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A Glossary of Theological Terms

hat follows is a brief discussion of a series of technical terms that the reader is likely to encounter W in the course of reading texts which relate to Christian . Many of them occur in the present work. The heretical view that was A term derived from the Greek word ‘‘adopted’’ as the Son of at some point for ‘‘rebaptizer,’’ and used to refer to the radical during his ministry (usually his ), as wing of the sixteenth-century , opposed to the orthodox teaching that Jesus based on thinkers such as or was by nature from the moment Balthasar Hubmaier. of his conception. analogy of (analogia entis) The theory, aggiornamento The process of renewing the especially associated with , , which was particularly associated that there exists a correspondence or analogy with John XXIII and the Second Vatican between the created order and God, as a result Council (1962–5). The Italian word can of the divine creatorship. The idea gives theor- be translated as ‘‘a bringing up to date’’ or etical to the practice of drawing ‘‘renewal,’’ and refers to the process of theo- conclusions from the known objects and logical, spiritual, and institutional renewal and relationships of the natural order concerning updating which resulted from the work of this God. council. analogy of (analogia fidei) The theory, A patristic school of thought, especially associated with , which especially associated with the city of holds that any correspondence between the in Egypt, noted for its (which placed created order and God is only established on emphasis upon the of ) and the basis of the self- of God. its method of biblical interpretation (which anthropomorphism The tendency to ascribe employed allegorical methods of ). A human features (such as hands or arms) or rival approach in both areas was associated other human characteristics to God. with Antioch. Antiochene School A patristic school of thought, allegory An understanding of how biblical texts especially associated with the city of Antioch in are to be interpreted which sees certain biblical modern-day Turkey, noted for its Christology images as possessing deeper, spiritual mean- (which placed emphasis upon the humanity of ings, which can be uncovered by their inter- Christ) and its method of biblical interpretation preters. (which employed literal methods of exegesis). A

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rival approach in both areas was associated with all three persons are present and active in both Alexandria. these works. anti-Pelagian writings The writings of Augustine A major early Christological , relating to the Pelagian controversy, in which treated Jesus Christ as the supreme of which he defended his views on and God’s creatures, and denied his divine status. justification. See ‘‘.’’ The was of major import- Apocalyptic A type of writing or religious out- ance in the development of Christology during look in general which focuses on the last things the fourth century. and the end of the , often taking the form A term used to refer to the wide var- of visions with complex symbolism. The second iety of forms of self-discipline used by Chris- half of the book of () and to deepen their knowledge of and Revelation () are examples of commitment to God. The term derives from this type of writing. the Greek term askesis (‘‘discipline’’). The area of which An English term originally coined in focuses on the defense of the Christian faith, 1526 by William Tyndale to translate the particularly through the rational justification term reconciliatio. It has since come to have the of Christian belief and . developed meaning of ‘‘the work of Christ’’ or apophatic A term used to refer to a particular ‘‘the benefits of Christ gained for believers by style of theology, which stressed that God can- his and .’’ not be known in terms of human categories. Barthian An adjective used to describe the theo- ‘‘Apophatic’’ (which derives from the Greek logical outlook of the Swiss theologian Karl apophasis, ‘‘negation’’ or ‘‘denial’’) approaches Barth (1886–1968), and noted chiefly for its to theology are especially associated with the emphasis upon the priority of revelation and its monastic tradition of the Eastern Orthodox focus upon Jesus Christ. The terms ‘‘neo- church. ’’ and ‘‘dialectical theology’’ are Apophthegmata The term used to refer to the also used in this connection. collections of monastic writings often known beatific A term used, especially in Roman as the ‘‘Sayings of the Desert Fathers.’’ The theology, to refer to the full vision of writings often take the form of brief and God, which is allowed only to the elect after pointed sayings, reflecting the concise and death. However, some writers, including practical guidance typical of these writers. Thomas Aquinas, taught that certain favored apostolic era The period of the Christian church, individuals – such as and Paul – were regarded as definitive by many, bounded by allowed this vision in the present life. the Christ (c.AD 35) and , the A term used to describe the eight the death of the last apostle (c.AD 90?). promises of found in the opening sec- The ideas and practices of this period were tion of the on the Mount (: widely regarded as normative, at least in 3–11). Examples include ‘‘Blessed are the pure some sense or to some degree, in many church in heart, for they shall see God’’ and ‘‘Blessed circles. are the peacemakers, for they shall be called appropriation A term relating to the of children of God.’’ the , which affirms that while all three An ambiguous term, used with two persons are active in all the outward actions of quite distinct meanings. First, it refers to the the Trinity, it is appropriate to think of those religious ideas of religious bodies (such as the actions as being the particular work of one of Reformed church) and individuals (such as the persons. Thus it is appropriate to think of ) who were profoundly influ- creation as the work of the Father, or redemp- enced by , or by documents written tion as the work of the Son, despite the fact that by him. Second, it refers to the religious ideas of

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John Calvin himself. Although the first sense is associated with various ‘‘charismatic’’ phe- by far the more common, there is a growing nomena, such as . recognition that the term is misleading. Christology The section of Christian theology A term used to refer col- dealing with the identity of Jesus Christ, par- lectively to three major Greek-speaking writers ticularly the question of the relation of his of the patristic period: , human and divine natures. Gregory of Nazianzen, and , circumincession See . all of whom date from the late fourth century. An understanding of ecclesiastical ‘‘Cappadocia’’ designates an area in Asia or theological which places an em- Minor (modern-day Turkey), in which these phasis on the role of ecumenical councils. writers were based. confession Although the term refers primarily to Cartesianism The philosophical outlook espe- the admission to , it acquired a rather differ- cially associated with Rene´ Descartes (1596– ent technical sense in the sixteenth century – 1650), particularly in relation to its emphasis that of a document which embodies the prin- on the separation of the knower from the ciples of faith of a Protestant church, such as known, and its insistence that the existence of the Lutheran (1530), the individual thinking self is the proper start- which embodies the ideas of early Lutheran- ing point for philosophical reflection. ism, and the Reformed First Helvetic Confes- catechism A popular manual of Christian doc- sion (1536). trine, usually in the form of question and an- consubstantial A Latin term, deriving from the swer, intended for religious instruction. Greek term homoousios, literally meaning ‘‘of catharsis The process of cleansing or purification the same substance.’’ The term is used to affirm by which the individual is freed from obstacles the full divinity of Jesus Christ, particularly in to spiritual growth and development. opposition to Arianism. catholic An adjective which is used both to refer A term used to refer to the to the universality of the church in space and theory of the real presence, especially associ- , and also to a particular church body ated with , which holds that the (sometime also known as the substance of the eucharistic bread and Church) which lays emphasis upon this point. are given together with the substance of the The formal declar- body and . ation at the Council of that Jesus contemplation A form of prayer, distinguished Christ was to be regarded as having two na- from meditation, in which the individual tures, one human and one divine. avoids or minimizes the use of words or images , charismatic A set of terms especially in order to experience the presence of God associated with the gifts of the Holy . In directly. medieval theology, the term ‘‘charisma’’ is A formal definition or summary of the used to designate a , conferred Christian faith, held in common by all Chris- upon individuals by the grace of God. Since tians. The most important are those generally the early twentieth century, the term ‘‘charis- known as the ‘‘Apostles’ Creed’’ and the ‘‘Ni- matic’’ has come to refer to styles of theology cene Creed.’’ and which place particular emphasis dark night of the A phrase especially asso- upon the immediate presence and experience ciated with , referring to the of the . manner in which the soul is drawn closer to A form of Christianity God. John distinguishes an ‘‘active’’ night (in which places particular emphasis upon the which the believer actively works to draw personal experience of the Holy Spirit in the nearer to God) and a ‘‘passive’’ night, in life of the individual and community, often which God is active and the believer passive.

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Deism A term used to refer to the views of a group Ebionitism An early Christological heresy, of English writers, especially during the seven- which treated Jesus Christ as a purely human teenth century, the rationalism of which antici- figure, although recognizing that he was pated many of the ideas of the Enlightenment. endowed with particular charismatic gifts The term is often used to refer to a view of God which distinguished him from other humans. which recognizes the divine creatorship, yet The section of Christian theology which rejects the notion of a continuing divine dealing with the theory of the church. involvement with the world. Enlightenment, the A term used since the nine- detachment The cultivation of a habit of mind in teenth century to refer to the emphasis upon which the individual aims to abandon depend- human reason and , characteristic ence upon worldly objects, passions, or con- of much of western European and North cerns. This is not intended to imply that these American thought during the eighteenth cen- worldly things are ; rather, the point being tury. made is that they have the ability to enslave The section of Christian theology individuals if they are not approached with the dealing with the ‘‘last things,’’ especially the right attitude. Detachment is about fostering a ideas of resurrection, , the , sense of independence from the world, so that and eternal life. it may be enjoyed without becoming a barrier The term used in the present volume between the individual and God. to refer to the variously known as A school of thought which ‘‘the ,’’ ‘‘’s Supper,’’ and ‘‘holy developed in the Netherlands in the fourteenth communion.’’ century, and is especially associated with Geert evangelical A term initially used to refer to Groote (1340–84) and Thomas a` Kempis reforming movements, especially in (1380–1471), which placed an emphasis on and Switzerland, in the 1510s and 1520s, but the imitation of the humanity of Christ. The now used of a movement, especially in English- is the best-known work em- theology, which places especial em- anating from this school. phasis upon the supreme authority of Scripture dialectical theology A term used to refer to the and the atoning death of Christ. early views of the Swiss theologian Karl Barth exegesis The science of textual interpretation, (1886–1968), which emphasized the tensions, usually referring specifically to the . The paradoxes, and contradictions in the relation- term ‘‘biblical exegesis’’ basically means ‘‘the ship between God and humanity and the abso- process of interpreting the Bible.’’ The specific lute gulf fixed between the human and the techniques employed in the exegesis of Scrip- divine. ture are usually referred to as ‘‘.’’ An early Christological heresy, which exemplarism A particular approach to the treated Jesus Christ as a purely divine being atonement, which stresses the moral or reli- who only had the ‘‘appearance’’ of being gious example set to believers by Jesus Christ. human. fathers An alternative term for ‘‘patristic writers.’’ A movement, centering upon Roman fideism An understanding of Christian theology north Africa in the fourth century, which which refuses to accept the need for (or some- developed a rigid view of the church and sac- the possibility of) criticism or evalu- raments. ation from sources outside the Christian doxology A form of praise, usually especially as- faith itself. sociated with formal . A A Latin phrase, literally meaning ‘‘and ‘‘doxological’’ approach to theology stresses from the Son,’’ found in western versions of the the importance of praise and worship in theo- . On this view, the Holy Spirit logical reflection. originates and proceeds from both the Father

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and the Son, rather than (as in the Eastern developments as responses to encounters with church) from the Father alone. The phrase other , such as . had its origins at the third council of Toledo A Greek term, literally meaning ‘‘of (589). By the ninth century, it was regularly in the same substance,’’ which came to be used use within the western church. After the 1054 extensively during the fourth century to desig- , it became one of the major theological nate the mainline Christological belief that points of difference between the Orthodox and Jesus Christ was of the same substance as Catholic churches, and a subject of intense God. The term was polemical, being directed debate and on both sides. against the Arian view that Christ was ‘‘of Five Ways, The A standard term for the five similar substance (homoiousios)’’ to God. See ‘‘arguments for the ’’ associ- also ‘‘consubstantial.’’ ated with Thomas Aquinas. humanism In the strict sense of the word, an Fourth A term used to refer to intellectual movement linked with the Euro- according to John. The term highlights the pean . At the heart of the move- distinctive literary and theological character ment lay, not (as the modern sense of the word of this gospel, which sets it apart from the might suggest) a set of secular or secularizing common structures of the first three , ideas, but a new in the cultural usually known as the ‘‘.’’ achievements of antiquity. These were seen fundamentalism A form of American Protestant as a major resource for the renewal of Euro- Christianity, originating in America, which pean culture and Christianity during the lays especial emphasis upon the authority of period of the Renaissance. an inerrant Bible. The doctrine of the union of hermeneutics The principles underlying the in- divine and human natures in Jesus Christ, terpretation, or exegesis, of a text, particularly without confusion of their respective sub- of Scripture, and particularly in relation to its stances. present-day application. pictures, particularly of Jesus, which A tradition, especially associated play a significant role in Orthodox as with the eastern church, which places consid- ‘‘windows for the divine.’’ erable emphasis upon the idea of ‘‘inner quiet- ideology A group of beliefs and values, usually ness’’ (Greek: he¯sychia) as a means of achieving secular, which govern the actions and out- a vision of God. It is particularly associated looks of a society or group of people. with writers such as Simeon the New Theolo- Ignatian spirituality A loose term used to refer gian and . to the approach to spirituality associated with A term used, especially during Ignatius Loyola (1491–1556), based on his the nineteenth century, to refer to the histor- Spiritual Exercises. ical person of Jesus of , as opposed to A term used to refer to the assump- the Christian interpretation of that person, es- tion of by God, in the person of pecially as presented in the New Testament Jesus Christ. The term ‘‘incarnationalism’’ is and the . often used to refer to theological approaches historico-critical method An approach to his- which lay especial emphasis upon God becom- torical texts, including the Bible, which argues ing human. that their proper meaning must be determined justification by faith, doctrine of The section on the basis of the specific historical conditions of Christian theology dealing with how the under which they were written. individual sinner is able to enter into fellowship history of religions school The approach to with God. The doctrine was to prove to be religious history, and Christian origins in par- of major significance at the time of the Refor- ticular, which treats Old and New Testament mation.

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GLOSSARY OF THEOLOGICAL TERMS kenoticism A form of Christology which lays as the direct result of the influence of the evil emphasis upon Christ’s ‘‘laying aside’’ of cer- god. tain divine attributes in the incarnation, or his meditation A form of prayer, distinguished from ‘‘emptying himself’’ of at least some divine contemplation, in which the mind uses images attributes, especially or omnipo- (such as those provided by Scripture) as a tence. means for focusing on God. kerygma A term used, especially by Rudolf Bult- Middle English literature Literature produced mann (1884–1976) and his followers, to refer in the English language from the Norman in- to the essential message or proclamation of the vasion of 1066 to c.1485. New Testament concerning the significance of modalism A trinitarian heresy, which treats the Jesus Christ. three persons of the Trinity as different liberal A movement, especially ‘‘modes’’ of the Godhead. A typical modalist associated with nineteenth-century Germany, approach is to regard God as active as Father which stressed the continuity between in creation, as Son in , and as Spirit and culture, flourishing between the time of F. in . D. E. Schleiermacher and . The doctrine that there is only Although this term desig- one nature in Christ, which is divine (from the nates any theological movement laying em- Greek words monos, ‘‘only one,’’ and , phasis upon the liberating impact of the ‘‘nature’’). This view differed from the ortho- gospel, the term has come to refer to a move- dox view, upheld by the ment which developed in Latin America in the (451), that Christ had two natures, one divine late 1960s, which stressed the role of political and one human. action and orientated itself towards the goal of A multifaceted term, which can bear a political liberation from poverty and oppres- variety of meanings. In its most importance sion. sense, the terms refers to the union with God The written text and set forms of public which is seen as the ultimate goal of the Chris- services, especially of the Eucharist. In the life. This union is not to be thought of in , the word ‘‘liturgy’’ rational or intellectual terms, but more in terms often means ‘‘the (liturgy of the) Eucharist.’’ of a direct consciousness or experience of God. A Greek term meaning ‘‘word,’’ which neo-Orthodoxy A term used to designate the played a crucial role in the development general position of Karl Barth (1886–1968), of patristic Christology. Jesus Christ was recog- especially the manner in which he drew upon nized as the ‘‘word of God’’; the question the theological concerns of the period of concerned the implications of this recognition, Reformed Orthodoxy. and especially the way in which the divine Old English literature The English literature of ‘‘logos’’ in Jesus Christ related to his human the period from 750 until the time of the inva- nature. sion of the Normans in 1066. The religious ideas associated with A term used to refer to Martin Luther, particularly as expressed in the the type of argument for the existence of God Lesser Catechism (1529) and the Augsburg especially associated with the scholastic theo- Confession (1530). logian . It claims that as Manicheism A strongly fatalist position associ- God is greater than any other being that is ated with the Manichees, to which Augustine conceivable, God must be greater than any of Hippo attached himself during his early being who exists only as an idea, so God must period. A distinction is drawn between two necessarily exist in reality. different , one of which is regarded orthodoxy A term used in a number of senses, of as evil, and the other good. Evil is thus seen which the following are the most important:

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orthodoxy in the sense of ‘‘right belief,’’ as A Greek term (literally meaning ‘‘a opposed to heresy; Orthodoxy in the sense of of that which is beautiful’’), which is gen- the forms of Christianity which are dominant erally used to refer to two anthologies of Greek in Russia and Greece; Orthodoxy in the sense of spiritual works: extracts from the works of Ori- a movement within Protestantism, especially gen, or the collection of writings assembled by in the late sixteenth and early seventeenth and Nicodemus of the century, which laid emphasis upon the need Holy Mountain in the eighteenth century. for doctrinal definition. An approach to Christianity, especially parousia A Greek term, which literally means associated with German writers in the seven- ‘‘coming’’ or ‘‘arrival,’’ used to refer to the teenth century, which places an emphasis of Christ. The notion of the upon the personal appropriation of faith, and parousia is an important aspect of Christian the need for holiness in Christian living. The understandings of the ‘‘last things.’’ movement is perhaps best known within the A theological heresy, which English-language world in the form of Method- arose during the third century, associated ism. with writers such as Noetus, Praxeas, and postliberalism A theological movement, espe- Sabellius, focusing on the belief that the Father cially associated with Duke University and suffered as the Son. In other words, the suffer- Yale Divinity School in the 1980s, which criti- ing of Christ on the cross is to be regarded as cized the liberal reliance upon human experi- the suffering of the Father. According to these ence, and reclaimed the notion of community writers, the only distinction within the God- tradition as a controlling influence in theology. head was a succession of modes or operations, A cultural development, start- so that Father, Son, and Spirit were just differ- ing in the late twentieth century, which ent modes of being, or expressions, of the same resulted from the general collapse in confi- basic divine entity. dence of the universal rational principles of patristic An adjective used to refer to the first the Enlightenment. It is characterized by a centuries in the history of the church, follow- rejection of absolutes and of objective and ra- ing the writing of the New Testament (the tional attempts to define reality. ‘‘patristic period’’), or thinkers writing during A Greek term, literally meaning ‘‘action,’’ this period (the ‘‘patristic writers’’). For many adopted by Karl Marx to emphasize the import- writers, the period thus designated seems to be ance of action in relation to thinking. This c.100–451 (in other words, the period be- emphasis on ‘‘praxis’’ has had considerable tween the completion of the last of the New impact within Latin American liberation the- Testament writings and the landmark Council ology. of Chalcedon). Protestantism A term used in the aftermath of Pelagianism An understanding of how humans the Diet of Speyer (1529) to designate those are able to their which is dia- who ‘‘protested’’ against the practices and be- metrically opposed to that of Augustine of liefs of the Roman . to Hippo, placing considerable emphasis upon 1529, such individuals and groups had re- the role of human works and playing down ferred to themselves as ‘‘evangelicals.’’ the idea of divine grace. Quadriga The Latin term used to refer to the perichoresis A term relating to the doctrine of ‘‘fourfold’’ interpretation of Scripture accord- the Trinity, often also referred to by the Latin ing to its literal, allegorical, tropological moral, term circumincessio. The basic notion is that all and analogical senses. three persons of the Trinity mutually share in A term used with increas- the life of the others, so that none is isolated or ing frequency to refer to the Anabaptist move- detached from the actions of the others. ment – in other words, the wing of the

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Reformation which went beyond what Luther this view, Christ died as an outstanding moral and Zwingli envisaged, particularly in relation example, to encourage humanity to avoid sin, to the doctrine of the church. not to make satisfaction for human sin. Reformed A term used to refer to a tradition of The section of Christian theology theology which draws inspiration from the dealing with the doctrine of salvation (Greek: writings of John Calvin (1510–64) and his sote¯ria). successors. The term is now generally used in Synoptic Gospels A term used to refer to the first preference to ‘‘Calvinist.’’ three gospels (Matthew, Mark, and Luke). The An early trinitarian heresy, which term (derived from the Greek word synopsis, treated the three persons of the Trinity as dif- ‘‘summary’’) refers to the way in which the ferent historical manifestations of the one God. three gospels can be seen as providing similar It is generally regarded as a form of modalism. ‘‘summaries’’ of the life, death, and resurrec- sacrament A or which was tion of Jesus Christ. held to have been instituted by Jesus Christ Synoptic problem The scholarly question of himself. Although Roman how the three Synoptic Gospels relate to each and church practice recognize seven such sac- other. Perhaps the most common approach to raments (baptism, , Eucharist, the relation of the three Synoptic Gospels is the marriage, , , and unction), ‘‘two source’’ theory, which claims that Mat- Protestant theologians generally argue that thew and Luke used Mark as a source, while only two (baptism and Eucharist) were to be also drawing upon a second source (usually found in the New Testament itself. known as ‘‘Q’’). Other possibilities exist: for schism A deliberate break with the unity of the example, the Grisebach hypothesis, which church, condemned vigorously by influential treats Matthew as having been written first, writers of the early church, such as followed by Luke and then Mark. and Augustine. A term coined by the German philoso- A particular approach to Chris- pher Gottfried Wilhelm Leibnitz (1646–1716) tian theology, associated especially with the to refer to a theoretical justification of the , which lays emphasis upon the goodness of God in the face of the presence of rational justification and systematic presenta- evil in the world. tion of Christian theology. theopaschitism A disputed teaching, regarded Scripture principle The theory, especially asso- by some as a heresy, which arose during the ciated with Reformed theologians, that the sixth century, associated with writers such as practices and beliefs of the church should be John Maxentius and the slogan ‘‘one of the grounded in Scripture. Nothing that could not Trinity was crucified.’’ The formula can be be demonstrated to be grounded in Scripture interpreted in a perfectly orthodox sense and could be regarded as binding upon the believer. was defended as such by . The phrase , ‘‘by Scripture alone,’’ However, it was regarded as potentially summarizes this principle. misleading and confusing by more cautious A form of Christian heterodoxy writers, including (died 523), especially associated with the Italian writer and the formula gradually fell into disuse. Socinus (Fausto Paolo Sozzini, 1539–1604). Literally, ‘‘the bearer of God.’’ A Although Socinus was noted for his specific Greek term used to refer to Mary, the mother criticisms of the doctrine of the Trinity and of Jesus Christ, with the intention of reinfor- the incarnation, the term ‘‘Socinian’’ has cing the central insight of the doctrine of the come to refer particularly to the idea that incarnation – that is, that Jesus Christ is none Christ’s death on the cross did not have any other than God. The term was extensively used or transcendent implications. On by writers of the eastern church, especially

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around the time of the Nestorian controversy, terms include ‘‘Chalcedonian definition’’ and to articulate both the divinity of Christ and the ‘‘hypostatic union.’’ reality of the incarnation. A way of interpreting the Bible which The doctrine according to sees certain Old Testament figures and events which the bread and the wine are transformed as anticipating aspects of the gospel. Thus into the body and blood of Christ in the Eu- Noah’s ark is seen as a ‘‘type’’ (Greek typos, charist, while retaining their outward appear- ‘‘figure’’) of the church. ance. The Latin translation of the Bible, largely Trinity The distinctively Christian doctrine of deriving from , upon which medieval God, which reflects the complexity of the Chris- theology was largely based. tian experience of God as Father, Son, and Holy Zwinglianism The term is used generally to refer Spirit. The doctrine is usually summarized in to the thought of , but is often maxims such as ‘‘three persons, one God.’’ used to refer specifically to his views on the two natures, doctrine of A term generally used , especially on the ‘‘real presence’’ to refer to the doctrine of the two natures, (which for Zwingli was more of a ‘‘real ab- human and divine, of Jesus Christ. Related sence’’).

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Sources of Citations

ote that a figure in bold type against a p. 15 N reading indicates that the reading can be H. Denzinger (ed.), Enchiridion Symbolorum, 39 edn studied in greater depth in the companion vol- (Freiburg im Breisgau: Herder, 2001), §§125; ume to this Introduction: Alister E. McGrath, 62–4. [1.5] The Christian Theology Reader 3rd edn (/ Malden, MA: Blackwell Publishers, 2006). Thus [2.7] refers to the seventh reading in chapter 2 of the collection, entitled ‘‘Cyril of Chapter 2 on the Role of Creeds.’’ Note that unless otherwise indicated, all translations are my own. p. 32 , contra imaginum calumniatores I, 16. [4.20] Introduction p. 3 Chapter 3 Karl Barth, Die protestantische Theologie im 19.Jahr- hundert (Zurich: Evangelischer Verlag, 1952), p. 3. pp. 52–3 Jacques Benigne Bossuet, Premie`re Instruction pas- torale xxvii; cited in O. Chadwick, From Bossuet to Chapter 1 Newman. The Idea of Doctrinal Development (Cam- bridge, UK: Cambridge University Press, 1957), p. 17. p. 15 p. 61 H. Denzinger (ed.), Enchiridion Symbolorum, 39 edn Martin Luther, Lesser Catechism;inD. Martin Luthers (Freiburg im Breisgau: Herder, 2001), §30; 36. Werke: Kritische Gesamtausgabe, vol. 30, part 1 [1.6] (Weimar: Bo¨hlaus, 1910), 255–7. [8.20]

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