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Home , Brian Mulroney, Igor Gouzenko, Pierre Trudeau

and the

Igor Gouzenko (1919-1982) disclosed the existence of a spy ring that included sleeper agents working under deep cover in Canada. The whole of the operation was geared towards uncovering nuclear secrets so that the could match the American arsenal at the earliest opportunity. NATO

Just as these events were unfolding, Belgium, the Netherlands, , Britain, and Luxembourg entered into a new mutual defense treaty. The and the vastly superior Soviet land forces in central Europe obliged the Treaty of Brussels group to look to a wider association that would include the , Portugal, Italy, Norway, Denmark, Iceland, and Canada. The North Treaty Organization (NATO) was the outcome: a mutual protection agreement under which an attack on one was to be regarded as an attack on all. For its first few years, NATO was not much more than a political association; the first NATO Secretary General, Lord Ismay

On 25 June 1950, troops of the North Korean People's Democratic Army (PDA) crossed the 38th parallel, the border between North and South Korea. Within only a month, the PDA captured all but the southernmost region of the peninsula. The first major test of the West's policy of in Asia had begun, for the held that a victory by North Korea might lead to further Communist expansion in Asia, in the virtual backyard of the West's former enemy and newest ally in East Asia - .

The Suez Crisis, also named the Tripartite Aggression (in the Arab world) and the Kadesh Operation or Sinai War (in Israel),[16] was an invasion of Egypt in late 1956 by Israel, followed by the and France. The aims were to regain Western control of the Suez Canal and to remove Egyptian President from power. NORAD

The first material expression of these fears was the construction of the beginning in 1946 and improved through the 1950s. This radar system, running from west to east from 50 to 54 degrees latitude, was introduced to detect an incoming Soviet bomber attack. In the 1950s, the Mid-Canada Line (or McGill Fence) was added further north in the face of advances in jet engines, which meant a faster target to intercept. The successor Distant Early Warning (DEW) Line followed in the late 1950s and through the 1970s as a response to the possibility of ICBM attacks. Strung across the Arctic Ocean from Alaska to Baffin Island, the Dew Line still stands as Canada's single largest investment in infrastructure in the high Arctic. Avro Arrow

In 1949, Canada recognized the need for an aircraft to counter the threat of Soviet bombers on Northern Canada. Avro Arrow (CF-105), an advanced, supersonic, twin-engined, all-weather interceptor jet aircraft developed by A.V. Roe of Canada from 1949 until the government's controversial cancellation of the project in 1959. Encouraged by the success of developing the Avro CF-100 Canuck and recognizing the need for an aircraft to counter the threat of Soviet bombers over the demanding Canadian North, enthusiastic RCAF officers, defence scientists and defence-industry officials had persuaded the Liberal government by December 1953 to authorize two prototype airframes in anticipation of a production run of up to 600 aircraft costing $2 million apiece. Canada was also forced to develop the Arrow's engine and fire-control and missile systems, and estimated costs rose to $12.5 million per aircraft. October 1958, tocut costs, the new Conservative government terminated Canadian fire-control and missile development, and renewed efforts to sell the aircraft to the US. the US was promoting Bomarc missiles and the USSR's launch of an ICBM missile was raising doubts about the priority of the Soviet bomber threat. The project was cancelled on 20 February 1959. 14,000 employees were fired from their jobs; the government ordered all plans and prototypes destroyed; and many bemoaned the devastation of Canada's aircraft industry. This made it difficult for the Canadian government to sell this aircraft to the US. On February 20, 1959, Canada’s conservative government cancelled the Avro Arrow project to allocate more money. 14,000 employees working on the project were fired, and Canada continued to depend on the U.S. for interceptor aircraft. 1962 Cuban Missiles Crisis

The in 1962 deepened Canadian fears of a nuclear war between Russia and the United States. The Jong-range missiles that the Soviet Union proposed to deploy on would certainly reach major Canadian population centers if they were ever launched. The Americans were insistent that the Soviets abort the project and, for the better part of two weeks, Washington and Moscow (which was, itself, affronted by the forward deployment of American missiles in Turkey) stared into the abyss. 1956- 1963 Bomarc Missile crisis

The Bomarc Missile Crisis was a Cold War-era dispute over whether Canada should house nuclear missiles as part of its NORAD air defence agreement with the United States. 1958 Prime Minister 's Conservative government announced an agreement with the US to deploy two squadrons of the American ramjet-powered "Bomarc" antiaircraft missile in Canada. This controversial defence decision was one of many flowing from the 1957 North American Air Defence (NORAD) agreement with the US. It was argued by some that the surface-to-air guided missile, with a range of 640 km, would be an effective replacement for the manned interceptor Avro Arrow, which the Diefenbaker government had scrapped. missiles would theoretically intercept any Soviet attacks on North America before they reached the industrial heartland of Canada. Fifty-six missiles were deployed at North Bay, , and La Macaza, Québec, under the ultimate control of the commander-in-chief of NORAD. Canadian government did not make it clear that the version to be acquired, the Bomarc-B, was to be fitted with nuclear warheads. When this became known in 1960 it gave rise to a dispute as to whether Canada should adopt nuclear weapons. It led to anti-nuclear protests throughout the country. In the end the government did not accept nuclear warheads for the Bomarcs, a reluctance which contributed to poor Canadian- American relations in this period. The Conservative government was divided over the issue. Its Cabinet failed to make a firm decision on whether Canada should honour its NORAD obligations and house the nuclear missiles, or maintain Canada’s opposition to the spread of nuclear weapons. The Liberal Opposition said that it supported the NORAD obligations and would accept the nuclear warheads. The Conservatives lost the 1963 election, in part over the Bomarc issue. The Liberals returned to power under Prime Minister Lester Pearson and decided to accept nuclear warheads for Canadian nuclear- capable forces. The Bomarc warheads were delivered to their sites on 31 December 1963. 1969 Prime Minister 's new Liberal government announced that Canada would withdraw its armed forces from their nuclear roles. His government signed the Nuclear Non-Proliferation Treaty, which took force in 1970. As part of this process the Bomarc missile was phased out of service by 1971.

Nonetheless, growing American involvement in Cold War client-state wars from Vietnam through Africa and Latin America led to growing anti-American feeling among the Canadian public and that was reflected in 's foreign policies.

1970s PM Trudeau foreign policy

Liberal Prime Ministers Pearson and Pierre Trudeau would follow Diefenbaker's lead and were publicly critical of American foreign policy. ('s government was in office only briefly but evinced a more cooperative position generally.) After 20 years of sanctions, Ottawa opened discussions with China in 1968 and diplomatic recognition of the PRC in 1970. Canada (along with ) did not sever diplomatic ties with Cuba, and Trudeau was the first Western leader to pay a visit to Havana.

1980s PM Mulroney's Foreign Policy

Conservative Prime Minister came into power. Mulroney’s biggest accomplishment was developing a strong foreign policy with the United States. In the 70’s Trudeau created much tension with the Americans. The USA/Canada relationship was very weak but Mulroney improved it by making and signing a Agreement (FTA) with the US. In the late 80’s a decline in the economy and it looked threatening many critics blamed this on the Free Trade Agreement with the United States.