive trans formations, that the disintegration of an atom is accompanied by the omission of a single "alpha particle"* or "beta particle,"* was pro- posed by 2* Rutherford and F* 3oddy in 1901* artificial Disintegration*"* • The conversion of one ele»» sent into another, the dream of scientists since the earliest days of ~' - HMla...... 11ir L a.tll·f:fw• la llU...... ,.,_. w '"- ~ ...... us.s...... -U•2- ._...,,._. ,riu:A UIM u. &lz? ~ - •=• 11 la .. ••It• • - .1 -. n.ladwJr ... •··· 11 • ~ •••• (•r'l• ...... _ • •....s...... 211 .. ., e1...- _.•est le-'"""" rr• .., ,,_ w. •11 • .. ..U - ._..... _ 1wu • ., U•I- • ___. -.-----. -· ~ 'llWS1 JI ....? ... ,...... _ ...... a..·• 111 •• -· alt - n'"eet• - W~•11r 11e1&1 ... ._ '9 e. •···-• .,,...... n. ._..el 1.- Olde, - •• -llf11.. la,._ ••••I~ W. - rn&n na.. • u ,..... ,. •••• te••••• ti It .td1 ..- a aw• co r 1ft...._ .... - ...... ,,...... u , ....'Jffnil ...~ ,..,.. J1f. ~. Ille --..... d Wd9 ...... u- - ...... 8. Ont'-• la~..._ :i.. z> sl a.. a ua._al ,..U_. J•& ttS...... ~ .. --- ...... --·~ .. n:•l••al .....iu• . as...... ,...... _ s. h =• • • • :t.. a- u..i ••1- 1111 n ·~ ... •tw. ~ ....._ ... a ••• • 'Dli ••we_, el tld9 ~ z ro. _.....,. ,.u.i. q · •• u.a .., r_. cud wt~.,... •••• • ...u...u...... "_ .. atw .. 'IMI It II• ...... IQl.e •~ ts.M •wr1 ''• tM .-U•l.e r•ft- ...... ..... n..1...... -11- etl _..._ ...... , ••w ... 1 s1w1 ... diwoww4 111PM by J. «Mt hit Fim * * « ttrt» u * • •■**"» «(mhnmi «t*» m m k * ly * by4r«cm« *&» ** **nww*ly w» f«r «or« lm jrrhtflu rUio- Mtinty. a» m um tM **• mm «t» r*#*u «r « * i m i i M a P w i t * v m UtaM r*W «f ^ «* «**rgr# «* *f ur«alwi tgr «ufc m utem m aitfrt M l to th* fttrm&ita *f «f «*«*« m»b«r kleh*r Umi « . xt *m A * « m 4 t y 3 W h i* m m M m **#«» iwi»t» dlff«r«ttt Hal# jwri«t* nwr» etworrM for ttiM pedwrtt, whidi 1*4 t* Xa idftf 9t H«2ai ms4 1%. StvMMnMnii fwod tk rt o i r U i i of tfao p rtfliitli rtattlt&ag fir on to* totafearferat « f yrw lw * with nmrfr m* iwr* r**H y ****$— * h**im «a t Im tiu m m * % k V It ft*? *4 * A» lm USi tad J* *# Bwoiftf tat kin i» 1M0 t o r n * tiu* * i«* awrtr** mwl fittloi «f urwltt^tw «h*r*«« fw% n*utr«» om*** ftaaloR *f umdt»IM« Mooptmt* of th# n * * l m gr ■***■*»»•" » » U w ». t, M N m «, auiuww, *. a. im o . *si J« W* disoersre* the element M (plutoulu*) ehleh wee lmter f swat t* be plutoaiua-zsi, fhtwilaa lil t m dissever** h y ®* T * 3#*b w *K* ** *«grt, l« w, b n « ^ rt and I. o * Lesreaae early la 1M1, The first pure plateata»4*9 was lseUte4 la the fora ef its s«spetin*» la August mni September I M S kjr 8* B. <*PMln«h«s and his e»» workers* a-i...... 1 ... Ill~ .. tlMi ...... lllll.Ut11r7 .. o6 ... 1m"8ll --- 91 --· ...... lW ~ • ,,... el ~ . 91 .... ~...... t.. u. a.1...- ...... --i:. 111 199., • ...... ' .ll'*....._ .. ._. w .... - .. 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II•#& ••M le Jlll'tll _...... •It - ._. ••••• ... -...... #SIM._•• ft11~ ...... ·---· ...... -···= ---- ..,, ...... , 11.ne..-11...... W.A.-..111'5?11 ...... •Ir•-,,. " ' 1'l I ....._.•••'• ' 91/1 ... ·m1• ...,.._ - w ...... Jlf?h ... .tlf'1111• a. ••,. m " .. Mii 1nfttvlW 9's' •111-.. •••&...... llllMlii1.r .. - .... , ...... , ....Ill - • ... u.. -· --...., ...... •a...... ·--·I 1 ., Still...... MU. ,,,. - ...... _...... Na•-~ ....._ r P• !!?! !Jd 1s lf!'!!Or .... • """"' e1 • .., .. , _.. 111"91, 'at *• 'fti ...... W.I' '• D 1W 1MS. lrlp4'• - ~• ••••• ...... • r • ._. ,...... tr ...... 29 ...... •• q' • ._ ,...... ,.,, ... 1 ...... "" ...... _... ---·--.··-·· fl .....;: ,. ,.,.••••• -.. ... *9 wr.... II•#& ••M le Jlll'tll _...... •It - ._. ••••• ... -...... #SIM._•• ft11~ ...... ·---· ...... -···= ---- ..,, ...... , 11.ne..-11...... W.A.-..111'5?11 ...... •Ir•-,,. " ' 1'l I ....._.•••'• ' 91/1 ... ·m1• ...,.._ - w ...... Jlf?h ... .tlf'1111• a. ••,. m " .. Mii 1nfttvlW 9's' •111-.. •••&...... llllMlii1.r .. - .... , ...... , ....Ill - • ... u.. -· --...., ...... •a...... ·--·I 1 ., Still...... MU. ,,,. - ...... _...... Na•-~ ....._ r P• !!?! !Jd 1s lf!'!!Or .... • """"' e1 • .., .. , _.. 111"91, 'at *• 'fti ...... W.I' '• D 1W 1MS. lrlp4'• _,..,.. .,_, ' ...... ~ ..l 1 .. t. '-•'-a.-...S. ... ISM f/l•cll 1_...... _ ...... -...... -aJ 8 tlal •• 1M \ . ' wilt. ~ ., ...... _. ,...... ,...... ,.._ ..... I I mt ·1 tlrll a.an'?' -.., • m 1s•• - .. ~ wa Mt•t.. ...... -...... CZ 0 It 3 IMJl 5 .... ~ ,._ ... ·- J.19 .. .lfftl lllla ...... •u1t... _. ••M• ~~.., ...... , ...... l_ ·---· Ml ~ .... .ii fb •• fll * 'i - ... I I ',...... ••1mna• • • a. ·---'-•• hU I ..... I , , , . t6 ..., u .... 11•;1 st ...... u~ ...... • 2 •' ,_ - .a.a 7 , •• ••otl'i&-- - ,_ -· ...... - ., 0 M,.,...... ta... •aal'lllf'lf ,.,, I la ,. ••• - 2 2 p ... • F a._ .. , ., ...... 0 .... _ .. 2 - • ,, 2 . ···---i. ' .... oz &a ...... , ...... I i I ,..... , ...... _. ••--'i.n..al •••• •• .L at .. 0 es ...... p a • - 0 .. - • •1' e.. ,_..kc a -a.• •ta 'M ., .... I le II :o1 0 .. - •• aJ.t ---la ot·-··-- .. 1 ...... d M...... """"''"-Ill fW '"'' I le ;: a t'• 2 .. .. , ...... 3 11• JI '• ...... aU .... q ...... _.,..1•• - ... ·- J et'= ,.. au 1 .au..,. ..a tw ,a rt 'a ~ - ,.,.., h" ,.,. - p I ! .. Jll,_.... el a $ al&..... --...... I I A Ii o• a a •••..Up C la - •a 'wt'= ...,,.,,, 7 '•& ,,..,.__ , ,... .,...... - -- tr ..._,, .. ~ • au ,_...... ,.,4' ... ., - ...... , ,. ... •• '-"' .. , •1wrel'UM .. 111911 ...... b 'bt ..tal -· • ,,.au_ ... nu-.. ... ••• ..-:D:le. a. ...._. ., .._ .,...... ,_ ,i.&tlll - ...... _ ,._ ...... 1 .. ., lall...... , 1..i. ...._...... 1a ._...... , •••=·-~ .t.tll. 1-. -..1•r •• ...,. - _,... - ,,....,... .a-...... _.. ""' .... la .. 1..... ••ele ...... ,,...... ,... _., ...... a...... - ... -- ...... c-m.-•)• .. II.Ml Jl'•h•• - ...... , ...... • ...-.. • ...... ~ ...... hr .... Iii. ...Jltd .. Diie .... - ...... bi ••• I .,,,- 1JM -·-.. - ..... •r1--..... ...... ,...... ti.11-e-'• itr••-·-- p'.1M:tl9 .Sala ...... (M8 U.e fld9 •••Hilta... Mf•• , ...., • 1allllJ' ...... p1.. ., ti11._.ftl. ,..•• n d _. ._...... IOt•d'srf'# l'adllilt.e• a. _.11 .....i.- ••••ill.Ml -i...... ,.U. • Ml ~ .....k&l -•-• u.. , •Wlllraleel _. 4111..S ' I ....1rl1mt., _. -•••1w ~· n11•... Im MIU...._ -. ...-...... ,..• ._...... a,..,...... _,...._.._...... ,...., ...... •.....U.C ~- t:w ..._, ... ~ ..,,.- ..... n. .-Utr ., ... --- ._ -. tlllil• p••• ta "' a "r ....., ••...,._. .,...• ._, el -. .,.._ -..s- JJha.. (- ft&. IJ ...... t11ie 1Mt ._..... '1_.. ..,.. delivering plwtoaloo ayproatlaatoly throo yaaro nftor tha aaatrallaatloa of r m m h uador tho Jlotnllorglaol Projoot. *-»* PfytUp^i, - Tho Gliataa laboratorloa m doaignad tad MMtraiM il OaH X t ^ ftwim, m * 'nakwki** u 4 pilot float for tho dovolopaoat »f tb« " w p i n t i M ahoalotry*a of tho m o Projoot. Thia W f M t l t m pilot plaat |1m « tho M M I N l vaa M l •uffioicntlp adraaaa* ft* fete tin* oporatloaa bogoa »l Clinton Ubomtorioo b#omw## *f »*Ut»ry it 1U luporatioa that d u l p and ««». atmotlan of tho prodaotloa plaato it tho 8Mf«Hb|i«Mr *orka pro* aood pilot plant r m l t oaald It « H » M to fiol, joaip oorh on tho ffaaford plaato aad fete ailatoa Uboratarioo «ao ^ogroaoiag a* tho « • « U«i, Sooolto ooro ahtnlao*, haoomr, at Cliatoa Labora* Wri#* *• aoaoidomhly la tho aolation of operating problaoo o* the laafard Snglaoor Arti, ^ Stf.Slft* * **• *••**• • * **• prodoation plaato at tho ftaafard Snglaoor *orko raqulrod ooaploto corporation batonaa tho roaoarah u 4 daalga organlaatlona, tiaoo thaao plaato a m tho firat of their typo to bo daolgaed and tho doolgn had to bo aeffieiently floaifele to pomit ahaagoo diotatod by anhaaqneat roaoarah tad oponiiot, Thia «aa par* tiottlarly tree ia tho dealga af tho Separation Plants ohioh were finally doaigaod far tho uao of oithor of too preeaaaea* tho quality af tho dooiin oork oao thorn by tho abilitf of the Pileo to oporato under uaforaeeea oenditlone and tho ability of tho antiro plant to praduoo at or above tho propoaod aapaaity (800 Tel. «). *-*• Saiaatloa of Sontraataro. *' M y w f * * y of Chjaago. - Tho ooatraat for tho roaoaroh 4. 1 1 .. fAll••...... I 0 ...... 1 • ., Cid•...... ,._ ' SES. -ICW •lllfll ... D9 ft.la~ l1a DI• rt• UIQ .... M-.., ...... '9'1_,...... ·--...... ,_. ' 'Ir 11•?...... --....u ..... - ·~ ~ .... -...... _ ...._ ...... "' ,...... , u-·,· ...... -...... _ ...... , , ...... ~Iii - , ...... _. _...... , ••41 · A... tll--- If ala4 ;· ...... --~ · ,...:l'lr ...... ,._. ,.,.,,.._ ••••• ... .Uulr11 I .... , ...... 1.-. ·---··- - ...... ,,, ...... ,,. 1:111¥• ...... ID -· - ... Rief ... JO .... . as. ---- rmP ·-·.a ...... _.,._..._. - • r• ...... l•a.. .. M ._ aMll ..eal ld•d&,j · ~ '. 1 I > ...... " 111; :n:i.tp ...... Mzilil 2 S : •• &! i I tllls• ... , d-d-' !Mt... ,_. - 'W' .. s•l l ' JSS ...... :...... ,,,..,_I '±•••.,-_. ¢ •••le# .. II rMI• ~ ... ' .....a.i-··- ... ~ ••-..• Ill !NI., • ..all• el ._ Aas ~ _. "" ...... _ nu...... :a.-• .. ~ • .... I.Ml•••• dtlli r.- tllie ....U. Ill tu- _. aMm I I 13'• 11121 be IM-.. _. ...... _..., -~oa1 ....•M11-...aall••••..._.._,...,.. 1111'G.t:t11tz1•st=• •••& n• _...... f-. llU.._.._._. ft._ »» oaryy !*• MilfiMft aa tk# wi* JYojoot Arofraa, t*o 90* of 1«» daalfft and aonatrnatloa flaraaa n r * aaplayad on tha Pila frajaat ^ N M M l **ff tnuftmd fHt othar da Pont plant* •ad tralnad far Sdafard Stiflnaar *arka oparatlna a* tha Katallurgiaal Labaratarjr and at CXlataa Ubaratarlaa. Tha T r im CaatraaW aaardad aaay •abaontraata far apaalallaad *ark, la ardar ta faallltata aanatwa- tlaa by atillaUf aa mail privately cwnad aqalpaaat at poaalbla and ta radaaa tha bardaa af labar raaralteaat. *• <” » ! > Maatrla taapanr. • Oft I Saptaabar 1M I( taaoap- tlaa af raapaaalbUltgr ralatlaa ta aparatla* af tha Saafnrd ftt«iaaor Wtofe u d alliad raaaarah w a nadartafca* by tha Oaaaral Slaotrla Oaapaaf, Tha aa* aantraat far aparatlon «aa ldaatlaal ta that uadar whlah da fc*t had aparatad ftraa tha aoaplatlaa af aaaatraatiaa la Karah ltd* wstll I Saptaabar 1MI, tha ahaaca balag tha raaalt af da l*at*a aal* i aataay ratlraaaat froa tha atoala flald* *"** $2£&5S£iS2S? * *** ***•♦«* ^ tha Pila fra jaat la tha < i 1 aahiavaaaat af tha aaahlaad afforta aad raaoaroaa af aur aalantlfla laatltntlaaa, Inina trial arganUatlon*, aad (Nrraraaaat, Tha oaordl* natlaa and dlraatiaa af thl» JVojaat, with ita prafata aalantlfla aad aaflnaarlnf prablaaa, fcara baan a graat faat af adalalatratioa* tha aaaaptlaaal dagraa af anoaaaa la attrlbntabla ta tha high oallbra, alaaa aaaparatlaa, aad foraalght af thaaa paraoaa rapraaaatlag tha Mrvaral raapaaalbla orgaalaatloaa la naaaf*naat# aalaatlfla aad taah* nlaal advaaaaaaata, aad aaflnaarlnf. 4 .« w W iir r 8W H O M ft * COSTS M * * £ £ £ & • " t*Ul coat of the Pile Project to 31 Beoanber IMS i*» approotinetely #487,753,108, acoarding to tha latest available dot*. Ihia mm inolodee the oooto of the M etallurgical laboratory, Clinton Laberatariee, oat tho Buford Xngineer Horko. Sot lnolude* la tho above toa a i« tho oooto of i d ie trle t overhead! i l U t u y i i l i i i m fbed notarial*! aad othar plant* or projooto under tho Uuhattaa Dla** t r t o t , which nay be applicable, in nhalo or la part* to tho H I* Fro* joot* 5*** M^allwKloal Laboratory. • Tha total soot of tho B*t*ll«v* gioal Laboratory to 31 Ooooabor 194ft m approximately #33,894,388, ft breakdown of thla ooot ohooa that #3,984,378 aas apart for rwodol- inf axlating faeilitioa and for a**r oeaatnaotlon, and that operating axponasa were approxlnataly #39,880*808, whilo aettlanaat of roatora- tioa olaina anowted to $49,810 by tha oad of 1948* W . Clinton Laboratories - Tha total ooot of Clinton Xnbora- torloa to 31 9oecnber 1 9 M an* approaciantely 138,291,000* A breakdown of thla *vm ahoa* that tha eoot of oonatraotion aao #15,041,000 and tha ooot of oporationa a u approxinately 122,250,000* jtofbrd laglnoar Work*. - Tha latoot available data ahona that tha total aoat of tho Banford Bngicasr ftorks to 31 Qeoaaher 1948 «ae $419,587,830, Tho ooot of oeaotrnotloa, 1348,101,340, in* oludlag #3,881,88ft for dealga, ia for all ooaatruotion oonpleted prior to 30 Juno 1948 bat inoludee liquidation of Project obligationa and ooat adjuatnanta through 81 Deoanber 194ft. Tho operation eoot, based ..- ...... ,.. ft ..... ~ ...... - ...... ---- Ill... . •'pp·· Q 'D•I I• U ... - ...... "4Clw.. ew SE .. _ ~ ... •••r.-• w -.waiw...... , 1st.. •-• ,,,. s = .... ,-t.• _. IU....,_ (.... ) _. .,.._._ (.. ._,. -U.. 111-1.• .. ··~··· ...... , . , ...... -...... \ ...... • er •u•&• •sp 1a • •••..••• 1 .,_ .ul.•esw• .... •za € d • • 1 l• --.. . .• ... _ _ _ _ ....., ______J ...... .... ., • .... .,*- .. lt ..-. .... !' !!*' i..M!!S:· • AU .... ti ,...."- ...... eMi.... ., ...... ,.., ...... ••1 ... '"11... M<ll)* ...... ~ ...... ,..... ..._ ... '*' -.S. I IE .. -A a.at- ,Ua J -.d•-W .... ,...._...... _...;..,-.. .... !!pl-!,'!' l!le • AD -11 ••• _. et••t _. ...... - ...... - ...I.a ...., .... -...., .. .,.... . •••• ...... -.... M •• ~ 1111rs-t111r 1 1t1 .a 91 • • rxa •zl M ·allii 1119 - I 11• ...... 1'911• Ma tr•- ._, •llSIF I 111 's •E '-I p;llll".lll fl ...... sztl,;, ... ••••'s ... Mw••'• .m ...... 1•• ~ a-...... _...... ,. b ...... - ...... 1"'~ ••• -- ~ _. ra•• ...,.. ••• _. It 1 1t1t ... r•11111tlll 119 •k'8 - -' ..... -. IMflU a ti• ,., rM• .. INJ'•• at. - • ...... tdlr• ... i..1 ~in. ... &lwm ..1a·111 fll - I'-: • ,,.,... ,. 7 ...... s~- ...... 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(USB Of A L L BSTAXB 5 -u te^-a>>toii' ***»*• " & * • • °* TNcjtww M M lattowteo * grotim lm tfco o*ro of ro*l w t i t o w » r M t i t g l ^ m m o k M m * t l tilt of «iM«i or •* SUitai Ukniirte* i M h i>i is idNp ■wftwi feffMtr Vpriw oi«o w v wiu«l n— wttu>» «Mp t**M * 4 . too InrS^ofcloft dlotarloto* o m o stotto hl^jkngr ooril o o m H ^ M l villo«» Itnaka« tfevoo olooftrlo powwr lijit— jr — j » fewfe Xian of m imm* MtrnMm »o» at* Aral *j*4 F u m « « H V m > t ' (Soo ToUu 4 on* *)• ' *** H t t m S M M M l ""* *>»<»•— * n tte m f m BioM M M «11 M U & n aal taHMw IrtHlap « m -----Tit vp u tft* «rl*in«l iww»Mif a m i ooft« ia * » h ^ h i m t U o f t l w «ott# telUtep « m u m * M a g tfco oosttntetiaa p«rl*4 m d tfaoft OQ***rt*0 f«r otfaM ooo, 41oaon»lo*, or bwrlii up, «mop* far o f*w of tfc# botUr i w litoii *»!<* *r« still wowyUA, ill M L H e g i tlmt fcfto* bMtt U i r M a# or* Im i m M flfifMllr to ofcook o o tfaolr m b » ■ . •;*.. ••• * “*• 2 & 3 S L J 8 & . * N r * t t t m U s m b o U 4 1 n c » s i r * ttoo« 4«ri*# tbo porlod of potk popuUtiaa be* few* olooo b o m w i M to* tbo bottwr m » tMw of tbo fvso *a4 orohsrio koto ) m m oporotoA olaoo tbo M^tiiitloi of tUftUoi* 2* tho ploat orooo, hofttftor, it o i W U f K i tbot ft* itn* M i ^rofcario «bo«14 not bo oporotoi oflMr tho plonto owat *r%+ U t m r o M m m «* k M M *» M M «*■»* t M m*u M to M W . *M4 «•**% «M U M rn mrt. n. M nt M M taM rl* MMr« DM* • m wm la n» « w if M l » M i m « turn M « ■ * » * . MMMkttiMMMnnkHMtk wewr •* «* W w « Mm* M M * m « k m m i w . m i l ••vf fe * » Drtag *t MMt pUat .'■" >v I m IHfllfclMI m i i ' Hi'*w M P M N f tRT~ja ,.-. A , , . . m . .. MM aifit «# «r«tar6i I* *fc« JfmfwrMhlf M l •#•»* I* t* «rlag A* m m m m « * « w n * W ?rl»«ft i * W atfatfti* pip* ua»** «***•% «* o«Mr imi m m * * * m m * *» iiiwwtn ‘ Tv. : .. •. •. . ■• •• : .' .. ■ <..• •„ ,* ; y.. . * ; ■ v ... ■- • •• I’. ' • ■;. ;-V•V ' I Mfc ia n n »tow *. - a» fartMMM m m m , m m ; > - • . I ***** •»* Mm4 tt« irw )r tt* devwew* «e| '■ :‘ ?:.• 1I .■■ ite*? tiw ««fl»4» Htt|»llii ItrtrlM wn tin tk» M m ^ fwKtlag «# * mpUj itoli« «| AU*4 «U ft 9 M » fwiwttt ?U»* H I M itjtfd* itm4 th* *|«* mat*. tt» yw>fr"i »t«ll*i tm Um « * W ia<»rpor*t*l Ut* th* a w H l U m *# «ff «tenrt— <» •»** jBHtet* ttPti» * ft**# powir «gr»tea* < m N f! tfca w w prior tn i%» M *ti»iti«i f«r flrwjant* tfca Rural BUwbri. tUm Um MtoUivmttnm *i*%rib«tl«a Um « w r mA Urpljr dimcOn** A m »nim ?»*•* kdmi*u\r*%lm Urn m sn* *• frajw* «a* it* «wta*y r— r t -4 wife tte SaaatrtUa fM r M liM w wafer «a m M «>l attfc ito %ar« m* «i«tr» ftaifla hM r Tfca trwwatoaiaa Itaia mm U rtiiw i, tfca <«a ftw Bw ftrl li baiac am* f*r araa trmaLiiUR, «ai w*U r m r t ta tha UrttllMl ■ M H t NT ha r>1inil«l W | «*&£&* * «* akU*fr, Mhmdmm, f*» s m * «&4 PMlfti • P ^ •>•** i f Milan# wan pur•!***•« by tha 3 m n m i •a* has fcasa la>ra»a| m i n*iataia*4 fay a saWeelraatar* JSCTXGH 9 - QaOAJS12ATICi AltD PEHSCHKIL 9~1* HSSSCSl.* * **» Pil* Projact eat originally formed under th* S*tion«l Defense Heaeeroh Coaaittee of tha Offio* of Scientific Hataaroh and Development and latar wae reorganised directly under tha Offloa of Solantlfio Hataaroh and Devalopaent, Tha Itanhattan Diatriot of th* Ccrpe of Ingineera gradually aaauoed oontrol froaa August 1948 until aaauning complete jurladiotioa on 1 aay 194J* Tha work con tinued undar tha relating contraota and new oontrwota vara awarded aa tha Project expanded. Only organisations and peraonnel tha* vara otm- oemed with several phaaea of tha Pile Project will be mentioned here* Contributions of organiratione wad personnel to any particular phae* of tha Project are diaouaaad in th* r*ap**tiv* succeeding rolnsaaa. 9-8* g»yermet»;t, »* yntlonal Offiolala* - Tha Pile Projeat w*a authorised ***• President of th* United Stats*, FTanklin D. aoosevelt, and periodio reporta on ita progreea vara urnda to hia until hit death and subsequently to Preaidant Barry 8* truman. Serving on th* Toy Policy Coaaittee war* th* Vic* Preaident of th* United Statae, Hanry A. %llaoe* th* Secretary of ^ar, Hanry L, Stimeoaf and th* Chi*f of Staff, General George 0. Kareh*ll. b* ft*M«rph Agenolet* - Prior to the formation of th* Manhattan Engineer Diatriot, the Pile Project waa under tha direction 3uth* Chairaan of th* National Defense 3*searoh Cooraittee and later Director of tha Office of Scientific 3esearoh and Derelopaent, and Dr. J« 3, Conant, hie aaalatent* The progjraai ohief for the Pile Project was 0# A* B* Compton* o. Manhattan Bnglneer District. - The Manhattan Snginaar District of the 0 Colonel J« C. Marshall* Oft 17 Septsabsr 1942 Brigadier General, now Sajor Ceneral, L. X, Groves o f tho Corps of Bngineere m s pleoed 1 * ooKplsts ohargs of *11 Arwy sotlrltiss routing to tbs Manhattan Oiatrlot Protest, Brigadier General f* F. Ferrell has aeted ss General Qrcrrss* deputy* Coloosl, K* D. Sishols served ss Distrist Engineer of the VnhsttM Btoginssr District with h s ^ w r U r s st tbs Clinton Engineer *orke, Osk Hldgs» Tennessee* Colonel ?. f* Hatthiaa hss served ss Deputy District Engineer In charge of ths Pile Project and orso off loos bsvs boon jnaintainsd st WllalngtoE, Delaware | Chicago, Zlllnoisf Clinton Lahoretorlee, Osk &ldge» Tenneeeee# and Hanford and Richland, Washington* 9-8* Coatraotore* a* Ohivarsity of Chlsaics* *• Dr* A. B* Compton has b s s * Projsot Director of ths astaUurgioel Projoot with hsad^uartors at ths University of (Allonge* b* B* I. i n Pont ds Hsaoura and Coareany* Ins* - Iks 8. I* dm Pont ds Honsurs and Coapany* Ins* designed and oonatrusted Clinton Laboratories and ths Hanford Engineer Works and hare opsratsd ths HSnford Engineer Works* W* S. Carpenter, Jr.# as prssidsnt of ths ooapany, entered into preliminary contract negotiations with ths OSfiD o I* itoYtod jo *a°TRTOdc *a°TRTOdc %»***•» p^uDssadai •/kwv «R PO» *a©C *a©C •aj^aoiaQ p»«aojej «w* rj.oofoad *ec UISIRICT BOfar iv - p i u atcw&cr v a u m i - ris’ou L psumsa i m S D I X A slogs/jut Alt>h* 3»rtioUa • An alpha partiols is the nucleus of 'oh* haliua atom* It it aosipoeed of twe proton* and tvs neutrons amt has an a tends rasaber of too amt aa atomio amss of four* artificial nislatagratloo. - Ths breaking up of aa *les»nt whioh has bssa exposed to bonberdaant with partiolos m a h as neutrons or protons* Atgalo fcss. - A t m X * aass Is ths relative weight of any atos ooapared to 13 for $*ys*n. it Is equal to ths total number of protons and neutrons la ths nucleus. Atoals ?tiahsr» * fho stools nunbsr of any ato% or Q l m e t n t , is equal to ths suabsr of protons in ths nuolous of ths atas#* Sines ths protoa posssssss a unit positivs electrical charts, ths atondo number is also equal to ths ost posi ties chars* on ths mielsua* Beta PartlsU* • A bsta partiols is aa olestroa which, for convaniencs, n a y l m assuasd to hairs basn assoolatsd with a proton ia ths nu- olsus of aa atoa in ths fora of a nsutroa* Thus, whsn a bsta partiols is eaittsd, ths nuolsus contains ons rssro proton than bofors resulting in trsnsautation to an aleaeat cos niaabor higher in ths atomic seals. Chain Roaotlon, • Ths tara chain reaction refers to the method of conducting the fission process so that it is self-contained and s e If-per petuat 1 ng . Disintegration* • I>ieintegratian is a term used to describe the break ing up of an atom under certain conditions* If an atom dieinte grate* naturally. It is radioactive. Artificial disintegration is that resulting frai* the bambardmemt of an atom with sub-atomic particles* • Sanaa Radiation. - 3 a m radiation Is the radiation of energy resulting frcsi the complete conversion of ness to energy* The game* ray has sere eleetrioal charge and sere mass and possesses a frequency which is dependent upon its energy# Samoa rays may he likened te light rays or X-rays „ differing from then only in frequenoy and energy* Gaasaa rays are emitted free many radioactive substances* Half Life* • Half life is the ter* applied te the period In vfeleh the activity of a radioactive substance decreases te half of Its Initial value. It varies f r o m 1 x 1010 years for thorium te O m O O t seconds for one isotope of aotiniue* ffeptunlum. - Neptunium is the chenical element of atcade number 9 & i It is manufactured in the Hanford process and deoays te ths Hanford product, plutonium* Pile* m A term used to describe the unit consisting of a lattice ar rangement of cylindrical pieces of uranium metal and a light weight material, usually graphite, such that the proper conditions for the continued fisaion of the uranium sure obtained with the aubsequent production of plutonium. Pilot Plant* - A pilot plant is a saall*soale production plant, used experimentally for research aad to detonaine th# boot deaign for large-aoale production unito. Plutonium* • Plutonium la tho chemical eleraent of atomlo number 94* It Is tho >roduot of tho Hanford process a n d constitutea the ond toward which all aanufaoturing operation* or© directed* Proton. • Tho proton ia * sub-atomic partiole and ia one of tho con* atituenta of every known substance* Brotona *re associated with nautrona to font tho nucleus of each atom of every chemical element except hydrogen, the nuoleua of which contains only one proton* Th* number of protona in tho nuoleua identifiea the element* Radloap tivt ty« • Radioaotirity ia tho phenomenon of spontaneous diain* tegration of elements aooompaniod by the emission of raya* Haturai radioactivity is sheen usually by element* of atomie weight higher than lead and la not af footed by chemical or physical influencee* Artificial radioactivity ia a temporary radioactivity oauaed by bombardment of an atom with aub-atamio per ticlee* Semi-wortea * <* A. seai-worJca ia a development laboratory in vfcioh the equipment and batohea handled are larger than those used in regular laboratory reaoaroh* the semi-works stage la the inter* mediate stage between laboratory research and pilot plant develop* ment« Separation Chemistry* - The term separation chemistry refere to the study of the ohemiatry of tho varioua proeeaaea for the separa tion of plutonium from uranium and flasion by-produote* A3 s n e f H r i r Slow • Slow neutrons, al*o oailed thermal neutrons* are those of 1sweat velocity and energy. They are captured raore readily by nuclei of uraniua and plutoniuai than are neutron* of any other velocity and energy. IHDEBX Abelson, P. H», 2.* Aokart, B, S., 9.5 Chadwick, J 2.8 Actinium, 2.1 Chain Reaotlon* 1,1* 3.8 Administration, 5,Iff, Chemloal Research, 1*1 Advisory Coawittos on Uranium, 8*1 Chioage, 111*, 4.4, 9*8 Allard, Wash,, 8*8 Chicago, Milwaukee, St. Paul Pumping Station, 3,2 and Pacific Railroad, 3*1, 8*8 Alpha PartieIs, 8,1, 8,8 Chief of Engineers, 3.8 Alpha Hays, 2.8 Chief of Staff, 3.8 Araa Engineer, fanford Engineer Classified Information, 3*1 Works, 7,2 Clinton Engineer Works, 4*8, 9.8 Argonae Forest, t.tff, Clinton Laboratories, 8*8, 4,8* Argonna National Laboratory, 4,S 4.4, 4*5, 8*1, 7*1, 8*1, 9*8 Army# 8,1, 3,8, 5,8* 9,8 Coots, 5*1 Service Faroes, 8,8# 8,8 Cold Creek, Wash*, 8*8 Artificial Disintegration, 8*1 Commanding Can*, ffOstern Atomic £o„ 2*8 Defense Command, 7*8 Atomic Seals, 8*1 Comalssloners of Benton Atomle Weight, 8*2 County, 7.2 Authorisations, l.gff. Compton, A* H., 3,8, 4.4, 4*5, 9*8 Consist, J. 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