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In American Religious Life

Harold B. Kuhn

The man from whom Arminian Theo formulated, seemed likewise in conflict logy derives its name is much less known with what he felt to be the Christian doc than the movement itself. Born at Onder- trine of human freedom. Unconditional water in The Netherlands in 1560, Jacobus Election (with its corollary of uncondition Arminius (latinized from Harmensen) al reprobation,) seemed open to the same studied in Utrecht and Leyden, objection. The tenet of a Limited Atone and later in Geneva under the famous ment seemed inconsistent with clear Calvinist Beza. Shortly after his ments of Scripture which offered in 1588, he was commissioned to defend to all men. Irresistable appeared to Beza's of against him a teaching which stood or fell with proposed changes. In the course of his , as did also the studies, he came to adopt the positions tenet of Unconditional Perseverance. which he had undertaken to refute. Upon Arminius did not live to see the issues his appointment to a professorship in theo between himself and Dutch re logy in Leyden in 1603, he found himself solved by S)mod, for he died in 1609 be in conflict with almost immediately fore the meeting of such a , in the was for the Gomarus. who remaining calling of which he was largely instru years of Arminius' life to be his chief op mental. He did not himself formulate an ponent. anti-Calvinistic system; and in The Nether Beginning with an examination of Beza's lands, Arminianism was rather a Remon doctrine of Predestination, Arminius short strant movement within the Reformed ly found himself questioning other Cal- than an institutionalized theology. vinistic formulations. Before noting these, It be said also that his followers were it is necessary to observe that he essentially more Arminian than was he himself. At the re-defined the Reformed teaching of pre (1618-1619) about three destination, in terms as follows: pre hundred of Arminians, mostly clergymen destines men to salvation upon the basis of and including the eminent Simon Epis- His foresight of what men do, not (as copius, were expelled. Nevertheless, ar Gomarus held) upon the basis of an ar minian teachings exerted a powerful in bitrary election to salvation, with a conse fluence upon Dutch theology, and were quent reprobation of others. The classic echoed in the by the Calvinistic position concerning Movement. men to and was that God awakens It remained for a new movement in these responses because they are predeter British theology to knit Arminianism into Arminius mined to salvation. This, felt, a theology in its own right. The Wesleys, and confounded human and divine acts, forced by circumstances to pursue their neutralized human freedom. work outside the Church of England, gave In reformulating this tenet, Arminius to Arminianism a new life. found himself in conflict with other prin shared that which has been a common ciples of high Reformed teaching. The factor in Arminian thought, namely an teaching of , as currently aversion to the harsher aspects of Calvin- 104 HAROLD B. KUHN

ism. We must not, however, suppose that Methodist Societies at a rate almost im- Wesley merely took over the work of paralleled in . Arminius and the whole Emphases of the message of the Meth sale; rather, he added some distinctively odists were, especially, personal respon new features, two: the doctrine of notably sibility and possible salvation for all men. the Witness of the and the doctrine ; Both of these were specifically derived of Entire . from Arminius' tenets. They resulted in a The of Arminianism for significance brand of aggressive which not American in out theology grows large part only produced a phenomenal growth, but of the of development Wesley's thought. also was a dynamic force in christianizing Before this, it is tracing however, necessary American life at its cutting edge. At the that we observe within American Calvin same , apart from the direct results ism a reaction some of its features against achieved by Methodist evangelism, there - - in fact, the same factors which against were repercussions within nominally Cal Arminius himself found inacceptable. This vinistic denominations. Whereas strict Cal reaction had assumed such that proportion vinism would produce one type of evange the middle of the by eighteenth century, listic approach, Arminianism would log Edwards was with the Jonathan occupied ically produce another. In point of fact, question. this time, Arminian had be By frontier evangelism within all groups came come a term of to those reproach, applied to conform to the free-will pattern. opponents of Puritanism who found the With the of came the doctrine of human spiritual inability in- growth development of her fixed � acceptable. In this sense, Arminianism in theological schools, and the like. was similar to the movement colleges, The theological became centers in The Netherlands, namely an unorganized for the and protest movement, centering in theological systematic scholarly exposition of the and institutions, but without specific eccles Arminian-, in the nineteenth iastical form. One gets the impression from produced, particularly a of able scholars and Calvinistic of this period that the century, group very a formidable literature. term Arminian had become something of theological Coming later in of time than the an emotionally-charged word, employed point Presby terians with their Princeton rather loosely to discredit those who ques University, the tioned the formulation of high Calvinism Methodists exerted through their universities a influence from the point of view of either Scripture profound upon American life. or of personal . In addition to the effect which this un The institutional impact of Arminianism official form of movement upon our national life was paralleled by exerted upon the theology of America, its effect upon the theological atmosphere. there was brought to bear upon our scene Before noting this, however, it is helpful a much more powerful form of anti-Cal to observe that in The Netherlands, Ar vinistic theology in the Methodist move minian theology tended, following the ment. Beginning about the middle of the of its immediate formulators, to eighteenth century, the followers of Wes become attenuated. Some of its adherents ley penetrated the Colonies, and into the became Arian in their ; and in hinter-land of America in a manner which general, the Dutch movement succumbed affords one of the most romantic chapters to the impact of liberal theology. In in our religious history. Trained in the America, however, Wesleyanism remained, theology of John Weslev. which through the larger part of the nineteenth in his was largely embodied , century, a vigorous opponent of the New preachers of varied degrees of education England form of . It is the stud penetrated the wilderness by horseback, ied oninion of this writer that Methodism. and evangelizing as they went, establishing up until approximately 189�. compared ARMINIANISM IN AMERICAN RELIGIOUS LIFE 105

in favorably this respect with the Calvin Methodism in the direction of large em istic denominations. phasis upon experience, one might expect to discover liberalized form a re During the nineteenth century, there in its action a concen were frequent controversies between Ar against theology, and minians and tration of ex Calvinists, out of which grew emphasis upon subjective as sources of truth. numerous articles in periodicals, and oc periences religious movement in casional volumes such as the able but Sharing with the liberal gen eral an repetititous work Objections to Calvinism acceptance of conventional higher by Randolph S. Foster. In general, this , with a consequent de controversy raged about the theoretical preciation of Scripture as a final , it faced the common task of a aspects of high Calvinism which were sel discovering dom the subject of public preaching. source of authority consistent with its This task has been un Whatever good purposes may have been general principles. dertaken at two the first in rather served by this controversy, it certainly levels, the second at a more so had the effect of concentrating the atten popular fashion, level. tion of many able Methodist upon Calvin phisticated In the first there ism, as though the Geneva theology were instance, came, chiefly the literature of the the chief opponent of . This through popular Church School and Youth Societies, a undeniably drew their efforts away from the task of meeting the real foe of historic general depreciation of religious , in Christianity, namely theological liberalism. in favor of "the life." Objective truth was subordinated to the As a result, when the impact of German insights which came to men of heart and of thought began to be felt as a consequence good two crisis of the fashionable student exchanges be good will. At the same time, the which were the tween American theological seminaries religious experiences of historic Methodism and the theological faculties of Germany, strength (namely, conversion and entire were Methodist theologians were caught nap sanctification) replaced in "experiences'* ping, or, to say the least, so engaged in emphasis by which were common to all men, combatting a fellow-movement as to be un presumably and of the prepared for the real conflict. relatively independent accep tance of . In place of The writer is to encounter prepared the New Birth, there came an emphasis difference of with respect to this opinion upon life's several transitional experiences last Some Methodists will feel that point. as "new births" and a guided reaction Calvinism was the foe, and that Liber against "narrowing" the term *new birth* alism came to free American Arminianism to any specific reeenerating experience. from both this and also the "schol enemy Emphasis was shifted from conversion to from asticism" which they inherited Tohn growth, from evangelism to relieious ed will likewise observe Weslev. Calvinists ucation. This does not mean that the term that Methodism in meas succumbed, large 'evaneelism* was eliminated, but rather to Liberalism because of the inher ure, that it was radicallv reformulated so as to ent weakness of all forms of Arminian not onlv draw emphasis from the evpticre- theology. He feels, however, that some listic procedures which made Methodism can be said for the view thing that, given great, but also identified them with the a proper view of the issues involved and rather unsophisticated life of the frontier. Arminianism is as proper preparation, and hence no longer relevant to the life able to defend itself against its foes as is of the church. Calvinism. The other level at which the reauest for At this point it is well to give brief a new religious authority was undertaken notice to the particular form which Lib was that of Empirical Theology. Taking eralism has assumed within the Arminian as a point of departure the postulate that movement. In view of the orientation of Personality was the final and irreducible 106 HAROLD B. KUHN element in the , the currents of The theological implications of such a liberal Arminian thought were guided in teaching are obviously profound; it is diffi the direction of the philosophy of Per cult (or impossible) to reconcile them with sonal . This embodied much of the historic principles of the Methodist the work of Renouvier and Lotze, though Church as embodied in the Twenty-Five its advocates have latterly tended to find Articles. In general, however, the ground in it a "Perennial Philosophy" and to find has been prepared in the major sections of all true philosophy since to be really the denomination for the subordination of a form of Personal IdeaHsm. It would un historic principles of Christianity to what duly expand this article to sketch in detail are held to be the clear dictates of ex the philosophcal movement initated by perience. With respect to the doctrine of , pupil of Hermann salvation, upon which the emphasis in Lotze. It must be said, however, that it is Arminianism has been strong, the newer a very thorough and well-knit system, em theology based upon empiricism shifts the bodying an idealistic , a rug emphasis from what God does for man to ged value-ethics, and a daring theology. zuhat God does alongside man, from God in Relevant to this discussion, two points suffering for man to what God, in deserve special mention. First, Personal volved in the same moral schizophrenia man's Idealism is a stalwart defender of as man, suffers along with man. From examined moral freedom. Having critically some points of view at least, the outcome the factors which serve in some measure to of the moral enterprise is uncertain. One determine human conduct, it preserves at duty lies clearly before man, namely to take in its this point the genius of Arminianism place alongside a struggling God in His fac contention that after all determining struggle for Value. Salvation thus comes, remains to tors are recognized, there yet not by Grace, but as a result of a life slant area within which he every person a tight ed in a certain direction. "Salvation" thus is immune from constraint, and in which becomes a matter of moral endeavor and down dis he is competent to not only hand is in no vital way related to the death of criminatory moral , but also to Christ. commit himself in the most profound In this connection, one problem deserves moral and spiritual sense. special attention : is this movement in The second point which is worthy of Arminian theology the inevitable outcome mention is the tendency within Personal of Arminian principles? Does this reversal Idealism to make man's negative moral of historic Christian theology, which Per experience (namely his experience with the sonal Idealism implies, follow from those problem of ) determinative for the elements in the Arminian approach which ology. This has been accompanied by it holds in reaction against Calvinism? thorough analysis of the moral situation, Some will reply to these queries with a has and latterly by the assertion that there is an ty affirmative. Calvinists will feel that Ar irreducible residue of evil in the universe, minianism, in its emphasis upon some with measure of the presence of which is irreconcilable human initiative in repentance, the existence of a God who is both morally has done despite to the doctrine of the perfect (holy) and completely powerful divine , and has left open the (omnipotent). This has led to the formu gate to the final renunciation of that lation of the position of Theistic Finitism sovereignty. Against this argument, some (doctrine of a limited God). The advocates Arminians will reply that those denomi of the system contend that the realities of nations which have been historically Cal the universe demand the recognition of an vinistic have by no means a perfect record antithesis between a God of all-power and in the matter of maintaining high views of Idealists and that their deviations from a God of all-goodness. , his find little difficulty in sacrificing the first toric Christianity are no more to be at in favor of the second. tributed to their historic Calvinism than ARMINIANISM IN AMERICAN RELIGIOUS LIFE 107 are those of methodistic Arminianism to be that of conserving explicitly the historic laid at the door of her opposition to the positions of Methodist-Arminian beUef. doctrine of the Divine Decrees as under These bodies have grown to significant stood by Calvin. Perhaps this is not a size, have developed their own organi strong argument; what it really seems to zations to an efficiency comparable to that signify is, that the clue to the success of of the parent body, have maintained their theological Uberalism in the major denomi own schools at the collegiate level, and are nations is to be found elsewhere than in now developing graduate theological train their respective attitudes at one point in ing. It needs to be said that neither of these their theology. bodies have sought to develop an indepen dent or 'characteristic' school of theology. A final consideration in this paper is the have, however, maintained their his newer historic form which the Arminian They toric doctrinal and have succeeded movement has assumed in America. It is positions in formulating them in such a manner as noteworthy that Arminianism was a power to make them satisfying to a constituency ful guiding force in the religious life which includes a high percentage of well- of German immigrants of the nineteenth trained and critical persons. century. There arose in consequence two Churches of strong Arminian principles, Something needs to be said concerning namely the United Brethren and the Evan the independent bodies which have arisen gelical Church, newly imited to become the within the Arminian movement during the Evangelical United Brethren Church. In past half century. The largest of these is general, these bodies have maintained their the , which has historic doctrinal principles longer than gathered its large membership not only the largest exponent of Arminianism; lat from the unchurched, but also from the terly, however, Uberalizing tendencies have liberalized Arminian bodies, many of become prominent in the life of these whose members found the newer forms of bodies. theology unsatisfying. For some years, the During the nineteenth century, two sig Nazarene Movement has shown a pheno nificant types of occurred within menal growth, being one of the most rapid the Methodist Chuch. The first was the ly growing Churches in America. It, and general schism, occasioned by a sociological its offshoot, the , question which divided the nation as a has followed much the same doctrinal course as the two Methodist bodies whole. As a result, the Methodist Church just South pursued its independent existence mentioned. until about 1940. There was also the second It would require much space to chronicle the schism in which a smaller group form, the remaining bodies which have pursued itself from the major body, and separated the Arminian tradition in America, some of maintained a existence in the separate which like the Mennonites have had their This sec same general geographic location. largest constituency among immigrants ond form of schism produced, especially, from northern who have contribu three bodies, the Methodist Prostestant ted so richly to our rural America. Like the , and Church, wise, in the Evangelical wing of Quakerism, the Wesleyan Methodist. (There were also as expressed by the followers of J. J. smaller splinter churches, none of which Gumey, Arminianism has been a dominant has however become sufficiently large to be doctrinal force. Mention must be made, reckoned as a force in determining the however, of a newer and somewhat irregu course of Arminian theology. lar movement, namely the so-called Pente the Free The two mentioned last, namely costal Movement. It is too early to assess Methodist and the Wesleyan Methodist the importance of this branch of the Churches, have served a special function Church. With respect to its doctrine, it is within the Arminian movement, namely safe to say that it is partly related to Arm- 108 HAROLD B. KUHN

and inianism, partly to the ecstatic move human endeavor, with a vigorous defense ments which have appeared occasionally of himian moral freedom. Whether the during the history of the Church. movement will be able to maintain its It may be said, in conclusion, that the emphasis upon the unique value of per Arminian Movement played a role of sons in the face of the encroachment of superlative significance during the for premature collectivisms remains to be mative period of our nation, both in its seen. Logically it should be a bulwark direct impact upon the life of the expand against both the threatening ant-hill cul ing territories which comprise the United tures and the materialism upon which they States, and also in the impetus which it are based. gave to aggressive evangelism in the In those areas of American church life Calvinistic bodies. Possibly it is not going where orthodox Arminianism prevails, too far to observe that its emphasis upon there is a discernible tendency toward co and in- personal responsibiUty personal operation with all Evangelical groups, and itative contributed also to the general de away from the historic conflict between mocratic our tone of national life. Cer Arminianism and Calvinism. While re tainly the Arminian emphasis upon holi cognizing and respecting mutual dif ness of life has profoundly influenced the ferences, both Arminians and Calvinists tone of our social structure, which until (and it may be noted that most Cal has been recently in reasonable agreement vinistic groups in America today hold with the older practical ethic of Metho modified Genevan views) are realizing in which condemned dism, intemperance, increasing measure that the emergency of divorce, , and the like. It is signi the demands that little effort be ex ficant that the weakening of sentiment pended in internecine Christian conflict, these and kindred in Ameri and against that major emphasis be placed upon can society has been parallel to the re a vigorous assertion of the principles of laxation of standards in the major historic Christianity. Leaders in both Arminian denominations. groups are seeking to exploit the broad With reference to the future, the pro areas of doctrinal agreement between the spects for Arminianism in American re theological movements, recognizing that life seem two-fold. ligious First, the de Arminianism and Calvinism are both ap nominations in which liberalism has come proaches to theology rather than distinct to be the prevailing theological mood, hav . These leaders likewise recognize ing already lost their historic Arminian that the vastly increased dimensions of will principles, share the future which the their common task requires an increase in American scene will afford to liberal common endeavor based upon a frank re Christianity in general. In this future, the cognition of secondary differences within to be in emphasis promises the direction the framework of agreement upon major of extreme stress upon human effort and and essential tenets of the Christian Faith.