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Home , Ein Gedi, Qumran, Qumran Caves, Roland de Vaux

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Nebraska Anthropologist Anthropology, Department of

2002

QUMRAN: ARCHAEOLOGY AND THEORIES OF IDENTIFICATION

Ann Putz

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Putz, Ann, ": ARCHAEOLOGY AND THEORIES OF IDENTIFICATION" (2002). Nebraska Anthropologist. 77. https://digitalcommons.unl.edu/nebanthro/77

This Article is brought to you for free and open access by the Anthropology, Department of at DigitalCommons@University of Nebraska - Lincoln. It has been accepted for inclusion in Nebraska Anthropologist by an authorized administrator of DigitalCommons@University of Nebraska - Lincoln. Putz QUMRAN: ARCHAEOLOGY AND THEORIES OF IDENTIFICATION 36

QUMRAN: ARCHAEOLOGY AND THEORIES OF IDENTIFICATION

AnnPutz

Research at Qumran has lead many archaeologists, religious figures, and other academics into disagreements about what the site really was during the time of the Romans in the Holy Land. Qumran was first excavated in the 1950 's after scrolls were found in the caves surrounding the site. The site has some very unique features not found anywhere else in or Jordan, leaving the researchers somewhat confused. Qumran has had several occupations and has also been rf1built many times due to earthquakes. This only adds to the confusing in determining what the site of Qumran really was.

The story of Qumran is all but typical of order. First, Qumran is located about one­ most archaeological sites. Questions not half mile from the shore of the in only arise from the material itself but how the Desert (DanceeI1997; Shanks the material was gathered and if it can be 1998). It rests up against limestone cliffs on used legitimately or not to make a a marl terrace that stretches flat to the sea hypothesis. In this paper I will be about 13 miles southeast of . The addressing theories of what the site of site ofEin Gedi, a Roman-Byzantine village, Qumran is and mention methods of attaining is about 20 miles to the south. the information only when necessary. There The were a small group of Jews are too many arguments being made to that separated themselves from mainstream cover everything. I will discuss the three Jewish life (Cansdale 1997). They were overriding theories and the variation that has interested in returning to a religious life as come from these theories. Some think described in the Torah and other texts. They Qumran was related to the Essenes and were not interested in fighting the war with therefore to the in some the Romans. It is thought that they lived in way. Others feel that this interpretation is seclusion, were celibate, mostly men, and mistaken and was mislead by the finding of were extremely religious. In order to the Scrolls. I have organized this paper by become member of this group a series of looking at individuals and the theories they tests had to be performed and trial periods have developed. I will then review the waited through. They were also thought to relationship between theories in an attempt be living in a communal group. to better understand the problems with Qumran was first excavated from 1950- identifying the occupation of Qumran. The 1956 by Jordanian Department of question for archaeologists has become how Antiquities' Lankester Harding and the to interpret Qumran if the Dead Sea Scrolls Jerusalem Ecole Biblique's Father Roland were never found. Would archaeologists be de Vaux (DanceelI997; de Vaux 1973). so inclined to link Qumran with the Essenes The interest in excavating Qumran came as quickly as they have? Also, should only with the discovery of the Dead Sea archaeologists use the texts found to help Scrolls, found 3 years earlier. The scrolls determine what the site was? Is it credible were originally found by about to use literary data (which is considered by one-half mile north of the site of Qumran some to be archaeological) in an (Davies 1982, de Vaux 1973). archaeological examination of a site? Archaeologists and Biblical Scholars A brief discussion on where Qumran is immediately began searching the area located and who the Essenes were is in around Qumran for more scrolls and hit a Putz QUMRAN: ARCHAEOLOGY AND THEORIES OF IDENTIFICATION 37

gold mine lmown as Cave 4 in the side of journal publication, his theories have been the terrace next to Qumran. Excavations expounded in his book. In this book he began in an attempt to show a link between describes the occupation periods, the these scrolls and the site. Many assertions archaeology of the surrounding area and the made about Qumran came not from the ruins of Qumran with relation to the texts. I archaeology itself but from outside texts and will not discuss the particulars of de Vaux's historical contexts about the scrolls. The material findings but discuss his theories archaeological finds were then made to fit that he has made based on these findings. what was theorized about the scrolls and the First, de Vaux is convinced that the caves links to the site. and the site are intimately connected based If you look at the archaeology by itself on pottery (de Vaux 1973). The same wjthout the context of the scrolls a slightly unique pottery found at the site is also found different picture appears. Archaeologically, in the caves. The pottery seems to have there is evidence of linkage, but the links been produced at the site of Qumran. It is a may not be as obvious as once thought. simple ware made from clay in the area. There is no hard evidence and many would There seems to have been little importing or like to believe that Qumran was the site exporting of pottery and very few fine wares where the Dead Sea Scrolls were written. have been found. Also, the same coins used Nor is there hard archaeological evidence to date the site were also found in some of that those living at Qumran, if indeed there the caves showing that the site and the caves was a permanent occupation, were even both begin and end at the same dates. The Essene like once thought. There are caves that were occupied and where the numerous debates on when the site of scrolls were found were all found within a Qumran was built, occupied, for what mile of Qumran with the site at the center. purpose it served and who lived or used the Qumran is surrounded by a wall with two site. entrances into the complex. There is also a Qumran remains to be one of the most tower at one comer. The wall and tower he puzzling sites in Israel and the Near East believes were originally from an earlier today. Part of the problem some will argue occupation dating back to the seventh is the lack of published materials from the century BCE. This first occupation was a initial excavations by de Vaux. Even though military installation. Centuries later when many of his assumptions are now in the new inhabitants came to Qumran, they question, the finds themselves can never be built upon these old ruins using the old wall excavated again. Until they are published and tower. They reinforced it with new there will remain to be many unanswered building material and were forced to do so questions and more questions will continue again after an earthquake dating to 31 BCE. to arise without the early finding published. De Vaux addresses briefly the early theories Not only is the lack of publication that Qumran was military throughout its problematic, but where the actual material history. De Vaux says that this is not true finds are located and many of the notes during the first century BCE and later, that made by the late Father are possibly lost. the wall and tower were not only relics of an earlier occupation, but the wall and tower TbePeople were seen and had been adapted in other settlements that were not military. De Vaux states that there is little evidence of living quarters at the site itself. The first excavations of Qumran were However, although the caves show some conducted by Father de Vaux and Harding. evidence of habitation for the residence of De Vaux finally published his findings in a Qumran, they could not have been the main book in 1973. Although there were a few housing for the members. It is obvious that articles published previously in the Ecole many of the caves were hollowed out, man- Putz QUMRAN: ARCHAEOLOGY AND THEORIES OF IDENTIFICATION 38 made for dwelling or storing. However, not found for grinding grains and pressing fruits. all the caves where the scrolls were found Although it would have been impossible to could have been used for dwelling. Many of farm next to the site, the plain behind the caves where the scrolls were found were Qumran was suitable for farming and in the limestone rock on the other side of the pastoralism. merl terrace where Qumran is located. He The water system at Qumran was not suggested that the main population lived in unlike any others in the area. There are two tents and huts outside of the walled site. cisterns, one rectangular and one circular. The largest of the rooms found at the site An aqueduct was built in a nearby wadi and has proven to be somewhat problematic. De water was diverted into the aqueduct by a Vaux has identified it as a meeting place as dam. The design allows for all the mikva' ot well as a cafeteria. His reasoning for the (ritual baths) and the cisterns to be filled meeting place is that a circular area stands with only one or two heavy rains. This out of the floor as if a place where a leader engineering tactic for collecting water is of the group would stand. The reasoning for found in all of the desert "fortresses" during the cafeteria is that the floor is slanted in a this time period. Compared to other sites, way to be easily cleaned when water is Qumran's water capacity is the lowest in the brought into the room. Also, this seems to desert including the cisterns and mikva'ot, be where over one thousand dishes, jugs, only 1200 m3. has 4000 m3. and jars were stored at one end of the room. Qumran's water system is also smaller and The types of pottery found here are all that not as good. Other sites have better would be needed for a meal and it is obvious aqueducts and bigger cisterns. What is that this was not a storage place since no lids peculiar about Qumran is the number of or large jugs have been found in the room. mikva' ot, at least seven. This large number Bones have also been found in conjunction is not seen in any other site of this size in with the room, which de Vaux associates Israel. The ritual baths are not cisterns with being the remains of a meal. because they are small open areas with steps Another important room discovery is leading into the pools, unlike cisterns which what he calls the scriptorium. In this room are a very large with a small opening. small tables were found with low benches Mikva' ot have certain unique features. The attached. He was at first inclined to think of last step is wider and deeper like those found this as a dining room as well except for the in Jerusalem. fact that one was already found. He saw no A cemetery was found just to the south of need for two in this communal setting. The the main site. It is estimated that there are tables were at one time located on the around 1200 graves. Twenty-six graves second story and have fallen through to the have been excavated. All were men except first floor. De Vaux finds it highly unlikely one. Another small cemetery has been that a cafeteria would have been located on found in conjunction with the larger the second floor. What has confirmed his cemetery. In this cemetery six graves were idea that this room was a scriptorium are the excavated. Ofthese four were women and two inkwells that were found. The problem one was a child. There were little grave is where the scrolls were stored. There is no goods buried with the bodies. Many of the archaeological evidence pointing to any bodies were also buried after the body had specific room, but there is no evidence decayed leaving only bones. Several of the showing that there was no library either. graves were piles of bone. Most of the A third important discovery is an area graves were single graves although two that separate from the ruins themselves. This is were excavated revealed two bodies. Few a fairly small building that has been divided grave goods were found with the bodies. De into two areas. The hypothesis is that one Vaux however, makes the assumption that area was for humans and the other for the graveyard is associated to Qumran and animals. In addition, mills and a press were its inhabitants. Putz QUMRAN: ARCHAEOLOGY AND THEORIES OF IDENTIFICATION 39

Based on evidence in the cemetery, the Qumran was also a processing center for salt lack of living spaces, the amount of water and bitumen from the Dead Sea and the and the evidence of some type of population from Qumran traded this as well agriculture, de Vaux has estimated the as yields from the extensive palm groves. I population of Qumran to be somewhere must report here that much of their theories between 250 and 300. He is also sure the have not been explained by them. Other site is a Jewish site and almost all other archaeologists have since taken their archaeologists have agreed. There are theories and have tried to prove or disprove several reasons. Mikva'ot, or Jewish ritual them. baths, were found in a large quantity. There are other problems aside from their Pottery sherds with inscriptions of Jewish lack of explanation. The -Donceel' shad n~mes have also been found at the site. It is never excavated the site nor any other site in in the area of during the time of the Israel. It was not until they were hired by Second Temple (37 BCE -70 CE) to which Ecole Biblique, the French Biblical and the site dates and is not far from Jerusalem. Archaeological School located in Jerusalem, Stone vessels were found showing that these in the mid-1980's to finish publishing de Jews kept purity laws stated by Pharisaic Vaux's notes after his death that they began law. Stone is a natural material that does not studying archaeology in Israel. Many change composition, unlike clay which does Biblical archaeologists have argued against when fired. Few other sites showed this them stating that they had no rights to be interest in keeping so many stone vessels. interpreting de Vaux's work when they At the same time de Vaux was making knew nothing of archaeology in the area. his theories of the caves being connected to Problems with the care and mistreatment of the site, others argued that there was no artifacts found at Qumran are still being connection between Qumran and the scrolls. resolved by Ecole Biblique stating that many He believed the scrolls were hidden there or of the artifacts are now missing from when were defective works that could not be used they were illegally removed from Israel by in the Torah but could not be destroyed the Donceels. The findings of de Vaux were either as they were still considered religious never published by the Donceels but Ecole texts. Until recently this idea has been Biblique has now made de Vaux's notes disregarded. New archaeology is now available with English translation and no beginning to look at this possibility of the interpretation. The Donceels have published origins of the scrolls. some reports on their interpretations but there has been no book release as promised. Robert Donceel and Pauline Donceel-Voute This has not deterred some archaeologists from embracing their work and attempting The Donceels believe that Qumran was in to prove the legitimacy of their theories. fact a villa (Donceel 1997). They believe that de Vaux was too quick to assume that the scrolls and Qumran are related at all and they believe this is coincidence. They feel Golb argues that the site was a military that there is sufficient evidence to say that fortress (Golb 1994). He argues that the there was a significant amount of agriculture only reason why the site of Qumran is now to sustain a population. The Donceels also being attributed to the Essenes is the finding argue that the pottery was ornate and fine of the Dead Sea Scrolls. Up until this point, ware with radiant yet simple designs of Qumran had been thought of as being a vegetables, thus also showing evidence of a military installation and was in no way plantation. The Donceels also argue that linked to the Essenes. The original theories Qumran lay on a trade route with an intricate were made by surface analysis from system of roads to and from the Dead Sea expeditions travelling through the area in the and running north-south. They argue late 19th and early 20th centuries. Putz QUMRAN: ARCHAEOLOGY AND THEORIES OF IDENTIFICATION 40

Golb has several reasons for thinking changes to the site except to clean up part of Qumran is a military fort. First, the ancient it for habitation. Golb argues that the name of Qumran is Mezad Hasidim. Mezad Romans would not have stayed there if it in Hebrew means fortress. The argument is was not already prepared as a military not over whether or not it was a fort; it is a installation (Wise et al. 1994). matter of what type of fort. Some archaeologists will say that it is a fort on the Lena Cansdale basis that there is a wall with a tower, which implies that they were aware of danger. It Cansdale bases much of her theory on the does not mean they were military. ethnographical works of , and The site of Qumran was destroyed under Pliny the Elder. She uses their descriptions military attack. There is strong evidence of of who the Essenes were and where they this by the iron arrowheads used by the lived. Based on her analysis and Romans that have found around the wall. interpretation of these writings she has Also the site had been burned to the ground. hypothesized that Qumran was not where This does not show a peace-loving the Essenes lived, that they inhabited the community the Essenes were known to have caves above based on the "exact but in fact one that was ready to defend description" given by Pliny the Elder itself. The Essenes were not in a position to (Cansdale 1997). This same description is defend themselves against the Romans and what has led most other archaeologists to therefore the site could not have been believe that Qumran is the site for the Essene. Essenes. So what does she think Qumran Golb also figures in how many people was? She agrees with Golb that Qumran could have lived at Qumran based on water was some sort of military fort. She agrees resources. His estimate is over 750 people with Golb' s interpretation of the meaning of based on what he calls a generous allowance Mezad as military fort and she also looks at of six liters per day per person. This figure the meaning of Hasidim, pious, as well. She is arrived by assuming that all the water was states that the meaning of this word changes used for drinking and that there are no through time and that the original meaning mikva' ot. He explains the steps that are of pious was blameless person or honest characteristic ofMikva'ot as simply being religious men. At the time of the Qumran steps down to gather water as the water level occupation, however, the meaning had dropped in the dry months. This he says is changed to freedom fighters. Therefore, as typical of many cisterns in the area. This Golb has stated along with other reasons, new figure for population would fit the Qumran was in fact a military installation. profile of a military unit rather than the mere However, she believes Qumran was more 300 people proposed by de Vaux and others. than that. Golb also points out the fact that Qumran Cansdale also believes that it was a was destroyed probably in 31 BCE by an customs post and official way station along earthquake, with which most archaeologists the major trading route like the other sites agree. He pays particular attention to the found in the area. She argues that it is not tower and how it was rebuilt and the possible to live in the area without being timeliness of rebuilding after destruction. connected. Map evidence shows roads He explains that rebuilding the tower and leading to Qumran from both Ein Gedi and refortifying it was of high priority based on Jerusalem. They had to be part of a trading the extensive work that was done to rebuild network to import items such as dates that it. It has been pointed out by de Vaux that were grown at Ein Gedi. She sites the the Romans did occupy Qumran after the finding of two ostraca (potsherds with battle somewhere around 70 AD and writing) which mention the trading of figs remained there until at least 74 AD. It does and dates. She also notes that the not appear that the Romans made many Nabataeans were in almost complete control Putz QUMRAN: ARCHAEOLOGY AND THEORIES OF IDENTIFICATION 41 of the Negev during this time and controlled Revolt, the time period in which it was the spice trade. Why wouldn't Qumran be destroyed somewhere around 70A.D. part of this trade network for such an important commodity? The problem is that Edward Cook the King's Highway, the trade route from north to south runs on the east side of the Cook argues against the Donceels, Golb, Dead Sea and Qumran is located on the Candsale, and, to an extent, de Vaux. west. However, Ein Gedi is also located on Cook's theory is that Qumran is a ritual the west and it is evident that Ein Gedi was purification center for the Essenes (Cook part of the trade route. There is evidence of 1996). He tries to unite the theories pulling a road leading off the King's Highway into evidence and references from each theory Ein Gedi across the Dead Sea and there is a into the idea of the purification center. He small road leading up to Qumran from Ein focuses on three things: 1) the proximity to Gedi. Based on this evidence Qumran was the caves where the scrolls were found, 2) connected to the trade network and therefore the cemetery with almost 1200 graves, and part of the economic system. Cansdale 3) the water collection system and mikva'ot. argues that the inkwells found were not for The cemetery points to there being a writing the scrolls but for keeping taxation large population, between 150 and 300 at records from traders. one time. The size of the water system also To strengthen her argument she looks at supports the idea of there being a large the existence of the site itself. She believes population. The problem is the enVironment that it would not be possible for the Essenes cannot sustain that many people with food to have built such a site. The water system and the archaeological evidence shows that alone would have taken great specialty there were very few living quarters at knowledge, which she feels the Essenes Qumran. His response to the lack of living didn't have. Cansdale agrees that the quarters is that the caves provided this or population of Qumran was somewhere people lived in tents. If people were able to around 300. build such a lavish place like Qumran they If this is the case she argues then there could have built dormitories, but they didn't. would not be enough water in the cisterns. Cave dwellings suggests that the population Therefore, the mikva' ot were not that at all only to be about 50-70 people. Although but other cisterns for water consumption. farming and pastoralism were possible, it She also argues that if the site was only could not have sustained a large population. occupied by 50 people and if there were There is no evidence of farming in the others coming in for ritual cleansing, there immediate area of Qumran nor is there was still no need to have as many mikva' ot archaeological evidence like tools that as have been identified. would have been used for farming found. Then there is the question of who owned The large cemetery has baffled many the land. She feels that the Essenes would archaeologists. With such a large cemetery not have had the power or money to be able surely a large population lived there. to control a large piece of land like this one, Cook has answers to all of this. There particularly in an area of high economic was a need for ritual purification places for importance with the trade route. Therefore, those who suffered different types of she postulates that the land could only have impurities, such as lepers and those with been owned by the Jewish government some sort of discharge, whether it be from itself. Cansdale, in conclusion, has infection or seminal, as suggested in a scroll theorized that Qumran is a hybrid. It was a found. Qumran was one of those ritual trading center that must have been heavily purification centers where people where sent fortified in order to keep trade running temporarily to cleanse themselves. As for smoothly during the period of the Jewish the large cemetery, the Essene sect was not allowed to bury their dead within the city of Putz QUMRAN: ARCHAEOLOGY AND THEORIES OF IDENTIFICATION 42

Jerusalem and therefore needed someplace Evidence in the valley behind Qumran else. A small cemetery has been found shows that agriculture and pastoralism were outside the city wall of Jerusalem that has possible. The finding of the mills and press distinct graves like those found at Qumran also suggest that agriculture was occurring. (a shaft about 6 feet deep with a shelf at the In the 1980's, Patrich began further bottom for the body). However, this was not investigation of the living quarters of large enough for all Essenes to be buried Qumran (patrich 1994). He was questioning there. There must have been another site the use of some of the rooms, thinking that and Qumran may be that site. they indeed could have been used as living In addition, Cook argues that aside from quarters. Further investigation of the 57 the cemetery and ritual center for the caves around Qumran did yield signs of impure, it was a library. According to the habitation in small numbers for short periods hl.wS of the Essenes, only animals that were of time but not enough to sustain a slaughtered at the Temple could be used community. If there were people living in within the city of Jerusalem. It is not likely tents outside like others have hypothesized that all of the used for their there should be evidence of it. Nothing was writings could have come from the temple found. He concluded that the community and therefore could not have been kept was living inside Qumran. inside the city. Qumran he argues could Patrich is quick to point out that Qumran have been that place of storage for the was two stories in height. The problem is scrolls. Archaeological evidence shows that that there has been little explanation for much of Qumran was probably used for what the second story was for. His some type of storage. hypothesis is that this is where the people This explanation would accommodate the lived. The second story could easily have idea that only a small population resided held as many as 200 if needed or as little as here permanently. Qumran was an outpost 50, the population supported by Patrich. for Jerusalem Essenes but not the main location for daily life. As for the women Philip Davies and children that have been found in the cemetery, Cook argues that not all Essenes Davies also agrees with the Donceels. He were celibate, only when in Jerusalem. Sex argues that first, the literary data from the was an impure act meaning the Essenes Scrolls has been overused (Davies 1989). needed a retreat to go to for purification The archaeologist cannot set out to try and after sexual relations. Qumran was the prove what is written in the Scrolls or the place. Those Essenes that lived in Jerusalem . The literature is to be used as a guide were celibate and many of them men, thus for comparison. Archaeology doesn't explaining the large number of men found in always fit with what is written and the the cemetery. But other Essenes that did archaeology is stronger evidence than what marry and were not living within the walls is written. He argues that although there is of Jerusalem also came to Qumran. the Bible and the scrolls, not all of Jewish society was governed by these as so many Joseph Patrich older scholars and Biblical archaeologists like to think. New archaeology Patrich is a supporter of the Donceels. acknowledges this and focuses on the Patrich agrees with this assessment that population, economy, and climate. By Qumran was a villa or farm of some sort focusing on these aspects as well as others, (Shanks 1998). Architecturally, he thinks it there is a new picture of Qumran. Davies matches with other farms in the area that also argues that before theories about the date back to this time of the Hasmonean and site can be made a description of the site Herodian periods. The single tower is found needs to be available. The only description on other farms throughout the area. that is published is what de Vaux and the Putz QUMRAN: ARCHAEOLOGY AND THEORIES OF IDENTIFICATION 43

Donceels have published. This material grown and vegetation grows to keep small however is not all of what was described and stock. Although it only rains a few times what can be described. during the rainy season, the rain comes in One example Davies uses is dating flash floods and the water system at Qumran Qumran. There still is no concise date for can catch and hold enough water for the when Qumran was founded. De Vaux has year. Based on this, Davies believes it is placed the site beginning somewhere around possible for the Qumran community to have 130 -135BCE. Coins were found that date been agricultural. to 104 BCE, which is where many Like all other archaeologists, Davies archaeologists date Qumran today. agrees that without the findings of the However, de Vaux based his date on what scrolls the site of Qumrari most likely would was written in a scroll which says the not have been excavated yet. Community was founded during a time of Archaeologists determined the site was a the "." The major candidates Roman military outpost by means of a quick for this priest that are close to the dates of survey of the surface. It wasn't until the the coins are around 135 BCE. Davies fmds scrolls were discovered though that there the date of 104 BCE more convincing based was enough interest to excavate. It quickly on the archaeological evidence. Davies, became clear that the caves where the scrolls however, also uses the scrolls to back up the were found and the site were connected in theory that Qumran was in fact an Essene some way as the same pottery type was community. Although it is evident that not found which is unique to Qumran. all the rules of the Community as stated by the scrolls were followed, there is enough overlap seen at Qumran not seen anywhere else but in Jerusalem for this not to be Magness argues against the Donceels that Essene. Qumran was a country villa (Magness Another problem Davies sees with the 1996). Magness compares Qumran with interpretations made by de Vaux and many other villa in the area. Villas are divided of the earlier archaeologists is they all into three main types: 1) the palace­ interpreted Qumran as some sort of fortresses of Herod the Great, 2) the private monastery. He questions whether this Jewish upper-class living in Jerusalem from would have been the case if the the Herodian period, and 3) a private rural archaeologists would have been Jewish. In villa of the Herodian period found near this case they were all monks, Catholic . priests that lived in monasteries. The idea First, the palaces of Herod were all built that a monastery-type living situation was up on the ridge of mountains overlooking occurring before the fourth century just the Dead Sea and the Jordan Valley. This wasn't seen, particularly in the area of was done for protection and the ability to see question. So either this is the first ever down in all directions. Qumran was not, but monastery or this has been misinterpreted. instead built down in the valley with little or Davies argues that archaeologically Qumran no protection. Architecturally, Herod built looks like an agricultural settlement with several Roman style bathhouses all military overtones based on its location. decorated with frescoes and . Qumran was not on the main road, the Qumran had none of these. Elaborate King's Highway that ran north and south architectural elements like marble columns connecting and Ein Gedi (Davies, with Corinthian capitals, dentil motifs and 1982). Geographically, about two miles egg-and-dart decorations are found at these south is a spring-fed oasis popular for Herodian fortresses. Qumran again has bathing and as a watering hole for animals. none of these architectural elements. About an hours walk in the cliffs is a valley In Jerusalem the rich had slightly that is also spring fed where crops can be different villas. They were built very close Putz QUMRAN: ARCHAEOLOGY AND THEORIES OF IDENTIFICATION 44 together being in the city but there was a the Judean desert. It is not a fortress like the center courtyard. They were decorated with other sites, it is not built for the kings like frescoes and mosaics with stucco. There the rest and it is not on a mountaintop like were elaborate bathing facilities and had the others. Mountaintops were used for other luxury goods including specific types protection. Qumran was not in need or of pottery. These types of pottery and baths wanting protection. All other sites, king were not found at Qumran. Of course fortresses, are mentioned in surviving Qumran was not urban so this may not be literature, Qumran is not. Architecture, the best comparison. Therefore, Magness pottery, layout, other small finds are not turns to the last possibility, the rural private similar with other sites in the area. The only villa. thing it has in common With other sites in The villa excavated near Hebron is the the area is that it is Jewish like the others best comparison we have, she argues. Here, and it is from the same time period, Second there is a fortified enclosure with a tower Temple Roman. Other fortresses were that sloped at the base. Rooms ran along the Roman garrisons. There is no similarity wall with a courtyard in the center. There is what-so-ever with these posts. a bathhouse with floor with stucco walls and other decor that proved to be for Discussion the rich. Although Qumran does have the single tower and basic architecture of rooms Each of these archaeologists is selective in around the outside with a center courtyard, their theories and evidence for them. At the there is no observable stylistic evidence of time, de Vaux's explanation of the scrolls wealth. Qumran also has no bathhouse at all being written at Qumran seemed reasonable. but does have the system to support one and Based on the archaeological evidence that the proven technology to build one if so was uncovered, he was able to show that this desired. There are pools that were used for was a possibility. However, new research bathing, just not the elaborate Roman style methods and new paradigms have entered found in villas. At villas the workshops are the archaeological world forcing this theory kept separate from the living quarters. At to be questioned. Qumran however, workshops are found Archaeologists argue about the throughout the entire site with not geography of the Dead Sea and therefore designated living area. Magness also argues whether Qumran was isolated or at a the presence of the cemetery. At no villa crossroads. They cannot agree on has there been a cemetery associated with it. geological evidence and the dating of this The lack of decor is the strongest evidence. Some say that Qumran was evidence she argues against a villa. The isolated, that the Dead Sea came all the way pottery type is also part of the lacking decor. up to the cliffs and so Qumran was a dead It seems that most if not all of the pottery end. Only those who were going to was manufactured in the kilns found at Qumran would be traveling in that direction. Qumran. This is not found at any of the To go south, one would have to have other villa either. A specific type of terra traveled by boat. Others say that the Dead sigillata made in the eastern Mediterranean Sea was only slightly higher than what it is during this time period is found throughout today. Therefore people would have used it the area except at Qumran. Thus, Qumran as a stopping place when going south to Ein was a separate entity not found anywhere Gedi and north to Jericho. Yet a third else in Israel or Judea. It has its own unique possibility is that although the sea did not go qualities not duplicated anywhere. all the way up to the cliffs, it was remote Magness argues against Golb and others enough that passers by wouldn't stop often who theorize Qumran was a military outpost unless going to the site. There is much as well (Shanks, 1998). She argues that archaeological evidence of sites along the Qumran is different from other fortresses in way between Ein Gedi and Qumran that Putz QUMRAN: ARCHAEOLOGY AND THEORIES OF IDENTIFICATION 45 prove the Sea was not up to the cliffs and is Essene as suggested by de Vaux and that water level was low like today. Cook, then there was only enough trade for The Donceels were given the first and sustainability. It is possible that the Essenes greatest opportunity to create new theories. would have had the resources to buy Unfortunately they lacked the skills and property and trade goods if members had to knowledge to make accurate judgements. relinquish all holdings to the community. If This is seen by their interpretation of Qumran was not Essene, as suggested by the pottery. Archaeologists have all agreed that Danceels and Cansdale, further research is they misidentified the pottery found because needed to describe these trade routes. they did not have the base knowledge of Golb's theory seems to be most argued pottery found in Israel at this time. against aside from de Vai.Jx's scriptorium. Archaeologists have come to agree that the Although Cansdale agrees that there is a pottery found at Qumran was specific to the military aspect to the site, she does not agree site and it is unmistakable that the pottery that this was its sole purpose. Golb is the holding the Dead Sea Scrolls is the same only one to figure such a high population for pottery. This does not prove that the scrolls Qumran with the lack of evidence for were written at Qumran, only that there is housing. He is the only to completely some type of connection. Although they disavow the idea that mikva'ot exist at the have lacked knowledge of Israel itself does site, but Cansdale also questions the identity not mean that we should discredit their of the mikva'ot. Most archaeologists are in theories. Others have been able to support agreement that at least some of these water their theory archaeologically to some degree structures are mikva' ot. or another. Some of these theories are questionable As for de Vaux's scriptorium, almost all because of the material used to form these archaeologists now agree that this is not the theories, namely text. Cansdale relies case. The table and bench units that were heavily on outside sources to show that found may not be tables at all. They are Qumran is not Essene. On the other hand, oddly shaped and in order to sit on them the Cook uses the scroll texts to show that person must be small, like a child. Even Essenes were in need of a specific type of then, the table portion of the unit is too tall place and Qumran fits this description. I and the scribe would have had to write on find it ironic however, that Cook would rely his knees. Archaeologists can only so heavily on these texts when in his article speculate that these tables were used for (although written seven years later) he states storage. However, these tables are unique to that more attention needs to be paid to the the site and are still a great mystery. The archaeology and not the texts. inkwell finds, although unique in that two Archaeologically it is not possible at this were found at the same site, also do not time to say if the site was occupied by prove anything conclusively. Essenes or not. The use of the texts is the The theory that members of Qumran only source available to draw conclusions on participated in agriculture is of some debate. this issue. However, archaeologically we do De Vaux, the Danceels, Cansdale and Cook know that the site was Jewish. We can be all share the theory that agriculture was fairly certain that agriculture was at least a possible at Qumran. To what extent minimal activity in this community and agriculture was practiced is in debate. First, trade of some kind also probably took place. could Qumran have been self-sufficient? The type of pottery found suggests that this Probably not. If the occupants of Qumran was a fairly remote site. The presence of a were trading, to what extent were they large cemetery suggests that the site was trading? It is evident that roads lead to both well known and accessed by at least one Jerusalem and Ein Gedi. Trade was group of people. probably occurring in some fashion between In conclusion, each of these speculative these three communities. If the community theories merits further study. Although QUMRAN: ARCHAEOLOGY AND THEORIES OF IDENTIFICATION Putz 46 some may be more archaeological than no theory to make about Qumran. Each of others, they all have the basic understanding these theories has an underlying truth that that without material remains there would be can be reconciled in one way or another.

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