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Societal Bilingualism in Cameroon

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Societal Bilingualism in Cameroon EQUALITY BEYOND TRANSLATION: SOCIETAL BILINGUALISM IN CAMEROON Dorine Sosso Thesis submitted to the University of Ottawa In partial fulfillment of the requirements for the Doctorate of Philosophy in Translation Studies Under the supervision of Dr. Annie Brisset School of Translation and Interpretation Faculty of Arts University of Ottawa c Dorine Sosso, Ottawa, Canada, 2020 Abstract Researchers are increasingly drawn to the study of societal bilingualism (or multilingualism), which is the study of the specific nature of bilingualism practiced by a nation, state, province or territory. Such studies seek to identify the institutions and legal frameworks put in place to regulate and reproduce bilingualism, as well as to understand groups which practice bilingualism. Drawing on a descriptive approach that flows from a sociological model of critical theory and conflict theory, this study is based on societal bilingualism in Cameroon, the only other country in the world, apart from Canada, that has both English and French as its only official languages. Cameroon is also one of the few African countries that do not have a local language as an official language. Acknowledging the central role of texts and their analysis in understanding social practices, this case study is carried out using critical document analysis to examine previous research, mass media products, government reports, historical data and information, laws, orders, press releases and speeches to uncover the precise nature of official language bilingualism in Cameroon. The study offers insights into the relevant historical and language background against which a critical discussion on official language bilingualism and an analysis of the legal frameworks and institutions set up to regulate and reproduce this bilingualism can be carried out. Attention is given to translation policies and to the most recent measures taken to foster State bilingualism in Cameroon. Indeed, official language bilingualism has been heavily predicated on translation, its institutions and legal framework. This timely case study traces the nation’s failure, as witnessed by the current situation of unrest, to successfully implement, mainly through translation, an official language bilingualism policy that grants equal status to English and French across the national territory. This research concludes that an alternative solution would be to introduce bilingual education as well, particularly from the nursery and elementary school levels, given that, for a long time now, Cameroon has had early simultaneous bilinguals who speak both English and French before they attain school age. A brief comparison between the context of official language bilingualism within the educational system in Cameroon and in Canada highlights the fact that Cameroon has the potential to establish one of the strongest forms of bilingual education in the world. ii Résumé L’attention des chercheurs se porte de plus en plus sur le bilinguisme (ou le multilinguisme) sociétal, à savoir sur la nature particulière du bilinguisme pratiqué par une nation, un État, une province ou un territoire. Ces études cherchent à cerner les institutions et le cadre juridique établis pour réglementer et perpétuer le bilinguisme tout en comprenant mieux les groupes qui le pratiquent. L’étude qui suit porte sur la situation du bilinguisme au Cameroun, le seul pays du monde avec le Canada ayant seulement l’anglais et le français pour langues officielles. De nature descriptive, cette étude de cas s’inscrit dans une critique sociologique ainsi que dans la théorie des conflits. Du point de vue méthodologique, il s’agit d’une analyse de discours articulée autour du principe que les textes sont essentiels pour comprendre les pratiques sociales. Cette analyse tient compte des recherches antérieures et des données historiques avant de prendre pour objet les discours et communiqués de presse, les rapports gouvernementaux, les lois et décrets ainsi que les discours officiels dans le but de cerner la nature du bilinguisme d’État au Cameroun. Le contexte historique et linguistique sert d’assise pour aborder, dans une perspective critique, la situation du bilinguisme officiel ainsi que les institutions et le cadre juridique mis en place pour le réglementer et en assurer la survie. Une attention particulière est portée aux politiques de traduction et aux mesures les plus récentes destinées à promouvoir le bilinguisme d’État au Cameroun. À la base, ce bilinguisme officiel repose massivement sur la traduction, ses institutions et la législation qui l’encadre. Au vu des mouvements d’insurrection auxquels on assiste aujourd’hui dans le pays, cette étude de cas revêt un caractère d’actualité. Elle remonte aux sources de l’échec d’une politique de bilinguisme officiel qui s’en remet principalement à la traduction pour assurer au français et à l’anglais une égalité de statut sur l’ensemble du territoire national. L’analyse conduit à conclure qu’une autre solution consisterait à assurer parallèlement l’instruction dans les deux langues officielles, surtout depuis la maternelle et l’école élémentaire puisque, depuis très longtemps, beaucoup de Camerounais parlent simultanément l’anglais et le français dès l’enfance, bien avant d’atteindre l’âge scolaire. Comparée succinctement à celle du Canada, la situation du bilinguisme officiel dans le système d’éducation du Cameroun révèle que ce pays a le potentiel voulu pour mettre en place une forme d’éducation bilingue parmi les plus robustes au monde. iii Acknowledgements First and foremost, I would like to heartily thank my supervisor, Dr Annie Brisset, for the great insight, motivation and support she provided me with during this long PhD journey. The completion of this work is a result of nothing other than your exceptional patience towards me and your time so selflessly given. Annie, right when I was feeling completely overwhelmed you said it so well – a little written plus a little written makes a lot written! Thank you so much! Those weekly meetings worked magic! Very special thanks and appreciation go to my husband, Dr. Alexandre Sosso for extraordinary support during the long, strenuous hours I spent doing research and writing this dissertation. You bore the financial burden because you believe in me. Thank you for reading my first drafts and for proofreading the French texts. Patricia Dumas, Roger Samra, Janet Samra, Patricia King-Edwards, Elodie Azamaho, Hortense Ngo Makanda, Micere Thuku: your keen interest in my research topic spurred me on. Your keen eyes made such a difference! Thank you for all your encouragement and support! To my siblings, Dr Aliu-Gwan Rose, Mrs Vivian Sakah, Dr. Ernest Anye, Mrs Prisca Yombi, and Mr. Milton Anye: thank you for standing by me throughout my life and especially throughout this project! Prisca and Milton, thank you for all the documents you sent to me from Cameroon. To our beloved children, Nathan, Rose, Esther and Daniel Sosso: I did it for you! Thank you for every single cup of tea that found its way to my desk! Thank you for bearing the long absences with joy. To my church family: Even though I may not be able to list every one of you here because of space limitations, I am deeply indebted to you all for your continuous prayers, encouragement and financial support that carried me through the tough times. I would never have accomplished this task without you! Last but not the least, I would like to express my deepest gratitude to my dear parents Anye Chi Daniel and Anye Esther Oben who held nothing back! Your unfailing love and all your sacrifices got me here! iv Dedication To my wonderful parents, Anye Chi Daniel and Anye Esther Oben, for all your sacrifices for me. To my husband, Dr. Alexandre Sosso, my backbone. And, to every Cameroonian, who, like Nathan, Rose, Esther and Daniel Sosso, our dearly beloved children, was born to an ‘Anglophone’ and a ‘Francophone’ as we await the new era! v Table of Contents Abstract . ii Résumé . iii Acknowledgements . iv Dedication . .v List of Figures . ix List of Tables . .x Abbreviations and Acronyms . xi INTRODUCTION 1 Chapter One: CAMEROON’S HISTORICAL BACKGROUND AND LINGUISTIC LANDSCAPE 11 1.1 Historical background . 11 1.2 Languages spoken in Cameroon . 13 1.2.1 Languages of wider distribution . 14 1.2.2 Atlas linguistique du Cameroun (ALCAM) . 17 1.2.3 National languages and the media . 21 1.2.4 Cameroonian languages and education . 22 1.3 Official languages in Cameroon . 32 1.3.1 French . 32 1.3.2 English . 32 1.4 Other foreign languages present in Cameroon . 35 1.5 Lingua Franca . 36 1.5.1 Cameroonian Pidgin (English), Cameroonian Creole English or Kamtok . 36 1.5.2 CamFranglais or Francanglais . 42 Chapter Two: BILINGUALISM: KEY CONCEPTS 44 2.1 The Education system and the use of English and French . 45 vi 2.2 What is bilingualism? . 51 2.2.1 Some aspects of bilingualism . 51 2.2.2 Societal and individual bilingualism . 53 2.2.2.1 Societal bilingualism . 53 2.2.2.2 Individual bilingualism . 57 2.2.3 The Measurement of bilingualism . 60 2.2.4 True, balanced or equal bilingualism . 65 2.3 Approaches to individual bilingualism . 68 2.4 Bilingualism and translation . 72 2.5 Bilingualism and translator training . 73 Chapter Three: TRANSLATION IN CAMEROON 77 3.1 Translation policy defined . 77 3.2 Policy defined . 79 3.3 Language policy . 80 3.4 Translation policy . 82 3.5 Language and ethnic identity in Cameroon . 85 3.6 Ensuring language equality . 86 Chapter Four: ENGLISH-FRENCH BILINGUALISM IN CAMEROON AND CANADA 93 4.1 The argument for bilingual education in Cameroon . 94 4.2 Societal bilingualism in Cameroon and Canada: Cameroon to learn from Canada? . 96 4.3 Same official languages, different linguistic landscapes . 97 4.3.1 Minority official languages in Cameroon and Canada . 99 4.3.2 Other languages spoken in Cameroon and Canada .
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