The Translation of Realia and Irrealia in Game Localization

This book explores the impact of a video game’s degree of realism or fictionality on its linguistic dimensions, investigating the challenges and strategies for translating realia and irrealia, the interface of the real world and the game world where culture-specificity manifests itself. The volume outlines the key elements in the translation of video games, such as textual non-linearity, multitextuality, and playability, and introduces the theoretical framework used to determine a game’s respective degree of realism or fictionality. Pettini applies an interdisciplinary approach drawing on video game research and Descriptive Translation Studies to the linguistic and translational analysis of in-game dialogs in English-Italian and English-Spanish language pairs from a corpus of three war video games. This approach allows for an in-depth look at the localization challenges posed by the varying degree of realism and fictionality across video games and the different strategies translators employ in response to these challenges. A final chapter offers a comparative analysis of the three games and subsequently avenues for further research on the role of culture-specificity in game localization. This book is key reading for students and scholars interested in game localization, audiovisual translation studies, and video game research.

Silvia Pettini, PhD, is adjunct lecturer in Translation Studies at Roma Tre University, Italy. Her main research interests are Game Localization, Audiovisual Translation, and Lexicography. She has published papers in international journals such as Translation Spaces and The Journal of Internationalization and Localization and book chapters in volumes such as Linguistic and Cultural Representation in Audiovisual Translation (Routledge, 2018) and The Routledge Handbook of Translation, Feminism and Gender (Routledge, 2020). Routledge Advances in Translation and Interpreting Studies

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Silvia Pettini First published 2022 by Routledge 605 Third Avenue, New York, NY 10158 and by Routledge 2 Park Square, Milton Park, Abingdon, Oxon, OX14 4RN Routledge is an imprint of the Taylor & Francis Group, an informa business © 2022 Taylor & Francis The right of Silvia Pettini to be identified as author of this work has been asserted by her in accordance with sections 77 and 78 of the Copyright, Designs and Patents Act 1988. All rights reserved. No part of this book may be reprinted or reproduced or utilised in any form or by any electronic, mechanical, or other means, now known or hereafter invented, including photocopying and recording, or in any information storage or retrieval system, without permission in writing from the publishers. Trademark notice: Product or corporate names may be trademarks or registered trademarks, and are used only for identification and explanation without intent to infringe. Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data A catalog record for this title has been requested ISBN: 978-0-367-43232-4 (hbk) ISBN: 978-1-032-07354-5 (pbk) ISBN: 978-1-003-00193-5 (ebk) DOI: 10.4324/9781003001935 Typeset in Sabon by Deanta Global Publishing Services, Chennai, India Contents

List of figures viii List of tables ix List of abbreviations x Acknowledgments xi

1 Introduction 1 1.1 Translation and Globalization: The Case of Video Games 1 1.2 Aims, Scope, and Structure of the Book 3 1.3 Summary 9 Notes 9

2 Game Localization and Translation 10 2.1 Introduction 10 2.2 Definition and Terminological Issues 12 2.3 The Theory of Game Localization and Translation 14 2.4 The Practice of Game Localization and Translation 19 2.5 The History of Game Localization and Translation 29 2.6 Game Translation 35 2.7 Game Culturalization 53 2.8 Summary 57 Notes 58 vi Contents 3 Culture-Specificity in Video Games: The Interface between Realism and Fictionality 59 3.1 Introduction 59 3.2 Realism and Fictionality in Game Translation 61 3.3 Methodological Issues in Game Translation 64 3.4 The Realism-Fictionality Corpus 67 3.5 Game Worlds between Realism and Fictionality 73 3.6 Realia and Irrealia 88 3.7 Translating the Name of the Game Wor(l)d 97 3.8 Summary 100 Notes 100

4 Realia and Irrealia in Game Translation 102 4.1 Introduction 102 4.2 Individual References 102 4.3 Collective References 113 4.4 Intratextual Metaludic References 115 4.5 Intertextual References 118 4.6 Geographical References 124 4.7 Ethnic References 128 4.8 Sociopolitical References 135 4.9 Artifactual References 139 4.10 Summary 147 Note 147

5 Military Language between Realism and Fictionality 148 5.1 Introduction 148 5.2 Military Language 151 5.3 Military Titles 154 5.4 Clock Code 157 5.5 Military Phonetic Alphabet 159 5.6 Radio Communication Procedures 162 5.7 Abbreviations 167 5.8 Summary 174 Notes 174 Contents vii 6 Conclusions and Further Research 176 6.1 Introduction 176 6.2 Individual References 179 6.3 Collective References 181 6.4 Intertextual and Intratextual Metaludic References 182 6.5 Geographical References 183 6.6 Ethnic References 184 6.7 Sociopolitical References 186 6.8 Artifactual References 187 6.9 Military Language 190 6.10 Translating Realia and Irrealia in Video Games: A Summary 194

References 197 Gameography 225 Index 227 List of

Figures

3.1 The Realism-Fictionalism Spectrum Axis 69 4.1 Translation Strategies for Individual References 108 4.2 Translation Strategies for Collective References 115 4.3 Translation Strategies for Geographical References 128 4.4 Translation Strategies for Ethnic References 131 4.5 Translation Strategies for Sociopolitical References 136 4.6 Translation Strategies for Artifactual Realia 141 4.7 Translation Strategies for Artifactual Irrealia 144 5.1 Translation Strategies for Military Titles 155 5.2 Translation Strategies for Military Phonetic Alphabet 160 5.3 Translation Strategies for Radio Communication Procedures 167 5.4 Translation Strategies for Military Abbreviations 168

List of

Tables

3.1 Characteristics of the Games Included in the Corpus 69 3.2 Playtime and Wordcount of the Corpus 70 3.3 Wordcount of the Games’ Databases 71 3.4 Taxonomy of Realia and Irrealia 93 3.5 Taxonomy of Translation Strategies for Realia and Irrealia 94

List of

Abbreviations

AEVI Asociación Española de Videojuegos [Spanish Video Game Association] AVT Audiovisual Translation BF Battlefield BF4 Battlefield 4 DTS Descriptive Translation Studies ESA Entertainment Software Association FIGS French, Italian, German, Spanish FPS First Person Shooter GILT Globalization, Internationalization, Localization, Translation GL Game Localization IDEA Italian Interactive Digital Entertainment Association LISA Localization Industry Standards Association ME Mass Effect ME3 Mass Effect 3 MMOG Massively Multiplayer Online Game MOH Medal of Honor MOHW Medal of Honor Warfighter QA Quality Assurance RPG Role-Playing Game ST Source Text TS Translation Studies TT Target Text UI User Interface VO Voice Over

Acknowledgments

My gratitude goes to all the people who have supported this project, both consciously and unconsciously. First, I would like to thank Professor Stefania Nuccorini and Professor Serenella Zanotti for their generous contributions of time, ideas, and suggestions. I thank them for sharing their knowledge and for having accompanied me during the research process in their distinc- tive, special manner: both caring and authoritative, an extremely rare combination. The joy and enthusiasm they show for their work were contagious and motivational to me, even during tough times. My grateful thanks go to Professor Miguel Bernal Merino and Professor Carmen Mangiron, for their time, interest, and insightful comments on my research, as well as for their kind support during my research stays in London and Barcelona. Their pioneering works aroused my interest in game localization and their great expertise contributed to the study presented in this book. I would also like to thank Electronic Arts, and especially Anneta Mitsopoulou, for their open-minded and far-sighted approach and for their constant willingness to answer my questions. My sincere thanks go to the publisher and the editors Elysse Preposi, Helena Parkinson, and Ruth Berry for being very supportive. I would also like to thank both the anonymous reviewers for their insights and suggestions, and my friend reviewers Anna Connealy, Joanna Fallon, and Anna Rita Gerardi for improving the quality of my manuscript. And last but not least, my deepest gratitude goes to all my beloved fami- lies: my parents and sister, my partner, and my friends, for their understanding, patience, and encouragement during all the stages of this project. Thank you very much.

10.4324/9781003001935-1 1

1 Introduction

1.1 Translation and Globalization: The Case of Video Games The multimedia interactive entertainment software, which is commonly referred to as video game, first became popular in the USA and Japan in the 1970s and rapidly evolved into the global mass consumption product we all know today. The history of video games is therefore rather short when compared with other leisure artifacts, such as plays, poetry, novels, cinema, etc. Nevertheless, their non-stop progression has made video games into the most lucrative entertainment industry ahead of books, music, and films (Bernal-Merino 2011a). According to NewZoo (2020a), in 2020 the global games market generated revenues of $159.3 billion, representing an increase of +9.3% year on year, with more than 2.7 billion gamers across the world. More relevantly, the “success story [of video games] was fully depend- ent, and is inextricably linked to the success story of the game localization profession that had to be created from scratch in order to cover the unprecedented demands of multimedia interactive products” (Bernal-Merino 2011a, 11). The field of game localization arose exactly from the industry’s unique needs: allowing video games to go beyond cultural and linguistic borders in order to reach players in different territories, each representing a “locale”, which is “a specific combination of region, language and character encoding” (Esselink 2000, 1). At the global level, as NewZoo (2020a) reports, the most significant area is the Asia Pacific region, accounting for 49% of the global total revenue, with China confirming itself as the most important single-country market, notwithstanding the fast growth of emerging areas such as South East Asia and India. North America is the second-largest region by game revenues ($40 billion, 25%), while Europe represents 19% of the total global games market. However, as both producers and consumers, the leading countries are China, the USA, and Japan, which come in at number one, two, and three, respectively, on the Top 10 Countries/Markets by Game Revenues ranking (NewZoo 2020b). Consequently, despite the hybrid and multicultural nature of the game industry (Consalvo 2006), it is possible to speculate that the main source languages of video games are Chinese,

DOI: 10.4324/9781003001935-1 Introduction 2 Japanese, and particularly English, the latter as either native and/or working language. In order to grasp the worldwide spread of video gaming, the US Entertainment Software Association (ESA) yearly statistics give an insight as to how it has evolved since the early beginning and has become perva- sive in today’s society. For the purposes of this book, since US English is the source language of the video games in the corpus used for this research, it seems interesting to briefly outline the impact of video games on US society. According to the 2020 Essential Facts about the Computer and Video Game Industry (ESA 2020, 3), as “the leading form of entertainment” video games are an integral part of American culture: the US players represent a diverse cross section of the American population spanning every age, gender, and ethnicity. In detail, as the report suggests (ibid., 4–5), 75% of Americans have at least one video game player in their household, with a total of 214.4 million US game players, of which 79% are aged 18 or older. Gamers are 59% male and 41% female, with an average age range of 35–44 years. Moreover, video games are a strong engine for economic growth, which has generated $35.4 billion in revenue in 2019. As regards Europe, the continent has alone over 40 different countries and languages, but the biggest game markets are Germany, the UK, and France (NewZoo 2020b). These three European nations come in at number five, six, and seven, respectively, on the ranking, behind China, the USA, Japan, and the Republic of Korea on a global scale. The list then comprises Canada at number eight and, finally, Italy and Spain coming in at number nine and ten, respectively (ibid.). Accordingly, it comes as no surprise to learn that the standard set of target European languages for video games is commonly referred to as “FIGS” (French, Italian, German, and Spanish), an acronym which was coined in the1980s and still represents “the minimum default group of languages that most games are translated to” (Bernal-Merino 2011a, 14–15). However, the number of target languages for major games now routinely exceeds ten, including both European and Asian languages (Hasegawa cit. in O’Hagan and Mangiron 2013, 60). Although considered as secondary markets at the global level, Italy and Spain are rapidly growing game consumption areas where full localizations (see Chapter 2) are becoming more and more common (Maxwell-Chandler and O’Malley-Deming 2012, 45). Publishers usually opt for either partial or full localization on the basis of the target locale significance and the possible return on investment. The inclusion of Italian and Spanish into the FIGS group from the beginning of the industry’s consolidation, and recent favorable trends, testify to the importance of these target locales, as shown by the data provided by national associations such as the Italian Interactive Digital Entertainment Association (IDEA) and the Spanish Video Game Association (AEVI). Introduction 3 According to IDEA (2021a), 16.7 million Italians played video games in 2020, accounting for 38% of the population aged between 6 and 64. As regards gender, 56% of Italian gamers are male and 44% are female and as concerns the most significant age groups, 24% of players are aged between 15 and 24, 22% between 45 and 64, and 19% between 25 and 34. Moreover, in 2020, the Italian game market recorded €2.179 million in revenue, with a 21.9% increase compared to 2019, and 82% were generated by purchases of software, of which 43% is digital content and includes console and PC games. As to genres, the bestselling video games for console platforms belong to action (27%), sport games (16%), adventure (12%), shooter (11%), and role-playing (10%), whereas the most successful genres for PC are action (23%), strategy (17%), adventure (16%), shooter (15%), and role-playing (14%). Moreover, as the IDEA census (2021b) reports, in Italy there are also about 160 game develop- ment companies and informal teams, with over 1,600 people employed in the industry. The geographic dimension of these companies covers most regions, but the areas with more concentration include Lombardy, Lazio, Emilia Romagna and Sicily. As regards Spain, according to AEVI (2021), the number of players in 2020 totaled 15.9 million, representing 42% of the population aged between 6 and 64, of which 54% are male and 46% are female. As concerns the major age groups, in Spain 25% of players are aged between 25 and 34, 23% between 15 and 24, and 15% between 35 and 44. In terms of revenues, in 2020 the Spanish game market amounted to €1,747 million, of which 55% was generated by purchases of online software. As to genres, the most popular video games for console and PC belong to action and adventure (34%), sport games (13%), and role-playing (12%). Furthermore, about 9,000 people are employed in the industry in Spain and although game studios are mostly based in the areas of Madrid and Catalonia, the number of companies is constantly increasing across the country. These data confirm that Italy and Spain are historically more consumer countries than producing ones, although it is clear that the video game landscape is evolving day by day. In the future, this might also affect localization practice and research as far as Italian and Spanish could be both source and target languages and this seems to paint extremely interesting scenarios for both scholars and professionals.

1.2 Aims, Scope, and Structure of the Book As O’Hagan and Mangiron (2013, 26) point out “game localization introduces dimensions that challenge some of the current assumptions about translation, thus raising epistemic issues for the discipline” and it also “involves dealing with a new medium whose characteristics may not be fully accounted for in the current theoretical framework available in Translation Studies” (ibid., 40). The professional practice of game localization “could Introduction 4 conceivably result in a change in the perception of translation in the 21st century with regards to traditional views on equivalence, creativity, author- ship” (Bernal-Merino 2015, 2–3) and “in certain aspects, may challenge to traditional theoretical models in translation because of the implications of their [video games’] interactivity and the international simultaneous ship- ment model the game industry employs” (ibid., 11). In this light, the main objective of this book is to contribute to the ongo- ing scholarly debate on game localization and translation by outlining corpus-assisted theoretical guidelines for researchers and professionals in the field. The focal point is therefore that of conceptualizing this new domain from the perspective of Descriptive Translation Studies, as originally developed in 1995 and later revised by Toury (2012). Indeed, this study aims to describe the strategies adopted by game translators in the linguistic and cultural localization of video games, from English into Italian, and to a lesser extent, into Spanish. More specifically, this research aims to detect the tendencies or regularities, if any, in game translators’ decision-making process from a descriptive viewpoint. The aim to sustain a descriptive work theoretically should not be interpreted as the intent to explain everything that occurs in game translation. This study value, then, should be considered in its own measure and with precautions. Since a more detailed overview of the debate surrounding the descriptive approach in Translation Studies (TS) is peripheral for the purposes of this book, it seems more beneficial to discuss the ideas and premises which have influenced this research, and which show how the emergent field of game localization can be interpreted in the light of TS theoretical ground. For this reason, an explanation about these methodological aspects, which clarifies the reach of the analysis contained in this book, will be provided in Chapter 3. In order to achieve the aims of this work, my examination has been conducted on a purposefully selected corpus of three video games, namely Medal of Honor Warfighter (Electronic Arts 2012), Battlefield 4 (Electronic Arts 2013), and Mass Effect 3 (Electronic Arts 2012). The purposeful selec- tion of the corpus means that, since it was compiled to be sufficiently large and also homogeneous in terms of genre, main theme, target audience, and audience reception, it was possible to isolate the degree of realism or fictionality of the game worlds, i.e. the relationship between the real world and the virtual game world, as the potential single most important variable which may influence translators’ approach to the translation of game texts, which is the major research hypothesis of this book. While the notion of “real world” as the world we all know, the actual world, the way things are, without going into philosophical details, is quite self-evident, it seems worth briefly pointing out that here “game world” is “an imaginary world”, “an artificial universe, an imaginary place where the events of the game occur. When the player enters the magic circle and pretends to be somewhere else, the game world is the place where” s/he pretends to be (Adams 2014, 137). Introduction 5 The magic circle here refers to a much-cited notion developed by Johan Huizinga, a Dutch scholar who pioneeringly published a homage to the importance of play in culture titled Homo Ludens ([1938] 2000), Latin for Man the Player, and observed that games construct a magic circle which separates the game from the outside real world. Accordingly, in Huizinga’s view, playing a game implies setting oneself apart from the outside world, and submitting to a formally defined system or experience that has no effect on anything which lies beyond the circle, with rules which make sense in themselves and are only important within their particular game context. Thus, video game players enter into the magic circle of another imaginary world, interpreted as “all the surroundings and places experienced by a fictional character […] that together constitute a unified sense of place which is ontologically different from the actual, material, and so-called ‘real’ world” (Wolf 2014, 461). So, in this sense, “game world” means an interactive and experiential realm. However, the idea of games as a completely separate sphere of human existence must be challenged. Although the experience within a game, or specifically a video game, does not usually extend directly into other parts of real life, games do have real-world consequences, games interact con- tinuously and manifoldly with the real world and, since the ways in which the worlds inside games and the world outside are connected are crucial in this book, this interrelationship deserves more in-depth discussion in Chapter 3. The focus of my analysis is on the translation of realia and irrealia, as defined in Chapter 3, because they represent the main borders between the two worlds, and they pose interesting culture-related translational phenomena from an academic perspective. To my knowledge, this subject is still unexplored in game localization, although, with reference to slightly different concepts with different terminology, due to its culture-specificity, it has widely been recognized by TS scholars as one of the most challenging translation issues, not only in the cognate area of Audiovisual Translation (see Pedersen 2011 and Ranzato 2015, among others) but also, for example, in literary translation (see Leppihalme 1997, 2001, 2011). The transfer of realia and irrealia into other languages and cultures seems to be particularly interesting in the case of video games as this kind of software and audiovisual products usually contain a great number of culture- related elements, be they non-fictional or fictional. Their role in the text can be varied and the specific function they fulfill in the games included in the corpus is analyzed in the following chapters. Generally speaking, such elements are used by game developers and writers to give substance to the scripts of the imaginary worlds they create, to provide the text with features which are often intimately embedded in the culture(s) represented, be they real or fictional, and to which the audience, or parts of the audience, can relate. Realia and irrealia in video games may stimulate mnemonic associations and, at the same time, appeal directly to people’s knowledge and Introduction 6 emotions as they can evoke images and feelings that are familiar to the audience. As O’Hagan and Mangiron (2013, 103) point out, in video games “cultural issues both at micro and macro levels loom large, especially for major titles, as the industry seeks finely tuned cultural adaptation to appeal to target users”. This delicate negotiation can in turn call for translators’ creativity and their agency may be so highlighted and celebrated that they are often allowed a freedom almost unseen with other types of translation (ibid.). And it’s not by chance that the “founding father” of the publications about game localization, probably the most cited one in the scholarly literature at the international level, focuses exactly on the unprecedented freedom game translators can enjoy for the sake of fun, the skopos of video games globally (Mangiron and O’Hagan 2006). More specifically, video games offer interactive fun and interactivity is arguably the most accurate defining characteristic of gaming. The “reader” of the videoludic text, namely the player, is not a passive user but rather a co-author. “Players co-author games by playing them, since if the player doesn’t interact with the game and make choices about what will happen, nothing will happen” (Gee 2007, 8). In this sense, it is easy to understand how detrimental a translation that misdirects the player and interferes in his/her gameplay and, thus, with his/her fun can be. For example, a ren- dition which is unclear, or which does not replicate the original function can have severe consequences in video games and these consequences, e.g. denied access to further content, or abrupt and frustrating end of players’ engagement, seem bigger and more dangerous in games than in other media. Culture-specificity between realism and fictionality may be especially challenging in game translation, and inappropriate renditions may be dis- ruptive in players’ immersion into the game experience. After all, “modern video games are technically complex cultural artefacts designed to engross the end user, where the nature of engagement is more than merely functional and encroaches into the affective dimensions” (O’Hagan and Mangiron 2013, 103). As already mentioned, the main hypothesis of this book is that the relationship between the fictional game world and the real word, i.e. the degree of realism or fictionality of game contents, may influence translators’ approach to the linguistic and cultural localization of video games. Accordingly, this study aims to map out the strategies activated by translators in response to cultural constraints within a realism-fictionalism1 spectrum of video games (Dietz 2006), and to detect the tendencies and patterns, if any, that are prevalent in the case of game translation from English into Italian and Spanish. The specific lens through which the translational analysis is carried out is that of realia and irrealia: realia refer to real entities existing in the real world in contrast to “irrealia” (Loponen 2009, 167) which are “non-existing realia tied to a fictional setting, whose effect is to define and determine Introduction 7 the fictional cultural, geographical and historical settings” (original empha- sis). Therefore, since realia is a problematic term when applied to fictional texts which describe fictional worlds (Leppihalme 2011, 126), in this study it is reinterpreted in opposition to irrealia to indicate all references to the actual world. In Translation Studies, realia represent items which have been referred to with a vast array of terms by scholars,2 but all of them agree upon their cultural specificity. As Palumbo (2009, 33) suggests, they are “expres- sions referring to elements or concepts that are closely associated with a certain language and culture” and, one might add, with a certain reality. Consequently, in this study, realia represent references to real cultures while irrealia represent references to fictional cultures, although the very concept of culture related to video games is extremely complex, as will be discussed in Chapters 2 and 3, from the perspectives of game localization and of game translation research, respectively. In conclusion, the theoretical foundation of this book is primarily Game Localization (O’Hagan and Mangiron 2013, Bernal-Merino 2015), which has been referred to as “the periphery” of Audiovisual Translation Studies (Bogucki 2013, 30), while subscribing to the broader descriptive framework. The primacy given to Game Localization (GL hereafter) as theoretical background is based on the belief that, by adapting Romero- Fresco’s claim (2012, 183) concerning Audiovisual Translation (AVT), “the most fruitful studies on” GL should “include or assume to some extent two basic notions: the independence of” GL “as an autonomous discipline and its dependence on other related disciplines”. “Although apparently contradictory, these notions are perfectly compatible. The first one may be regarded as a starting point. As an autonomous discipline within Translation Studies”, GL “is an entity in its own right, rather than a subgroup or a lesser manifestation of” AVT and software localization (ibid.). In my opinion, scholars should not only “resort to extended versions of” TS models, but create, if and whenever possible, GL “own models focusing on the specificity of this area. And here is where the second notion comes in, given that an important part of this specificity lies in its interdisciplinary nature. In this sense, if the auton- omy of” GL “is the starting point for research, its interdisciplinarity is the way forward […] as it is drawing on other disciplines that” GL “finds new and fruitful avenues of research” (ibid.). Going into the overall structure of this book, Chapters 2 and 3 describe the theoretical and methodological framework of the research, respectively, while Chapters 4 and 5 are devoted to the linguistic and translational analysis. The three games representing the realism-fictionalism spectrum of video games that the corpus of this study aims to simulate are examined on the basis of the degree of realism and fictionality of their game worlds, which has been assessed according to the set of criteria described in Chapter 3. The analysis of the translation of realia and irrealia found in game dialogs – the Introduction 8 latter is the text type this research focuses on – is supported by the discussion of the games’ most relevant features as representational and narrative media from a cultural perspective. Given these preliminary clarifications, this book will be structured as follows: Chapter 2 details the theoretical context in which the study is situated. It illustrates and provides an overview of the contemporary debates around fundamental background notions like translation, localization, internationalization, and culturalization. Moreover, the chapter is intended to equip readers with a basic grounding in the issues and key aspects which distinc- tively characterize the translation of video games, i.e. textual non-linearity, multitextuality, and playability, since they inform the subsequent linguistic analysis. Chapter 3 deals with the methodological stand of the study. It outlines the research questions, the theoretical model of the realism-fictionalism spectrum which serves as the background to the research hypothesis, it describes the corpus which has been purposefully created, the analytical procedure followed, the objects under examination, namely realia and irrealia, and the working taxonomies used to perform the analysis reported in the following chapters. Chapter 4 presents the linguistic and translation analysis of the research. The realia and irrealia found in the three games are explored in light of the classifications described in the previous chapter. Data are quantitatively and qualitatively examined in order to illustrate the nature and role of realia and irrealia in the corpus and to discuss the strategies translators used in the two localizations. Chapter 5 focuses on a special phenomenon within realia, namely military language in war-themed videogames. After an introductory discussion concerning the nature of this complex language for specific purposes, the wide range of phenomena it includes are defined, i.e. military titles, clock code, phonetic alphabet, etc., and investigated in the corpus. Lastly, Chapter 6 illustrates the most relevant conclusions of the study and suggests future directions for research. The main findings of the analysis are summarized and critically discussed, the variety of realia and irrealia is examined and the consequent diversity of translational approaches is the- matically interpreted, on the basis of the areas of interface between reality and fictionality of the game worlds’ dimensions. This chapter also includes comparative evaluations of the three games in respect of the different categories realia and irrealia fall into, in order to highlight similarities and differences and finally evince regularities. Despite the limitations of this work, which are also outlined in this chapter, the reading of quantitative and qualitative data presents the theoretical and practical implications of the research and puts forward several possible avenues for more in-depth studies which might better describe the role of culture-specificity in game localization. Introduction 9 1.3 Summary This chapter has presented the rationale behind this book research. First, it has offered an overview of the commercial and cultural status of video games to foreground the role localization and translation play in the international success of the multimedia interactive entertainment industry. The global games market has been briefly outlined in order to show the impact of gaming in today’s society, with special attention to the leading US market and to the Italian and Spanish target locales. Moreover, this chapter explains the aims and scope of this book research, which descriptively investigates the translation of culture-specificity and, particularly, of realia and irrealia in a corpus of three war video games, namely Medal of Honor Warfighter (Electronic Arts 2012), Battlefield 4 (Electronic Arts 2013), and Mass Effect 3 (Electronic Arts 2012), purposefully selected to represent a realism-fictionalism spectrum and to explore whether and to what extent the relationship between the real world and the game world may influence the linguistic and cultural dimension of video games, and consequently their localization and translation.

Notes 1 Fictionalism is meant only as a high degree of fictionality and represents a working term which relates to realism, the other end of a continuum, with no reference to philosophical notions of the same name, and together with realism it represents one of the two sides of the same coin, namely the game world, as will be discussed in Chapter 3. 2 See, for example, Ranzato’s literature review (2015, 53–59). References Aarseth, Espen J. 1997. Cybertext: Perspectives on Ergodic Literature. Baltimore/London: Johns Hopkins University Press. Aarseth, Espen J. 2001. “Computer Game Studies, Year One.” Game Studies 1, 1 (July). Accessed March 10, 2021. www.gamestudies.org/0101/editorial.html. Adams, Ernest. . 2014. Fundamentals of Game Design, 3rd ed. Boston: New Riders. AEVI (Spanish Video Game Association). 2021. “La industria del videojuego en España: Anuario 2020.” Accessed July 4, 2021. http://www.aevi.org.es/web/wp- content/uploads/2021/04/AEVI_Anuario_2020.pdf. 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