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Home , Bharata (Ramayana), Hanuman Tok, Hikayat Seri Rama, Indrajit, Jatayu, Kusha (Ramayana)

The RULE of from the Bay of Bengal to the Pacific Ocean

Nicanor G. Tiongson

or the last 2,000 years or more, the , which first sprang to life in F , has been transplanted to the countries of South, East, and Southeast . The epic was assimilated and transformed by the host countries according to local history, geography and way of life. Accepted in all levels of society, it was then interpreted by local artists in oral and written literature, in music, dance and , and in architecture, painting, sculpture and crafts. Today, the Ramayana continues to permeate these regions so deeply that it cannot be extracted from them without destroying the basic fabric of their cultures.

SPAFA Journal Vol. 10 No. 2 India including 's sister Sur- Ravana to return and his phanaka and Khara, alliance with Rama, the building The story of Rama, first Ravana's abduction of Sita with of the bridge to with the written down sometime be- the aid of the hermit Marica, help of the ocean God, the tween 400 B.C. and 200 A.D., is Jetayu's failed attempt to rescue encounter with Ravana's son regarded in India as the "first Sita, and Sita's imprisonment in , the fight b e t w e e n R a m a poem" and its creator, the "first Ravana's palace in Lanka. The and Ravana, the defeat of poet." 's Ramayana is fourth gives an account of the Ravana, Rama's rejection of the told in six sections (kanda), in alliance between Rama and the "defiled" Sita, the trial by fire prose that is encrusted with monkey king Sugriwa, the battle which proves Sita's chastity, the metaphors and gilded with with and defeat of Sugriwa's return to , and the coro- meditative passages. The first enemy Valin, the offer of help nation of Rama. section narrates Rama's birth from Hanumat, son of the wind- After its creation, Valmi- and childhood, the bow contest god, and the conscription of the ki's classic became the foun- and the hero's marriage to Sita. monkey army of Rama. The tainhead for the innumerable The second tells of Dasaratha's fifth narrates Hanumat's jump to versions of the Rama story in the subcontinent. Of all the poetic rescensions, the most re- nowned are: the Raghuvamsa by Kalidasa which is one of the sources of the Tamil Ramaya- nam; the Ravanavadha of Bhatti, which was translated into Javanese and later called the Ramayana Kakawin; and Ramacaritamanasa of Tulasi- dasa, composed around 1574 A.D. in Avadhi Hindi. To popu- larize the epic, it was sung in public for the last 500 years from Assam to lower Bengal. Unlike the poems, the plays on Rama were created by the playwright's imagination. Since the 5th century, the story has been enacted with shadow The Troupe from Kalanandalam, India puppets or simple glove pup- attempt to transfer his crown to the kingdom of Lanka, his pets. Around the 16th century, Rama, the objection of search for Sita, the latter's lam- other dramatic forms inter- who wants his own son crowned, entation, and Hanumat's reas- preted the epic in different lan- and the departure of Rama for surance that Rama is coming to guages, among them, the ankia his 14-year exile, accompanied rescue her. The last dramatizes nat of Assam, the highly stylised by Sita and . The the preparation of the monkey kathakali of Kerala, the - third describes Rama's battles army, Vibhisana's fruitless gana of Mysore, and the dasha- in the forest with the Raksasas, attempt to persuade his brother vatar of Maharashtra.

6 SPAFA Journal Vol. 10 No. 2 In India, the Ramayana is perfect order Gandhiji was fact which only proves that, not only a colorful saga but also thinking of when he died with mystified as it has been, the a book of (duty). It the name of Rama on his lips epic was but a product of its own prescribes the rules of proper (Buck 1989: 47). society, and therefore, mirrors behavior, such as the leader's With the rise of , the structures and values of that commitment to truth and the jatakas began to use the society. Criticisms notwith- service above duplicity and story for their own purposes. standing, the story continues to personal convenience, the Thus, the character of the be enthroned in the hearts of wife's fidelity to her husband, buddha was patterned after the Indian people, the way the fraternal loyalty and affection, Rama or Krishsna. In time, images of Rama and Sita were the young person's devotion to Rama himself was eventually seen enthroned when Hanu- elders and the servants' obedi- reinterpreted as a bodhisattva. man's heart was opened. ence to their masters. In Reverence for Rama as From India, the Rama- this perspective, the conflict ideal man or god, however, has yana eventually spread east- between Rama and Ravana is not spared the epic from criti- ward to China, Japan, and South- allegorized as the clash between cism. Some contemporary east Asia. To the last, the saga dharma and adharma. In this writers, for example, have at- was brought by and battle, Rama emerges as the tacked Tulasidasa for "his Ksatriya adventurers and trad- lord who rides the chariot of defense of monarchy and the ers, who went to Subarnabhumi righteousness, whose wheels caste system, his glorification of and even "to Canton, across the are heroism and courage, the , his low esteem of Malay peninsula, by foot or by whose flags are truth and virtue, women" (Bulcke 1989: 73), a sailing through what later came whose horses are strength, to be " (Sarkar discretion, self-control and 1994:207-208). These travelers unselfish action, and whose must have crossed the tran- charioteer is the worship of speninsular route from Takua- God (Bulcke 1989:61,75; Buck pa, southern to Kedah 1989:41,52,54). to ride ships from ports in the Understandably, this hero east coast of Malaya. There soon metamorphosed into a di- they waited for the proper mon- vinity. In Adyatha-Ramayana, soon, enjoying Indian music and Rama is pictured as the incarna- dance, which were also appre- tion of the himself. His ciated by the native royal courts, story, now sacralized, teaches like those of Malaya. Through that doing good to others is these waiting stations, where essential and turning one's back many Brahmins eventually to the world characterizes one settled, and through the In- dianized local courts, the Rama searching for God. It is in this story entered and spread context that the kingdom estab- through . lished by Rama—the dharma- rajya or reign of righteous- ness—should be understood. To realize this kingdom, one must emulate Rama and medi- From India, the Ramaya- tate on his name. This was the na was brought, together with

SPAFA Journal Vol. 10 No. 2 7 the Hindu religion and culture, during religious ceremonies, wooden puppets inspired by the to East and Central from such as those held for the tooth- colourful leather puppets, while where it spread to Bali. Earli- filing or the wedding ceremony the golek uses three-dimensional est evidence of the epic, found (Sarkar 1989: 214). heads and hands and in Central Java, dates from the In the , the made of cloth. Because the 8th century. Although Hindu- Rama epic has been the princi- golek uses dolls which are beau- ism has continued to influence pal source of stories for the tiful in themselves, it dispenses Bali to the present, it was kulit purwa or ancient with the screen, situating the replaced by Islam in Java by shadow with leather pup- action of the plays within a large the 14th century. In time, the pets. Considered as the oldest carved wooden frame (Yousof Javanese Ramayana became form of in Indone- 1994:279-280). more and more secularized, sia, the is usually Inspired by wayang kulit while the Balinese continued to performed on special occasions as well is the wayang wong, be performed within a religious such as marriage, birth, circum- the dance where actors context (Santoso 1989: 327). cision, recovery from illness imitate the movements and In Indonesia, the Rama and passing of exams; or on stances of puppets and wear story has been expressed in village purification ceremonies costumes and headdresses or paintings, such as the folk can- before the planting of rice masks drawn from puppet vasses still being produced in (Yousof 1994: 291-296). designs. Whether in Java or in Bali, and in sculpture, which The puppets include kings, Bali, wayang wong or wayang may be free-standing statues of princes, princesses and soldiers, orang ("human shadow") enacts wood or stone, as in Bali and gods and giants, counselors and the story of Rama as the univer- Java, or high and low reliefs, officers, and the clown and ser- sal and eternal conflict between such as those decorating the vants. Each is distinguished Good and Evil. walls of Siva temple, through the details of eyes, lips, Characters are generally the Panataran Temple in East necks, shoulders, colours, orna- divided into the refined (halus) Java and the series of temples ments and attitudes. Final char- and rough (kasar), these two dotting the villages of Bali. acterization of the puppets, categories being identified The oldest and longest however, is in the hands of the through the costumes, head- poem in Javanese literature is dalang or master puppeteer. dresses, and make-up, manner the Ramayana Kakawin (RK), Trained for years, the of speech, movement, and created in the early 10th century dalang gives "life" to the pup- masks (for the Balinese ver- AD. It was mainly derived from pets, or chants both the narra- sion). Groups of characters the Indian Ravanavadha. In tion and the dialogue, and include: noble male and female the 19th century, the Javanese guides the singers and the characters and ogres, Rama's poet Yasadipura I created a new players of the gamelan—an attendants, Ravana's courtiers, and shorter version of the RK ensemble of suspended gongs, good and bad monkeys, birds entitled the Serat Rama, which bronze and wooden xylophones, and other animals (Yousof 1994 has since been used as the text and the spiked fiddle—played i n : 313). for both the Javanese wayang the slendro mood. An older style of wayang kulit and wayang wong. The Derived from the wayang wong found in Bali is performed Serat Rama in turn has two kulit purwa are the wayang during religious festivals, when versions—the Serat Kanda and krucil and the wayanggolek. The the natives offer prayers, the Rama Keling. In Bali, the last two differ from wayang kulit flowers, food, music, dance and RK is read in public recitals only because the krucil uses flat theatre to ancestor spirits and

8 SPAFA Journal Vol. 10 No. 2 gods who are believed to no dialogue (Yousof 1994: 249- half of the chanting, characters descend on temples and house 250); and the langen mandra enter in full wayang wong shrines. It may also be per- wanata, literally, "performing costumes to enact the episodes formed to consecrate lands and art of many monkeys," a of the Ramayana, with the temples and is believed to Javanese dance created chorus, still in position, playing enhance fertility. In perfor- in the second half of the 19th supporting roles. mances, which may last for century. In the langen, all male The Ramayana is so days, actors emphasize the dancers deliver the dialogue in deeply rooted in Javanese and recitation of passages which macapat song and in squatting Balinese cultures that it is give moral instructions. They position (Soedarsono: 6). In impossible to think of these wear masks (except for noble Bali, the , originally the cultures without the epic. Side characters) and traditional chorus part of the sanghyang by side with Islam, it continues character colours (e.g. trance-dance but created as a to provide the local people with = white, Sugriwa = red). The separate for tour- role models for their daily life whole performance is accompa- ists in 1935, now incorporates (e.g. Lakshmana, the loyal nied by the gender wayang, episodes from the Ramayana brother or Sita, the loving wife). made up of four small xylo- Lighted by a lamp at the centre, Rama has been emulated phones, drums, small gongs, the all-male chorus sits on the through the centuries by the flutes and cymbals (Soedarsono ground in a circle 5-metre deep, kings of Surakarta and Yogya- 1980:3-4; Yousof 1994:312-314). wearing checkered black-and- karta as well as by contempo- Sponsored by Muslim po- white sarung around the waist. rary politicians searching for a tentates, the Javanese wayang They chant "chak, chak, chak" model of selfless statesmanship. wong gradually lost all its reli- in polyphonic crescendos and This idolatry of Rama was be- gious significance and since the decrescendos, while swaying hind Sultan Hamengku Buwana last quarter of the 19th century I's decision to name his king- has become a commercial show dom "Ngayogyakarta Hadinin- emphasizing music, dance and grat," meaning "Prosperous costumes. Masks have been Ayodhya, the Beauty of the set aside in favor of make-up. World," which has since been Today, companies in Surakarta, shortened to Yogyakarta. Semarang and Jakarta perform with traditional full gamelan ensemble called gamelan ageng but in proscenium-type stages (Soedarsono: 4-5; Yousof 1994: The Rama story is believed 312-313). to have been known to the In- Similar to the wayang wong dian community of some Malay are the wayang topeng of states by the beginning of the Madura which employs masks 16th century A.D. (Sarkar 1989: like those of Bali but has less 103). However, the popular complicated costumes; the Sri Ganesalaya, Institution of versions of the epic may have Bharatanatyam sendratari (from seni, meaning come to the archipelago only th th art, drama, and tart, meaning back and forth, left to right, between the 13 and the 17 dance), which is exactly like the clapping to accompany them- centuries, from western as well wayang wong except that it has selves. Towards the second as eastern India. Through the

SPAFA Journal Vol. 10 No. 2 9 centuries, the Ramayana devel- centuries, like the other (e.g. Hanuman, Pak Dogol) oped in Kedah and Kelantan, Javanese rescensions with and characters not found in the and in Malacca—in Northern which it is interrelated. The classical version (Hanuman Malaysia because of the Sis- HSR has survived in different Bongsu, Lak Juna, Rama Ran- mere Kings and in Malacca versions, most of which, unlike juma). Complete in themselves because of the Javanese traders the Hindu version, begins with and Malayised, these stories who brought with them, among an account of Ravana's history begin after the death of Ravana. other things, the techniques of and birth (Singaravelu 1994: One ranting describes Seri the Malay shadow play. 277-279). Aside from the HSR, Rama's adventures involving the did not spread another major version of the love of other women and Sita through Malaysia the way it did story is the Hikayat Maharaja Dewi's search for him (she in Java and Bali. Just the same, Wana (HMW), which narrates dresses in male clothes and the Rama story survived, even events from the birth to the confronts him in the battlefield) with the spread of Islam after death of Ravana. To this story and their reconciliation (Yousof the 14th century. For one, the is appended the Cerita Kusi in Iyengar 1994: 297, 300; epic reflected and reaffirmed Serawi, which tells the life of Sweeney 1989:126,132). the "cultural ideals of the ruling Rama's sons and Lawa The leather puppets which elite in traditional Malay soci- up to the reconciliation of Rama are usually painted with enamel, ety," including absolute devo- and Sita (Sweeney 1989: 126; include: heroic and evil figures, tion to the family and loyalty to Yousof 1994: 297). who have one articulated arm; the kings (Singaravelu 1994: As oral literature, the and comic figures who have 276). Moreover, to accommo- Rama story has been performed both arms articulated. Noble date the new religion, the Hindu by professional story-tellers princely characters have Thai aspects of the epic were simply called the penglipun lara, or pinnacled crowns, while demi- removed, replaced, or reinter- more popularly, by the tok gods, sages and captains imitate preted along Islamic lines. dalang who manage the wayang the Javanese wayang kulit Thus, the story itself is reset at siam. Found in Kelantan, figures. Characters are identi- the time of the Prophet Adam, Trengganu, Pahang, and in fied as refined or coarse by their who now figures as the great Patani, Thailand, the wayang size, nose, mouth shapes and grandfather of King Dasaratha; siam is the shadow puppet sizes, eyes, fingernails and and Allah Ta'ala, instead of Lord theatre which enacts the trunk" stances. In performance, pup- Brahma, sends down the Pro- and "branch" stories of the pets may talk (their arms move phet Adam to grant Ravana Ramayana in Kelantanese- as the dalang speaks differently sovereignty over the Jawa King- Patani dialects. The first, called for each character) or they dom (Singaravelu 1994:279-281; cerita-cerita pokok, uses the move (walk, fight, fly to the Hussein 1989: 146; Sweeney story of the HMW (which dif- accompaniment of the 1989:123). fers from the HSR because and the movements of the In Malaysia, the Rama saga it excludes Rama's exile and dalang). (Yousof 1994: 302; exists in written and oral litera- situates the abduction of Sita on Sweeney 1989:138). ture. The the journey home after Rama Central to the wayang siam (HSR), literally, the "story of wins her heart) and the Cerita is the tok dalang, the master Sri Rama," with the principal Kusi Serawi. The second, puppeteer, who manipulates the literary version of the story in called cerita-cerita ranting, are puppets in front of a lamp so Malay, was written down in Jawi stories of minor adventures of they cast a shadow before a script between the 13th and 17th the heroes or minor characters screen; delivers both narration,

10 SPAFA Journal Vol. 10 No. 2 commentary on life and society, Philippines Maharadia Lawana is to date and dialogue; and cues and the oldest version of the Rama guides the seven-person orches- In its colonization of the epic found in the Philippines. tra of drums, gongs, cymbals Philippine archipelago, Spain Although similar in structure to and reed aerophones. But the consciously destroyed or re- the Malay Hikayat Seri Rama, dalang is not only an enter- pressed the native traditions Hikayat Maharadia Rawana tainer, he is also a spirit medium. and beliefs in order to facilitate and the folk tale Sri Rama, the As a spirit medium, he super- the entrance and acceptance of Maranao prose tale nonetheless vises the ritual a) at the open- the Christian-European way of contains a wealth of unique de- ing of the , to life. This strategy succeeded to tails which attest to its having propitiate the spirits and draw a large extent among the larger developed among the Maranao their blessings on the perfor- ethnic groups who settled in for a very long time (Francisco mance and the community, and Spanish pueblos and remained 1969:10-34). b) at the closing, to thank the under Spanish rule for 333 This version begins with original and mythical teachers years. But among the indig- the Sultan of Bandiarmasir of the wayang. To become a enous communities in the driving his son Lawana out of his kingdom because he sets people dalang, one must not only be mountains and hinterlands against each other. Marooned skilled in puppetry but also whom the Spanish had not yet on an island, the eight-headed must have angin (wind), the reached or had failed to Chris- prince hangs himself, head capability "to be moved greatly tianize, the centuries-old cus- toms and traditions related to down, from a tree and over a by the rhythm of the orchestra" fire and cries that the world those found in Indonesia and and to "identify oneself com- is chained. Diabarail (Angel Malaysia continued to flourish. pletely with the characters of Gabriel) reports this to Allah, so It was among one of these the drama, causing one to the latter sends the angel back experience intense emotion" cultural communities, the Mus- to tell Lawana that he can only (Sweeney 1989:141). lim Maranao of Mindanao in die from a sword sharpened on Today, the Ramayana is Southern Philippines, that the a whetstone in the palace. Real- found not only in literature and izing this, the prince returns and puppet performances but in is welcomed by his father. dances by groups like the Sri Meanwhile, Radia Ma- Ganesalaya Institution of Bhara- ngandiri (Rama) and his bro- tanatyam. In 1980, Hussein ther, Radia Mangawarna (Lak- observed that "the Ramayana smana), princes of the Sultanate is in fact reviving in Malaysia of Agmaniog (Ayodha), set out now, thanks to nationalism and to win the hand of the beautiful historical pride, and above all Tuwan Potre Malaila Tihaia due to the search for unifying (Sita), daughter of the Sultan of elements for the New Malaysia." Pulu Nabandai. After 10 years Ironically, as Hussein points out, Radia Mangandiri of Philippines of travel, they reach the island. the Ramayana that is being Philippine version of the Rama Mangandiri successfully kicks revived is closer in its ethical story was recorded by a Mara- the sipa (rattan ball) into the ideals to the Valmiki Ramayana nao scholar, Mamitua Saber, in room of the princess and kills (Hussein 1989:144). the 1930's. the huge snake on the mountain Composed between the (the two feats required of 17th and 19th centuries, the the man whom the Princess

SPAFA Journal Vol. 10 No. 2 11 would marry), so he is married In the mid-1970's, the Bienvenido Lumbera's libretto to Malaila. After some time, Sining Kambayoka staged, used classical Tagalog for noble Mangandiri decides to travel under the direction of Frank characters and Filipino slang back to Agmaniog with his wife Rivera, the Maharadia Lawana for Surphanaka and Ravana. and brother. While encamped in Marawi City itself, effectively Similarly, Ryan Cayabyab's mu- on a field, Malaila sees a golden- using the colourful costumes, sic, Alice Reyes' choreography horned , which Mangandiri songs and dances of the Mara- and Salvador Bernal's produc- and Mangawarna try to catch nao themselves. In 1993, the tion design reinterpreted In- for her. Left alone, Malaila is Philippine Educational Theater dian, Filipino and other Asian abducted by Lawana. Association (PETA), created its traditions in a modern stylised Giving up on the deer, own version of the story, now idiom that appealed to an audi- Mangandiri falls asleep and augmented by other versions ence largely unfamiliar with dreams that he is gored by a gathered from other Maranao the epic (Tiongson 1994 V: 168- carabao in a fight and that one informants. The resultant pro- 169). of his testicles is thrown east- duction, entitled Ang Paglalak- In 1999, the Lumbera- ward. The testicle is actually bay ni Radia Mangandiri, Cayabyab compositions were swallowed by the Queen Potre Isang Pilipinong Ramayana incorporated into a larger work Langawi who mistakes it for a (The Journey Radia Mangandi- by librettist Roy Iglesias and precious stone. The queen ri, A Filipino Ramayana,) ex- composer-arranger Danny Tan, becomes pregnant and gives tends the original narrative of entitled Rama and Sita. Di- birth to a monkey, Laksamana the prose tale and shows the rected by Leo Rialp, with cos- (Hanuman). Laksamana then deterioration of Agmaniog tume design by Patis Tesoro searches for his father and finds under Mangandiri, because and set design by the director, him with his uncle under the corrupt advisers have taken this long-running production tree where Mangawarna had depended largely on pop stars, the place of his lost inikaduwa seen his brother sleeping. To lavish costumes, numerous pro- (twin soul). Potre Malaila is help her father rescue Malaila, duction numbers, and some exiled and bears Mangandiri's Laksamana assembles an army rivetting props/effects (a life- son, who eventually restores his of carabaos and later, a cohort like elephant and Indian gods father's twin soul (integrity as of crocodiles to accompany coming down from the ceiling leader). Through imaginative them to Lawana's kingdom in above the audience) to mesme- use of ethnic movements and Pulu Bandiarmasir. The broth- rise its audience. ers fight Lawana but succeed music, PETA's Mangandiri in defeating him only after succeeded in raising crucial Laksmana sharpens Mangan- questions about the and Thailand diri's kampilan on a whetstone direction of leadership, seven in the palace. After Lawana's years after the fall of the Philip- The Thai scholar Phraya death and two decades of pine Lawana (the Marcos dicta- Anumanrajthon believes that hardships, Mangandiri, his torship) in 1986. the Rama story came to Thai- wife, brother and son return to Another significant revival land not directly from India Agmaniog riding on the backs of the epic was done by the CCP but from Indonesia about 900 of the crocodiles. In the end, Dance Company in 1980. Based years ago. It was not until the Laksamana is turned into a mainly on Valmiki's original, Ayuthaya period (1409-1767), handsome datu (Francisco Rama, (Rama, King) was however, that the story became 1969:39-61). a rock opera ballet in two acts. so revered by the Thais that the

12 SPAFA Journal Vol. 10 No. 2 first king of the Chakri dynasty for performances. Rama actors cannot speak through took the official title of I's version, divided into seven their masks, a chorus performs and named the capital of his kandas or sections, is believed the songs and recites: a) the kingdom after Rama's Ayodhya. by some to have used not the narrative in , As may be expected, Thai roy- Indian version but the Javanese some of which date from the alty adapted the epic to their Ramayana Kakawin, which in days of Ayuthaya; and b) the dia- official religion, Bud- turn was derived from the Tamil logue which could be in rhyth- dhism, by characterizing Rama Ravanavadha As happened in mic prose (Dhaninivat 1989: 5). as a boddhisatva-king and as all other countries the pre-incarnation of Gautama where the epic Buddha himself (Thithanan: took root, the epic 174). was adapted to lo- Since the 18th century, the cal customs and Thai Rama saga or traditions, as seen has been portrayed in murals in the Thai-Bud- found in the Wat Nang Pya, in dhist ceremony Pisnulok, northern Thailand which Rama I in- and in the cloister walls of the cluded in his narra- Temple of the tion of the celebra- in the in , tion of the birth of as well as in bas-reliefs of the Dasaratha's sons congregational hall of the Wat (Sarapadnuke Thai Ramakien (Photo by Nipon Sud-Ngam) Pho. Gigantic statues of demon 1989: S245-247; kings from the Ramayana guard Yousof 1994:193). The orchestra used to the doorways of Bangkok In the performing arts, the have only five pieces, with the Temples. Moreover, Ramayana Rama story is found in the khon, ranad leading and the sphon set- characters and episodes are re- lakhon, nang and hun. The khon ting the pace of movements. produced on screens, cabinets, is the classical masked play, Now bigger piphat ensembles chests, boxes, as well as bags, which represents specific epi- play the pieces which are spe- T-shirts, fans and other func- sodes from the Rama II version, cific to actions of human char- tional or decorative objects. in coordination with the chorus acters (walking, sitting, stand- As proof of official ap- and traditional piphat ensemble. ing up), animal figures (running proval, the different literary Male actors play one of the horse, jumping monkey, flying versions of the epic have been three roles in the khon: the hu- birds), objects on stage (run- composed by no less than Thai man (Rama, Sita, Laksamana), ning chariot, capsizing boat, sovereigns. In 1767, , the demoniac (Tosakanth, floating bowl) or special events king of Dhonburi, composed Indrajit), and the simian (musical apparitions) (Tramote: his version in 2,012 verses and (Hanuman, Sugrip, Pali). Each 185). four volumes. In 1785, King type of role is identified by Several types of khon may Rama I wrote what is now the a strict vocabulary of move- be distinguished. The khon- standard version of the Rama- ments, a specific set of masks klan-plen is performed in the kien in 50,286 verses. Later, in (only for demons and mon- open-air and showcases big 1809, his son Rama II shortened keys), headdresses and cos- battle scenes and military his father's version to 14,310 tumes (which display particular parades. The khon-ron-nok is verses, to make it more suitable colours and shapes). Because done on a stage where a pole at

SPAFA Journal Vol. 10 No. 2 13 the back serves as seating, duekdamban. The first is perfor- prayers and candles are offered flanked by curtains painted by med mainly by ladies in the to and , the mas- mountains or forest scenes. The inner court of the palace and ter of the nang, to King Dasara- khon-na-co or mask play is done emphasizes fluid dance move- tha and Lord Rama, the Buddha, before a screen of white cloth ments, sweet music and poetry the genii of forests, streams and which also serves as stage back- and opulent costumes. The sec- mountains, and to the spirit for ground. The khon-ran-nai or ond is classical dance drama, whose sake the nang is being court mask play emphasizes where actors sing and dance on staged (nang is often performed singing, recitations, and dia- stage to the accompaniment of at important cremations) (Chak- logues. The khon-chak is the seven-tuned gongs against mod- rarot: 5-6; Sarapadnuke 1989: mask play on the modern ern sets. Staged with modern 248-249; Yousof 1994:186-188). proscenium stage, as evolved techniques, the form was The nang talung or shadow by the Fine Arts Department invented by Rama IV's son, play with small puppets got its since 1946. Lastly, the khon-sod who was influenced by western name from Phattalung province, or live shadow puppets features opera (Chakrarot: 4-5). where the form was born dur- costumes like those of the khon The nang (literally, "skin") ing the reign of Rama V, when (but with masks worn on the is the Thai shadow puppet play villagers of Ban Khuan adapted head) and arm and body move- enacted behind or in front of a the Javanese wayang kulit to ments similar to nangtalung back-lit white screen. Based on Thai conditions. Today, this puppets, as well as likay and the puppets used, the nang may shadow play is seen mainly in lakhon (Dhaninivat 1989:21-23; be divided into two types: the Nakhon Si Thammarat prov- Chakrarot: 4). nang yai and the nang talung. ince, in southern Thailand, al- The lakhon is a dance First mentioned in 1456 in though it seems to have traveled drama without masks. This may Ayuthaya, the nang yai uses as well to the neighbouring be classical or popular. large, two-dimensional puppets, Malaysian provinces of Kedah Of the many about 1-2 metres tall, which may and Perlis. lakhon feature single or multiple char- To enact episodes from the acters. Carved out of leather, in- Ramayana, the nang talung tricately embossed and hand uses flat leather figures with painted, characters may be only one moveable arm (articu- backgrounded by mansions, for- lated in the upper arm, lower ests, mountains or seas. The fig- arm and wrist) and manipulated ures include: single characters by a bamboo stick attached to praying, walking, flying; or the figure. Comic characters, multiple ones fighting, run- however, have moveable arms, ning away or pursuing. jaws and genitals. About 40 or Each figure is mounted on 50 puppets are used in a single two long poles which are performance and are stuck on held by men who sway, bend to a banana trunk which serves or dance, in accordance with as the ground for the action of the narrative and the music of the play. nang talung the piphat ensemble. Principal artist in the nang styles, only two have adapted Like the Javanese wayang talung is the master puppeteer stories from the Ramakien: the kulit, the nang yai performance called nang, who manipulates lakhon nai and the lakhon opens with a ritual, where the puppets between the light

14 SPAFA Journal Vol. 10 No. 2 source and the white screen, onettes require three puppe- leadership. In the 7th century, provides the songs, dialogues teers for each male, demon or the victories of Jayavarman VII and narration, and cues the monkey character, two puppe- against the Chams were de- orchestra members who play teers for each female figure and picted on the exterior gallery of the oboe, twin gongs, twin one for the clown which has stiff the according to the plot single-faced drums, one double- hands but with a moveable neck of the Ramayana, alluding to the faced drum, and sometimes, and a talking mouth (Chakrarot: king as the new Rama (Chandra a modern electric guitar and 6-7; Yousof 1994: 93). 1994: 649). In the 11th century, combination drum set. Perfor- Given the vitality of most the versified texts of mances are held at night from of these art forms and the offi- ancient praised kings 8 p.m. to midnight, usually in cial and unofficial support given who were like the moon and the April or July—to celebrate a to them, the Rama story will Brahmanic gods and heroes housewarming, an ordination, continue to shape the morals Arjuna and Rama (Pou 1981: a wedding, a funeral, a special and values of Thais in all levels 252). Since then, the epic has public or Temple holiday (Chak- of society, as it has since the been integrated into Khmer life, rarot: 6; Yousof 1994:184-186). 18th century when the kings of depicted in temples, enacted in The hun theatre or figure the Chakri dynasty aspired to feasts and performed on the puppetry was influenced by the establish a kingdom in the stage. khon and lakhon, as may be seen image of Rama's Ayodhya and In the visual arts, the Rama in the puppets themselves named their capital Ayuthaya. story has been carved in bas which are faithful replicas of reliefs found in temples like khon dancers up to the last Banteay Srey or Bapuon. But details of their costumes and in Cambodia its most magnificent expression the puppet movements which is in Wat. In this temple imitate those of court dances. There is evidence that the built by Saryavarman II (1112- Representing stories of the Ramayana, and 1152 A.D.), the Ramayana, Ramakien are two types of fig- certain Purana were recited the Mahabharata and Purana ure puppets: the hun krabok and daily before the god of the reliefs are found in the north- the hun lakhon lek. The western corner of the first are half-figure rod I complex (Jacob 1986: ix; puppets about 50 cm. Sarkar 1994:210-211). tall, which were in- The earliest version vented during the reign of the story of Rama, of Rama IV. The puppets called ("Glory have wooden heads, I of Ram"), appeared bamboo torsos, and sometime in the 16th and wooden hands attached 17th centuries. It is not to the , sleeves Reliefs depicting a scene of the Ramayana, known how many ver- and rods. The second , Cambodia (Photo by Nicolas Urban) sions there have been of are full-figure puppets about one Tribhuvanesvara temple ca. 598 the Reamker. One version, metre high, invented in 1901 by AD. (Sarkar 1994: 208). In the based on the manuscript found Khru Krae Sapvanich, which following centuries, the Rama in the south pagoda of Angkor have flexible joints linked to story spread in popularity and Wat and made between the 12th rods and strings. Called "small came to be regarded as the to the 18th century, was commit- classical dancers," these mari- expression of the ideals of ted to memory and performed

SPAFA Journal Vol. 10 No. 2 15 orally and with gestures by an other Buddhist countries, Rama rehearse between seasons of ex-monk called Mi Chak. This has been transformed into Bud- farm work. Performances are version exhibits elements and dha himself. Similarly, the epic held during great festivals, scenes in the other Cambodian has become a religious allegory, such as New Year, anniversaries versions (Bizot 1994: 263-266). with the following equivalences: and funerals of religious or lay In Cambodia, the "classical" ver- Ram = conscience; Laks = men- personalities. Famous rural sion of the epic is the Rioen tal factors; Sita = crystal globe; troupes are sometimes hired to Ramakert (Reamker) of the and Hanuman = the breath. The perform in the capital on special Institut Bouddhique of Phnom cycle of Reamker, therefore, occasions, as happened during Penh, which was published in illustrates the "spiritual quest the reign of Ang Dung, Noro- 1937 from two similar manu- of the meditation," that is, an dom, and Sisowath (Pou 1994: scripts. These were translated initiation into the way that 260-261). into French twice and into En- leads to Nibbana (enlighten- The nang sbek thorn (also glish once. ment). Furthermore, Cambo- namn spaek or namn tharn) is The literary version of the dians speak of a "way of the shadow play which uses two- Reamker according to Judith Lanka" which "leads the adept dimensional leather puppets, Jacob (1986: ix) is composed of to cross the ocean... to reach a carried on sticks by dancers as two works in verse, both incom- distant island where stands the they enact on stage the story plete. The first, created by sev- Meru." This precious island recited by the narrators to the eral poets, narrates the contest of Lanka is compared to the accompaniment of the orches- of bow, the exile, the building of mother's womb (Bizot 1994: tra. The style of narration and the bridge to Lan- ka, Hanuman's 270-272). music has led to the observation visit to Lanka and the battles In the performing arts, the that the shadow play is a varia- ending in the death of Rama's Rama episodes are expressed tion of the Ikhon khol. tenth son. The second, created in the Ikhon khol, the nang sbek The puppets, which are cut by one poet, tells the story of the thorn, and the rapam. Most out in dramatic poses, are of drawing of Ravana's picture by important of these is the Ikhon three sizes. The smallest, de- Sita, Sita's stay in the forest and khol, literally, "theatre of mon- picting clowns, monkeys and the events connected to her keys" or "burlesque theatre." rural types, have one moveable son's discovery of Rama, and This masked play features a arm. The medium-sized figures Sita's refusal to be reconciled chorus reciting the narration depict Rama, Sita, Laksmana, with her husband. Because the and dialogue, which are visual- Hanuman and the seers. The texts were used in the perfor- ized through mime, dance and largest are leather versions of mance of the Ikhon khol, it is movements of arms, fingers, Angkor Wat reliefs showing a divided into scenes which differ and eyebrows, among others— scene from the Reamker with in verse and mood, and contain all to the accompaniment of the several characters situated in a directions for music and dance. traditional orchestra. As in palace, forest or battlefield. In The text which describes the Thailand, roles are divided into sequence, the dancers hold the thoughts of characters and human, demon and monkey, puppets up as they walk in narrates the events is recited by each with corresponding move- stylised movements evoking the a chorus in performance. ments, costumes and masks character of the figure they are Among the Cambodians, (the last only for demons and holding, first behind the screen the Reamker is not only an monkeys). The actors-dancers and in front of the light and then entertaining story but also a are not professional, but are in front of the screen. Perfor- religious document. In it, as in talented male villagers who mances of the nang begin with

16 SPAFA Journal Vol. 10 No. 2 ritual offerings to the gods, in they formed Rama play clubs or Nyaung-U area and another the same way that ritual acts taught younger performers. Of in Kyaikwaing near Yangon. sanctify the making of the pup- these clubs, one in Yangon and Written in 80 palmleaf manu- pets and musical instruments another in the delta region con- scripts, the work, entitled Rama (Yousof 1994: 184; Awasthi tinue to perform the Rama play Vatthu, is dated to the 17th cen- 1981: 665; Jacob 1986: be). as a service to the community tury. Fifty pages of the manu- The rapam is the royal bal- (Chandra 1989: 651; Han and script are devoted to the descrip- let which presents episodes of Zaw 1989: 302, 309-311). tion of the principal characters: Ramkerti at the Royal Palace. In the old capital of Pagan, of "Rama as an obedient son, a The performance is confined the Rama story is encountered loving brother, a faithful hus- to the abduction of Sita by Rab, in the visual arts, in the Nat- band, a chivalrous fighter, a the fight between the Demon hlaung Kyaung or Vishnu righteous prince and a wise and Ramaparamasur and the leader; of Laksamana as an goddess Manimekhala. affectionate and loyal brother; of Sita as a chaste, loving and patient wife; of Hanuman as a loyal and efficient lieutenant; and of Dasagiri [Ravana] as a The Rama story may have sinful and an arrogant monarch" been known to Myanmar by the (Han and Zaw 1989:303). More- 11th century during the reign of over, the Rama Vatthu localises King Anawratha. Later, King the epic, addressing high char- Kyanzittha (1084-1112 A.D.) acters by the Burmese appella- tion "Maung," omitting episodes styled himself as the descendant Myanmar's -pwe of Rama. The initial introduc- like those of , , , and several tion of the story was followed temples where stone figures of demon chiefs and fighters, and by the influence of other rescen- Rama and Parasu Rama stand, most of all, by turning Rama into sions from India and elsewhere, as well as in Petleik pagoda a Boddhisat king and the exem- as the kingdom interacted with where the Jataka series was plar of Buddhist holiness. Remi- , Chiangmai, Ayuthhaya done in terracotta plaques. Both th niscent of the account of the and Malaya. By the 17th cen- were created in the 11 century. birth of Siddharta in the life of tury, the first known Burmese In Pakhan monastery, con- Gautama Buddha is the scene version was written down. By structed under the reign of King where the country begs the Mindon (1853-1878), is found a the next two centuries, the Buddhist and others in wood carving of episodes of Rama play was already being heaven to incarnate as men in the epic, while at Maha Loka staged in the royal palace of Ayodhya and other gods to Marazein pagoda in Upper King Bodawpaya (1782-1819) come back to life as apes in Burma in 1849, the Rama story and King Thibaw (1878-1886). Kethakinda (Han and Zaw 1989: is told in a series of 347 stone After the annexation of Upper 303-304). Burma by Britain in 1885, over reliefs (Han and Zaw 1989:301, a hundred Rama play actors left 308-309). Aside from the Rama the palace and dispersed, some The oldest manuscript Vatthu, there are five other performing the play before of the literary text of the epic known versions of the Rama mass audiences, others coming was discovered in 1973 in a Bud- story. The Maha Rama, com- th down to Lower Burma where dhist monastery in the Pagan- posed in the late and early 19

SPAFA Journal Vol. 10 No. 2 17 century, is an expansion of the but Rama plucks it out with his presents the birth of Sita from Rama Vatthu. This prose work toes). A well-known balladist, the tusk of Dasagiri, who in a features four new episodes in Saga Htun popularized this previous existence makes love the Yuddha Kanda section: version in Arakan and the val- to Sita Candi. Using Indians in Gombadipa carrying Rama ley of the Irrawaddy (Han and Rangoon as oral sources, the to the underworld; Yakkhani Zaw 1989: 302-306). drama focuses on Sita's love for transforming himself into the The yama-pwe or Rama Rama. (Han and Zaw 1989:308- dead body of Sita to deceive play was introduced to Burma, 309). Rama; Gamuttara assuming the apparently through Thailand, In 1795, Michael Symes form of a decaying dog; and the after the Burmese conquest was invited to a performance of demon Hman-pya burning him- of Thailand. At that time, it the yama-pwe by the governor self to ashes as Hanuman holds probably used the text of U Toe. of Hanthawaddy. Performed on up the mirror to his face. The Since then, however, other the ground and in the open-air, Rama Thonmayo by Saga texts, though incomplete, have the play was lighted by torches Htwe, published in 1904, is been used for the perfor- and lanterns. Later perfor- derived from excerpts from the mances. A famous text is Thiri mances on stage used neither marionette texts. Famous Rama by Nemyo Nataka Kyaw drop-curtains nor sets and only names are changed in this ver- Gaung, which is believed to be had two door-ways for the exits sion and innovations made. derived from two Indian ver- and entrances of actors. The For example, Sita is brought sions (in Bengali and Hindi) and yama-pwe used to be performed back immediately to Rama by written in the late 18th century for 21 nights in the past (Chan- Hanuman after the burning of or early 19th century. In this, dan 1989: 651). Lanka; the invitation to the bow some famous details or scenes Contemporary perfor- contest with Sita's portrait is are omitted, such as the comb mances of the Rama play have blown by the wind into Dasagi- of 10 plaintain fruits connected not changed much since the 19th ri's hands. The Rama Thagyin to the birth of the ten-headed century, except that they are of U Aung Phyo has almost the Dasa- giri, and the scene where much shorter now and sets same content as the Rama Thugyeik (Sugriwa) witnesses and props have been added to Vatthu. This version, which has how Lakkhana does not budge visualize the setting of scenes effective characterization and in spite of a gadfly biting his (palace interior, landscape, plot, was sung by U Aung Phyo, back, so as not to awaken his native house). Four aspects a professional balladist in sleeping brother. Another may be noted in the presenta- remote villages. The Rama drama text in verse and prose is tion of the Rama play: 1) dra- Yagan was composed in 1784 by the Pontaw Rama, Part I, by U matic words and gestures; 2) a famous poet U Toe. Using the Ku, which opens with Rama's dramatic words interpreted with Siamese versions of the epic exile and includes Parasu songs; 3) dramatic recitation which he localised through Rama's offering of his kingdom with musical background; and colloquialisms, U Toe wrote the of San Pathavra to Rama, the 4) dancing and miming to mu- story not as an epic but as a death of Dasaratha at Ayodhya, sic specific to the situation (e.g. romance in a lighter style. The Rama's destruction of the two Hanuman dancing to the music Alaung Rama Thagyin by Saga sons of Gambi, the enchanted of "stealing" when he arrives in Htun uses previous Rama ver- deer and abduction of Sita. Yet Lanka). To deliver their dia- sions and incorporates Araka- another Rama play is Lakkha- logue and songs, characters nese folkways (e.g. Dasagiri na, Part I, by the Maung Gyi, a with masks simply lift up their buries his spear in the ground play in verse and prose which masks. Today, the emphasis is

18 SPAFA Journal Vol. 10 No. 2 on dance and mime, with narra- origin. In October and Novem- the paintings in the Vat Pe Ke tion and dialogue being pro- ber, the drama is performed in Luang Prabang which were vided by reciters (Han and Zaw during the Festival of Lights, considered the most complete 1989:310-311). and offerings of flowers made to in Laos. In 1938, Lao artist Thit Instrumental music for the Rama, Sita, Lakkhana, Hanu- Panh painted a mural depicting Rama play has been performed man, and Parasu Rama as gods. 33 episodes of the epic measur- by the Myanmar and Yodaya These offerings are usually ing 20 metres long and 5.30 . The Myanmar made before the first night of metres wide on the interior of orchestra is also known as performances in front of the the Vat Oup Moung temple in the saing ensemble, which is masks used in the plays. Vientiane. composed of a circle of drums The first literary versions for the melody; a circle of gongs of the Rama epic in Laos supporting the melody; wood- Laos appeared in the 18th century. winds, including bamboo flute, Today, there are three impor- and big and small oboes; big Ratnam (1989: 246) be- tant versions of the epic. The drums and small cymbals; a lieves that the Rama story came Phra Lak Phra Lam (Beloved drum struck with a stick; six to Laos in different waves from Laksmana, Beloved Rama,) is side drums; a tiny cymbal; and Cambodia, northern Thailand, the original rescension of the bamboo clappers. Vocal music, and upper Burma up to the 13th story composed in the last half mostly composed in the 19th century and later. By that time, of the 19th century by Bud- century, is associated with cer- Theravada Buddhism had al- dhaghoshacharya. As a court tain scenes, such as the luring ready entered Laos via Burma poet of Vientiane, the author of Rama with the enchanted and Ceylon. The encounter be- portrayed Rama as a powerful deer, the abduction of Sita, tween the Brahmanic tradition king of Vientiane, gaining Sita's lamentations in Lanka and and the Buddhist was not vio- power over neighbouring areas Rama in the forest, the meeting lent. As a matter of fact, the two through marriages. Later, of Rama with Thugyeik under "existed side by side, after merg- Rama's sons rule over north- the byo tree (Han and Zaw 1989: ing one with the 310-311). other," with Bud- Aside from performances dhism providing with live actors, the Rama story the "moral basis is also enacted in the Yokthe-pwe and a practical or marionette theatre which code for daily life" uses dolls with costumes and and the Rama- painted three-dimensional yana and Maha- heads. The puppeteer pulls the becoming strings while speaking lines of "entrenched in the dialogue and narration. emotional and cul- The Folklore Lao PDR National Music and Dance School To this day, the Ramayana tural life of the people" (Ratnam 1989:261-261). is still performed within a reli- eastern Thailand. Ratnam be- gious context in some places. Episodes of the epic were lieves that these events actually In Mandalay and Awarapura, carved on the pylon of the Vat refer to "post-1731 events when Rama is still worshipped by the Mai "New Pagoda" built by King Vientiane had broken away descendants of Myanmar Brah- Aniruddha over the Vat si from Luang Prabang" to be- mins of Bengali and Manipuri Phrem. Of the same period are come a separate kingdom and

SPAFA Journal Vol. 10 No. 2 19 had sent expeditions to Ayutha- familiar ground: the first part, in Vietnam, ya and Pinasulok and estab- the area between the Angkor Darussalam and lished marriage alliances with Wat and Vientiane; the second, Singapore them (Ratnam 1989: 262-263, in Lanka, where Rama recovers 257; 1981: 234). Sita, and later in Angkor Wat; There are no more art- Similarly, the epic was re- and, finally, in Vientiane (Rat- works, literary pieces or perfor- interpreted according to local nam 1989:235; Sahai 1976; 221). mances about or related to the customs, manners, Ramayana in Vietnam today, geography, flora and but this does not mean that fauna, and more im- there was none in that country portantly, according before. As a matter of fact, to Lao value sys- Filliozat observes that the tems. Thus, the oldest document concerning conflict between Valmiki's version of the epic is a Rama and Rapha- Sanskrit inscription found in nasuan (Ravana) is Vo-canh (Vietnam) dating from watered down and the third century AD. Similarly, characterization there are traces of the epic in subsequently modi- the Vietnamese names given fied. Ram is not Wayang-Wong-style Ramayana, Singapore to Dasaratha and to Ravana given as much im- (Filliozat 1994:193-194). Finally, portance as Raphanasuan who The third version of the the encounter with the epic is is portrayed not as a demon but epic is known as the Phom- further proved by a stone image as a "clever and well-read young machak, an adaptation of the of Valmiki and a Sanskrit in- man of great beauty and story by Buddhist monks, who scription found in a temple in charm." Moreover, Rama and interpret it as the previous life Champa (modern Vietnam) Hanuman have children whom which date from the reign of they meet by chance. In the of Buddha himself. In this ver- sion, Rama is the Buddha him- King Prakashadharma (633- end, the defeated Raphanasuan 678 AD.) (Ratnam 1989: 257). offers Ram a boat to Tranulon, self, Sita is Yasodhara, and because "in Laotian life, enmity Ravana, Devadatta (Ratnam Although the Rama story and discord are not permanent" 1989:248). is known to have flourished in but "chance waves to be sub- The Lao dance-drama, old Malaya, of which Singapore merged eventually in the vast called khonx is presented in the was a part until 1965, there is no sea of piety and friendship" royal palace in Luang Prabang evidence that either the literary (Ratnam 1989: 264). and the Matyasak dance school versions in Malay (the Hikayat The second literary ver- at Vientiane. It includes many Seri Rama and the Hikayat sion in Laos is entitled Gvay dances, one of which is the Maharaja Wana or the puppet Dvorahbi, which further adapts Ramayana dance, Pha Lak Pha theatre wayang siam) took root the epic to the events in Laos in Lam._. Here, as in the literary in Singapore. In fact, the earli- the 18th century. In the story, pieces, the characters "move est performance of the epic in three princes rule their territo- and behave exactly like Lao men the island state seems to have ries separately, as happened in and women and conform strictly been that given by Indonesian Laos between 1711 and 1731. to local customs and traditions" dancers who were en route to Moreover, the epic is situated on (Ratnam 1989: 263). Europe in the 1930s.

20 SPAFA Journal Vol. 10 No. 2 After World War II, local Bhaskars' daughter, Meenak- his Ramayana in English, in groups in Singapore staged shy, played Sita. order to "create an awareness their own interpretations of the In 1996, Santha Bhaskar of the richness of Southeast epic. Not surprisingly, the choreographed a two-hour Asian literature and theatre" organisation that produced the dance drama entitled Sita's among the youth of Singapore, most number of Rama perfor- Grief in the contemporary style, who he believed were more mances was headed by two with about 20 dancers and 10 familiar with Snow White, Singaporeans of Indian descent musicians. The performance Cinderella and Mickey Mouse. — K.P. Bhaskar and his wife, used Simon Tay's poetry as nar- Chua's version condenses the Santha Bhaskar. Bhaskar's ration to bridge the scenes. For long epic into 14 short scenes, Academy of Dance, later known the Angkor Wat International which dramatize the basic plot as the Nrityalaya Aesthetics Ramayana Festival of the same through a narrator and short Society, was mainly responsible year, the Bhaskars headed the dialogues of characters. For for staging the full epic or Singapore delegation which brevity, this Ramayana elimi- scenes thereof. In 1952, K.R presented the latter scenes of nated a whole range of charac- Bhaskar danced a solo called the epic: the life of Rama, Sita ters, including Lakshmana, Rama's Valour and later, cho- and Lakshmana in the forest, Khara, Surphanaka and Jetayu. reographed Kailasodharam the lure of the Golden Deer, the To further bring Singapore (Rama's Lifting of Mount Abduction of Sita, the Killing of into the cultural traditions of Kailash) for the Indian Fine Arts the Jatayu bird, Rama's sorrow, Southeast Asia, Chua chose to Society. In 1954, Mr. Bhaskar the building of the bridge to stage his drama in the wayang performed the Ramayana in Lanka, Sita's rejection of Rava- wong style of Surakarta, Java, Ottan Thullal, a traditional song- na's lust, the war between Rama complete with puppet-like move- and-dance style of Kerala. and Ravana, Hanuman's visit ments, elaborate costumes, In 1957, Bhaskar's Acad- to Sita, and the accusation of fighting sequences and gamelan Sita's infidelity towards Rama. emy mounted Sita Apahara- music, through the help of At the festival, the Singaporean nam (Adbuction of Sita) at the Martinus Miroto and Lin Chun performance, together with Victoria Theatre. It was also Wai. Premiered at the Botanic the Indonesian, was singled about this time that Nrityalaya Garden, the show was received out as the best show, while performed the complete Rama- warmly by both critics and au- Meenakshy was chosen as the yana at the Victoria Theatre diences. best dancer. under the auspices of the Tamil Because of its success, the Section of the then Radio Aside from the Bhaskars, play was invited to perform at Singapore. Songs for these the Singapore Kathakali Yongan the Chinese University of Hong shows were irom Valmiki's gave about 16 traditional Katha- Kong and the Toyama Interna- original work and the Rama performances in Singapore tional Theatre Festival in Japan. Natak of Arunachala Karirayar. between 1961 and 1980 at ma- In Hong Kong, Chua's student, Soon after, the Bhaskars pro- jor national day celebrations. Lee Yen Hoe directed an ab- duced for then TV Singapore a About a decade ago, a pro- ridged version; while in Japan, seven-episode dance drama of duction using the epic was the version directed by another the Ramayana, in which 40 mounted by Chua Soo Pong, student, Johnson Choo Yeong dancers and musicians partici- artistic director of Arts and Huei, received several awards. pated, including two famous Acts. For the annual Young In 1990, the Arts and Acts pre- Chinese dancers Gang Beng People's Theatre Festival in sented yet another version at Lee and Tan Teck Hui. The Singapore in 1998, Chua wrote the International Youth Theatre

SPAFA Journal Vol. 10 No. 2 21 Festival in Christchurch, New tian Phra Lak Phra Lam, the tational style is most evident. Zealand—Ramayana in Chi- Malaysian Hikayat Sen Rama Here, narration takes prece- nese opera style, with choreog- and the Indonesian Ramayana dence over dramatization, songs raphy by Tan Poh Lee and Kakawin. In the performing over dialogue, movement over music by Yang Pei Xion. arts, it has given life and mean- internalisation. Costumes iden- ing to the major dance , tify camps and types, even as puppet , songs and they mesmerise and delight. Conclusion dances that eventually com- Sets and props, if they exist, prised a large part of the cultural merely suggest locale, or are A cursory survey of the identity of these countries. purely functional. Music blends Ramayana and its manifesta- Water cannot rise higher than all elements into a spectacle of tions illustrates not only how its source. Fortunately, the sound, colour and movement wide its reach but how deep its Ramayana springs forth from that fires the imagination and influence has been between the one of the loftiest peaks of fills the heart, the better to Bay of Bengal and the Pacific human creativity. transmit to its audience the Ocean. Steeped in Rama lore for As interpretations of the metaphor of life that it embod- at least a century, most coun- same story, these art forms re- ies. Like most presentational tries of Southeast Asia have veal similar characteristics and theatre, the performances are so internalised the epic—from tendencies. For one, they have didactic, clearly taking the side generation to generation, on the borrowed heavily from each of Rama in the eternal battle conscious and unconscious other: with murals visualizing between Good and Evil. levels—that it has given the scenes from literature, as in the But similarities of style impetus for the creation of some case of the Temple of the Emer- or story should not lead to the of the most outstanding master- ald Buddha and the Ramakien; impression of uniformity, for the pieces of art in the region. In with puppet theatre dramatizing most intriguing and obvious fact architecture, it has prompted scenes from literature, as in about the epic in Southeast Asia the erection or inspired the wayang siam and the Hikayat is the diversity of interpretations decoration of world heritage Sen Rama,* and with dance-dra- that it has undergone because temples, such as the Prambanan mas mimicking puppet theatre, of the religion, history, and gen- in Indonesia, the Angkor Wat in as in nang and wayang kulit eral culture of each country. Cambodia, the and the purwa, or vice versa, as in hun In many instances, the Temple of the Emerald Buddha krabok and khon/lakhon. For story was introduced by Indian in Bangkok. In the visual arts, another, each of these art forms traders in halting stations or by it has provided the matter and exhibits the same presenta- rulers in Hindu Kingdoms or motive to thousands of paint- tional and didactic style. The Indianized communities. For as ings, murals, rubbings, sculp- style is presentational because long as Hindu influence held tures and reliefs that range from the art works do not claim to sway (as in Bali), Indian culture pious to pop, from kunst to reproduce reality or an illusion and religion could spread with kitsch. In the performing arts, of it, as in the style called real- ease and speed as they did for it has inspired the many ism, but merely narrates a story many centuries. But with the rescensions that are now trea- that is primarily fictional (even arrival of other religious sys- sured as the ancient literary if rulers have sometimes tried tems, the epic had to adapt or classics of these countries, such to harness it for their own be summarily eradicated with as the Burmese Rama Vatthu, political, pragmatic needs). In everything connected to Hindu the Thai Ramakien, the Lao- the performing arts, the presen- religion. And adapt it did—with

22 SPAFA Journal Vol. 10 No. 2 no small success. In Islamized made with them. In countries bachelor, a fickle lover, and Malaysia, the Indianness of the such as Laos, history success- father to many children; and epic was deemphasized through fully turned the epic into an Ravana as a cruel tyrant, sincere a change of names, and Rama, ethnoepic and the ethnoepic ascetic and gentle young man who was venerated as the rein- helped to make history in the (Vatsyayan 1981: 699). carnation of Vishnu in Brah- hands of political dynasties. If there is anything to be manism, was stripped of his di- Most of all, the Ramayana learned from the many transfor- vinity to become a secular, ro- could not escape assimilation mations of Rama in Southeast mantic hero. In Buddhist Thai- and indigenization in each coun- Asia, it is that the Ramayana, land, Cambodia and Laos, Rama try. The Ramakien introduced as Buck (1989: 42) observes, is became a Bodhisattva-king and Thai-Buddhist rituals for the "not a sixth century or third in the case of Myanmar, the newly-born babies to the epic. century book" but "a contem- preincarnation of the Buddha Malaysian native seers and Is- porary book, changing its himself. In the Jain tradition, lamic prophets figure in the meaning with each succeeding he became the Salaka-Purusa. Hikayat Seri Rama. Lastly, age." And herein lies the secret And even when other religious food and dress, behaviour and of the epic's longevity and leaders displaced Rama as arbi- traditions have made the Phra vitality: it belongs to everyone ter of morality, he remained the Lak, Phra Lam a "true ency- and to no one. As a story long hero in the hearts of the people clopedia of life in Laos." More extracted from its mother cul- who had delighted in his saga importantly, each country in- ture, the epic has accommo- long before the other religions fused its own value system into dated all ways of life, allowing came into their lives. the story, thereby modifying or itself to be re-cast in the image Aside from religion, his- transforming the epic's charac- of its host culture. tory too remolded the character ters and plot. The Burmese ver- Through all its adapta- and meaning of Rama according sion emphasizes fraternal love tions, however, the image of to its priorities. It has been in the story, as seen in the epi- Rama has remained positive and noted how the kings of Thai- sodes where Lakkhana would continues to be revered as the land, Cambodia, Laos, and rather suffer the sting of a gad- model of dharma, of the man Yogyakarta associated them- fly on his back, than move and who can sacrifice all except selves with Rama, either meta- wake Rama sleeping on his lap. honour, of the leader who can On the other hand, the Lao phorically, or sanguinely. In lead his people to the rule of version emphasizes smooth Laos, the Phra Lak Phra Lam righteousness—because he has interpersonal relations when it showed Rama and his brother love, wisdom, and personal in- depicts the vanquished Rapha- marching through Thai terri- tegrity. Then, as now, as in any nasuan magnanimously offer- tory on their way back to period of the collective histories ing the victor a boat on which Vientiane from Lanka, founding of the countries of Southeast to get away. Depending on a the cities of Ayodhaya, Pisanu- Asia, such leaders have always country's value systems and lok and Nokhon Savan and been in constant demand but social priorities, Rama may be in rare supply, and remain gaining political ground there depicted as a god, a romantic through matrimonial alliances the perennial goal of our best hero, an ideal husband, a endeavours. —events which resemble Vien- womaniser, a temperamental tiane's post-1731 history, when brother; Sita a goddess of love, military expeditions were sent a faithful wife, a vengeful demi- from Laos against the Thai goddess; Hanuman, a chaste cities and marriage alliances

SPAFA Journal Vol. 10 No. 2 23 BIBLIOGRAPHY De Zoete, Beryl and Wolter Spies. Educational Theater Association, Dance and Drama in Bali. Kuala 1993. Awasthi, Suresh. "Ramcharitamanas Lumpur : Oxford University Press, Phromsuthirak, Maneepin. "The and the Performing Tradition of 1973. Ramakien and the Thai Cultural Life." Ramayana." In Raghavan, ed., 1989. Dhaninivat and Dhanit Yupho. Pou, Saveros. "Ramakertian Studies." . 'The Ramayana Tradition The Khon. Bangkok : the Fine Arts In Iyengar ed., 1994. and the Performing Arts." In Ragha Department, 1989. van, ed., 1989. Programme. The International Diskul, Subhadradis. "Ramayana in Ramayana Festival, Thailand Cultural Bhattachargi, Sukumari. "Validity of Sculpture and Painting in Thailand." Center, Bangkok, April 4-27, 1991. the Ramayana Values." In Raghavan, In Raghavan ed., 1989. ed., 1989. Rama I, King of Siam. Ramayana. Eiseman, Fred B. Bali Sekala and 2 nd ed. Bangkok : Chalermnit Bizot, F. 'The Reamker." In Iyengar Niskala. Vol. I: Essays on Religion, Bookshop, 1967. ed., 1994. Ritual and Art. Singapore: Periplus Editions (HK) Ltd., 1992. Raghavan, V. "The Ramayana in Brandon, James, R. ed. On Thrones ." In Raghavan ed., of Gold: Three Javanese Shadow Filliozat, Jean. "The Ramayana in 1989. Plays. Cambridge, Massachusets : South-East Asian Sanskrit Epigraphy Harvard University Press, 1970. and Iconography." In Iyengar ed., , ed. The Ramayana 1994. Tradition in Asia. First Published 1980. Buck, Harry M. "The Role of the New Delhi: Sahitya Akademi, 1989. Sacred Book in Religion—The Rama Francisco, Juan R. Maharadia yana." In Ragavhan ed., 1989. Lawana. Quezon City : Philippine Ratnam, Kamala. 'The Ramayana in Folklore Society, 1969. Bulcke, C. "Ramacaritamanasa and Laos." In Raghavan ed., 1989. its Relevance to the Modern Age." In . "The Ramayana in the . "Socio-cultural and Raghavan ed., 1989. Philippines." In Raghavan ed., 1989. Anthropological Background of the Cadet, J.M. Ramakien, The Stone Haditjoroko, Sunardjo. Ramayana. Ramayana in Laos." In Iyengar ed., Rubbings of the Thai Epic. Kodansha Bandung: Penerbit Djambatan, 1975. 1994. International, Ltd., 1982. Han, U Thein and U Khin Zaw. Rutnin, Mattani. The Siamese Chandra, Lokesh. "Ramayana, the "Ramayana in Burmese Literature and Theater. Bangkok, 1975. Epic of Asia." In Raghavan ed., 1989. Arts." In Raghavan ed., 1989. Sahai, Sachidanand. Ramayana in Chitrabongs, Chakrarot. "Influence of Hussein, Ismail. "Ramayana in Laos. Delhi : B.R. Publishing the Ramakien on the Visual Arts." Malaysia." In Raghavan ed., 1989. Corporation, 1976.

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24 SPAFA Journal Vol. 10 No. 2 Sarapadnuke, Chamlong. "Ramayana Art. Vol. VI: Dance. Manila : Cultural in Thai Theater." In Raghavan ed., Center of the Philippines, 1994. 1989. Tramote, Montri. "Plaeng Na Phat : Sarkar, Himansu Bhusan. "The the Sacred Music Used in Ramakien Migration of the Ramayana Story to Performances." Indonesia and Some Problems Vatsyayan, . "Ramayana in the Connected with Structure and Arts of Asia." In Raghavan ed., 1989. Contents of the Old Javanese Ramayana." In Raghavan ed., 1989. Winternitz, M. A History of . Vol. I New York: Russel and Sarkar, Himansu Bhusan. "The Russel, 1972. Ramayana in South-East Asia: A General Survey." In Iyengar ed., 1994. Yousof, Ghulam Sarwar. Dictionary of South East Asian Theater. Singa- NICANOR G. TIONGSON, librettist, is Sen, Makhon Lol. The Ramayana. pore : Oxford University Press, 1995. a cultural historian and professor of Translated from the Original of Valmiki. Philippine literature and film, and had Vols. I-III. Calcutta : Firma KLM . "Ramayana Branch served as Vice-President and Artistic Private Limited, 1976. Stories in the Wayang Siam Shadow Director of the Cultural Center of the Play in Malaysia." In Iyengar ed., Philippines (1986-1992). He wrote the Shastri, Vrat. "The Valmiki 1994. libretto for the modern dance pieces Ramayana and the Thai Ramaiken— Siete Dolores (1988) and Adarna (1990); A Study in Comparison." scripts for video documentaries on Singaravelu, S. 'The Literary Version Philippine theatre, costumes, and folk of the Rama Story in Malay." In Iyengar media; and the modern sarswela ed., 1994. Pilipinas Circa 1907. Nicanor is also the editor-in-chief of the CCP Encyclo- Sweeney, Amin B. Malay Shadow pedia of Philippine Art (1994), and his Puppets, The Wayang Siam of scholarly works on the theatre include Kelantan. London : The British a book on the sinakulo and other Museum, 1972. religious playlets of Malolos and . "The Malaysian Rama another on the komedya. For his yana in Performance." In Raghavan creative writing, his extensive research ed., 1989. on Philippine Culture, and his efforts at educating Filipinos about their Thitathan, Siraporn. "Localised culture, he has received several Versions of the Ramakien : Their National Book Awards (1982, 1985, Variety and Existence in Rural Thai 1993), and the Patnubay ng Sining at Culture." Kalinangan Award from the city Thwin, U Aung, comp. 'The Concept government of Manila (1992), the of Myanmar Ramayana." Pamphlet National Research Council of the Prepared for the Preparatory Meeting, Philippines Achievement Award ASEAN Flagship Voyage Meeting, (1993), and the Gawad CCP (1997). Brunei Darussalam, 1997.

Tiongson, Nicanor G., ed-in-chief. CCP Encyclopedia of Philippine

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