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9-19-2009 Old Words, New Worlds: Revisiting the Modernity of Tradition Ananya Vajpeyi University of Massachusetts Boston, [email protected]
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Recommended Citation Vajpeyi, Ananya, "Old Words, New Worlds: Revisiting the Modernity of Tradition" (2009). History Faculty Publication Series. Paper 3. http://scholarworks.umb.edu/history_faculty_pubs/3
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Ananya Vajpeyi
n the Hindi film Raincoat (2004), review article we begin to look, Kalidasa and Krishna, Rituparno Ghosh presents a short story Vyasa and Valmiki are everywhere in the Iby O Henry in an Indian milieu. The The Modernity of Sanskrit by Simona Sawhney art and literature of modern India, as are place is contemporary middle class Kolkata; (Ranikhet: Permanent Black; co-published by University of many other authors, characters, tropes the main actors, drawn from Bollywood, Minnesota Press), 2009; pp 226, Rs 495 (HB). and narratives that invariably appear to us are at home in the present. Most of the as familiar, yet differently relevant in dif- conversation between various characters his updating and Indianising O Henry’s ferent contexts. They require no introduc- revolves around cell phones, TV channels, tale, but in his simultaneous reference to tion for any given audience, yet at each soap operas, air-conditioning and auto- post-colonial, colonial and pre-colonial new site where they turn up, as it were, mated teller machines, leaving us in no Bengali culture, and thus to a dense under there is the interpretive space to figure out doubt as to the setting. But given that the belly of significance that gives weight to what exactly makes them pertinent on story is somewhat slow, and the acting by an otherwise trivial story. Calcutta’s status this occasion. Thus the work of writing the female lead, Aishwarya Rai indifferent as a big city, its urban decrepitude, its faded and reading is always ongoing, always at best, what gives the film its shadowed imperial grandeur and grinding poverty, inter-textual, always citational, and unfolds mood is its beautiful music, and the direc- these we already compute; so too the within a framework that blurs rather than tor’s obvious love for Kolkata. Both these pathos of Radha and Krishna’s separation entrenches the boundary between the tra- elements, strangely, are at odds with the and the impossibility of their reunion, ditional and the modern. Kalidasa counts historical moment sought to be represent- which is nothing other than the universal as an ancient in one reckoning, as the ed. Ghosh himself has written the film’s impossibility of returning to childhood. greatest poet of the Gupta imperium; he is theme song, rendered in soaring notes by Ghosh is clever, then, not in successfully thoroughly modern if we read him via, the Hindustani vocalist Shubha Mudgal. It adapting a piece of American fiction for an say, Rabindranath Tagore in Bengali liter- clearly displays the influence on him of Indian audience, but in attaching these ature or Mohan Rakesh in Hindi literature; the medieval Bengali Vaishnava poets other, rich registers of meaning to the he is also, through other archives and Caitanya, Jayadeva, and others who wrote slender narrative he has chosen. Calcutta’s genres, quite medieval, called and recalled about the love of Krishna and Radha. The modernist decay, as well as the eternal throughout the vernacular millennium. city where the story unfolds is a still-colonial pain of the divine lovers Radha and Krishna Many literary texts and their key protago- Calcutta, with rickshaws pulled by men become grafted on to the protagonists’ nists have this sort of a life, across times, on their feet, pouring rain, slatted wooden thwarted love for each other, and on to spaces, languages, genres and political window-blinds and heavy 19th century their consciousness of time irretrievably contexts in the Indic world. The teak furniture straight out of Satyajit Ray, lost, slipping away like their stolen after- Mahābhārata, the Rāmāyan. a, the life of bridges over the Hooghly river, a train noon together. As the plot, the music and the Buddha, the Bhagavad Gītā, the life of chugging across a flat blue-green land- the images mesh with one another, we Aśoka – these come immediately to mind scape, and the haunting silhouette of the lose track of the temporal context in which (examples could be multiplied). On the one Victoria Memorial. The background re- the events are supposedly embedded. We hand, these are perceived as “classical”; frain, in rustic Hindi and a monsoon- cannot really say what time we are in: on the other hand, we cannot understand appropriate raga, asks of a tormented mythic time (Mathura-Gokul), the deep India’s literary modernity without them homesick Krishna: past (Jayadeva), the medium past (British because they are constantly being made Mathurā nagar-pati Raj), the near past (Mannu and Neeru’s present to us – precisely “re-presented”. Kāhey tum Gokul jāo? youth in Bhagalpur, conveyed through This is a paradox that critics and historians flashbacks), or the present (the long day of are only just beginning to grasp. O Prince of Mathura, the story, in 21st century Kolkata). Here, Let us say that in the evolution of literary- Why would you go back to Gokul? in this synaesthetic synchronic confusion critical discourse, eventually it would be The director’s vaunted talent lies not in of worlds, the sign of art. worked out that modern Marathi litera- his ability to get a decent performance out Indian cinema’s current Wunderkind is ture, say, is deeply engaged with its own past, of Rai (in this he fails – Ajay Devgan’s not the only one to rest his oeuvre on a with that of Sanskrit and Persian, and per- acting is not overwhelming either), nor in layered and complex aesthetic tradition. If haps also with that of other geographically
Economic & Political Weekly EPW september 19, 2009 vol xliv no 38 33 Review article adjacent and linguistically related lan- Mohandas Gandhi (Gandhi is the odd man saw a hunter kill the male of a pair of cou- guages, dead (like Maharashtri Prakrit) or out in this group of litterateurs, but more pling birds and thus, in a moment of both living (like Kannada).1 Such a working out on that later). When we read this book we judgment (against the hunter) and empathy would also take place for Hindi, Bengali, realise with a shock that lately in the (for the surviving she-bird), gave birth to the southern languages, etc. What inter- humanities, the pressure of theory and the poetic meter; that Dusyanta and Sakuntala’s rupts this imagined course of literary criti- hegemony of history, not to mention the love has contradictory elements of desire cism and literary history, especially in the political economy of translation have basi- and cruelty, a turning towards and a turn- minds of secular intellectuals like Simona cally crowded out literary criticism alto- ing away; that the Buddha’s break with his Sawhney (and before her, G N Devy), is gether.4 We cannot really remember the attachments, like that of many of his fol- the rude barging-in of politics to the uni- last time we encountered, in English, a lowers, involves a shearing conflict be- versity, the library, and the consciousness close, careful reading of any Indian text, tween the injunctive force of asceticism of the studious individual.2 Pankaj Mishra ancient or modern, where the textual object and the persistent attraction of the world; images this interruption very memorably was not subjected to translation, philological that Asvatthama’s father Drona was killed in the thuggish right wing student leaders reconstruction, historical analysis or theo- by treachery because his son shared a who dominate the campus of the Banaras retical treatment. Not that these opera- name with a slain elephant – these are an- Hindu University in his essays and fiction tions are not valid in themselves, but none cient, familiar and repeatedly surprising about Varanasi.3 Hindu nationalism shat- of them does what literary criticism does, stories that never fail to enthral us. Itera- ters the slow rhythms of reasoned self- which, as Sawhney reminds us, is to read tion is everything. In her new book on the reflection, renders cultural self-knowledge the text. She brings the neglected critical Hindus, Wendy Doniger also assembles a at once urgent and endangered. 1990s idiom and the old-fashioned practice of vast compendium, a veritable sea of these Hindutva seizes Rama, or Kurukshetra, criticism back to the table, judging our stories, many of them from Sanskrit litera- turns them into identity symbols through favourite texts in terms of categories like ture that we always already know.5 a massive, mediatised and thoroughly poetry, justice, violence, compassion, If I may be permitted an autobiographical modern type of semiotic violation. Sud- beauty and law, and revisiting a certain kind moment, Sawhney’s self-presentation as an denly all of our plays, poems, novels and of value-based scholarship that we had set ideologically driven latecomer to Sanskrit paintings, our histories and songs, our aside for the last two decades. attracted me. Like her, I too trained in films and television shows, replete with Sawhney’s opening movement, a medita- Anglophone and European literatures, lite the excess of imaginations preceding or tion on love and memory (both expressed in rary theory and criticism, only to take a turn paralleling our own, become other to us, the word smara) is absolutely the strongest to Sanskrit somewhere in the mid-1990s. taken out of our hands, transformed into part of her uniformly elegant and insight- Like her, I consider myself permanently a weapons with which to hurt and exclude ful book. Further, her careful readings of student of the language, not a scholar of it, non-Hindus from our lives as Indians. Rakesh’s play, Āśād. h kā ek din, Bharati’s and I too qualify my own intellectual prac- Torn out of a cultural conversation that verse drama, Andhā Yug, Hazariprasad tice with labels like “history”, “theory” may extend over millennia and a sub Dwivedi’s, Buddhadeb Bose’s and Rabindra and “secularism”. Of the Indian languages, continent, texts become inauspicious and nath Tagore’s essays on the Meghadu-tam, Hindi is my native tongue, my home. I love unrecognisable. Critics have to stand up and of Kalidasa’s Sanskrit drama, the Kalidasa and Tagore, Krishna and Gandhi and reclaim their hermeneutic prerogative. Abhijñānaśākuntalam, are stunning. Her as much as she does, and they are the sub- The ethical moment of criticism is at hand. exegesis of the famous connection between jects of the book I am currently writing. I verse, curse and lament, śloka and śoka, too would hope to be a sahr. daya reader, Literature as Moral Anchor made in Valmiki’s Rāmāyan. a to account not a bhakta of any kind of classical or The Modernity of Sanskrit by Simona for the origins of poetry; her interpretation modern canon. Ideally I would emulate Sawhney ably makes the argument for an of the turning neck and backward glance her balance between experiential and . ethically vigilant, politically active, and (bhanga) in Kalidasa and Asvaghosa as the cognitive aspects of literature (anubhu-ti/ intellectually timely criticism. Sawhney corporeal imaging simultaneously of eros jñāna). I share her implicit faith that liter- describes the crisis as she sees it, proposes and thanatos; and her exposition of both ature is the moral anchor of a people; that a counter-challenge, and then proceeds to monstrous violence and bestial helpless- in our “classics” we may seek, and find, demonstrate how this post-Babri Masjid ness in the tragic figure of Asvatthama in the sources of our self. critical practice (to use her own point of the Mahābhārata, via the word paśu (lit: So naturally, at first I thought that departure) could be realised. She reads animal/captive), are all simply delightful Sawhney’s book was written both for me Kalidasa’s Śākuntalam and Meghadūtam, and would stay with her readers. and to me, even though I have never met the Mahābhārata, the Rāmāyana and the Of course, proving her thesis, part of the author. But I must confess that I have Gītā in and of themselves, and also through the reason we like these readings is be- yet to experience either the seduction or 20th century writers in Hindi and Bengali, cause we know them already. We know the fear of Hindutva that Sawhney evinces. like Dharamvir Bharati, Mohan Rakesh, that the lovesick Yaksa sent his message to “Secular” though I may be, I would not Hazariprasad Dwivedi, Rabindranath Tagore, his beloved through a cloud that could not like to put Hindutva anywhere near the Buddhadeb Bose, Jaishankar Prasad and possibly have understood him; that Valmiki centre of my own inquiry into texts and
34 september 19, 2009 vol xliv no 38 EPW Economic & Political Weekly Review article traditions, whether premodern or modern. Hindutva may distort and misuse Sheldon Pollock is puzzling, given she has I could not build an epistemology on the Hanuman and Shivaji, Ayodhya and Dwarka, reinvented herself as a Sanskritist since ruins of the Babri Masjid and the ashes of and such appropriations may make us want the early 1990s. (A minor point: The Moder- Gujarat, nor do I believe that the threat of to fight back and reclaim what we hold nity of Sanskrit needs a Bibliography, Hindu nationalism needs to define and de- dear, for our own – presumably ethical – because its sample of references is some- limit the epistemological or ethical stance purposes. But Hindutva is not to blame for what idiosyncratic.) Just two glaring of our generation of Indian scholars, us abandoning our textual traditions, for- omissions by way of example: Pollock’s whether we belong to the English language getting our vernaculars, neglecting our hugely provocative essay on the Rāmāyan. a academy or the bhā.s ā institutions. To me knowledge systems, and destroying our and political imagination, in the after- this is as absurd as if the contemporary institutions of cultural literacy. Those are math of Hindu-Muslim conflict Ayodhya critic James Wood were to constitutively crimes for which we are all, left and right, and Bombay, that Sawhney takes to be the relate his enterprise of reading great fiction secular and communal, equally responsible. turning point of her own intellectual to the political project of the Democratic “Kan. kan. mein vyāpey hain Rām”, is the project, and his recent discussion of the Party, or even worse, to orient all of his Bharatiya Janata Party’s slogan. If there origins of poetry in Sanskrit literary theory, critical practice to denouncing the were such vyāpti, if Rama really pervaded through a myth of the meeting of Poetry Republicans.6 He may very well have cer- our imagination as he did in the past, he Man (kāvyapurus. a) and Poetics Woman tain political convictions we consider to be could not have been so easily taken from us (sāhityavidyā).10 Sawhney’s treatment of the enlightened, and these may inform and – our thoughtful, slender-limbed, dark- relationship between poetry (kāvya) and energise his work, but his business is not skinned, lotus-eyed god, our ideal son, art (kalā) as reframed by modern Hindi to support Obama or criticise the Bush ad- husband, brother and king, our prince in literary theorists cannot really afford to ministration: his business is to read the exile and lover in despair, perfection ignore Pollock’s comprehensive revamping texts. An agenda of critiquing American personified to half the civilised world for of our understanding of Sanskrit literary imperialism cannot predetermine his hundreds of years – and turned into a and aesthetic categories (kāvya, alam. kāra, reading of texts new or old, and if it does, Muslim-hating mass murderer. To para- dhvani, rasa, etc) in both his books, of he will stop being the stellar literary critic phrase Gandhi, the enemy is not the Eng- 2003 and 2006.11 This is quite apart from that he is and become just another ideo- lishman; we ourselves are our own enemy. his consistent and monumental contribu- logue. Thus, even as I identify closely and Perhaps the time has come to acknowl- tion to the contemporary debate about the sympathise deeply with Sawhney’s work – edge that Hindutva is the symptom, not narrative, structure, language and history with its trajectory, objects, method, style the disease: that we have to take responsi- of both the Sanskrit epics, texts that are and politics – something about its avowed bility for our communalisation as we had central to Sawhney’s book (at the very motivations leaves me cold. to, in Gandhi’s view, for our colonisation.7 least, she must have some awareness of Sawhney’s discussions of the character Pollock’s important analysis of the intrin- Political Readings of of Krishna, especially as he reveals him- sic humanity-cum-divinity of Rama).12 Sanskrit Epics self in the course the Bhagavad Gītā, Let me explain, for I am sure many will though competent, could have benefited Problematic Analysis of Gandhi share my discomfort – even as there must from some reference to Sudipta Kaviraj’s Even if understandably she did not want be many who would agree with Sawhney’s masterful treatment of Krishna in Jayadeva’s to digress too much into either Sanskrit premises. Everyone who now works on Gīta Govinda and the Bengali Vaishnava poetics or Sanskrit literary history, Sawhney India has worried about Hindutva in some traditions, and also in Bankimchandra’s could have taken on as a conversation fashion, and I am simply continuing a wider 19th century opus, the Kr. .s n. acaritra. His partner someone like Prathama Banerjee. public conversation here on these pages, book, The Unhappy Consciousness set a Banerjee’s intelligent work on imagination with Sawhney as our chosen interlocutor. very high bar almost two decades ago.8 (kalpanā), literature (sāhitya) and liter- My point is that secular intellectuals have Not only is Kaviraj a superbly gifted critic, ary-aesthetic experience (rasa) via both precisely reduced themselves to mere but his reading would have especially rel- Tagore and his Bengali contemporaries, as ideologues, and thereby stopped being evant to Sawhney because it foregrounds well as the Sanskrit systems – most espe- critical readers. Sawhney herself is too precisely the status of Krishna as a “classi- cially her reflections on how classical Indic fine a reader to fall into this trap, but many cal” versus a “popular” figure, a warrior- categories, as transformed by colonialism, are sure to get the wrong idea from her, statesman in one form and a playful lover are at once incommensurable with western and waste their energies charging at the in another. Interestingly, it is Krishna’s categories and constitutively enmeshed windmills of Hindutva instead of tackling modern reader, Bankim, who wishes to with them – has pertinent implications for the real issue that she, also, identifies: classicise him, as Tagore notices before the problem we may broadly designate by the disappearing practice of historically Kaviraj, and Sawhney would have done the Rudolphs’ defining phrase from 1967 grounded, linguistically adept and criti- well to consider what this might mean for “the modernity of tradition”.13 In some ways cally astute reading. This practice is reced- Bengali/Indian literary modernity.9 Sawhney is on a much surer footing when ing because the conditions for its possibil- Similarly, at many points in the book, dealing with literature than with political ity and reproduction are under attack. Sawhney’s failure to refer to the work of philosophy or social science – compare her
Economic & Political Weekly EPW september 19, 2009 vol xliv no 38 35 Review article
smooth handling of U R Ananthamurthy’s 2 G N Devy, After Amnesia: Tradition and Change in 11 Sheldon Pollock, ed., Literary Cultures in History: Indian Literary Criticism (London: Sangam Reconstructions from South Asia (University of novel, Sam. skāra, with her problematic Books), 1992. California Press), 2003. 14 analysis of Gandhi on the Gītā. Gandhi’s 3 Pankaj Mishra, The Romantics (Anchor), 2001; 12 Sheldon Pollock, tr and ed, The Rāmāyan. a of views on caste (varna) and non-violence Pankaj Mishra, Temptations of the West: How to be Vālmīki, An Epic of Ancient India, Vol 2: . Modern in India, Pakistan, Tibet, and Beyond Ayodhyākān. d. a (Princeton University Press), 1986; (ahim. sā) are notoriously complex, and (Farrar, Straus and Giroux), 2006. See especially Vol 3: Āran. yakān. d. a, 1991. See especially in the Prologue, “Benares: Learning to Read”, pp 3-21. Pollock’s path-breaking “Introduction” to the must be deciphered through a wide range Both the novel, The Romantics, and the Prologue Āran. yakān. d. a, a section titled “The Divine King of of both his writings and his political ac- to Temptations of the West build on his original, the Rāmāyan. a”. brilliant essay in the New York Review of Books, 13 See Prathama Banerjee, “The Work of Imagina- tions, as also through a by-now robust, “Edmund Wilson in Benares”, surely one of the tion: Temporality and Nationhood in Colonial highly variegated and fast expanding body classics of modern Indian prose. See the NYRB, Bengal” in Muslims, Dalits, and the Fabrications Vol 45, No 6, 9 April 1998. of History: Subaltern Studies XII, edited by Shail of Gandhi scholarship spanning three 4 Most of the best literary criticism I could think of Mayaram, M S S Pandian and Ajay Skaria (Per- quarters of a century. in English comes from those who are primarily manent Black and Ravi Dayal), 2005, chapter 8, writers and not critics, like Salman Rushdie, Amit pp 280-322. I recently heard an anecdote I want The triangulation of compassion (karun. ā), Chaudhuri and Pankaj Mishra. A scholar of pre- to share with readers: The Sanskritist James Fit- empathic experience through the modality modern literature who writes great criticism, like zgerald, currently editor of the massive Universi- David Shulman, is a rare exception in Indic studies ty of Chicago Press Mahābhārata translation of literature (karun. a rasa), and non-violence nowadays, which was not the case when people project (originally overseen by the late J A B Van like Ed Gerow and A K Ramanujan were alive. (ahimsā) made possible by reading, simul- Buitenen), recounted to me a few weeks ago . 5 Wendy Doniger, The Hindus: An Alternative History Susanne Rudolph’s opening lecture in a South taneously, ancient texts like the Buddhist (Penguin), 2009. Asian Civilisations class at the University of canon and the Mahābhārata, and moderns 6 James Wood, The Broken Estate: Essays on Litera- Chicago in the early 1970s. Fitzgerald recalls ture and Belief (The Modern Library), 1999; How more than 30 years after the fact that his then- like Tagore and Gandhi, could be enor- Fiction Works (Farrar, Straus and Giroux), 2008. teacher, a young professor of political science, 7 As I write this piece, India’s general elections have began her course on modern south Asia with a mously suggestive in terms of developing just concluded and the BJP has suffered a massive (characteristically brilliant) lecture about Yu- or demonstrating a perturbing connection setback. It appears the Indian electorate takes dhisthira, the Pandava prince and the son of Hindutva less seriously than many secularists had Dharma who is in one sense the main character between ethics and aesthetics in Indian feared. The Gandhi I am recalling is to be found in of the Mahābhārata. I cite this recollection as a thought. More attention to Gandhi over his Hind Swaraj (1909). perfect example of the very thesis about the rela- 8 Sudipta Kaviraj, The Unhappy Consciousness: tionship between tradition and modernity that time could get Sawhney there. For now Bankimchandra Chattopadhyay and the Forma- the Rudolphs, Susanne and her husband Lloyd, she is brave to take on the Mahatma, but tion of Nationalist Discourse in India (OUP India), introduced into the discourse of south Asian 1995. See especially chapter 3, “The Myth of studies back in the 1960s. seems out of her depth in the immense Praxis: Construction of the Figure of Kr. s. n. a in 14 I would have loved to see Sawhney read Rani Siva subtlety and unprecedented radicalism of Kr. s. n. acaritra”, pp 72-106. Sankara Sarma’s The Last Brahmin: Life and 9 Rabindranath Tagore, “The Nature of Krishna” in Reflections of a Modern-day Sanskrit Pandit, his thinking. Gandhi’s genius lay produc- Sukanta Chaudhuri (ed.), Rabindranath Tagore: D Venkat Rao trans from the Telugu (Permanent ing, from his intimacy with the tradition, Selected Writings on Literature and Language Black), 2007. This fascinating fictional memoir (OUP India), 2001, pp 207-21. straddles the line between criticism and history, a genuinely novel set of political and ethi- 10 Sheldon Pollock, “Rāmāyan. ā and Political Imagi- addressing many of the same themes as Sawhney’s cal categories, whose nomenclature is as nation in India” in the Journal of Asian Studies, book. 52:2: 261-97, 1993; Sheldon Pollock, The Language 15 Lloyd I Rudolph and Susanne Hoeber Rudolph, classical-seeming as their content is unex- of the Gods in the World of Men: Sanskrit, Culture, The Modernity of Tradition: Political Development pectedly modern (or even, according to and Power in Premodern India (University of in India (University of Chicago Press), 1967; Lloyd California Press), 2006, pp 200-04; Appendix A.5, I Rudolph and Susanne Hoeber Rudolph, Post- the Rudolphs, postmodern!).15 Gandhi is “The Invention of Kāvya (From R ja ekhara’s Modern Gandhi and Other Essays: Gandhi in the Kāvyamīmām. sā”), pp 591-96. World and at Home (OUP India), 2006. deeply religious but utterly unorthodox, ā ś apparently comfortable with a Sanskritic past but really belonging to a future that is yet to come about. He is as enigmatic as his Krishna, full of contradictions and play, as aware of the tragic dimensions of history Indian Institute of Dalit Studies as he is hopeful of its radical potential. To D-II/1, Road No- 4, Andrews Ganj, New Delhi-110049 give Gandhi his due, Sawhney will have to Tel: +91-11-26252082, 26251808, Fax: +91-11-26252082
write another book. But given how bril-
liant and beautiful this book is, that is a Position of Director promise we are eager for her to keep. Indian Institute of Dalit Studies (IIDS) is a social science centre, which exclusively focuses on development concerns of the marginalised groups and socially excluded communities Thanks as ever to Pratap Mehta, who (argu- (http://dalitstudies.org.in). IIDS invites applications from distinguished social scientists for ably) is not responsible for my views, but defi- the position of Director. The Director will be responsible to lead, support, and guide the nitely acted as the agent provocateur! Thanks entire research, administration and other functions of the Institute. The candidate should have high quality published research work with an experience of 10 years in teaching and/or also to Ajay Skaria. research, and administrative, at University/national level Institutions/Government. Research Ananya Vajpeyi ([email protected]) experience particularly on the marginalized groups, issue of inequality, poverty, discrimination and similar issues, though not essential, is a desirable qualification for the position. teaches South Asian History at the College of Liberal Arts, University of Massachusetts, The position of Director is of the Professor level. Salary will be equivalent to the revised Boston, USA. UGC scale plus other allowances. The appointment shall be for a period of three years with further renewal.
Notes Interested candidates may send their application with a copy of their CV to the Administrative Coordinator, on the e-mail address [email protected] within three weeks from 1 Let us think of the work of the contemporary the date of advertisement. Marathi intellectual Sadanand More, for example.
36 september 19, 2009 vol xliv no 38 EPW Economic & Political Weekly