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Pituitary Gland Compiled and circulated by Dr. Parimal Dua, Assistant Professor, Dept. of Physiology, Narajole Raj college Endocrine System: 1. Describe the anatomy of the Endocrine System. The endocrine system is a complex network of glands and organs. It uses hormones to control and coordinate your body's metabolism, energy level, reproduction, growth and development, and response to injury, stress, and mood. 1) Hypothalamus is located at the base of the brain. It makes hormones that control hormones released in the pituitary gland. The hypothalamus controls water balance, sleep, temperature, appetite, mood and reproductive behaviors, and blood pressure. 2) Pineal gland is located in the middle of the brain. It makes the hormone melatonin. This hormone helps your body know when it's time to sleep. This hormone also regulates the timing of other functions throughout the body, such as when puberty starts. 3) Pituitary gland is located below the brain. It is often as small as a pea. But it controls many functions of the other endocrine glands. 4) Thyroid and parathyroid are located in front of the neck, below the voice box (larynx). The thyroid plays a key role in the body's metabolism. The parathyroid helps regulate the body's calcium balance and bone strength. 5) Adrenal gland is located on top of each kidney. Like many glands, these work together with the hypothalamus and pituitary gland. The adrenal glands make and release corticosteroid hormones and adrenaline (epinephrine). These maintain blood pressure and regulate metabolism. 6) Pancreas is located across the back of the belly (abdomen), behind the stomach. It plays a role in digestion and hormone production. Hormones made by the pancreas include insulin and glucagon. These regulate blood sugar levels. 7) Ovaries are located on both sides of the uterus of woman, below the opening of the fallopian tubes. The ovaries contain the egg cells needed for reproduction. They also make estrogen and progesterone. 8) Testes are located in a pouch that hangs suspended outside the male body. The testes make testosterone and sperm. Page | 1 DSC1DT: Sensory Physiology, Endocrine and Reproductive System, Renal Physiology Compiled and circulated by Dr. Parimal Dua, Assistant Professor, Dept. of Physiology, Narajole Raj college Figure: Endocrine glands and cells are located throughout the body and play an important role in homeostasis. 2. Classify the hormone. Hormones are the chemical messengers which are produced from endocrine glands and reach their target organ through blood to perform a specific function (mainly stimulation). Hormones can be classified in four ways........ 1) According to the nature of hormones: a) Steroid Hormones: Derived from Cholesterol. The Hormones produced in Adrenal Cortex and The Sex Hormones. They have important functions in the body like water balance, sexual development, stress response etc. E.g.: Testosterone, Estrogen, Progesterone, Glucocorticosteriods, Mineralocorticosteroids etc. b) Amine Hormones: Derived from Amino acids. Page | 2 DSC1DT: Sensory Physiology, Endocrine and Reproductive System, Renal Physiology Compiled and circulated by Dr. Parimal Dua, Assistant Professor, Dept. of Physiology, Narajole Raj college i. Thyroid Hormones: Derived from the Amino acid Tyrosine, Contains Iodine Element. E.g. Tetra-iodothyronine (T4), Tri-iodothyronine (T3), Parathormone, Calcitonin etc. ii. Catecholamines: Derived from Tyrosine, can also function as a neurotransmitter. E.g. Epineprhine (Adrenaline), Nor-epinephrine (Nor-adrenaline) etc. iii. Tryptophan-based Hormones: As the name suggests, derived from the Essential Amino acid Tryptophan. E.g. Melatonin, Serotonin. iv. Glutamic acid-based Hormones: Histamine is an example. c) Peptide Hormones: Derived from peptides (made up of few amino acids). E.g. Oxytocin (8 amino acids), GnRH (10 amino acids) and vasopressin. d) Polypeptide Hormones: Derived from peptides (chains of < 100 amino acids in length). E.g. ACTH (39 amino acids) e) Protein Hormones: Derived from proteins (Polypeptide chains with > 100 amino acids). E.g. Insulin, glucagon, and Prolactin (198 amino acid) f) Glycoprotein Hormones: Derived from proteins with carbohydrate molecules. E.g. LH and FSH. g) Fatty acid Derivative Hormones or Eicosaniods: Most abundant precursor is the Essential Fatty Acid Arachidonic Acid. E.g. Prostaglandins (Kidney), Prostacyclins, Leukotrienes, Thromboxanes etc. 2) According to the solubility: a) Lipid-soluble Hormones: Soluble in Lipids, Can work on the cell directly by going through the bi-layer phospolipid membrane of cells. E.g. Steroid Hormones. b) Water-soluble Hormones: Soluble in Water. Has to work indirectly because of the lack of penetration through the cell membrane. E.g. Amino acid-based Hormones. 3) According to the target organ: a) Tropic Hormones: Tropic Hormones are hormones which stimulate other endocrine glands to work. Generally Released from Pituitary Glands. Page | 3 DSC1DT: Sensory Physiology, Endocrine and Reproductive System, Renal Physiology Compiled and circulated by Dr. Parimal Dua, Assistant Professor, Dept. of Physiology, Narajole Raj college E.g. Gonado-Tropic Hormones, Thyroid Stimulating Hormone, Somatotropic Hormone, Adreno-Cortico Tropic Hormones etc. b) Non-Tropic Hormones: These work on other cells except Endocrine Glands. E.g. Calcitonin, Adrenaline, Oxytocin, Insulin, Glucagon etc. 4) According to the nature of action: a) General Hormones: Growth hormones influence nearly all the body tissues, similar is the case with Thyroid and Insulin hormones. Hence, they fall in general category. b) Specific Hormones: These hormones affect functions of specific organs. E.g. FSH and Androgen. c) Local Hormones: Prostaglandins, Acetyl cholin and Histamine act locally to their site of production. 3. What are hormone receptors in cell signaling? A hormone receptor is a protein molecule that binds to a specific hormone. Hormone receptors are a wide family of proteins made up of receptors for thyroid and steroid hormones, retinoids and Vitamin D, and a variety of other receptors for various ligands, such as fatty acids and prostaglandins. Once bound, the hormone-receptor complex initiates multiple signaling pathways, which ultimately leads to changes in the behavior of the target cells. Hormones usually require receptor binding to mediate a cellular response. There are two main classes of hormone receptors............ 1) Receptors for peptide hormones tend to be cell surface receptors built into the plasma membrane of cells and are thus referred to as trans membrane receptors. An example of this is insulin. 2) Receptors for steroid hormones are usually found within the cytoplasm and are referred to as intracellular or nuclear receptors, such as testosterone. 4. Write down about hormonal signaling? The presence of hormone or multiple hormones enables a response in the receptor, which begins a cascade of signaling. The hormone receptor interacts with different molecules to induce a variety of changes, such as an increase or decrease of nutrient sources, growth, and other metabolic functions. These signaling pathways are complex mechanisms mediated by feedback loops where different signals activate and inhibit other signals. If a signaling pathway ends with the increase in production of a nutrient, that nutrient is then a signal back to the receptor that acts as a competitive inhibitor to prevent further Page | 4 DSC1DT: Sensory Physiology, Endocrine and Reproductive System, Renal Physiology Compiled and circulated by Dr. Parimal Dua, Assistant Professor, Dept. of Physiology, Narajole Raj college production. Signaling pathways regulate cells through activating or inactivating gene expression, transport of metabolites, and controlling enzymatic activity to manage growth and functions of metabolism. 1) Intracellular (nuclear receptors): Intracellular and nuclear receptors are a direct way for the cell to respond to internal changes and signals. Intracellular receptors are activated by hydrophobic ligands that pass through the cellular membrane. All nuclear receptors are very similar in structure, and are described with intrinsic transcriptional activity. Intrinsic transcriptional involves the three following domains: transcription-activating, DNA-binding, and ligand-binding. These domains and ligands are hydrophobic and are able to travel through the membrane. The movement of macromolecules and ligand molecules into the cell enables a complex transport system of intracellular signal transfers through different cellular environments until response is enabled. Nuclear receptors are a special class of intracellular receptor that specifically aid the needs of the cell to express certain genes. Nuclear receptors often bind directly to DNA by targeting specific DNA sequences in order to express or repress transcription of nearby genes. 2) Trans-membrane receptors: The extracellular environment is able to induce changes within the cell. Hormones, or other extracellular signals, are able to induce changes within the cell by binding to membrane-bound receptors. This interaction allows the hormone receptor to produce second messengers within the cell to aid response. Second messengers may also be sent to interact with intracellular receptors in order to enter the complex signal transport system that eventually changes cellular function. G-protein-coupled membrane receptors (GPCR) are a major class of transmembrane receptors. The features of G proteins include GDP/GTP binding, GTP hydrolysis and guanosine nucleotide exchange.
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