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- A model for the formation of defects in Properties of potential eco-friendly gas RPC bakelite plates at high radiation levels T Greci, F Felli, G Saviano et al. replacements for particle detectors in high-energy - Negative Ion Time Projection Chamber operation with SF6 at nearly atmospheric physics pressure E. Baracchini, G. Cavoto, G. Mazzitelli et al. To cite this article: G. Saviano et al 2018 JINST 13 P03012 - The upgrade of the Muon System of the CMS experiment M. Abbrescia

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This content was downloaded from IP address 170.106.33.19 on 23/09/2021 at 19:24 2018 JINST 13 P03012 e c April 20, 2017 March 19, 2018 : February 9, 2018 : : September 23, 2017 : and M. Parvis e Received Published Accepted Revised S. Colafranceschi, b S. Grassini d Q. Li, d D. Piccolo, https://doi.org/10.1088/1748-0221/13/03/P03012 b Published by IOP Publishing for Sissa Medialab Y. Ban, d S. Bianco, b G. Chen, d L. Benussi, D. Yang, a c M. Ferrini, 1 Materials for gaseous detectors; Muon spectrometers; Particle tracking detectors , A. Sharma, a 2018 CERN. Published by IOP Publishing Ltd on behalf of Sissa c [email protected] : Gas detectors for elementary particles require F-based gases for optimal performance. c

Medialab. Original content from this work may be used under the terms Corresponding author. 1 Laboratori Nazionali di Frascati dell’INFN andRome, Italy Facoltà di Ingegneria, Università diLaboratori Roma Nazionali La di Sapienza, Frascati dell’INFN, Italy CERN, Geneva, Switzerland Peking University, Beijing, China Politecnico di Torino, Torino, Italy E-mail: e c a b d of the Creative Commons Attributionmust 3.0 maintain. licence attribution Any furtherand to distribution DOI. the of this author(s) work and the title of the work, journal citation Properties of potential eco-friendly gas replacementsparticle for detectors in high-energy physics G. Saviano, J. Kjølbro, Recent regulations demand the usebanned. of This environmentally work unfriendly studies F-based propertiesphysical of gases and potential to chemical eco-friendly parameters be gas relevant limited replacements for use or byconsidered as computing for detector experimental the investigation. media, and suggests candidates to be Keywords: (Gaseous detectors); Micropattern gaseous detectors (MSGC, GEM, THGEM,MICROPIC, RETHGEM, MICROMEGAS, MHSP, InGrid, etc) Abstract 2018 JINST 13 P03012 has a Global-Warming 4 mixture [10]. However, for high 2 – 1 – mixture is used [11], where CF 4 /CF 2 gas mixture, with typical GWP of 1430. Investigations into new gas mixtures 6 Gas detectors are widespread for detection, tracking and triggering of charged particles such as A large part of gas muon detectors used in HEP operates with mixtures containing the regulated The aim of this paper is to discuss some of the important properties of gases for particle gas 4.1 Stopping power 4.2 Radiation length 4.3 Estimation of ionization pair production 12 10 12 muons in Nuclear and Highuse, Energy but Physics utmost (HEP). care They must are be taken characterisedpurification, to gas by issues mixture simple such contaminants, as and properties etc. reliable of [2]–[8]. gas interaction with materials, gas refrigerants as quenching medium inoperation are applications necessary. where Therefore, excellent actions towards time findingElectron resolution new Multiplier mixtures and must (GEM) avalanche be undertaken. [9]Solenoid) Gas detectors at operate the in LHC experiments (Large Hadron such Collider) as with CMS an (Compact Ar/CO Muon 1 Introduction Many refrigerant gases currently usedcontribute have largely a to great the impactan greenhouse on attempt the effect, to environment protect or sincerefrigerant the because gases they environment, have they either been regulations implemented tear preventing [1]. the the production ozone and layer, use or of both. certain In time resolution applications an Ar/CO 5 Conclusions 13 Contents 11 Introduction 2 Gas2 properties 3 Organofluorine gas compounds for particle physics7 detectors 4 Estimation of gas parameters 10 have to be performed in order toA keep few the industrial mixture refrigerant properties replacements while weretransport complying proposed with properties [14] the of as currently regulations. used alternatives gas to mixturesfreon-less R134a. in gas HEP, and A mixtures, evaluation study was of recently of transport published propertieshave [15, of been16]. published [17]. Few recent results on candidate ecogases detectors, to list and summarize basic properties of eco-friendly refrigerants from the literature, Potential (GWP) of 7390 [12]. Resistive Plate CountersR134a/Isobutane/SF (RPC) []13 currently operate with a F-based 2018 JINST 13 P03012 ,

F or dx dE 3

1 ρ , and will T N . The effect on the ozone ) 1 ≡ 2 CO . Each produced ion pair will have an 1 − (GWP 2 – 2 – , in units of cm P N is a characteristic length of a medium which describe the energy loss 0 X ). Nomenclature, GWP and ODP of selected refrigerant candidates are 1 ≡ F 3 CCl is the density of the medium, E is the particle energy, and x is length of medium crossed. ρ When electrons and ions in a gas are subject only to an electric field they move on average The radiation length When an incoming particle passes through a medium, it will eventually interact with the The impact of a refrigerant on the environment is characterised in terms of contribution to the When a particle passes through a medium, energy is transferred from the particle to the along the electric field.on Individual the electrons, atoms of however, deviate the from gas.to the Scattering lateral average leads displacements, due to called variations to transverse in scattering diffusion. velocity, called longitudinal diffusion, and be mainly depending on theis material relevant and in the incoming particle particle gasproduced energy by detectors a and as single mass. incoming it particle This determines when parameter both the gas the is number under an and amplifying the electric size field. of avalanches where The minimum mean ionization energies(see section4) for in the table2. refrigerants under consideration are summarized initial kinetic energy and can itselfsum produce of an the ion pair, primary called and secondary ion secondary pair ion production. pairs The production per unit length is denoted of electrons and photons in aformulas medium (see [20]. section4) and These summarized quantities are in estimated table2. by means of parametric medium and transfer some ofionized its atom and energy a to free ionize electronparticle is atoms. per produced. unit In The length number this of is process, ionizations denoted a produced by by pair an consisting incoming of an greenhouse effect and depletion of the ozone layer. The greenhouseof effect the is GWPs measured of in the Global- chemicals in a blend, relative CO to discuss their propertiesselected for parameters materials crucial for compatibility the performance and of gasformulas. safe detectors use, considered, While by this and means study of to is parametric aimed makeselection to of a ecogas GEM prediction replacement and for on RPC other detectors, gas its detectors. findings can be considered for 2 Gas properties For a gas mixture to be appropriatewith in an the elementary regulations. particle gas detector, Furthermore, firstdetectors. of its all For properties it example, has a must to gas also that comply is be suitableGEM appropriate for detectors. the for RPC To detectors the better may not specific find be the typeof fully optimized appropriate of different for gas the parameters for is a detector, required.gases. an understanding This of Parametric section the formulas aims influence used togas in clarify replacements such literature the as have most stopping been power, essential radiation usedinteraction length, parameters ion of to for pair elementary compute production. particles parameter Basic in of details matter on candidate are the discussed in textbooks, or reviews such as [18] surrounding atoms. The energy lost is typically defined as the stopping power expressed as listed in table1. layer is measured in OzoneCFC-11 Depletion Potential (ODP [19] (ODP), normalized to the effect of CCl Warming Potential (GWP), the 100-year integrated potential of a chemical, or the weighted average 2018 JINST 13 P03012 . The first Townsend x α e under avalanche condition, = x n 1700-620 0.5/0.065/0.02 650 3400 1430 0 0 0 GWP ODP / 0 n ≡ (the first Townsend coefficient). This G α R125 (23-27%), R32 (21-25%), R134a (50-54%) R22 (60%), R142b (25%), R124 (15%) identifier is given by – 3 – G is the number of primary electrons without amplification in 75-10-5, 354- 33-6, 811-97-2 29118-24-92314-97-8 R1234ze [43]811-97-2 6 R13I1 [44]75-73-0 R134a [35] 0.475-37-6 R14 [31] 143076-19-7 0 74-98-6 R152a [51] 739075-10-5 0.01-0.02 R218 [40]--75-28-5 0 124 R290 [39]2551-62-4 R32 [48] 0 124-38-9 R600a 3 [42] R7146 [32]115-25-3 0 650354-33-6 R744 3 [37] 2300075-46-7 R318 [41]--75-45-6 R125 1 [28] 0 2837- 89-0 75-68-3 0 0.04 R23 [29] 3400 0 0 0 0 0 CAS Refrigerant 306-83-2 R123 [38]754-12-1 120 R1234yf [46] 4 0 420-46-2 R143a [30] 0 4300 - 76-16-4 R116 [47]--2730-43-0 R1233zd [45] 4.7-7 0 76-15-3 R115 [49] 7370 0.44 0 n , 3 3 3 3 2 F 3 2 3 , 2 4 2 4 5 2 2 and the gas gain F F F ClF 3 FCF F FCF F is the number of electrons after distance CF CF 2 4 8 10 2 2 I CHF 8 8 6 2 x 2 2 3 2 2 2 3 3 4 6 F F F H H H H HCl H H ClF n α 3 2 3 3 4 4 2 3 3 2 2 e HF SF formula CF CH CH C CF CH CF CH C C C CH C CO C CHF CHClF C C C C C 0 n = n , Townsend’s second ionisation coefficient or attachment parameter, i.e., the average η . Summary of various refrigerant candidates. Also shown is the Chemical Abstracts Service (CAS) is given by n The average distance an electron travels between ionizing collisions is called mean free path and R407c: Carbon Dioxide Octafluorocyclobutane Pentafluoroethane Trifluoromethane R409: 1,1-Difluoroethane Octafluoropropane Propane Difluoromethane Isobutane Sulfur Hexafluoride 1,3,3,3 Tetrafluoropropene Trifluoroiodomethane 1,1,1,2-Tetrafluoroethane Tetrafluoromethane 1,1,1-trifluoroethane 2,2-Dicloro-1,1,1- trifluoroethane 1-Chloro-3,3,3- 2,3,3,3-Tetrafluoropropene Molecular nameChloropentafluoroethane Hexafluoroethane Chemical Trifluoropropene uniform electric field, and its inverse is the number of ionizing collisionsparameter per centimeter determines the gas gain. If then coefficient depends on the nature of theaugmented gas, emission the of electric electrons field by and the pressure.to cathode introduce To caused take into by account impact the of positive ions, it is customary Table 1 Registry Number. 2018 JINST 13 P03012 (2.1)  1 − P N cm  i 2 0 g X cm ) 1 − i h x 2 x min α g α

cm e e ( η dx dE – 4 –

− MeV h 1 − ≡ ] G I eV [ 95.0 1.7787.8 35.1588.7 1.8199.9 81.6 1.81 35.89 1.74 36.19 74.8 34.52 37.2 56.9 89.4 1.8191.9 35.4678.2 1.77 49.2 1.89 35.82 37.10 89.5 67.1 105.1101.6 1.71104.1 1.72 34.29 1.71 34.84 93.3 34.43 123 117 116.7106.7 1.6947.01 1.74201.7 29.22 2.26 29.76 1.42 98.4 107.1 45.37 105 125.3 11.54 1.70 65.2 1.70 172 33.99 25.54 63.6 98.4 127.447.84 1.68 2.24 28.6091.97 45.22 92.0 1.77 81.0 35.82 89.5 R116 RC318 R218 R115 R1233zd R290 R13|1 R134a R14 R123 R143a R744 R23 Name R32 R7146 R600a R1234yf R152a R1234ze . Minimum ionization, radiation length and number of primary ion pair creation for the considered Many refrigerants may constitute danger for the user and its environment. The greatest Some refrigerants are incompatible with certain materials, and can either react violently, or dangers involved are the flammabilityin categorizing and the toxicity. refrigerants in In tables3 andand4. this Air-Conditioning Engineers The work, (ASHRAE) standard American two [22] Society gives standards each offlammability refrigerant Heating, have a from Refrigerating, been number 1 denoting used (not flammable)B to (Toxic). 3 (highly The flammable), Health asFlammability/ well and Material as Physical Hazardous hazards a from Material letter 0 A Information (low) to (non-toxic) System 4 or (HMIS), (high). rates Health/ have long term effect, while othersKnown incompatibilities may and even produce toxic byproducts toxic are decomposition summarized and/or in polymerisation. tables3 and4. number of electrons released from a surface by an incident positive ion, according to the formula Table 2 refrigerants, as well asmeans the of the approximated parametric mean formulas describedpropagation ionization in of energy errors section4. on used. Uncertainty the on experimentally values known Values is quantities. determined have by been numerical computed by 2018 JINST 13 P03012 - - - A1 A1 Ashrae Safety Group A1 A1 - 0/2/2 1/0/0 - 1/1/0 0/0/0 HMIS 1/0/2 1/0/0 - C ◦ -29 -29 -22.5 -26.5 -128 Boiling point -39.1 -79 -19 – 5 – 3.65 4.82 - 4.320 6.10 4.82 6.623 5.734 Density g/L C. ◦ 88.0 114.0 195.9 102.0 130.5 114.0 154.4 138.01 Molecular weight . Chemical, physical and compatibility information of the refrigerants (Part 1). Table 3 If involved in a fire,carbonyl production fluoride. under thermal decompose into pyrolysis products containing hydrogen fluorid and Chemically reactive with K, Ca,surfaces. powdered Al, Mg, Zn.Under Under special high circumstances temperature/ (e.g. high high temperature) pressure,produced. Carbon may monoxide, Under react Carbonyl normal fluoride, with storage Hydrogen and Al fluoride use, can no be R14 hazardous [31] decomposition should be produced Not compatible with aluminium, alloyscarbon containing dioxide more above 1000 than 2% magnesium, alkali metals in powdered form and If involved in aMonoxide, fire, Carbonyl halides, and production Hydrogen under halides can thermal occur.R13I1 decompose Polymerization [44] may into also occur. pyrolysis productsIncompatible with containing active metals, Fluorine, fires of Carbon Can hydrides, decompose and to materials Iodine, containing Hydrogen oxygen. Fluoride, and HydrogenR134a Iodide. [35] Incompatible with alkali metals, Zn, MgIf and other involved light in metals. aMonoxide, fire, Carbonyl halides, and production Hydrogen under halides canconditions. thermal occur. No decompose toxic decomposition into should pyrolysis happen under productsR1234ze normal [43] containing Fluorine, Carbon Incompatible with strongly oxidizing materials and finely divided Mg and Al. R1233zd [45] Incompatible with polyacrylate, Viton, natural rubber,Is silicon considered rubber non-toxic and at other less elastomers. thanunder thermal 800 decompose ppm. into pyrolysis products Hazardous containing polymerization Hydrogen Fluoride,and can Carbon Hydrogen occur. Monoxide, Carbonyl Chloride halides, If can involved occur. in a fire,R1234yf production [46] R116 [47] May react violently with alkaline-earthbe and corrosive alkali in metals the Thermal presenceproduced by decomposition of thermal yields moisture. decomposition: toxic Carbonyl products If fluoride,Thermal which Hydrogen involved decomposition fluoride, in can products: Carbon a halogenated monoxide compounds, fire oxides the of following carbon toxic and/or corrosive fumes may be R115 [49] Material is stable. However,metals-powdered avoid Al, open Zn, flames Be, and etc. highDecomposition temperatures. product are Incompatible hazardous."FREON" 115 with Fluorocarbonflames, alkali can or glowing be alkaline metal decomposed earth by surfaces, highThermal etc.)forming temperatures decomposition (open can hydrochloric yield and toxic fumes hydrofluoricMonoxide of and acids, fluorides Chlorine. such and as possibly Hydrogen Fluoride, carbonyl Hydrogen halides. Chlo- ride, Carbon Refrigerant Material incompatibility Hazardous decomposition products and polymerization 2018 JINST 13 P03012 - A2 A1 A1 Ashrae Safety Group A2 A1 - A1 2/4/0 1/4/2 - - HMIS - 1/1/0 1/0/0 1/0/0 C ◦ -10 -25 -36.7 -84.4 Boiling point -47.6 -48.5 -40.1 -78.5 – 6 – 3 -2.946 kg /m 2.738 8.17 g/l gas 3 1.52 4.18 - 1.24g/cm3 Density g/L , lime at dull red heat, and metals at elevated temperature 3 O 2 70.0 66.1 188.0 86.45 44 100.5 84.0 120 Molecular weight . Chemical, physical and compatibility information of the refrigerants (Part 2). Table 4 Decomposition products: halogenated compounds, oxides ofproduce carbon, toxic hydrogen fluoride, fumes thermal of decomposition may carbon fluorides. monoxide halogenated compounds Decomposition carbonyl halides. products may include the following materials: carbon dioxide Thermal decomposition yields toxical products whichsition can products: be corrosive acid in halides presence of moistureR23 hazardous [29] decompo- Incompatible materials: metals,polystyrene, naturalwater, rubber, nitrosyl alloys fluoride,N of more than 2% magnesium in the presence of Under normal condition, hazardousexposed to decomposition fire, hazardous and/or products polymerization may be products produced. R218 [40] should not beStable under produced. normal conditions materials If withalkali which gas earth mixture metals. is incompatible: oxidizing Maymagnesium, materials powdered react and aluminum alkali violently and and with organometallics chemical active metals as sodium, potassium and barium powdered Materials to avoid: Light and/or alkaline metals,Powdered Alkaline aluminum, earth magnesium, metals, zinc, Powdered metals, beryllium Oxidizing and agents,Hazardous their Chlorine, alloys. decomposition products:rophosgene, Gaseous Phosgene hydrogen fluoride (HF)., GaseousR152a hydrogen [51] chloride (HCl)., Fluo- Extremely reactive with oxiding materials ,Na, such K, as Ca, alkaline, alkaline Mg, earth powdered Al, metals, Zn), and brass, other reactive and chemicals, steel (i.e. . Incompatible with amines, bases, and halogens. R744 [37] The product is stable under regularMaterials conditions to avoid: strong oxidisingtoxic agents, fumes. strong acids. Hazardous decomposition products:R142b [34] In combustion emits The product is stable. Dosuch not as mix lighted with cigarettes, oxygen or flames, air hot above spots atmosphericR22 or pressure. [50] welding may Any yield source toxic of and/orChemically high corrosive temperatures, decomposition reactive products. metals:powdered potassium, metal salts calcium, powdered aluminum,Hazardous decomposition magnesium, products: and zinc,Phosgene, Halogens, Hydrogen powdered halogen chloride, metals, Hydrogen acids fluoride, and Carbonyl fluoride. possibly carbonyl halides. Carbon monoxide, Can form explosive mixtureHydrocarbon with based lubricant, air. significantlubricant, loss May significant of loss react mass of mass violently by byThermal extraction with extraction decomposition or or yields oxidants. chemical chemical toxic reaction. products reaction which and Air, can FluorocarbonR125 be Oxidiser. [28] corrosive based in the Non presence ofUnder recommended: moisture. very high temperature and/orexothermic reaction. appropriate Chemical pressures reactive freshly metals: abraded potassium aluminum calcium powdered surfaces aluminum, may magnesium cause and zinc. strongly Refrigerant Material incompatibility Hazardous decomposition products and polymerization R143a [30] 2018 JINST 13 P03012 I, which 3 Ashrae Safety Group A3 A2 A3 - HMIS 1/4/0 1/4/1 1/4/0 1/0/0 C ◦ Boiling point -42 -51.7 -11.7 -63.7 – 7 – have been used originally, and replaced in the 1990’s by more 4 8.93 6.17 1.86 11.4 Density g/L C). Also reacts violently with disilane. ◦ 58.1 146.1 44.1 52.0 Molecular weight . Chemical, physical and compatibility information of the refrigerants (Part 3). 204 > Table 5 Fluorocarbons (FC) such as CF Aging is defined (following [23]) as the general deterioration of the detectors during their No hazardous decomposition/polymerization shouldmonoxide be and produced other toxic under gasses normal under thermal conditions. decomposition. R7146 May [32] produce carbon Stable with most chemical,temperatures except ( metals other than aluminium,Decomposes into stainless Sulfur oxides steel, and copper hydrogen fluorine. brass, silver, at elevated incompatible with acids andIncompatible with oxidizing air materials and moisture. as Na,No K, hazardous decomposition/polymerization Ca, should be Zn, produced Mg, under normal powdered conditions. R600a Al, [42] and other activeIncompatible metals. with oxiding materials, halogenated hydrocarbons, halogens, and metal catalysts. R290 [39] Incompatible with acids, oxygen, oxidizing materials, copper, someUnder plastics, normal Chlorine condition, Dioxide. hazardous decompositionproduce and/or carbon monoxide polymerization and products other should toxic gasses not under be thermalR32 produced decomposition. [48] . May Refrigerant Material incompatibility Hazardous decomposition products and polymerization ecofriendly hydrofluorocarbons (HFC) such asolefins (HFO) 1,1,1,2-Tetrafluoroethane differ or from HFC R134a. by being derivativescompound Hydrofluoro of (PFC) alkenes rather is than alkanes. an organofluorine Abonds) perfluorinated compound and containing carbon-carbon only bonds carbon-fluorine but bonds also (no other C-H etheroatoms, with an example being CF operation. The agingcommonly used phenomenon variables is include the very cross-sections,dipole electron/photon complex moments, energies, and chemical electrostatic reactivity forces, depends of on atomsnon and recent) several molecules, collection parameters. etc. see [24–26]. Forbe a The A found comprehensive in more (although [27]. recent review of ageing effects in GEM detectors can 3 Organofluorine gas compounds for particle physicsF-based detectors compounds used bybelong gaseous particle to detectors the for familyexcellent experiments of quenching at power. organofluorines, high The and carbon-fluorine interaction their bondthus rates is use resulting one in is of high motivated the chemical strongest and byall in elements. thermal high organic stability. chemistry, drift Fluorine velocities has and the highest electronegativity of 2018 JINST 13 P03012 I is a new 3 in many applications. 6 -ketone), commercialized as 3M Novec 6 (CF 2 ) 3 C. Furthermore, these two compounds show a good – 8 – ◦ C(O)CF(CF 2 CF 3 Hydrofluoro ethers (HFEs) are liquid at room temperature. The insertion of an ether oxygen Finally, fluorinated ketones (F-ketons) are a new class of materials that have been shown to atom into the molecule isspecific exploited end to users. modify HFEs the haveand significantly thermo-physical PFCs, shorter properties with atmospheric their of lifetime lifetime a when decreasingThe compound compared when lifetime for the to can number HFCs be of dramatically affected hydrogens in byoxygen [70–72]. the the location molecule HFEs of increases. show the generally hydrogen a atoms boilingmaking relative point to their higher the than application ether environmental as temperature,use thus gases of rather high problematic boiling (table6). pointcondensation. HFEs Therefore, For will only HEP a require detectors, few thelow HFEs boiling namely, design have point the been of and taken acceptable a in GWP, while gas accountExperimental still system use showing which high of which are vapour HFE characterised avoids pressure is by the at still STPvalues, vapour critical, and conditions. to and avoid attention condensation of should mixtures be in order paidphase. to to guarantee both availability The of high mixture two in vapour gaseous pressure HFEsmixtures candidates presently (HFE-143m in use and in HFE-245mc) gaseousHFEs. considered particle Segregated as detector HFEs substitutes at are of CERN those belongsubstitution gas in to which and the all are hydrogen family atoms of separated reside segregated R). from on This carbons segregated the with structure fluorinated no maximizes fluorine the carbonslifetimes. effect by The of shorter the the lifetimes ether of etheric oxygen these in HFEssegregated oxygen reducing lead HFEs to bridge the lower have atmospheric GWPs. (R-O- lifetimes The and two commercially GWPsare available nonflammable, lower low than in toxicity any and nonflammable, have both commercialPFCs physical and HFC; and chemical they properties HFCs suitable to in replace apoints number available from of this applications class [74, PFCs of75]. compounds in creates solvent, The opportunities cleaning, wide forcomparison heat range replacement between of of transfer some HFCs structures and HFEs and and and otherIn HFCs boiling applications this with [72, similar family76, composition, of lifetime77]. molecules,HFE-143m and and two GWP HFE-245mc7 have Table (table8). values. beenshows Both have identified the aeven low as if boiling point candidate they along show for with an an high high acceptable vapor GWP, energy pressure gas at detectors: 25 be useful in substitution ofliquid non at eco-friendly room temperature, gases in butof some they methods are industrial [73]. easily applications. evaporated F-ketons into are F-ketons a an are carrier attractive potential gas replacements stream for by SF a number was proposed recently [14]substance as neither restricted candidate nor substitute controlled, but of subject 1,1,1,2-Tetrafluoroethane. to reporting, without CF limitations of use [19]. compatibility (avoiding humidity and in normalbe operational in conditions) contact during with the materials experiment. expected The to have vapour been pressures measured properties of in HFC-143a a and wide HFE-245mc range of temperatures and pressures [72, 76, 77]. F-ketons with short chain arethis expected study; to in show lower fact, boiling F-ketonssuitable points for with the and application a have in been longer gas detectors. considered chainmade9 Table in are byshows some three expected properties carbon to of F-ketons atoms. have withHexafluoroacetone, a a Compounds the chain higher showed only in boiling one table available point, are ashighly not reactive all gas and in flammable corrosive. the and CF operational in1230 conditions particular for [78, the gas81] detectors and is easily available on market, has high environmental compatibility but a boiling 2018 JINST 13 P03012 5 H 2 40 OC ≈ 15 C) GWP F ◦ 7 C 5 H 2 40 OC 9 ≈ F 4 C 3 40 OCH 9 ≈ F 4 C] Vapour pressure (Bar at 25 C ◦ 3 – 9 – 40 OCH 7 ≈ F [52, 53][52, 54][ 52, 55][52, 56] 3 HFE-7000 HFE-7100 HFE-7200 HFE-7500 C . Comparison of selected HFEs and HFCs. C] 0.00219 0.0016 0.0018 0.00129 ◦ C] -122.5 -106 -106 -75 ◦ . Comparison of HFE143m and HFE125mc properties. m 1.00E+08 1.00E+08 1.00E+08 1.00E+08 HFE-569sf2 (HFE7200) [55] 1 55 HFC-143a [57]HFC-227ea [59]HFC-236fa [61] 53.5HFE-245fa [63] 36.5HFE-449s1 (HFE7100) [54] 5400 226 4 3800 4.4 9400 320 570 HFE-143a [52]HFC-125 [58]HFE-125 [52]HFE-227ea [60]HFE-236fa [62]HFC-245fa 5.7 [64] 32.6HFE-245cb2 [52] 165 11 970 3.7 3800 7.4 15300 1.2 1500 470 820 160 C 0.78 1.1 1.26 3.55 Table 7 C 0.32 0.37 0.44 0.77 Ω ◦ ◦ 2 HFE-143m [52]HFE-245mc [52] -24 5.51 5.8 2.6 750 622 3 3 2 3 C] 34 61 76 128 ] 1400 1420 1510 1614 3 3 5 Table 8 ◦ 3 3 3 H C] -122.5 -138 -135 -100 3 3 3 2 CF OCF CHF OCHF ◦ OCH 3 2 2 2 2 2 OCH OC 3 CF OCF OCH 9 9 HCF HOCF CFHCF CFHOCF CH CH CH CH CF 3 3 2 2 2 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 F F 4 4 OCH CF C C CF CF CF CF CF CF CompoundCH CH Halocarbon NumberCF CF CF Atm. Lifetime (yrs) GWP (100 yr ITH) 3 3 Dielectric ConstantElectrical Resistivity 7.4 7.3 7.4 5.8 Coefficient of Expansion [1/ Specific Heat [J/kg-K]Thermal Conductivity [W/m-K]Viscosity [cSt] at 25 Viscosity [cSt] at -40 Dielectric Strength [kV, 0.1 0.075 inch gap] 1300 0.068 1220 0.069 1180 0.065 1128 Atmospheric Lifetime [yrs]GWP (100 year ITH)Boiling Point [ Pour Point [ Useful low Temperature [ Density 4.7 [kg/m 400 4.1 320 0.8 55 2.5 210 . Physical properties of some HFEs actually available on market. The useful low temperature was CompoundCF HalocarbonCF Number Boiling point [ Table 6 defined as the higher of thereached a freezing 30 temperature cSt and viscosity. the temperature at which the fluid kinematic viscosity 2018 JINST 13 P03012 K (4.2) (4.1) is the mean I Corrosive Corrosive Flammable  1 ) < 2 βγ ( C) ◦ δ − 2 β , − 2 (atm at 20 ) M max / ] T e 2 2 m γ ( γ 2 2 2 I β + is the density of the medium, β 2 2 c ρ c M e C at 1 atm e ◦ / m e m 2 1230 [78] 4710 [79] 5110 [80] 2 m – 10 – is the maximum energy transfer in a single collision, γ ln 2 2 1  max + T 1 2 1 β = A Z , and 2 2 max c T Kz e m = is the density effect correction function to ionization energy loss. 2 e r  ) can be found using the Bethe-Bloch equation, given by [18] A βγ N dx dE ( π δ − 4 1000  . Properties of Novec 1230 and more recent 4710 [79] and 515078]. [ 1,1-Difluoroacetone] [66 Hexafluoroacetone [69] 47 -28 5.8 Flammable Highly reactive 1,1,1-Trifluoroacetone [67] 21-24 1 Flammable ρ 1 ≤ . Properties of fluorinated ketons with a chain made by three carbon atoms. 2 F Fluoroacetone [65] 75 Highly toxic F 1,1,1,3-Tetrafluoroacetone [68] 35 0.67 Flammable 2 2 3 Ozone Depletion Potential (ODP)Global Warming Potential IPCC2Atmospheric Lifetime (Years) 0 0.014 1 (5 days) 30 0 2100 0.04 (14 days) 0 Mc is the mean energy loss per length, 3 /

Table 10 p C at 1 atm. Table 10 shows properties of Novec 1230, along with more recent Novec ◦ Table 9 COCH COCHF COCF dx COCH dE = 3 3 3 3 COCF − 3

CH CH CF F MolecularformulaCH Compound Boiling point Vapour pressure Notes [ βγ ≤ 1 . where M is the mass of the incoming particle. where excitation energy, and is a constant given by given by point of 49 5110 [80] and Novec 4710. 4 Estimation of gas parameters This section reviews the parametricparticle formulas detectors for with the the physics aim quantitiesformulas of of are evaluating derived them interest are for for omitted new elementary candidate forparticle brevity, ecogases. physics the textbook, interested Details or reader of reviews can such how as find the [18]. them in any elementary 4.1 Stopping power Quantities such as theknown. minimum An ionization approximate expression energy for0 moderately can relativistic be particles computed in the if momentum the region stopping power is 2018 JINST 13 P03012 (4.3) (4.4) based on 1 X and 0 X , ¯ C as computed via eq. (4.1) for function for non-conducting ; , the density effect correlation γβ ) ) 1 i X βγ γδ A ( ; ; < / δ 1 0 Z X X X h / ≥ < ≤ # j 0 I X X X ln if if if ) j ¯ ¯ A C C / j − − Z X X ( – 11 – ) ) j w j ln 10 ln 10 Õ ( ( 0 2 2 ("         = for a composite medium can be approximated from the composite exp ) I = γδ ’th constituent. The shape of the ( I j δ is the fraction by weight, atomic number, atomic weight and mean ionization j I . To find an approximate expression for the parameters ) γδ and ( j 10 A , j log Z = , j . Energy loss as a function of the relativistic time dilation factor X w The mean excitation energy Figure 1 various refrigerants. atoms by the relation [83]. where where experimental fits, we refer to [84]. Forfunction gases can with be momenta neglected. below A plotshown of in the figure1. calculated energy loss (eq. (4.1)) for various refrigerants is energy, respectively, of the materials can be approximated by 2018 JINST 13 P03012 , Z α (4.8) (4.7) (4.5) (4.6) = z 3 z z +  008 1 2 . 1 , ) ZL + 1 3 / − 2 + 2 z − )) cm Z z 2  ( , L f 4 j 0369 . j m . 0 0 − A 1 Z ¯ 1994 X Z ( 1  − L ln j z ( Õ 2 025 Z ) .  202 3 . 0 / / 1 1 1 A − − ) – 12 – ≈ molecule Z 4 . m A ) 1 0 is the one-photon exchange approximation, and 2 15 Z ¯ L mol Z ) . z is the atomic number. This formula, however, only holds . 2 = z 4 ( − + Z 0 1 f 1 184 2 996 X ( . cm n expressions for various atom numbers from [20]. ( 3 ( ln 2 n L = 1 405 . = P ∞ ≥ n Õ 234 4.79 4.74 4.71 5.621 5.805 5.924 1 5.31 6.144 Z N and 5 2 1 z 716 L = = . ) 0 z X ( ’th constituent of the atom. j f Table 11 are given by table 11, 2 L and refers to the 1 j L The total number of ionizations has proven to be more difficult to estimate. Whereas no general being the fine-structure constant and α formula has been derived, the most straightforward method will be to use the cross sections used to which holds for normal pressurethe and number temperature scales with (NPT). the For density.This different formula, This pressure whose value result and should should temperature, only be behydrocarbons taken taken as and as an only a approximate partially estimate, rough has for estimation proven30% molecules though. to from consisting work the best mainly experimental for of value fluorine, for CF differing as much as where 4.3 Estimation of ionization pairIn production order to model thefor number all of the particle-atom primary interactions ionizations should be causedlength calculated. by would a The then number single of be particle, primary the electrons the integralproblematic, per cross unit over since section energy all across electron all orbital the transferscorrelation energy have between to transfer primary be cross considered. sections. ionization An anddata This easier, by is atom but [85] number approximate, has been found based on experimental 4.2 Radiation length The radiation length of an atom is determined by [20] where for free atoms. The stopping power for afrom molecule is molecular determined bindings, by taking crystal into account structureseffects, the and influence however, one polarization can of find the ansingle medium. approximate atoms expression By by neglecting weighting these the radiation length of the 2018 JINST 13 P03012 (4.9) (4.10) , , ] ) m n ( Z ) m n ( f [ m denotes the relative number of molecules Õ value for a gas mixture can be found by [85] ) 1  m W W ] n ) ( defines the average energy necessary to produce f dx m dE n E ρ ( N ∆ (2010) 146. – 13 – = W ) = T m N n W ( A 617 Z ) m n ( f [ m Õ Operational experience of the gas gain monitoring system of the CMS RPC = is a slowly varying function of the particle energy [86], and can therefore ¯ Gas analysis and monitoring systems for the RPC detector of CMS at LHC W W . Nucl. Instrum. Meth. , denotes the index of the molecule, and values for specific gases are know, the average m n W muon detectors physics/0701014 The value of W is difficult to predict, and there is not a direct way to give a proper esti- [1] United States Environmental Protection Agency, . http://www.epa.gov/ozone/snap/subsgwps.html [2] M. Abbrescia et al., [3] S. Colafranceschi et al., be taken to be afound by constant in an energy interval. The total ionization per unit length can then be an ion pair. The energy calculate the primary ionization electrons, andof use Monte secondary Carlo electrons simulations to from track the primarybe production dependent electrons. on the The incoming total particledifficult energy to number find. and of mass, For pair and an incoming a ionization particle, general turns expression out can therefore to be If the where mate based on experimentalthe data photoabsorption alone. ionization and Aforthcoming relaxation montecarlo paper. (PAIR) simulation model is [85] in and preparation it will which be uses the5 subject of a Conclusions Fluorine-based gases today used in HEP gas detectorsby are eco-friendly substitute being gases. phased out This by study industry has and reportedreplacements replaced on for a HEP general gases, survey of discussed industrially their available physicalissues. properties, materials compatibility and Parameters safety of of parameterizations: interest for ionisation their energy,candidates with electronegativity, use lower number GWP in are of identified HEP primary for further detectors pairs. experimental have studies. Promising beenAcknowledgments computed by means This work was fundedUniversità by e Ricerca Istituto of Nazionale Italy, the diChina. Center Fisica for Research This Nucleare in work and Nuclear hasand Physics, Ministero the innovation also programme della Peking received under University Istruzione, grant funding of agreement fromsuggestions No from, 654168 the (AIDA2020). Marcello European Abbrescia Discussions Union’s (Università with, di Horizon and Bari 2020 and research INFN) are gratefully acknowledged. References of the given sort in the mixture. 2018 JINST 13 P03012 , , C Nucl. , 187 (2012) ]. , Ph.D. Nucl. (1974) 815 Nucl. , , , A 661 (2002) 1. (1999) 341. 46 Chin. Phys. , , Hamburg 24 49 ]. Nucl. Instrum. Meth. , arXiv:1209.3893 ECFA meeting Rev. Mod. Phys. (1999) 234. , Nucl. Instrum. Meth. , ICFA Instrum. Bull. P12004[ , A 421 ]. 7 ]. Review of Particle Physics arXiv:1605.01691 Ann. Rev. Nucl. Part. Sci. , , presented at JINST P08019[ , 2012 11 – 14 – ]. arXiv:1210.1819 Nucl. Instrum. Meth. arXiv:0812.1108 , (2006) 159. 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Biagi, [22] ASHRAE standards home page . https://www.ashrae.org [23] J. Va’vra, [24] F. Sauli, [25] B. Schmidt, 2018 JINST 13 P03012 /media/North%20America/US/Documents/ ∼ (2003). 372 – 15 – A 515 Nucl. Instrum. Meth. , Final remarks: Do we need a Global Universal Aging Research and Development Study of long-term sustained operation of gaseous detectors for the high rate environment , CERN-THESIS-2016-041 (2016). 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