Virtus et Oratio: Masculinity and Rhetoric in Early Imperial Rome By Bethany Good, Faculty Advisor: Dr. Maura Lafferty University of Tennessee, Knoxville, TN

Introduction Quintilian’s Institutio Oratoria Tacitus’ Annales Conclusion

Manliness, or virtus, played a critical role in gender Quintilian sets the stage for the theory of gendered rhetoric Tacitus’ Annales is a chronicle of the Roman emperors from In conclusion, these authors all demonstrate different construction in ancient Rome. Many elements went into by focusing on the orator as a vir bonus, a good man, in his Tiberius to Nero. Tacitus does not just recount the events portrayals of rhetoric in gender construction. determining if a man had proper virtus and could thus be work on training the perfect orator. Below are selections from that happened under each emperor, but he give also his considered a vir, a true man. his work connecting his rhetorical ideals to gender views: readers an understanding of the moral character of each • Quintilian provides evidence that one who could speak emperor. One of the ways in which he achieves this goal is with eloquence, an orator, was considered to be a vir This research seeks to explore how rhetorical abilities were Section Latin English by describing their rhetorical skills. A selection describing the bonus, a good man. viewed concerning the virtus of a Roman man. Men who 1.Prohoemium.9 Oratorem autem However, I train the emperor Tiberius is seen below. could speak well were generally considered to have a greater instituimus illum perfect orator, who • Pliny describes various individuals’ rhetorical abilities level of virtus than those who were lacking in eloquence. perfectum, qui does not exist unless when writing works such as eulogies and These stereotypes can be seen in the writings of authors in esse nisi vir he is a good man. Section Latin English recommendations. He frequently uses descriptions of bonus non potest. early imperial Rome. 1.11 Plus in oratione tali There was more grandeur their rhetorical skills when portraying their character, 1.2.3 Neque enim esse I hold that there dignitatis quam fidei than truth in such speech; attributing good rhetorical skills to praiseworthy men and oratorem nisi cannot be an orator erat; Tiberioque etiam and even when Tiberius was attributing bad rhetorical skills to men not worthy of praise. bonum virum unless he is a good in rebus quas non not hiding his affairs, iudico et fieri, man and, even if it is Positive descriptions suggest a degree of virtus, or occuleret, seu natura whether because of his manliness. etiam si potest, possible, I do not sive adsuetudine, nature or because of his nolo. wish for it to happen. suspensa semper et habit, his words were obscura verba: tunc always ambiguous and • Tacitus portrays the Roman emperors from Tiberius to These selections show that Quintilian relates being a well- vero nitenti, ut sensus obscure: now with the truth Nero. He frequently uses descriptions of their rhetorical spoken man equates to being a proper Roman man. In suos penitus abderet, clear, in order that he might abilities to indicate their moral character: those without making this connection, Quintilian provides evidence that in incertum et conceal his own buried proper speaking skills lack proper virtus. rhetorical skill is related to the idea of virtus, or manliness. ambiguum magis motivations, he became implicabantur. even more unclear and via Wikimedia Commons obscure. Roman men were often portrayed in the act of speaking in Pliny’s Epistulae statuary honoring them. Here Trajan’s raised right hand indicates that he is giving a speech. Pliny, Quintilian, and Tacitus were all Pliny’s Epistulae is a collection of his letters edited for Tacitus has used Tiberius’ own words and speech to suggest writing at the time of Trajan. publication. Among his selection, he has included eulogies a lack of virtus. Tacitus describes Tiberius as the opposite of for friends, recommendations for offices, and some personal the vir bonus, Quintilian’s good orator. Method stories. Below are two selections demonstrating how he employs descriptions of rhetorical skill: Tacitus portrays the emperor Nero as lacking in proper virtus. To analyze the use of rhetorical abilities in relation to gender, By Barbara McMcanus, 1982, via Vroma three separate sources were considered. Section Latin English 2.XIII Mira in sermone, The sweetness in his Section Latin English On his column, Trajan is portrayed as an orator addressing • Quintilian’s Institutio Oratoria offers an educational guide mira etiam in ore conversation is amazing, 13.3 Adnotabant seniores The elders, who had the his troops. quibus otiosum est leisure to compare old and to training the perfect orator. His work is used to present ipso vultuque even the sweetness in his suavitas. very voice and countenance vetera et praesentia new things, noted that the theory behind the hypothesis that rhetorical ability is is amazing. contendere, primum ex Nero was the first of the related to the construction of gender for men. 4.VII Itaque Herennius And thus Herennius Senecio iis, qui rerum potiti emperors to need of Bibliography Senecio mirifice turned Cato’s admirable essent, Neronem alienae another’s eloquence. • The Epistulae of Pliny include eulogies and Catonis illud de quote concerning orators to facundiae eguisse. recommendations that demonstrate how the theory was oratore in hunc e the reverse concerning Note: All translations are my own. Texts listed provided the applied in the sphere of elite Roman men. He invites his contrario vertit: Regulus: “An orator is a bad Latin text. readers’ judgment of men’s character by describing their “Orator est vir malus man unskilled in speaking.” Here, Nero has used a speech written by Seneca at his rhetorical skill. dicendi imperitus.” adopted father’s funeral, while the custom was for the man’s • Pliny. Epistulae. Cambridge, Massachusetts: Harvard son to write and perform an original eulogy. Nero instead has University Press, 1961. In the first, a recommendation of a friend for office, he • Finally, Tacitus’ Annales provides evidence for the use of used Seneca’s words. The elders look down on this, mentions the high rhetorical skill level of the individual, rhetorical abilities to portray the character of historical comparing him to past emperors who all had some degree of • Quintilian. Institutio Oratoria. Cambridge, Massachusetts: promoting him as a good man. Further, when Pliny tells a figures. His descriptions of some of the Roman emperors eloquence and thus had more virtus, or manliness, than Nero. Harvard University Press, 2001. story of Regulus, a man Pliny dislikes, he specifically from Tiberius to Nero demonstrate how the stereotypes mentions that he is a vir malus, a bad man, while describing related to rhetorical skill are used to suggest whether they • Tacitus. Annales. Cambridge, Massachusetts: Harvard his lack of rhetorical skills. This suggests that proper can be considered true men with proper virtus (manliness) University Press, 1964. rhetorical skills could add to a man’s virtus, manliness, just or not. as a lack of ability could take away from it.