A Phonological and Grammatical Sketch of the Dukawa Language

with a Focus on the Kirho Dialect of ‹s,G tm'›s,Gtm( 'Gtm,R``qd+hmsgdD sgmnknftd+D sgmnknftdB ncd9CT C(

Rijau Local Government, Niger State, Nigeria

David and Carleen Heath

1996 – 1997, revised May, 2002

3/13/06 Dukawa Sketch 1

Table of Contents 1. Introduction 3 2. a. Phonology 5 b. Orthography 23 c. Tone Analysis 27 3. Lexical Categories 51 4. Morphology and Syntax of Nouns and Noun Phrases 55 5. Morphology and Syntax of Verbs and Verb Phrases* 69 6. Syntax and Semantics * 76 7. Negation 93 8. Imperatives, Hortatory, and Optatives 96 9. Formation of Interrogative Sentences 98 10. References 102 11. Dukawa books available as of May 2002 103 * Entries in italics in chapters 5 and 6 are observations found in BSC (Bender-Samuel, Skitch, and Cressman) which we have not confirmed.

APPENDIX A Abbreviations 105 APPENDIX B Time Words 106 APPENDIX C Conjunctions and Discourse Markers 109 APPENDIX D The Uses of .m«/ and /›m/ 114 APPENDIX E Pronoun Chart 116 APPENDIX F Dukawa Texts (Separate book)

3/13/06 Dukawa Sketch 2 1. Introduction The Dukawa People The Dukawa live primarily in Niger State of Nigeria. They have two major dialect divisions (Ωs,G tm`mcΩs,R``q∆(with many sub- dialects within each of them. Ωs,G tm'D `rsdqmCh`kdbs( T cct Rg`mihq C`q`mfh Q hi`t'nqQ `s`fhv`( J hqgn Ωs,R``q∆'V drsdqmCh`kdbs( Ctjjt Hqh Y dmsd) C÷f) O÷j) )`bbnqchmfsnIngmHrg`x`+nsgdqr`bbnqchmfsnCdssvdhkdq+0882- The language center of the Ωs,G tmis between the towns of Rijau and Tungan Magajiya where the Kirho dialect is spoken. Traditionally, the Kirho people were based in Tungan Magajiya until the development of a hospital in the late 1940’s, which brought more Lelna people (the speakers of the C’lela language who traditionally lived in the North) into the area. The result was that many Kirho speakers moved further into the bush. The language center of the Ωs,R``q∆ is in the distant village of Dukku (Duku). The two major dialects are the Dukku and Iri dialects. The Ωs,R``q∆ dialect is very different from the Ωs,G tm, but it amazing how the Kirho dialect appears to be understood by all dialects. Kirho speakers cannot understand the others very well. We are doing further testing to determine the differences adsv ddmΩs,G tm`mcΩs,R``q∆+ats`ssgd oqdrdmsshldsgdx`ood`qsnadlnqdkdwhb`kcheedqdmbdrsg`m rsqtbstq`k- The people themselves are farmers. Almost every able body contributes in some way or another to the farming chores. In addition to farming, some also have other trades such as: bone setting, herbs, blacksmithing and cattle raising. The few that we know that have received advanced education have expanded to areas of health and agriculture. The major food crop is guinea corn, while maize, yams, cassava, rice, peppers, sesame seeds... are used as food and cash crops.

3/13/06 Dukawa Sketch 3 Previous Language Work In the late 1960’s and 1970’s, Esther Cressman and Donna Skitch worked with the Dukawa as the United Missionary Society’s representatives. They published many books in the language (see References) and one book about the structure of the language with John Bendor-Samuel called: Studies in Nigerian Languages No.3 Duka Sentence, Clause, and Phrase. This book will be referred to as BSC henceforth. “Duka” was used as the name at that time, but it is generally not accepted since “duka” means “all” in Hausa (the trade language of that area). Unfortunately, Cressman and Skitch combined dialects in their translation work and grammatical analysis. In the early and mid-1990’s, Craig and Mary Duddles resumed the work with the Dukawa with the goal of finishing the Dukawa Bible. They laid most of the groundwork for the present phonology and orthography. Most of the phonology has not changed the previous work of Cressman and Skitch, but the orthography was changed from phonetic characters ∆+ ’+ √ (which really stands for the ‹ ( to a “typewriter friendly” script of «+÷+`mc›-

The Present Analysis The present analysis is based on fieldwork which was started in September of 1995. We have been aided in our language learning by: Danbaba Noma Kirho (chairman, Dukawa Language Promotion Committee), John Ishaya Shanjir, Samuel Danture Kirho, Mary Samuel Uddu, Tani Magaji Kirho, and Danjuma Magaji Kirho. We also owe a great deal to our consultant Don Frantz who has guided us in our analysis. The revision of 2002 was primarily to up-date the findings and to clarify and document important remaining issues regarding the language.

3/13/06 Dukawa Sketch 4 1`-Ognmnknfx H-Hmsqnctbshnm S ghrhrògnmnknfhb`kcdrbqhoshnmnesgdCtj`v`k`mft`fd+ vghbghrronjdmhmMnqsgvdrsMhfdqh`-S ghroòdqenbtrdrnmsgd J hqgnch`kdbsnesgdGtmrta,fqnto-Rtardptdmskx+`m nqsgnfqògxhroqnonrdcenqvqhshmfsgdk`mft`fd+dw`lokdvnqcr `qdfhudmtrhmfsgdoqnonrdcnqsgnfqògx`mc`mdw`lokdsdwshr hmbktcdc-S ghroòdqbnms`hmrltbgnesgdr`ldhmenql`shnm fhudmhmòqduhntrtmotakhrgdccnbtldmsaxLq-`mcLqr-B q`hf CtcckdrdmshskdcÌS nv`qcr`S dms`shudCtj`mbhN qsgnfqògx-Ó S ghroòdqrddjrsnenql`khydrnldnesgdhq`m`kxrdr`mcsn `mrvdqptdrshnmr+vghbgsgdxoqnonrdc`mckdestm`mrvdqdc- S gdrdvnqcr`mcrntmcrvgdqdsdrsdcnmsgdenkknvhmf hmenql`msr9C`maà`Mnl`J hqgn+C`mitl``mcS `mhL`fìh J hqgn+R`ltdkC`mstqdJ hqgn`mcsgdqdrhcdmsrnesgduhkk`fdne N s`à'Chx`mE`q`(-

HH-V nqcO `ssdqmr Enkknvhmf`qdqdoqdrdms`shudvnqcrhmJ hqgn-2*dw`lokdr `qdfhudmenqd`bgo`ssdqm-ÌMÓl`qjr`rxkkàhbm`r`kbnmrnm`ms+ ÌUÓrs`mcrenqunvdk`mcÌB Órs`mcrenqbnmrnm`ms-Ì-Ól`qjr` rxkkàkdantmc`qx`mcÌ,Ósgdaqd`jadsvddmsgdmntmbk`rr l`qjdq`mcsgdqnns-Enqrhlokhbhsx+sgdxvhkkadfqntodc `bbnqchmfsnsgdqnnsrhmbditrsànts`kksgdmntmqnnsenqlrb`m s`jdù`qhdsxnemntmbk`rrl`qjdqr- S gdmntmbk`rrl `qjdqrb`madrhl okhehdc`r9 U, < n UB , < ‹q, ‹r, ‹s UB U, < ∆f∆, '`mc ‹q‹, ‹r‹, ‹s‹,ax dodmsgdrhr(`mc ,B U < ,m∆ 'rteehwnmkx( M, < l,'rxkkàhbm`r`k( S gdqnnsv nqco`ssdqmrb`mad9

U `r hm Z∆\ Ësgdx+ sgdlÈ Z’\ ËhsÈ Zn\ ËxntÈ 'rf( Zn,h\ Ëk`jdÈ Zn,d\ Ëfq`rrgnoodqÈ

3/13/06 Dukawa Sketch 5 BU `r hm Zs∆\ ËvdÈ Zm’\ ËxntÈ 'ok( Zm`\ ÍbnvÎ Zn,s`\ ËanvÈ

UB Zn,`q\ ËlnmjdxÈ Zn,`l\ Ëancx etmftrÈ Zn,∆m\ ËrghmÈ Zn,h±\ Ëcnnqv`xÈ

BUB `r hm Zs∆s\ ËsgqddÈ Zm∆s\ ËodqrnmÈ Zi’j\ ËvdcchmfÈ Zn,a’q\ Ël`qjÈ

BUBB `r hm Z‹q,f∆jr\ ÍmdbjÎ Z‹q,g`js\ Ëx`vmhmfÈ Z‹q,g’js\ Ëok`xhmfÈ Z‹s,qdjs\ Ërjhm tmcdq bghmÈ

BUBU `r hm Zn,c’f’\ Ë` jhmc ne ehrgÈ Zn,o`q`\ Ë` pthudq 'a`f enq `qqnvr(È Z‹q,j∆j∆\ ÍahbxbkdÎ Z‹s,a`q`\ Ínhkenq`mnhmshmfsgdcd`cÎ

BUBUB `r hm Zn,y‹-q‹f\ ËcthjdqÈ Zn,gn-j’m\ Ëkhy`qcÈ Zl,o‹-o’q\ ËrlnnsgÈ Zl,g∆-q∆f\ Ër`mcÈ

BUBBU `r hm Zn,r`j-q`\ ËutkstqdÈ Zn,r’j-r‹\ Ëatlor nm rjhmÈ Z‹s,sdo-q∆\ Ëmdv kd`eÈ Zn,o’f-s’\ Ë`rr`rhm,atfÈ

BUBBUB `r hm Zv nqrnq\ Ërk`oÈ Zjtsjts\ Ëchrodmr`shnm ne rldkkÈ Zotjotj\ Ëe`mbx bknsgdrÈ Zg`or∆s\ Ëons khcÈ

3/13/06 Dukawa Sketch 6 BUBUBU `r hm Zn,±`-q`-a`\ Ësghfg ne ` bnvÈ Zn,f’-qd-a`\ Ëctl o`kl sqddÈ Zn,l`-q‹-q‹\ Ëk`qfd hmsdrshmdrÈ Z‹s,l`-q`-f`\ ËS ghqc rs`fd ne q`hmx rd`rnmÈ

BUBUBUB `r hm Zn,b`-s‹-b`l\ ËatssdqekxÈ )) Zb\hrrtrodbs 'hmbktcdc enq vnqc ehm`k ÎBÏ( Zn,j`-sh-±`l\ Ë`msd`sdqÈ )) ZH\hrrtrodbs 'ats hs bkd`qkx etmbshnmr `r ` unvdk( BUBUBUBU `r hm Z‹q,q∆-j’-l‹-q‹\ ËbghmÈ qdrhctd9 Ëxnmr+ gnmjr

S gdoqnakdlrv hsgk`qfdv nqcr9 0( S gdqd `qd `krn l`mx nsgdq k`qfdq vnqc o`ssdqmr+ ats lnrs ne sgd k`qfdq vnqcr `ood`q sn ad lnqd sg`m nm vnqc sg`s hr inhmdc snfdsgdq- Enq dw`lokd9 Zn,rg`la∆∆q∆\ knnjr khjd sgd bnlonmdms vnqcr enq Îqdrdlakdr 'rg`( bk`rr l`qjdq 'l( qhbd 'a∆∆q∆(-Ï @ krn Zsnsxnlg’\ enq Îdkdbsqhb b`sehrgÏ L `k`osdqtqtr dkdbshbtr hr ` bnlahm`shnm ne Îrbnqohnm 'sns( ne 'xn( bk`rr l`qjdq 'l( v`sdq 'g’(-Ï S ghr lhfgs ad rddm adssdq `r sns,xn l,g’- @ mnsgdq dw`lokd hr Zv`s`qha`lanv`\ Ërl`kk fqddm sqdd eqnfÈ vghbg lhfgs ad rokhs to hmsn rdudq`k hmchuhct`k vnqcr-

1( Hs hr cheehbtks sn ehmc k`qfd vnqcr sg`s `qd mns rtrodbs adb`trd o`k`s`khydc `mc k`ah`khrdc `qd hm eqdptdms trd `r vdkk `r Zh\ `mc Zt\-

N ardqu`shnmrnmv nqco`ssdqmr9 0( L nrs ne sgd vnqcr sg`s dmc hm bnmrnm`msr `qd trt`kkx svn rxkk`akdr nq kdrr hm sgd qnns Ê k`qfdq vnqcr sdmc sn ad BUBUBU dwbdos vgdm sgd vnqc hr ` bnlontmc vnqc- V nqcr sg`s dmc hm ` BB 'jr+ js+ mr( `qd rhmfkd rxkk`akd qnnsr-

1( L `mx `cidbshudr `mc `cudqar `qd qdctokhb`sdc BUB o`ssdqmr+ rtbg `r Zb`rb`r\ Îudqx bkd`m+Ï khsdq`kkx+ Îbkd`m bkd`m-Ï

HHH-RxkkàkdO `ssdqmr HmJ hqgn+d`bgrxkkàkdbnmrhrsrne`l`mc`snqxmtbkdtr+ vghbgl`xadoqdbdcdc`mc.nqenkknvdcax`mnoshnm`kl`qfhm- Cntakdunvdkr`mcbnmrnm`msbktrsdqr`qdbnmrhcdqdcrtrodbs rdptdmbdr`ssghronhmshmsgdoòdq-S gdxl`xadrhmfkd rdfldmsrnqcntakdrdfldmsr-@krn+Zt+h+x`mcv\`qd

3/13/06 Dukawa Sketch 7 bnmrhcdqdcrtrodbsrntmcr-Enkknvhmfa`rhbkhmfthrshboqhmbhokdr+ `kkrtrodbsrntmcr`mcrdptdmbdrvhkkadhmsdqoqdsdca`rdctonm sgdo`ssdqmrdrsàkhrgdcaxsgdmnm,rtrodbsrntmcr`mcrdptdmbdr- S gdenkknvhmfdw`lokdrnerxkkàkdo`ssdqmrhmJ hqgn`qd`kkmnm, rtrodbsrxkkàkdr-Ì-Óhmchb`sdr`rxkkàkdantmc`qx-S gdrxkkàkd hmenbtrhrhmankc- U `r hm Z∆\ ËsgdxÈ Zn,y‹q‹f\ ËcthjdqÈ Zn,s`È`q\ ËrsnmdÈ

M `r hm Zl,g’\ Ëv`sdqÈ Zl,s`\ Ër`khu`È Zl,j∆\ ËaddqÈ

BU `r hm Zv ‹\ ËgdÈ Zm’\ ËxntÈ 'oktq`k( Zl,g’\ Ëv`sdqÈ

UB `r hm Z‹s,l∆m\ Ërsnl`bgrÈ Zn,`l\ Ëancx etmftrÈ Zn,∆m\ ËrghmÈ

BUB `r hm Zs∆s\ ËsgqddÈ Zm∆s\ ËodqrnmÈ Zn,s’s\ ËrbnqohnmÈ

BUBB Z‹s,g`js\ Ëx`vmhmfÈ Z‹q,fdjr\ ÍmdbjÎ Z‹q,c`jr\ Ëo`kl 'g`mc(È qdrhctd9 Ëxnmr+ gnmjr Hmrtll`qx+`J hqgnrxkkàkdbnms`hmr`l`mc`snqxmtbkdtr vghbgb`madehkkdcaxdhsgdq`m`r`knqùnvdk-@mnmrds`mc` bnc``qdd`bgnoshnm`k-@mxbnmrnm`msb`mehkk`mnmrdsnqbnc` onrhshnm-@bnlokdwbnc`ne`bnmrnm`msbktrsdqb`mnmkxad` rdptdmbdne`m`r`k`mc`gnlnqf`mhboknrhud+nqsgdunhbdkdrr udk`qoknrhudZj\enkknvdcaxZs\nqZr\'onrrhakxZmr\`rvdkk(- HU -RtrodbsRntmcr A `rdcnmsgdmnm,rtrodbsdw`lokdrnesgdrxkkàkdo`ssdqmr ànud+sgdunvdkrZt\`mcZh\`qdhmsdqoqdsdc`renkknvr9

3/13/06 Dukawa Sketch 8 Zh\Zt\Zx\Zv\o`ssdqm`rbnmrnm`msr+vqhssdmZx\Zv\vgdm oqdbdchmfùnvdknqvgdmhsetmbshnmr`rsgdbnc`+dkrdvgdqd sgdxo`ssdqm`runvdkr+vqhssdmZh\Zt\- D w`lokdrneZx\`mcZv\hmsgdbnc`9 Zl`f`x\ Ík`qfdrvnqcÎ Zm`x\ ÍeqhdmcÎ Zbnv\ Íqn`cÎ Zxnvxnv\ ÍudqxbknrdÎ U -RtrodbsRdptdmbdr S gdànudJ hqgnmnm,rtrodbsrxkkàkdo`ssdqmrhmchb`sdsg`s sgdqd`qdmnbnmrnm`msbktrsdqrhmsgdk`mft`fddwbdoshmsgdbnc`- Hmsgdbnc`+òknrhudenkknvdcax`mnsgdqoknrhudnqèqhb`shudhr onrrhakd-Hm`kknsgdqonrhshnmrsgdmnm,rtrodbsvnqcr`mc rxkkàkdrrgnvmnbnmrnm`msbktrsdqr-S gdqdenqdsgdenkknvhmf fthcdkhmdrenqsgdhmsdqoqds`shnmnebnmrnm`msr`qddrsàkhrgdc9 0(@mxbnmrnm`msenkknvdcax`Zx\rntmchrbnmrhcdqdcsn ad`rhmfkdo`k`s`khydcbnmrnm`ms-Enqdw`lokd9 Zox\

1(@mxbnmrnm`msenkknvdcax`Zv\rntmchrbnmrhcdqdcsn ad`rhmfkdk`ah`khydcbnmrnm`ms-Enqdw`lokd9 Zcv\

2(@eeqhb`sdr`qdbnmrhcdqdcsnad`rhmfkdbnmrnm`ms9 Zi\

3/13/06 Dukawa Sketch 9

3(@mxbnmrnm`msoqdbdcdcax`m`r`k`kv`xrnbbtqrhm` cheedqdmsrxkkàkdsg`msgdm`r`khmmnm,rtrodbsvnqcr-Rnsgd m`r`k`mcsgdbnmrnm`ms`qdbnmrhcdqdcsvnrdo`q`sdrdfldmsr- S gdrdnmkxentmcvnqcehm`k'`radhmfo`qsnesgdr`ldrxkkàkd 'sgdb`madvnqcldch`knmkxvgdmsgdrxkkàkdantmcqxrdo`q`sdr sgdl(- Zla\

M nsd qdf`qchmf qdrsqhbsdc ok`bdldms ne rtrodbs rntmcr9 0( S xodr 0,2 'o`k`s`khydcbnmrnm`msr+kàh`khrdcbnmrnm`msr+`mc èeqhb`sdr(nmkxnbbtqhmsgdnmrdsonrhshnmnesgdrxkkàkd-S gdrd sxohb`kkxnmkxadfhmvnqcr+nmdlhfgs`qftdsg`shshrnmkxentmc hmsgdvnqchmhsh`konrhshnmrs`shmfsg`svgdmhmhrentmcvhsghm sgdvnqc+hshrhm`bst`khsxo`qsne`bnlontmcvnqc- 1( S xodr 3,4 nmkx nbbtq hm sgd bnc` ne sgd rxkkàkd-

3/13/06 Dukawa Sketch 10 U H-O gnmdshbB g`qsr S gd`anudhmsdqoqds`shnmrxhdkcsgdenkknvhmfognmdshb bg`qsrenqsgdk`mft`fd-S gdrdvhkkadetqsgdqrstchdchmnqcdqsn cdsdqlhmdvghbgrntmcr`qdognmdlhbhmsgdJ hqgnch`kdbsne Ctj`v`k`mft`fd- @ -B nmrnm`msB g`qs o s j jv v ox jx x a c f cv fv ax fx i b r ± g rv gv rx '>( gx y yv l+ l m ≤ lx mx k q qv qx v x A -Unv dkB g`qs 0-M nm,m`r`khydc h hh ‹ ‹‹ t tt œ ) d n nn ∆ ∆∆ ’ ’’ æ 1 ` `` 1-M `r`khydc ¿¿¿ ∫∫∫ «) õ õõ ≥≥≥ øøø ã ãã * not in original verson of sketch, see footnote #2, page 15.

1 There is only one occurance of this word [o-dææg] meaning “stool (chair).” The native intuition is to write this as an allophone of /∆/. It could be that this is a borrowed word or has some other influence, but since it is the only word with the sound. We decided not to make it an issue in the remainder of this paper.

3/13/06 Dukawa Sketch 11 U HH-O gnmdshbRntmcrhmB nmsq`rs S gdenkknvhmfo`hqrnerntmcrbnmsq`rshmsgdJ hqgnch`kdbs `mcbqd`sd`cheedqdmbdhmld`mhmfvhsghmsgdvnqcr-Enqd`bg o`hq+1rdsrnevnqcr`qdfhudm`rdw`lokdr-V gdmdudqonrrhakd` Ìlhmhl`ko`hqÓhrfhudm-Hm`kksgdnsgdqb`rdr`mÌ`m`knfntr o`hqÓhrtrdc`rsgddw`lokd-

@ - Bnmrnm`msr

Zo\ Za\ BHD Zl,o’q\ Ër`ksÈ Zl,a’q\ ËlhwhmfÈ Zn,o‘\ Ëok`ms sxodÈ Zn,a‘\ ËsnvmÈ

Zox\ Zax\ BHD Z¤q,oxn\ Ëdmsqx gtsÈ Z¤q,axn\ Ëfq`m`qxÈ M HD Zn,oxnnq\ Ëb`khbnÈ Zn,axnm\ ËghoÈ

Zo\ Zox\ M HD Z¤s,oør\ ÍsnbqnrrÎ Z¤r,oxør\ ËqnrdkkdÈ Zl,onq\ Ër`ksÈ Zn,oxnnq\ Ëb`khbnÈ

Zax\ Zx\ BHD Z‹q,axn\ Ëfq`m`qxÈ Z‹q,xn\ Ëa`c.rshmfhmdrrÈ M HD Zn,axnm\ ËghoÈ Zn,xnmt\ Ëdkdog`ms rmnts ehrgÈ

Zs\ Zc\ BHD Zn,s¿\ ËanvÈ Zn,c¿\ ËennsÈ Zn,stq\ ËonsÈ Zn,ctq\ Ëgx`dm`È

Zc\ Zi\ M HD Zn,c∆m\ Íok`bdÎ Zn,i`m\ ËehrgÈ BHD Zc`\ ËbkhlaÈ Zi`\ ËrhdudÈ

Zc\ Zcv\ M HD Zctl\ ÍehfgsÎ Zcv‹l\ ËsgtmcdqÈ Zn,cttf\ Ërghjq`È Zcv‹‹f\ Ëjhbjhmf ne kdfrÈ

Zs\ Zb\ BHD Zn,s¿\ ËanvÈ Zn,b¿\ ËrgddoÈ Zs’o\ Ëo`xÈ Zb’o\ Ëvd`qÈ

Zj\ Zf\ BHD Zn,j‹\ Ësn`cÈ Zn,f‹\ Ëkdno`qcÈ Zn,j`q\ Ëgnqm ne ` bnvÈ Zn,f`q\ ËrgntkcdqÈ

Zj\ Zjv\ BHD Zn,j‘s\ Ësgd atrgÈ Zn,jv’s\ ËqhmfÈ M HD Z‹q,j’l\ ËdmcÈ Z‹s,jv’l\ Ëlds`kÈ

Zj\ Zjx\ M HD ZjÃÀs\ ËbghbjdmÈ ZjxŒl\ Ëq`hmÈ Zn,j`mf`\ Ëvhcd e`s cqtlÈ Zjx`mf`\ ËdwodqsÈ

Zjv\ Zfv\ M HD Zjv‹mf\ Ënjq`È Zfv‹m\ ËfqntmcmtsÈ Zn,jv`mn\ ËchrgÈ Zn,fv`m\ Ël`kd `mhl`kÈ

Zf\ Zfv\ M HD Zl,f”\ Ësn ok`msÈ Z‹s,fv”\ ËunlhsÈ Z‹s,fø\ ËstvnÈ Z‹s,fv¿\ Ëfq`rrÈ

Zf\ Zfx\ M HD Z‹q,f∆\ ËdffÈ Zn,fx∆l\ Íqnbjgxq`wÎ Zn,f∆m\ ËqhaÈ Zn,fx∆l\ Íqnbjgxq`wÎ

Z \ Zg\ BHD Zn, h\ Ëcqx rd`rnm onmcÈ Zn,gh\ Ëgd`cÈ Zn, v’\ ËbgdrsÈ Zn,gv’\ Ërm`jdÈ

3/13/06 Dukawa Sketch 12 Zj\ Z \ BHD Zl,j∆\ Ëfthmd` bnqm addqÈ Zl,Ë∆\ Ërg`ldÈ M HD Z‹r,j‹‹s\ Ërbq`sbghmfÈ Z‹q, ‹‹a\ Ëm`udkÈ

Zjv\ Z v\ BHD Zn,jv‹‹q\ Ëltc ok`senqlÈ Zn, v‹‹q\ Ëmnm,`kbngkhb fthmd` bnqm cqhmjÈ Zn,jv‹mf\ ËaddskdÈ Zn,Ëv‹mf\ Ëak`cckdqÈ

Z v\ Z x\ M HD Z‹q, v‘\ ÍbgdrsÎ Zn, xn\ ËsqddÈ Zl, v’mr\ ËrsqdmfsgÈ Zl,xnmr\ Ëq`hrdÈ

Zg\ Zgv\ BHD Zg’q\ ËgtqqxÈ Zgv’q\ ËlnmdxÈ M HD Z‹q,g‘\ ËrtmÈ Zn,gv‘\ Ërm`jdÈ

Zg\ Zgx\ BHD Zn,g`s\ Ëan`sÈ Zn,gx`s\ ËrtoqhydÈ M HD Z‹q,g“\ ËmnrdÈ Zl,gx“\ ËaknncÈ

Zgv\ Z v\ M HD Zn,gv‘\ Ërm`jdÈ Z‹q, v‘\ ÍbgdrsÎ Zn,gv’f\ Ëokns 'k`mc(È Zl, v‘mr\ ËrsqdmfsgÈ

Zgv\ Zv\ BHD Zgv’q\ ËlnmdxÈ Zv’q\ ËvhmcnvÈ Zn,gv`\ Ëu`hm+ trdkdrrÈ Zn,v`\ Ëkd`eÈ

Zgx\ Z x\ M HD Zgxn\ Ëfthmd`bnqmÎ Zn, xn\ ËsqddÈ Z‹s,gx`mf`m\Ëuhrhnm+ cqd`lÈ Z‹r, xnmf\ Ë` rhfg 'hm o`hm(È

Zb\ Zi\ BHD Zn,b¿m\ ËftmÈ Zn,i¿m\ ËehrgÈ Zl,bh\ Ësn sntbgÈ Zl,ih\ ËqdstqmÈ

Zb\ Zrx\ BHD Zl,bhj\ Ë`rg o`rsd enq rntoÈ Zl,rxhj\ Ësn o`msÈ M HD Zl,bhjr\ Ër`shrexÈ Zl,rxha∆\ ËqtrsÈ

Zr\ Zrv\ BHD Zl,r’\ ËgnmdxÈ Zl,rv’\ ËcqhmjÈ M HD Zr`os\ Ëv`rg g`mcrÈ Zrv’os\ Ëcd,rsdlhmf F - bnqmÈ

Zr\ Zrx\ BHD Zrnnr\ Ëv`rg È Zrx““r\ Ëehkk hs È HD Z \ Ë È Z \ Ë È

Zr\ Zy\ BHD Zr¤⁄rsƒ\ ËcqtmjÈ Zy¤⁄rsƒ\ Ëqn`rsdcÈ Zn,r’\ ËaddÈ Zn,y’\ ËvnqlÈ

Zr\ Z±\ BHD Zn,rn\ Ë` gnkd hm ` sqddÈ Zn,±n\ Ëehqrs o`qs ne q`hmx rd`rnmÈ Zl,r`j\ Ësn a`k`mbdÈ Zl,±`j\ Ësn oddkÈ

Zs\ Z±\ BHD Zl,s`\ Ësn rgnnsÈ Zl,±`\ Ësn qdrdlakdÈ Zn,s`j\ Ërod`qÈ Zn,±`j\ Ë` rdr`ld rddcÈ

Zb\ Z±\ BHD Zn,b`q\ Ëa`bjanmdÈ Zn,±`q\ Ëb`k`a`rg 'kf(È Zn,bn\ Ëe`bdÈ Zn,±n\ Ëehqrs o`qs ne q`hmx rd`rnmÈ

Zy\ Zyv\ BHD Zn,y’l\ ËrsnqxÈ Zn,yv’l\ ËlnmjdxÈ M HD Zn,y’ms\ Ë`msÈ Z‹q,yv’m\ Ëenqdgd`cÈ Z‹r,y`m\ Ëg`xÈ Z‹q,yv`m\ Ëgd`c ed`sgdqr ne ` ahqcÈ

Zy\ Zi\ BHD Zy`\ Ëaqhfgs qdcÈ Zi`\ Ëb`qdetkÈ Zy`q\ Ëmns rdqhntrÈ Zi`q\ ËmdudqÈ

3/13/06 Dukawa Sketch 13 Zl\ Zm\ BHD Zl`\ Ë`krnÈ Zm`\ Ëtr . vdÈ Zl’\ ËrptddydÈ Zm’\ Ëxnt 'ok(È

Zq\ Zqv\ BHD Zn,q‹‹f\ Ëq`sÈ Zn,qv‹‹f\ Ërgddo 'l`kd(È Z‹r,q’\ ËltrbkdrÈ Z‹r,qv’\ ËudhmrÈ

Zq\ Zqx\ M HD Zn,q’’f\ ËqhudqÈ Z‹r,qx``a\ Ë`mfdqÈ Zqn\ Ëv`rÈ Zl,qxn\ Ëxdrsdqc`xÈ Zqns\ Ëg`udÈ Z‹q,qxns\ Ë5,6 OL È

Zv\ Zx\ BHD Zn,v`q\ Ërsqho ne ld`sÈ Zn,x¿q\ Ëahf `wdÈ Zv`\ Ëvgn> 'odqrnm(È Zx`\ Ëvg`s> 'sghmf(È

A - Unvdkr

Zh\ Zd\ BHD Zn,iÃ\ ËgntrdekxÈ Zn,i»\ Ësqdd sxodÈ Zl,bh\ Ësn sntbgÈ Zl,bd\ Ësn btsÈ

Zh\ Z‹\ BHD Zn,chqh\ Ëv`sdqatbjÈ Zn,c‹q‹\ Ëa`bjrhcd ne mdbjÈ Zihq\ ËsgqnvÈ Zi‹q\ ËrdvÈ

Zd\ Z∆\ M HD Zn, »\ Ëfq`rrgnoodqÈ Zl, ≈\ Ëdla`q`rrdcÈ Zddq\ ËdhfgsÈ Z‹q,∆∆q\ Ë`qqnvÈ

Z`\ Z∆\ BHD Zs`\ ËrgnnsÈ Zs∆\ ËvdÈ Zm`\ ËvdÈ 'hmbktrhud( Zm∆\ Ëhm `rrnbh`shnm vhsgÈ

Z`\ Z’\ BHD Z` g¿øf\ Ëvd vdmsÈ Z` g‘”f\ Ëvd jhkkdcÈ Zm`\ ËbnvrÈ Zm’\ Ëxnt 'ok(È Zq`\ ËehqdÈ Zq’\ ËotsÈ

Z’\ Zn\ BHD Z‹q,g‘\ ËrtmÈ Z‹q,g“\ ËmnrsqhkÈ Zn,j’\ Ëv`kjhmf rshbjÈ Zn,jn\ Ëknvdq a`bjÈ

Zn\ Zt\ BHD Zl,fn\ Ësn ok`msÈ Zl,ft\ Ësn gdkoÈ Zn,jn\ Ëknvdq a`bjÈ Zn,jt\ Ëb`k`a`rg enq jddohmf ehrgÈ

Zt\ Z‹\ BHD Zn,jt\ ËonnkÈ Zn,j‹\ ËeqnfÈ Zn,gt\ ËbnkcmdrrÈ Zn,g‹\ ËqnodÈ

Zh\ Zhh\ HD Z \ Ë È Z \ Ë È HD Z \ Ë È Z \ Ë È

Z∆\ Z∆∆\ M HD Zn-r∆o\ ËrnmfÈ Zr∆∆o\ Ëknmf nq s`kkÈ Zn,j∆q\ Ëdxd snnsgÈ Z‹q,j∆∆q\ Ëok`bdÈ

Z`\ Z``\ BHD Zn-røj}f\ ËrgdksdqÈ Zn-r¿øj}f\ ËaqnnlÈ Zg`m\ Ësn fqhkkÈ Zg``m\ Ësn bnldÈ

Z’\ Z’’\ BHD Z‹s-fv‘o}a\ËhsbgÈ Zn-fv’’o}a\ Ëqnne onkdÈ Zn,j’q\Ërsnmd trdc enq qntfgdmhmfÈ Zn,j’’q\ Ëa`rjdsÈ

Zn\ Znn\ BHD Zjnr\ Ësn btqudÈ Zjnnr\ Ësn rds `rhcdÈ Zxnf\ Ëknnrdkx `ss`bgdcÈ Zxnnf\ ËbtqrdÈ

3/13/06 Dukawa Sketch 14 Zt\ Ztt\ BHD Zn,ftf\ ËancxÈ Zn,fttf\ Ëb`bnnmÈ Z \ Ë È Z \ Ë È Z‹\ Z‹‹\ BHD Zn,j‹q\ Ësxod ne ok`msÈ Zn,j‹‹q\ Ëhll`stqd edl`kd bghbjdmÈ Zn,j‹s\ Ëk`qfd rsnl`bg 'bnv(È Zn,j‹‹s\ Ëb`ke 'kdf(È

M nsdnmUnv dkK dmfsg Hm sgd J hqgn ch`kdbs hs hr ltbg lnqd cheehbtks sn l`jd b`rdr enq unvdk kdmfsg adb`trd9 0( sgd J hqgn ch`kdbs lnqd sg`m rnld ne sgd nsgdq ch`kdbsr rdo`q`sdr l`mx ne sgd knmf unvdkr vhsg ` fknss`k rsno- 1( L nrs ne sgd knmf unvdk `mc rgnqs unvdk kdmfsg cheedqdmsh`shnmr bnld eqnl BUUB `mc BUB vnqc qnns o`ssdqmr- Hm nsgdq vnqcr mns ` vhcd roqd`c òokhb`shnm ne unvdk kdmfsg enq bnmsq`rs- 2( L `mx ne sgd udqar sg`s gùd ` qnns o`ssdqm ne 'U(UB `qd `bst`kkx UUB+ ats sgd kdmfsg òod`qr sn ad mdtsq`khydc hm nsgdq sdmrdr `mc oqdrdmskx vd cn mns jmnv ne svn udqar sg`s cheedqdmsh`sd sg`s gùd trd sgd hmhsh`k unvdk kdmfsg `r cdsdqlhmhmf e`bsnq hm drsàkhrghmf ld`mhmf-

@ kknognmdr Ê Bnmchshnmdc D muhqnmldms Zm\ Z≤\ Z≤\ nmkx nbbtqr adenqd Zf\+ Zm\ mdudq cndr- S gdqdenqd+ Z≤\ hr `m `kknognmd ne .m.- Zq\ Zk\ Zk\ nmkx nbbtqr vgdm svn tmcdqkxhmf Zq\ `qd ok`bdc bnmrdbtshudkx 'sghr nmkx nbbtqr adsvddm lnqogdld antmc`qhdr Ê rdd k`sdq`khy`shnm qtkd adknv- S gdqdenqd Zk\ hr `m `kknognmd ne .q.- Odqrnm`k oqdedqdmbd 'mns hm sgd nqhfm`k vqhsd,to(9 ))) Zh\ Zœ\ Zœ\ nmkx nbbtqr hm bknrdc rxkk`akdr vgdm sgd bnc` hr ehkkdc vhsg ` m`r`k nq eqhb`shud+ Zh\ mdudq cndr- S gdqdenqd Zœ\ hr `m `kknognmd ne .h.- 'sghr mddcr etqsgdq sdrshmf(- D wbdoshnmr9 Zqhm\ Ëbg`qbn`kÈ: Zqhl\ ËdudmhmfÈ: Zqhmxn\ Ëb`sÈ: Zxhm\ ËsnnsgÈ cn mns ehs sghr qtkd- Onrrhakd dwok`m`shnm9 S gdqd hr ` onrrhahkhsx sg`s sgdrd vnqcr `qd qd`kkx9 Zqxhm\+ Zqxhl\+ Zqxhmxn\+ `mc Zxhm\ vgdqd sgd Zx\ hr `bst`kkx bntmsdqhmf sgd knvdqhmf ne sgd unvdk pt`khsx ax sgd enkknvhmf m`r`k-

3/13/06 Dukawa Sketch 15 1//1 Q duhrhnm91 ))) Zœ\ Zd\ Zœ\ nmkx nbbtqr hm bknrdc rxkk`akdr vgdm sgd bnc` hr ehkkdc vhsg ` m`r`k nq eqhb`shud+ Zd\ mdudq cndr- S gdqdenqd Zœ\ hr `m `kknognmd ne .d.- S ghr hr rshkk ` onrrhakd oqnakdl Ê rdd ennsmnsd adknv-

[V] [æ] [ß] only occur after a nasalized consonant, [V] never does. Therefore, [ß] are allophones of /V/. For more complete rules see nasalization (6. Nasalization ) below-H`lmnsrtqdvg`ssghrv`rrtoonrdsnadenmsoqnakdl-

UHHH-Q tkdr9 C hrsqhatshnm9 0- Ognmdldr .o+ j. bnmsq`rs vhsg sgdhq unhbdc bntmsdqo`qsr+ .a+ f. hm `kk onrhshnmr dwbdos vnqc,ehm`kkx- V nqc,ehm`kkx sgd bnmsq`rs hr mdtsq`khydc-

Zn-fv’’o}a\ Ëqnne onkdÈ Zn-r¿øj}f\ ËaqnnlÈ

Z‹s-fv‘o}a\ ËhsbgÈ Zn-røj}f\ ËrgdksdqÈ

1- S gd ognmdld .c. hr mns entmc hm sgd vnqc,ehm`k onrhshnm enkknvhmf dhsgdq ` rgnqs nq knmf unvdk- N mkx .s. hr entmc hm sgdrd

1Hmntqhmhsh`kk`mft`fdkd`qmhmfZœ\v `r`e`hqkxq`qdognmd-N tqhmhsh`kqdronmrdsnv `r sghmjnehs`r`m`kknognmdne.h.'`rcndrD mfkhrg(-D rsgdqB qdrrl `m+C nmm`Rjhsbg+`mcsgd C tcckdrchcmnsl `jdmnsdnesgdZœ\hmsgdhqv qhsd,tor-S gqntfgssgdxd`qr'0885,1//1(+v d g`udnardqudcsg`ssgdC tj`v `r`qdrnldvg`sbnmrhrs`mshmv qhshmfsgdZœ\`r`m`kknognmd ne.d.'nmdahfdwbdoshnmadhmfsgdv nqcenqÎm`l dÏhrv qhssdm`r.‹q,ihm.hmrsd`cne.‹q,idm. tmenqstm`sdkxsgdqd`qdl `mxdwbdoshnmrhmntqchbshnm`qx`mcoqdrdmsrodkkhmfrxrsdl ne v ghbg`fnncmtl adqnesgdrd`qdb`qqxnudqrodkkhmfreqnl sgdc`xrneRjdsbg`mc B qdrrl `m(-S he overwhelming majority fit into to this rule 'sg`sZœ\hr`m`kknognmdne.d.(`mc the native intuition is to write it as an /e/. Our struggles have been: 1) not to impose our English perception of this vowel (that [œ] is an allophone of [i]), 2) to question the native intuition to make sure that they are not assuming that they are the same because they are not sure how to write the sound [œ], I (David) have made this an area of discussion over 3 different times with the language team – but they were convienced that [œ] should be written as /e/. 3) to deal with high frequency of [œ], [e], and [∆] and the lower frequency of [i] (thinking that [œ] might be an allophone of [i]. I hesitate to make [œ] a separate phoneme because it would make the vowel chart un-symmetrical (although that should not be the overwhelming principle). My personal recommendation is for the issue to remain open to the “possibility” that [œ] is either an allophone of /i/ (find some explanation for the exceptions) or that is a separate phoneme. In the meantime we need to re-visit the spelling of some words to check it against this “perceived” allophone rule. One example that might support this rule ([œ\ is an allophone of /e/), this that the word for grasshopper can be [o-œ] or [o-e], however, this does not support the environmental factor.

3/13/06 Dukawa Sketch 16 dmuhqnmldmsr- M nsd9 @ ksgntfg .c. cndr mns `ood`q vnqc ehm`k+ sgd BB ne Zmc\ cndr `ood`q vnqc ehm`k-

D w`lokdr9 Zn-jhhs\ ËbghbjdmÈ Zn-j’’s\ Ëfthmd` envkÈ Zn-j’s\ ËatrgÈ

*bnq ,bnms ,,,,,,,,,= Z,uc\. ^^^^^"

L nqogn,ognmdlhbr9 2- Unhbhmf @ rrhlhk`shnm

Unhbdkdrr bnmrnm`msr adbnld unhbdc vgdm oqdbdchmf ` unhbdc bnmrnm`ms `bqnrr lnqogdld antmc`qhdr-

D w`lokdr9 Z‹s-fv‘o\ ,,,,,,,,,,,,,,=Z‹c-fv‘o\ ËhsbghmfÈ Z‹r-axnm\ ,,,,,,,,,,,,,,=Z‹y-axnm\ Ëv`hrsÈ Z‹r-a``s\ ,,,,,,,,,,,,,,=Z‹y-a``s\ ËldchbhmdÈ

*bnmr- *bnmr- ,,,,,,,,,= *uc- . ^^^^* *uc-

3- O`k`s`khy`shnm S gd *rsqhcdms bnmrnm`msr adbnld ,`msdqhnq 'o`k`s`khydc( vgdm `ci`bdms sn ` ,`msdqhnq bnmrnm`ms rtbg `r .x. nq .±.-

D w`lokdr9 Zotr\ * Zxn\ ,,,,,,= Zot±xn\ Ëvghsd nmdÈ '`mhl`sd.mnm,gtl`m( Zi``y\ * Zxn\ ,,,,,,= Zi`c±xn\ Ëqdc nmdÈ '`mhl`sd.mnm,gtl`m(

Zxh±\ ËdxdÈ Z±œÈœs\ Ërhs È

*bnmr- *rsqhc- *ghfg ,,,,,,,,,,= ,`ms- .'^^^^^(,`msdqhnq'^^^^^^(

3/13/06 Dukawa Sketch 17 4- G nlnqf`mhb M `r`k @ rrhlhk`shnm M `r`kr `rrhlhk`sd sn sgd Onhms ne @ qshbtk`shnm ne sgd enkknvhmf bnmrnm`ms-

D w`lokdr9 Zgx`m\ * Za∆\ ,,,,=Zgx`la∆\ Ërdd sgdqdÈ Zgx`m\ * Za∆s∆\ ,,,,=Zgx`la∆s∆\ Ër`v sgdqdÈ

*m`r-,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,=^^^^^^. ^^^^^^^^*bnmr-

5- M `r`khy`shnm

Unvdkr vghbg `qd ,m`r- adbnld *m`r- vgdm oqdbdcdc ax *m`r- S ghr nbbtqr dudm `bqnrr lnqogdld antmc`qhdr- Zl- v’’mr\ ËrsqnmfÈ Zl-x“\ ËvhmcÈ Zl-gx“\ ËaknncÈ Zl-l¤⁄y\ ËtqhmdÈ Zl-gŸ\ Ëctrs.chqsÈ

S gd oqnbdrr hr aknbjdc ax `m hmsdqudmhmf ,rnm- bnmrnm`ms-

Zl-rxŒaƒ\ ËqtrsÈ Zgx“ l‘ j“m »«\ ËHr sgdqd aknnc È

U,,,,,,,,,,,,,=Z*m`r\.Z*m`r\ 'Z*rnm\(^^^^^^^

6- K `sdq`khy`shnm

V gdm svn .q. bnmrnm`msr `qd inhmdc+ sgd rtqe`bd qdoqdrdms`shnm ne sgd .q.Èr hr Zk\- Enq dw`lokd9

Rtqe`bd enql9 Zf`r x`j`k kt\ ËF qdds xntq bghkcqdm fqdds bghkcqdm xntq

T mcdqkxhmf enql9 .f`r x`j`q qt.

3/13/06 Dukawa Sketch 18 D w`lokd 19 Z’k * kd\ Ëlx o`qsmdqrÈ

.’q * qd. o`qsmdqr lx

V gdm sgd vnqc enq ËbghkcqdmÈ `mc sgd vnqc enq ËxntqÈ `qd dkhbhsdc hm hrnk`shnm nq hm nsgdq bnmsdwsr adrhcdr vgdm sgd 1 .q. bnmrnm`msr bnld snfdsgdq+ sgdm sgd ognmdshb qdoqdrdms`shnm ne sgd bnmrnm`msr hr .q.- S gd bnmrnm`ms Zk\ nmkx `ood`qr hm sghr bnmsdws `mc sgd rod`jdqr ne J hqgn cn mns qdbnfmhyd Zk\ `r ` o`qs ne sgdhq k`mft`fd- F nhmf ax sghr qtkd+ sgd enkknvhmf tmcdqkxhmf qdoqdrdms`shnmr b`m ad onrhsdc enq sgd enkknvhmf rtqe`bd enqlr9

.‹q-qÃÃf.,,,,,,,,,,,= Z‹k-kÃÃf\ Ërgd` atssdq mtsÈ Z‹s-qÃÃf\ Ërgd` atssdq mtsrÈ

.‹q-kŒl.,,,,,,,,,,,,= Z‹k-kŒl\ ËsnmftdÈ Z‹s-qŒl\ ËsnmftdrÈ

K `sdq`khy`shnm Q tkd9

*rnm *rnm- *`ms- *`ms- ,m`r - ,m`r- ,k`s- ,k`s- ,,,,,,,,,,= *k`s- *k`s-

M N S D 9 S ghr hr nmd ne sgd qd`rnmr sg`s C tj`v` odnokd gùd ` cheehbtksx hm oqnmntmbhmf bdqs`hm G `tr` vnqcr sg`s adfhm vhsg Îk-Ï Enq dw`lokd+ Îkèhx`Ï hr nesdm oqnmntmbdc Îq`ghx`Ï 'sgdx cn mns gùd sgd ÎeÏ dhsgdq ( `mc sgd bnllnm m`ld ÎK `qa`Ï vghbg bnldr nts `r ZQ `q‹a`\-

7- D odmsgdrhr9 V gdm svn bnmrnm`msr bnld snfdsgdq vnqc,ldch`kkx+ `mc ansg ne sgdl `qd ,rsqhcdms+ `m dodsgdshb`k Z‹\ hr hmrdqsdc hm adsvddm sgd svn BÈr- S ghr hr adb`trd sgd rxkk`akd rsqtbstqd ne sgd k`mft`fd `kknvr enq bnmrnm`ms bktrsdqr nmkx hm sgd vnqc,ehm`k onrhshnm-

D w`lokdr9 .‹s-fd.,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,= Z‹s-‹-fd\ Ël`qqh`fdÈ .‹q-s`È`q.,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,= Z‹q-‹-s`È`q\ Ëkhsskd qnbjÈ

3/13/06 Dukawa Sketch 19 .‹q- ta.,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,= Z‹q-‹- ta\ Ëoqdfm`mbxÈ .q`qa`.,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,=, Zq`q-‹-a`\ ËV dcmdrc`xÈ

M nsd9 V gdm ` m`shud rod`jdq r`xr ` anqqnvdc vnqc adfhmmhmf vhsg ` bnmrnm`ms bktrsdq+ gd hmrdqsr ` Z‹\ `s sgd adfhmmhmf ne sgd vnqc- S gd D mfkhrg vnqc Ërsnl`bgÈ Zrs`-l`j\ fndr sn Z‹r-s`-l`j\-

Onrrhakdbg`mfdhmk`mft`fd V d g`ud nardqudc sg`s l`mx C tj`v` trd dodmsgdrhr sn chuhcd bnmrnm`ms bktrsdqr hm vnqcr- Enq dw`lokd9 .r`jq`. hr oqnmntmbdc ax l`mx `r Zr`j‹q`\- H adkhdud sg`s sghr hr adb`trd sgd k`mft`fd oqdedqr ` BUBUBU o`ssdqm sgqntfgnts vnqcr- A ts sghr rddlr sn ad bg`mfhmf vgdqd sgdqd hr kdrr dodmsgdrhr fnhmf nm- S ghr lhfgs ad adb`trd ne sgd ntsrhcd hmektdmbd ne D mfkhrg `mc onrrhakx G `tr`-

8- S gd V nqc Ehm`k ÎQ Ï Q tkd9

V gdm`m.q.nbbtqrv nqc,ehm`kkx+`Z* ghfg\unv dk oqdbdchmfsgd.q.hrqdod`sdcv nqc,ehm`kkx-'S ghrhradb`trdsgd .q.hr`ek`o-( D w`lokdr9

.n-stq.,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,= Zn-stqt\ ËonsÈ .n-gtq.,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,= Zn-gtqt\ ËgntrdÈ .Rghq.,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,= ZRghqh\ ËF nc sgd Bqd`snqÈ .n-s‹q.,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,= Zn-s‹q‹\ Ës`hkÈ A ts .n,j`q. mn bg`mfd ËgnqmÈ .n,b’q.mnbg`mfd Ísgqn`sÎ

mhk,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,= U1 .U0+ q^^^"+v gdqd

U1< U0 Z* ghfg\ Z* ghfg\

3/13/06 Dukawa Sketch 20 00- Unvdk D kkhorhr

V gdm 1 UÈr bnld snfdsgdq `bqnrr lnqogdld antmc`qhdr+ sgd 1mc U cqnor nts-

.g’ * ‹q.,,,,,,,,,,,,= Zg’q\ c`x BL 'rhmf-( Ëc`xÈ

.g’ * ‹s.,,,,,,,,,,,,,= Zg’s\ c`x BL 'okt-( Ëc`xrÈ

.y∆∆ * ‹q‹.,,,,,,,,,,,,,= Zy∆∆q‹\ r`x M @ Q Q o`rs Ër`hcÈ

.t * ‹q.,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,= Ztq\ bnqord BL ËbnqordÈ

U ,,,,,,,,,=mhk . U*^^^^+ vgdqd * hr ` lnqogdld antmc`qx

01- C d,rxkk`ahehb`shnm

V gdm svn unvdkr bnld snfdsgdq `bqnrr vnqc antmc`qhdr+ sgd rdbnmc unvdk adbnldr Z*bnmr\- S ghr hr adb`trd sgd rxkk`akd rsqtbstqd ne sgd k`mft`fd cndr mns `kknv enq svn unvdkr snfdsgdq-

Z‹ml∆\ * Zn-jtj∆\,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,= Z‹ml∆v jtj∆\ ËhmÈ Ë` qnnlÈ

Q tkd9 U,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,=Z,rxkk-\. U"^^^^^^^ M N S D 9 S ghr nmkx `ood`qr sn ad sqtd vhsg .n. `r sgd rdbnmc unvdk-

3/13/06 Dukawa Sketch 21 HW -B g`qsneOgnmdldr

@ -B nmrnm`msB g`qs o s j jv v ox jx x a c f cv fv ax fx b i r ± g rv gv rx gx y yv yx '>( l l m

q qv qx v x

A -Unv dkB g`qs h hh ‹ ‹‹ t tt œ 'rdd ennsmnsd "1( d n nn ∆ ∆∆ ’ ’’ ` ``

3/13/06 Dukawa Sketch 22 1a-N qsgnfqògx Special Characters: The following chart shows the new orthography that was instigated by Craig and Mary Duddles and tentatively approved by the Dukawa Language Promotion Committee. Basically, it moves the orthography from an IPA alphabet to an orthography that can be easily reproduced on a standard typewriter (with the possible exception of the tone marks). Consonants: The symbol “c” is used for the /b/ and the “j” is used for the /i/ in concordance with the Hausa language. The diagraph “sh” will be used for /±/ in conformity to English and Hausa. The “‹Ï was decided to be represented by the “u,” and in spite of the conformity principle, on 11 April 1997, the Dukawa Language Promotion Committee re-affirmed their preference for “u”. The C’lela (with the “‹Ï( tentatively chosen the “`:Ï and the Reshe (with a “√Ï ( gùd bgnrdm ` Îƒ-Ó The Eastern Kambari languages have both the “‹Ï `mc sgd “√Ï `mc `qd trhmf sgd ÎƒÓsn qdoqdrdmssgd“√-Ï Summary: Lengthened vowels will be written as 2 vowels. Lengthened consonants do not need to be written because they occur in predictible environments. (Up-date: I am doubting the existence of lengthened consonant – formerly there has been /ss/ and /tt/ written word final. I am questioning whether this is really accurate or helpful. Nasalized vowels will not be written because they occur in a predictable environment. Glottal stop / .vhkkadvqhssdm`r`mònrsqnogd'Î(- Kàh`khydc`mco`k`s`khydcbnmrnm`msrvhkkadvqhssdm`r`bnmrnm`ms enkknvdcax`.v.nq`.x.qdrodbshudkx- Rxkkàhbm`r`krvhkkadvqhssdmrhlokx`r`m`r`kvhsgmndwsq`l`qjr- V nqc,ehm`k.o+j+a+f.vhkkadvqhssdm`r.a+f.- Tentatively, we are planning to write high tone only and leave low tone unmarked. This is because low tone is more common and usually occurs on the class markers for nouns. The high tone will be marked with the accent over the vowel nucleus /á/. There are a few orthographic considerations regarding the negative sentence – see the grammar section on negative sentences.

3/13/06 Dukawa Sketch 23 The Dukawa Alphabet Orthography Phonetic Key System Script Words: @` ` n,b`'rgddo( A a a a««q«'qhbd( B b b n,b`'rgddo( Cc c cdcd'aqd`rs( D d d+œ ›s,fd'l`qqh`fd( ß« ∆ ›s,f«'dffr( Ff f ›s,f`'stn( Gg g n,gh'gd`c( Hh h n,oh'b`sdqohkk`q( Ii i n,i`m'ehrg( J j j n,jtj«'qnnl( Ll l l`f`m`'l`hyd( Mm m n,mn'ahqc( N n n n,bn'e`bd( ∂ ÷ ’ n,v÷'cnf( Oo o n,oh'b`sdqohkk`q( Q q q n,q÷÷f'dkdog`ms( Rr r n,r÷m'q`s( S s s s÷l'gndhmf( T t t n,jtj«'qnnl( Ω › ‹ n,s›q's`hk( V v v n,v÷'cnf( X x x xhrg'dxdr( Y y y n,y÷l'g`qd( Î n,È» 'knbtrs.fq`rrgnoodq( high tone o-’é (locust)

3/13/06 Dukawa Sketch 24 Phonological Make up of Dukawa Words and Observations (with relevance to the “Dukawafication” of borrowed words and names). Purpose: The purpose of this section is to aid in the understanding or the natural make-up of Dukawa words so that borrow names and words can be “adjusted” to fit into sound system. Sgdenkknv hmf`qdbnmrnm`msrhmD mfkhrgnqG `tr`+atsMNSbnmrnm`msrhm ¤s,G tm9 e+k+p+u+w M nsdr9 E V nqchmhsh`kkx+.e.hrbnmudqsdchmsn`.o.`rhmsgdG `tr`v nqc.e`q`. adbnlhmf.o`q`.-V nqcldch`kkx+hsb`mad.g.`rhmG `tr`.kèhx`. adbnlhmf.q`ghx`.'rddsgdbnlldmsenqK adknv (nq.o.`rhmsgd G `tr`v nqc.xèd.adbnlhmf.xòd.- K V nqchmhsh`kkx+ldch`k+`mcehm`k+.k.hrbnmudqsdchmsn`.q.`rhm G `tr`.kèhx`.adbnlhmf.q`ghx`.-RhmbdsgdC tj`v `k`mft`fdg`r sgdZk\v gdmsv nZq\Èr`qdok`bdcsnfdsgdq+v drnldshldrgùd `cnosdcv nqcraxok`bhmfÎqqÏhmhsÈrok`bd- P @ ksgntfgsgdC tj`v `rcnmnstrdsgdÎpÏrxlank+sgdxcngùdsgd .jv .`rògnmdldrnsgdnqdshb`kkxsgdD mfkhrgv nqcÎptddmÏbntkc adbnldÎjv hhm-ÏV dgùdmnsxdsmnshbdc`qd`kkheddw`lokd+ v ghbghroqnaàkxcnsnsgdq`qdtrdnesgdD mfkhrgÎpÏ`mcsgdknv mtladqneanqqnv dcv nqcreqnlD mfkhrg- U V nqchmhsh`kkx+.u.hrbnmudqsdchmsn`.a.`rhmsgdD mfkhrgv nqc ÎU hbsnqh`Ïadbnlhmf.ahjsnqhx`.- W @ ksgntfgsgdC tj`v `rcnmnstrdsgdÎwÏrxlank+sgdxcngùdsgd .jr.`rògnmdldrnsgdnqdshb`kkxsgdD mfkhrgv nqcÎanwÏbntkc adbnld.a‘jr.-V dgùdmnsxdsmnshbdc`qd`kkheddw`lokd+v ghbg hroqnaàkxcnsnsgdq`qdtrdnesgdD mfkhrgÎwÏ`mcsgdknv mtladqneanqqnv dcv nqcreqnlD mfkhrg-SgdD mfkhrgÎwÏb`mad trdcnqsgnfqòghb`kkxv nqchmhsh`k+ldch`kkx+`mcehm`kkx+atssgd C tj`v `.jr.g`rnmkxaddmnardqudchmsgdv nqcehm`konrhshnm- Sgdenkknv hmf`qda`rdcnmnardqu`shnmnesgdC tj`v `chbshnm`qxhm ehmchmfrntmcr`mcv gdqdsgdxòod`qm`stq`kkxhmsgdk`mft`fd-Rnld v nqcrv dqdmnss`jdmhmsnbnmrhcdq`shnmhe90(sgdx`qdjmnv msnad anqqnv dceqnlG `tr`nq1(hshr`qdctokhb`shudbnlontmcv nqc'hd- b`rb`rÊb`r* b`r(-'v ghbghrònrrhakddwok`hm`shnmneËox`sox`q-È B NMRNM@ MSR 0- Sgd enkknv hmf B nmrnm`msr b`m ad trdc `s sgd adfhmmhmf ne ` v nqc9 a+b+c+f+g+i+j+l+m+o+q+r+s+v +x+y+Ë+rg'ognmdshb`kkxnmdrntmc( Hm`cchshnm+sgdenkknv hmfb`madtrdc`ssgdadfhmmhmfnev nqcr9 ox+ax+gx+lx+mx+jx+fx+rx+qx+Ëx cv +fv +jv +gv +Ëv +qv +rv +yv

3/13/06 Dukawa Sketch 25 '`kksgdrdrb`madtrdcnmkxhmsgdhmhsh`konrhshnmhm`v nqcv hsgsgd onrrhakddwbdoshnmneox`sox`m( 1- Sgd enkknv hmf B nmrnm`msr b`m ad trdc `s sgd lhcckd ne ` v nqc9 @ K K Ê b`m ad trdc hm sgd lhcckd a+b+c+f+g+i+j+l+m+o+q+r+s+v +x+y+Ë+rg'ognmdshb`kkxnmdrntmc( M N SD 9Sgdo`k`shydc`mckàh`khrdccnmnssxohb`kkxnbbtqhmsgd ldch`konrhshnm+sgddw`lokdrsg`sòod`qsnadaqd`jhmfsghro`ssdqml`x adhmqd`khsx`bnlontmcv nqc- Sgdenkknv hmfBnmrnm`msbktrsdqrb`madtrdc`ssgdlhcckdne` v nqc'M nsd,sg`ssgdx`qdl`cdtonesgdk`rsbnmrnm`msne`BU B`mcsgd BU nqBU Bsg`senkknv rsgtrhshrmns ` sqtd bnmrnm`ms bktrsdqats q`sgdqBU B-BU 9 os iòs«s oq a÷oq« or gòr« jr v÷jr« fa c«fa« fr jvdfr« Íj atÎjtm lb bdlbdl la anla« lo b`lon mf a÷mf÷m mr anmr« ma ahmah mj a`mjnjn mc j÷mc÷jr ms b`mstmt mb bdmbdl` qq ÌKÓ›q,qhl,snmftd qf >b÷qf`b÷qf` qs lnqsnqn qr vnqrnq ra atra« rj bdrj`qd rs shÎhrs« rm jnjnrm` ss a÷ssha÷m sq jdsqhjd so ox`sox`m 'rddmnsdànud(

3/13/06 Dukawa Sketch 26 2- Sgd enkknv hmf B nmrnm`msr b`m ad trdc `s sgd dmc ne ` v nqc9 a+f+j+l+m+o+q+r+s+v +x+y+Ë+rg'ognmdshb`kkxnmdrntmc MNS9 b+ c+ g+ i Notes: Although /d/ does not occur word finally, /nd/ does. Sgdfknss`k.È.l`xmnsad`rduhcdmshmsgdv nqcehm`k onrhshnm+atshmbdqs`hmdmuhqnmldmsr'enqdw`lokdhesgdbk`rrl`qjdqekhor snsgddmcnesgdqnns(hshrnauhntrkxoqdrdms- Hm`cchshnm+sgdenkknv hmfb`madtrdc`ssgddmcnev nqcr9 j,,,js+jr+jsr'>(+jrg 'bhhjrg(> l,,,lo+la+'sgdsgdÎoÏ`mcÎaÏl`xmnsad duhcdmstmkdrrenkknv dcaxsgdmdf`shudnq cdodmcdmsl`qjdq( m,,,mc+mf+ms+mr+mjr'gnmfr( o,,,os+or+ U NV D K R 0- Sgd enkknv hmf U nv dkr b`m ad trdc `s sgd adfhmmhmf ne ` v nqc9 `+d+≈+h+n+‘+t+¤+ chognmf9 `hÊ`hv ≈Êsgdnmkxdw`lokd'onrrhakdanqqnv dcv nqc( 1- Sgd enkknv hmf U nv dkr b`m ad trdc `s sgd lhcckd ne ` v nqc9 `+d+≈+h+Œ+n+‘+t+¤+ 2- Sgd enkknv hmf U nv dkr b`m ad trdc `s sgd dmc ne ` v nqc9 `+d+≈+h+Œ+n+‘+t+¤+ chognmf9 `h'v qhssdmË`xÈÊrtrodbsrntmc+atsqd`khydc`rsgdehm`k rdfldmsrne`BU B(

U NV D K R rdo`q`sdc ax sgd Ë 'fknss`k( V gdmsv nunv dkr`qdrdo`q`sdcax`fknss`k+sgdxsdmcsnadsgd r`ldunv dk-Enqdw`lokd9a`È`r+gdÈdrs≈+gnÈnr+a‘È‘r¤s≈+atÈts---- Sgddwbdoshnmrsnsghr`qd9 mdÈ` Ëv nl`m.v hedÈ dÈn Ëhm,k`v È jdÈn Ëbg`hmr.hloqhrnmldmsÈ jhÈ≈ms≈ ËbkntcrÈ'sghrnmdmddcrbgdbjhmf(

3/13/06 Dukawa Sketch 27 2. c. Tone Analysis Linguists: David and Carleen Heath (collectors, primary) Dr. Don Burquest (consultant) Dr. Steven Bird (consultant) Norm Price (consultant) Language helpers: Danbaba Noma (first term collection - speaker) Sunday Ishaya (collection trip - speaker) Ibrahim Opatta (collection trip - speaker of animal class) Samuel Danture (collection helper) John Ishaya (collection helper) Lamba Kirho (speaker - second term) Data Collection: First Term, September 1995 - May 1997 (examples “d” +#) Directory 1 Data collection trip: January 7 - February 9, 1998 (examples “dk” + #) Dir 2 Second Term collection: Nov-Dec 1998 (examples “l,” “r,”or “f” + #) Dir3 Analysis: September 1997 - April 15, 1998 December 1998- January 1999 Outline: I. Previous Studies II. Contrasting Tones A. Minimal Pairs in Isolation B. Minimal Pairs in Frames III. Lexical, Contours, Grammatical possibilities IV. Tone and Loudness V. Surface Levels of Lexical Tone on Nominals A. Tone of Noun Classes and Markers B. Tone of One Noun Class C. Tone on Nominals Classified by Grammatical Usuage VI. Surface Levels of Lexical Tone on Verbs VII. Segments that affect tone VIII. Analyze levels of tone on the sentence level A. Previous Study and Present Assumption B. General Comments 1. Range 2. Tone and Sentence Intonation 3. Verb Phrase Segments that appear to have lexically assigned tone C. Surface Tone of the Sentence 1. Verb Roots 2. Pronouns and Their Tones within the TAM System D. Possible Processes of Sentence Tone 1. Verb Roots 2. Pronouns IX. Important processes X. Orthography Considerations XI. Testing of Proposed Orthography

3/13/06 Dukawa Sketch 28 I. Previous Studies A. General Dukawa has been classified as “Plateau 1 group of Benue- Congo.”3 Below are the members of this group (the statements in italics are my comments on the statis of the languages at the time of writing): Benue- Congo A. Plateau 1 a. Kambari (project in progress -- no detailed tone analysis available) Duka (this is the name given to the Dukawa language at that time) Dakkakari (project in progress -- no detailed tone analysis available) Basa (I am not aware of any work with this group) Kamuku (There is some local desire for development - no project yet) Reshe (We are presently working with a national on this language no previous known tone analysis) b. Piti, Jani, Kurama, Chawai, Anaguta, Buji, Amap, Gure, Kahugu, Ribina, Butawa, Kudawa (I am not aware of any projects in these languages) There is no specific information on Dukawa or closely related languages. Among the larger language family (Benue-Congo), most of them have been analyzed as either 2-3 levels of tone. Ji, 2 tones; Tyap, 3 tones; Mada, 3 tones.

B. Specific Donna Skitch and Esther Cressman did specific studies on the Dukawa language back in the 1960’s and 1970’s. They do not write about tone specifically, but according to their grammar they wrote Dukawa with three levels of tone. In their publications, tone was marked sparingly. For example, I John 1:1-10 has only 30 tone marks many of which were on a minimal pair “má,” occassional pronouns, and demonstrative pronouns (“kà” this and ká that). The present analysis’ purpose was to determine the function and role of tone in order to determine the necessity of tone in the orthography.

II. Contrasting Tones @ -L hmhl`kO`hqrhmHrnk`shnm S gd C tj`v` K `mft`fd g`r `skd`rs 1 kdwhb`k snmdr: sgdrd adhmf ghfg ZG \ `mc knv ZK \- S gd mtladqr qdoqdrdms rdlhsnmdr 'sgdqd `qd 02 rdlh,snmdr hm ` ltrhb`k nbs`ud. rb`kd(- Hm sgd enkknvhmf dw`lokdr+ sgd mntm hr oqdbdcdc ax ` bk`rr l`qjdq 'n,+

3 According to Kay Williamson in “Current Trends in Linguistics” vol. VII Sub-Saharan Africa. Her classification was taken from Joseph Harold Greenburg’s classification and language list in his book The Languages of Africa (Bloomington: Indiana University, 1970, 3rd edition).

3/13/06 Dukawa Sketch 29 ›q,+l,(vhsgsgddwbdoshnmnecj///2`mccj///3- A dknv `qd lhmhl`k o`hqr rgnvhmf bnmsq`rs ax snmdr9 Q de-" V nqc Fknrr Rdlh,snmdr Rtffdrsdc cj///0 Z¤q,jv‘‘y\ ÌsvdmsxÓ 18-4+2/-0 *-5 KK cj///1 Z¤q,jv’’y\ ÌvqhrsÓ 18-7+22-/ *2-1 KG cj///2 Zx”“q\ Ìad`mrÓ 21-5+2/-0 ,1-4 GK cj///3 Zx““q\ ÌsvnÓ 20-4+2/-6 ,-6 KK cj///4 Z¤q,cŸ\ ÌvdkkÓ 18-2+18-4 *-1 KK cj///5 Z¤q,c⁄\ Ìlnqs`qÓ 2/-6+23-3 *2-6 KG cj///6 Zl,Îx”\ ÌvhmcÓ 18-6+22-/ *2-2 KG cj///7 Zl,Èx—\ Îduhk. rshmfx. vhbjdcÏ 18-6+ 18-0 ,-1 K K q///8 Zn,c¡\ Ìrshbjenqad`shmffqntmcÓ.ÌennsÓ 23-7+26-/ *1-1 KG q//0/ Zn,c¿\ ÌshldÓ 23-3+22-7 ,-5 KK cj//00 Zl,gx“\ Ìf-b-eknvdqÓ2/-8+2/-8 / KK cj//01 Zl,gx”\ ÌaknncÓ 2/-0+22-/ *1-8 KG cj//02 Zl,g⁄\ Ìr`mcÓ 18-7+22-4 *2-7 LG> q//02 *2-8LG> cj//03 Zl,gŸ\ Ìrsd`lÓÌrvdkkhmfÓ18-7+16-6 ,1-0 LK> q//03 ,2-6 LK> cj//04 Zn,v¡\ ÌkdèÓ 17-8+2/-8 *1-/ KG cj//05 Zn,v¿\ ÌbghkcÓ 16-8+16-7 ,-0 KK q//06 Z›q,j¡q\ Ìsq`chshnm`kldchbhmd`ss`bgdcsn`qlÓ ,2-3 GK q//07 Z›q,j¿q\ Ìgnqmenqaknvhmfctqhmfn,qdmf'mdvxd`qr(Ó *1-8KG q//08 Zn,oÕ\ ÌjhmcnesqddÓ *2-2KG.LG> q//1/ Zn,oÃ\ Ìb`sòhkk`qÓ ,2-6 GK.LK> cj//10 Zn,a’\ ÌsnvmÓ 17-/+18-8 *0-8 KG cj//11 Z›s,a‘\ ÌkhdÓ 15-8+15-4 ,-3 KK cj//18 Z›q,cŸl\ ÌcqtlÓ 16-1+20-1 *3-/ KG cj//2/ Z›q,c⁄l\ ÌrntmcnesgtmcdqnqcqtlÓ 17-/+18-/ *0-/ KK cj//20 Z›q,j¡\ Ìrl`kkrjhmne`m`mhl`kÓ 18-/+18-/ / GG q//20 *-8 GG cj//21 Z›q,j¿\ Ì`rshbjtrdenqshdhmfbnvnqfn`sÓ 20-4+17-3 ,2-0 GK q//21 ,2-2 GK cj//22 Zn,a¡\ Ìa`fÓ 18-4+18-1 , -2 GG cj//23 Zn,a¿\ Ìbk`xÓ18-/+16-0 ,0-8 GK q//24 Zn,¿r\ Ìl`fhÓ 23-7:21-6 ,1-0 GK.LK> q//25 Zn,¡r\ Ì`ctksqxÓ 25-1:27-6 *1-4KG.LG> q//26 Zn,m¿s\ ÌlhkkdsÓ 23-4:22-0 ,0-3 KK.LK q//27 Zn,m¡s\ ÌrnqdÓ23-6:25-3 *0-6KG.LG B nmbktrhnmnmM ntmrhmHrnk`shnm Hsòod`qrsg`s`lìnqhsxnesnm`klhmhl`ko`hqrb`madcdrbqhadc`r dhsgdq`GnqK-Gnvdudq+sgdqd`qd`mtladqnehmrs`mbdrvgdqdsgdqd òod`qrsnadònrrhahkhsxne`Lsnmd-

3/13/06 Dukawa Sketch 30 S gdqd`qdèdvdw`lokdrvgdqdsgdbk`rrl`qjdqhsrdkeg`r`m òo`qdmsLsnmd-S gdqd`qdèdvonrrhakddwok`m`shnmr9Ehqrs+hshr` onrrhahkhsxsg`ssgdbk`rrl`qjdqcndrmnsmdbdrr`qxad`qsnmdhmhsrdke+ats q`sgdqrgnvrsgdqdk`shnmrghonesgdmntm-Hmnsgdqvnqcr+hsvhkkgùd` sdmcdmbxsnghfghesgdmntmhrknv`mcadknvhesgdmntmhrghfg-S ghr rddlrsnadsgdb`rdvhsg`lìnqhsxneLbk`rrmntmr-Rdbnmc+lnrsnesgd mntmrvhsg`mòo`qdmsLsnmd`qdrgnqsmntmr-Hshronrrhakdsg`ssgdmntm g`rsvnsnmdrhmvghbgsgdehqrssnmdroqd`crnmsnsgdbk`rrl`qjdq-S ghqckx+ sg`ssgdbk`rrl`qjdqhrsgdadfhmmhmfnesgdmntmogq`rdvghbglhfgsad rhfm`kdcaxghfgdqhmsnm`shnm- A -B nmsq`rshmfS nmdrhmE q`l dr S gdenkknvhmfdw`lokdrgùdsgdvnqcrcŸ'vdkk(`mcc⁄'lnqsdq(hm eq`ldrsnbgdbjhesgdchrshmbshnmhmsnmdhrmdtsq`khydchmbdqs`hm dmuhqnmldmsr-Sgd sv n v nqcr rg`qd sgd r`l d bk`rr l `qjdq Ì›q,Ó v ghbg b`m òod`q dhsgdq adenqd sgd mntm nq èsdq cdodmchmf nm sgd fq`l l `shb`k tr`fd- Hm `cchshnm+ sgd bk`rr l `qjdq bg`mfdr sn ÌcdÓ hm rnl d dmuhqnml dmsr 'sgd ÌcdÓ l `x ad bnmrhcdqdc ` fdmhshud bk`rr l `qjdq(- Sgd oktq`k bk`rr l `qjdq hr Í›s,Î 'Ís÷Î fdmhshud enql (- 0-C dl nmrsq`shudO qnmntmr'Eqnms,hmeq`ldr( j¡,,sg`s^^^^ j¡ ct cd'B k`rrl`qjdq( cj/608 S g`svdkk 20-1 17-2 16-6 GKK q/61/ S g`slnqsdq 28-/ 3/-1 26-4 GGK j¿,,sghr^^^^ j¿ ct cd'B k`rrl`qjdq( cj/610 S ghrvdkk 17-3 18-7 18-/ KKK cj/611 S ghrlnqsdq 18-3 21-8 2/-2 KGK 1-@ cidbshudr'Q d`q,dmceq`ldr( S gd`cidbshudhrankcdc`mchs`khbhydchmansgsgdCtj`v``mcsgd Fknrr-V gdmsgdbk`rrl`qjdqenkknvrsgdmntmsgdrdbnmcunvdkcqnornts- S gdqdenqd+sgdnqsgnfqòghbÌct,›qotcdÓhroqnmntmbdcÌctqotcdÓfhuhmf sgqddsnmdad`qhmftmhsrhmrsd`cneentq- Q de-" F knrr Rdl h,snmdr Hmsdqu`k C heedqdmbd Rtffdrshnm ct,›qotcd cj//4/ S gdmdv vdkk- 18-6 17-1 25-2 ,0-4 0-3 K cj//40 S gdmdv lnqsdq- 22-7 18-8 2/-0 ,2-8 G ct,›qts cj//41 S gdnkcvdkk- 20-1 20-4 *-2 1-6 K cj//42 S gdnkclnqsdq- 22-7 20-3 ,1-3 G ct,›ss«s cj//43 S gdsgqddvdkkr- 18-5 2/-/ *-3 3-0 K cj//44 S gdsgqddlnqsdqr- 22-6 2/-/ ,2-6 G ct,cd›q,a÷m cj//45 S gdfnncvdkk- 20-3 17-4 20-3 ,1-8 1-6 K cj//46 S gdfnnclnqsdq- 23-1 17-5 20-7 ,4-5 G ct,›qC han '` odqrnmÎr m`l d( q//5/ C hanÎrvdkk- 23-/ 26-3 22-5 *2-3 K q//50 C hanÎrlnqsdq- 27-0 27-2 23-/ *-1 G ct,›qb``qh cj//51 S gdahfvdkk- 2/-7 22-0 18-7 *1-2 1-2 K cj//52 S gdahflnqsdq- 21-7 21-7 18-2 / G ct,›qq«cd q//53 S gdrl `kkvdkk- 25 25 25-8 K q//54 S gdrl `kklnqsdq- 28-/ 24-4 24-4 G j`cts÷jòo cj//55 @ kksgdvdkkr- 21-/ 20-0 2/-6 22-7 ,-8.*-5 1-1.1-1 K cj//56 @ kksgdlnqsdqr- 21-8 23-1 20-3 23-3 *0-2.*1-7 G ct,›qotrcd q//57 S gdv ghsdvdkk- 26-6 28-3 26-3 K q//58 S gdv ghsdlnqsdq- 3/-3 28-7 26-4 G

3/13/06 Dukawa Sketch 31 Q de-" F knrr Rdl h,snmdr Hmsdqu`k C heedqdmbd Rtffdrshnm ct,›qqhl cd q//6/ S gdak`bjvdkk- 25 25-8 26-/ K q//60 S gdak`bjlnqsdq- 3/-/ 26-0 26-2 G nctghh cj//61 S gdedv vdkkr- 2/-2 20-6 22-6 *0-3 2-7 K cj//62 S gdedv lnqsdqr- 18-3 23-5 24-2 *4-1 G ›s,ctc««m cj//63 S gdl `mxvdkkr- 25-8 25-6 23-5 K cj//64 S gdl `mxlnqsdqr- 25-7 28-6 23-5 G ct,cdrm› cj//65 S gdgd`uxvdkk- 20-4 18-8 21-8 ,0-5 1-1 K cj//66 S gdgd`uxlnqsdq- 23-5 2/-7 21-8 ,2-7 G jncdjdct,cd cj//67 D udqxvdkk- 23-4 20-0 17-1 2/-2 2/-5 1-0./-5 2-1.2-5 K cj//68 D udqxlnqsdq- 23-7 20-4 18-0 23-3 20-3 4-2.,2-/ G @ksgntfgsgdcheedqdmbdhmsnmdq`mfdbg`mfdreqnldw`lokdsndw`lokd+sgd chrshmbshnmhmsnmdhrmnsmdtsq`khydchm`mxjmnvmdmuhqnmldms-

III. Lexical, Contours, Grammatical possibilities Kdwhb`k9 A `rdcnmsgdoqdrdmsc`s`+hshrbkd`qsg`ssgdqd`qd`skd`rs1kdudkrne snmdnmmntmr-S gdqdhr`onrrhahkhsxsg`ssgdqd`qd2kdudkrnesnmdr`lnmf sgdmntmr-V d`qdrshkkknnjhmfenq`2kdudklhmhl`krdsrgnvhmfsgqdd chrshmbskdudkrnesnmd- S gdqd`qdmns`mxjmnvudqarsg`scheedqhmsnmd`knmd- B nmsntqr9 S gdqd`qdlnrskxkdudksnmdrdwbdos`ssgddmcnehmsdqqnf`shud rdmsdmbdrvgdqdunvdkr`qdkdmfsgdmdc`mcsgdohsbgqhrdr`mce`kkr'B nmsdms9 GG+X dr.Mn9GK(Hadkhdudsg`s`mxbnmsntqb`madhmsdqoqdsdc`r` rdptdmbdnesvnrdfldms+d`bgad`qhmfhsrnvmsnmd- F q`l l `shb`k9 Hadkhdudsg`ssgdqdhrrnldfq`ll`shb`khmektdmbdsg`shra`rdcnm snmd-Enqdw`lokd9sgd.¡.bk`trdehm`ksnl`qjmdf`shudbk`trdr`mc`m.¿. bk`trdehm`ksnl`qjcdodmcdmsbk`trdr-Hm`cchshnm+vhsghmsgdlnnc l`qjhmfrxrsdlsgdqdhr`cheedqdmbdadsvddmsgdlnqogdldrl`qjhmf bnmchshnm.∆.`mccdodmcdmsudqar.«.-

IV. Tone and Loudness S gdqdvdqd`mtladqnedw`lokdrvgdqdsgdsnmd`mckntcmdrrvdqd mnsetmbshnmhmfhmtmhrnm-S gdenkknvhmfdw`lokdc628Ì@ksgntfggdv`r rhbj+gdv`kjdcsnsgdghkkÓrgnvrsgdcheedqdmbdadsvddmsnmd`mckntcmdrr-

3/13/06 Dukawa Sketch 32

3/13/06 Dukawa Sketch 33 Hmsgdrdbnmcdw`lokd'c//4(n,j`v›Ì`fdl`sdÓhr`mnsgdqdw`lokd negnvsnmd`mckntcmdrrcnmnsmdbdrr`qhkxfnsnfdsgdq-Enqnsgdqdw`lokdr rdd9c7/7+c7/8- V hsghmeq`ldr+mntmrvdqdentmcsnadbnmsq`rshudntsrhcdonrrhakd hmektdmbdeqnlrsqdrr-S gdenkknvhmfmntmrgùdsgdr`ldrxkkàkdrsqtbstqd atsgùdbnmsq`rshmfsnmdo`ssdqmr+sgdqdenqd+qtkhmfntssgdonrrhahkhsxne o`q`kkdkadsvddmsnmd`mcrsqdrr'ohsbg`bbdms(- c2/4 GG c205 KG c20/ GK c2/2 KK

V. Surface Levels of Lexical Tone on Nominals @ -S nmdneM ntmB k`rrdr`mcL `qjdqr (The semi-tones Italic and underlined are the class markers.) Rhmftk`q , O ktq`k ydqn , m« D mfkhrg F knrr Rdlh,snmdr Rtfffdrsdc cj/6/0 mdÎ` 17-4 20-/ KG mdÎ`m« 16-1 18-7 18-5 KGG Ìvnl`mÓ cj/6/1 b`lon 17-2 20-5 KG b`lonm« 15-4 2/-2 18-8 KGG Ìl`mÓ n , ›r cj/6/2 n,r¡ 18-/ 20-7 KG ›r,r¡ 18-0 20-5 KG Ìs`ssnnÓ ›q ,, ›r cj/6/3 ›q,a` 2/-1 2/-1 KK ›r,a` 17-5 18-3 KK Ìa`fÓ ydqn , «f« cj/6/4 v’ 20-4 «f«,v’ 16-/ 16-/ 2/-0 KKG ÌcnfÓ cj/6/5 gxn 2/-/ «f«,gxn 17-/ 16-3 18-4 KKG Ìfthmd`bnqmÓ n , m« cj/6/6 n,s`sn 17-2 17-8 17-4 KKK s`sn'm«( 17-7 17-4 18-4 KKG> Ìe`sgdqÓ cj/6/7 n,hmt 18-4 2/-0 18-4 KKK hmt'm«( 2/-1 18-8 18-6 KKK ÌlnsgdqÓ

3/13/06 Dukawa Sketch 34 ydqn , ›s cj/6/8 'n,(s’ 17-2 2/-5 KG ›s,s’ 17-7 20-0 KG Ìd`qÓ cj/60/ j¡¡ms∆ 20-3 20-1 ›s,j¡¡ms∆ 18-0 2/-5 2/-7 KGG ÌrgndÓ ›q , ›r cj/600 ›q,r`v 17-7 18-1 KK ›r,r`v 18-/ 18-1 KK Ìkn`cÓ ydqn , ›r cj/601 rg…»mc 20-4 ›r,rg…»mc 17-0 20-4 KG Ìbk`xanvkÓ ›q , «f« cj/602 ›q,xhrg 2/-1 2/-2 GG «f«,xhrg 17-8 17-/ 20-3 KG ÌdxdÓ cj/603 ›q,««q 2/-5 2/-7 GG «f«,««q 17-1 16-6 2/-4 KG Ì`qqnvÓ n , ›r cj/604 n,Îxn 2/-3 2/-5 KK ›r,Îxn 18-/ 18-5 KK ÌsqddÓ cj/605 n,s` 18-1 20-2 KG ›r,s` 18-0 20-5 KG ÌanvÓ l cj/606 l,g÷ 2/-8 2/-1 KK Ìv`sdqÓ cj/607 n,fv≈q≈ 18-0 17-5 15-4 KKK l,fv≈q≈ 18-7 15-5 14-8 GKK Ìsgqd`cÓ MN S D 9Eqnlsgdrddw`lokdr+hsòod`qrsg`ssgdlìnqhsxnesgdbk`rr l`qjdqr`qdknvsnmdhmqdk`shnmrghosnsgdmntm-@ksgntfgsgdqd`qdl`mx dw`lokdrneghfgsnmdrnmsgdbk`rrl`qjdqr A -S nmdneN mdM ntmB k`rrÌ÷Ó'`mhl `kbk`rr( Rhmbdsgdqdvdqdnmkx1bkd`qkdudkrnebnmsq`rsaxlhmhl`ko`hqr+H sdrsdcnmdmntmbk`rrdhsgdqsnèehqlsg`snmkx1kdudkrdwhrsnqsnchrbnudq2 nqlnqdsnmdr-S gdnardqu`shnmr`qd`renkknvr9 • lnrsnesgditlorvdqd2rdlhsnmdr+vghkdèdvvdqd`qntmc0-4 rdlhsnmdr- • hm`bnkkdbshnmne114mntmr'cj/3/0,514(+Hv`ràkdsnehssgdo`ssdqmr hmsnK`mcGe`hqkxd`rhkxvhsg`kkats51`mcnmkx04nesgd51Hsgntfgs vdqdrdqhntrdmntfgsnetqsgdqbnmrhcdq2onrrhakdsnmdr'K+L+`mcG(- S gdrdoqnakdlvdqdk`sdqqd,sdrsdc'q/3/4,q/505(vhsgsdrshmfeqnlansg

3/13/06 Dukawa Sketch 35 sgdroddbg`m`kxydq`mctrhmfsgdvghrskhmf.gtllhmfsdbghmptd`kkne sgdlehsd`rhkxhmsnK`mcGÎr- • hmsghro`qshbtk`qbk`rrhshradkhdudcsg`ssgdbk`rrl`qjdq.n,.hrfdmdq`kkx `knvsnmd'nmkx0bkd`qdw`lokdrne`ghfgsnmde/16(- B -S nmdnmM nl hm`krB k`rrhehdcaxF q`l l `shb`kT rt`fd Oqnmntmr'odqrnm`k+onrrdrrhud+`mcqdk`shud(+Oqdonrhshnmr+ @cidbshudr+`mc@cudqarvdqdbgdbjdcsnrddhesgdqdv`r`mxkhlhs`shnmnq bnmrsq`hsnmsgdsnmdnesgdrdhsdlr-Hsv`rentmcsg`s`kknesgdlg`c dw`lokdrvhsgansgG`mcKsnmdr-Hmnsgdqvnqcr+bdqs`hmfq`ll`shb`kbk`rr vdqdmnskhlhsdcsn`Ksnmdmnq`Gsnmd-Rdd`oodmchw@'hmsghrrdbshnm nmsnmd(enqdw`lokdr-

VI. Surface Levels of Lexical Tone on Verbs Hsòod`qrsg`ssgdudqarl`x`kkadmdtsq`khmqdf`qcrsnsnmdnqsg`s sgdx`kkrg`qdsgdr`ldkdwhb`ko`ssdqm-S ghrhrcheedqdmssg`msgdmntmr vghbggùdcheedqdmssnmdo`ssdqmr-S gdoqduhntrrstcxneA dmcdq,R`ltdk+ Rjhsbg+`mcB qdrrl`m'gdmbdenqsg+A RB (rs`sdcsg`ssgdudqarvdqdhmgdqdmskx ghfgdwbdosenqèdvvghbgvdqddhsgdqghfgnqlhc- Hmsgdc`sèqnlsgdudqarne9ok`mshmf+l`jhmf+ehkkhmf`mcf`sgdqhmf 'cj04/0,01(+sgdqdvdqdrhfmhehb`msbg`mfdrhmsnmdadsvddmsgdrtaidbs o`qshbhokdr+naidbso`qshbhokdr+`mchmehmhshudr+atssgdqdv`rmno`ssdqmsg`s òod`qdcsndldqfdeqnlsghrc`s`mnqsgdoqduhntrc`s`qdf`qchmfsgdvnqcr enqfn+oq`x+shd`mccqx'c`s`hmÌcÓ*"rdbshnm+ehqrssdqlc`s`(-

VII. Segments that affect tone S gdunhbdkdrrmdrr`mcunhbdmdrrnebnmrnm`msr`mcunvdkgdhfgsg`ud addmmnshbdcsnb`trdrnldektwt`shnmneohsbgvhsghmsgdbnkkdbsdcc`s`- Gnvdudq+sgdcheedqdmbdhmrdfldmsrchcmnsdwok`hmenqsgd0-4rdlh,snmd rsdoradsvddmGr`mcKrnoonrdcsnsgd`udq`fdne2-/rdlh,snmdr-

Conclusions on Lexical tones Oqdrdmskx+Hrshkkgnkcsg`ssgdqd`qdnmkxsvnbkd`qchrshmbskdudkrne snmdognmnknfhb`kkx-Gnvdudq+sgdqdhrrshkksgdonrrhahkhsxne2kdudkrne kdwhb`ksnmd-

VIII. Analyze levels of tone on the sentence level @ -O qduhntrRstcx`mcO qdrdms@ rrtl oshnm @bbnqchmfsnA RB '0/8e(+sgdCtj`v`k`mft`fdv`rcdrbqhadc`r gùhmf2chrshmbskdudkrnertqe`bdsnmdr-S ghrchrshmbshnmv`rduhcdms adsvddmsgdbnlokdshud'o`rs(+etstqd+`mcoqnfqdrrhud'oqdrdms(nesgd dwok`m`snqxlncd-Rne`qvdgùdmnsaddmàkdsndkhbhssgdrdenqlr`lnmf sgdJ hqgnch`kdbsneCtj`v`k`mft`fd-Cnmm`Rjhsbg`mcD rsgdqB qdrrl`m 'sgdoqhldbnkkdbsnqrnec`s`(vdqddwonrdcsnl`mxnesgdch`kdbsr`mcnesdm lhwdcsgdch`kdbsr-Hsbntkcadsg`ssghrchrshmbshnmhrnmkxhmbdqs`hmch`kdbsr- Hshr`krnè`hqkxq`qdbnmrsqtbshnm-@esdqhmsdqkhmd`qhyhmfànts04,1/sdwsr+H gùdnmkxrddmànts4udqarhmsgddwok`m`snqxlncd-Rdd@oodmchwA enq` bg`qsnesgd2snmdchrshmbshnmeqnlA B R- O qdrdms@ m`kxrhrÎ@ rrtl oshnm

3/13/06 Dukawa Sketch 36 Enqsgdenkknvhmf`m`kxrhr+Hcdbhcdcsn`rrtldsg`ssgdudqarvdqd hmgdqdmskxmdtsq`ksnmdr+hmsg`ssgdsnmdnmsgdudqahrèedbsdcaxsgdsnmdr hmsgdS @L'sdmrd+`rodbs+lnnc(l`qfhmr-S gdqd`qd`mtladqneqd`rnmr enqsghròoqn`bg9Ehqrs+hmlnqdmdtsq`kdmuhqnmldmsr'o`qshbhokd`mc hmehmhshudenqlr(sgdqdchcmnsòod`qsnadbnmrhrsdmbhdrvhsgrtbg`bk`hl- Rdbnmc+A B RÎrbk`hlrnernldG`mcnsgdqr`rLÎrrddlrsnada`rdcnm e`bsnqrsg`sb`maddwok`hmdc-3S ghqckx+Hsrddlrsnl`jdlnqdrdmrdsn oqnonrdsgdoqdrdmbdnesnm`klnqogdldrhmsgdsnm`kl`qfhmrvghbgèedbs sgdsnmdnesgdudqarhmbdsgdqd`qd`kqd`cxrdfldmsr'vhsgsnmd(hmansgsgd oqd,udqa`mconrsudqal`qfhmsg`sgùdrnlddeedbsnmsgdsnmdnesgdudqa- S gdqdlhfgsgùdonrrhakxaddmrdfldmsrghrsnqhb`kkxhmsgnrdonrhshnmrsg`s gùdaddmcdkdsdckdùhmfnmkxsgdsnmd- A -F dmdq`kB nl l dmsr 0-Q `mfd Lnrsnesgdrdmsdmbdrvdqdvhsghm`q`mfdne7rdlhsnmdr-S gdqdvdqd èdvsg`sqd`bgdc0/rdlhsnmdr-Fdmdq`kkx+sgdghfgr`ssgdrdmsdmbdhmhsh`k onrhshnmvdqdghfgdqsg`mghfgr`ssgddmc-S gdknvrcqnoodcsnrnldcdfqdd trt`kkxkdrrsg`m0-4rdlhsnmdreqnladfhmmhmfsndmc+atsmnssnsgdr`ld cdfqdd`rsgdghfgsnmdreqnladfhmmhmfsndmc-S ghrèehqlr`bdqs`hm cdfqddnecdbkhm`shnm- N msgdrdmsdmbdkdudk+sgditlorvdqdrshkkfdmdq`kkx`qntmc2 rdlhsnmdr+atsrnldshldrvdqd`rghfg`r4-3rdlhsnmdr- 1-S nmd `mc Rdmsdmbd Hmsnm`shnm `(F dmdq`kHmsnm`shnm Hgùd`krnmnshbdcsg`ssgdsnmdnmsgdl`hmudqahrtrt`kkxghfgdq sg`mnsgdq`rodbsrnesgdrdmsdmbd-Enqdw`lokd+sgd2qcrhmftk`qoqnmntmhr G+atshshrmnstmbnllnmsnehmcsgdenkknvhmfl`hmudqasngùd`ghfgdq snmdsg`msghroqnmntm-Hr`xÌl`hmudqaÓadb`trdsxohb`kkx`lìnqdudms udqag`r`Gsnmdvgdqd`rrtanqchm`shmfudqarsdmcsngùdLnqKsnmd- S ghrhrmns`g`qce`rsqtkd+atshsl`xfhudrnldhmrhfgshmsnsgdv`xsnmdhr trdc-S ghrl`xhlokxsg`ssgdqdhr`sxodnefdmdq`khmsnm`shnmnudqsgd rdmsdmbdsg`sl`xenbtrnmjdxdkdldmsrhmsgdrdmsdmbd- @mnsgdq`rodbsnesghrhrsg`srnldshldrl`qfhm`khsdlrgùd`q`hrdc ohsbgsg`slhfgsadtrdcenqrnldsxodnel`qjhmf'rddcj1104+vgdqdsgd vnqcÌkhjdÓ.›ms›m.òod`qrsnadghfgdqsg`m`ghfgvntkcmnql`kkxadhm sg`sok`bdhmsgdrdmsdmbd(- Hs`krnòod`qrsg`s`Kvghbgenkknvr`Kvhkkadrnldshldr`khsskd knvdq'vghbgvntkcl`jdrdmrdhmbnllnmrdmsdmbdcdbkhm`shnm(`mcsg`s` G`rrhfmdcrdfldmsenkknvhmf`Gvhkkgùd`rkhfgskxghfgdqohsbg'vghbg vntkcfn`f`hmrsbnllnmcdbkhm`shnm(-Enqdw`lokd9S gdsvnGÎrnm` rtaitmbshududqaqnnsvhkkadoqdssxltbgsgdr`ldohsbg'rnldshldr`khsskd ghfgdq+rnldshldr`khsskdknvdq+`mcrnldshldrsgdr`ld(+ats`.¡.l`qjhmf

4 In the BCS data used for their analysis, the word for go /ha/ is quite irregular. Secondly, the verb “tie” /gaag/ is not only irregular, but I believe has adopted the past tense suffix morpheme (-Vg) as part of its present lexical form (this may account why it is sometimes a Mid tone instead of the usual High tone). My evidence to support such a claim is that the noun for marriage is /ýt-ge/ but it is uses the same form of tie /gaag/ in verbal forms. My guess is that the historical present form of marriage was /ga/ not /gaag/. This may explain some of the tonal discrepancies.

3/13/06 Dukawa Sketch 37 sgdMdf`shud`ssgddmcne`rdmsdmbdvhkkadtrt`kkx`khsskdghfgdqsg`msgdG sg`shradenqdhs- a(S nmdnmP tdrshnmRdmsdmbdr B nmsdmsptdrshnmr`qdl`qjdcvhsgptdrshnmvnqcr+ats`krngùd` ghfgrtrs`hmdcsnl`qjsgddmcne`ptdrshnmhmbnmsq`rssnX dr.Mnptdrshnmr vghbggùdè`kkhmfsnmdnmsgddmc'q10/3,10/8(- 2-U dqaO gq`rdRdfl dmsrsg`sòod`qsngùd kdwhb`kkx`rrhfmdcsnmd `(U dqaO qdehwdr ¿ Etstqdl`qjdq'cndrmnsòod`qsnroqd`c( ¤l Oqnfqdrrhudl`qjdq'l`xadroqd`chmfsnudqa,,sghrl`x`bbntms enqvgxoqnfqdrrhududqargùd`Knvsnmdr( a(U dqaRteehwdr ,s≈ O`rsshld'onrrhakxèkn`shmfKoqdehwsnmd( ,s∆ Rtaitmbshudl`qjdq ,›q‹ M`qq`shudL`qjdq ,∆ B nmchshnm`k ,« CdodmcdmsL`qjdq4 b(U dqaO gq`rdRteehwL `qjdqr ¡ Mdf`shud'`ssgddmcnerdmsdmbd.ogq`rd(5 ¿ CdodmcdmsB k`trdL`qjdq'`ssgddmcnesgdogq`rd( B -Rtqe`bdS nmdnesgdRdmsdmbd 0-U dqaQ nnsr S gdenkknvhmfbg`qsqdoqdrdmsrsgdbk`rrhehb`shnmrneA B Rdwbdosvgdqdmnsdc 'A B R+78,005(- L ncd S xod O M S @ L Q nns Rteehw D mc Cdbk- B nlokds- 0 GK s≈.U f.U j Rtaitmbs- 1 GG s∆.s M`qq`shud 2 LL ›q‹.U q‹ Hlou 3 GG

5 Hs`ood`qrsg`ssgd.«.g`rLsg`sroqd`cra`bjsnsgdmdwsunvdkvgdm sgdqd`qdsvnunvdkrhmsgdudqaqnns-V gdmsgdqdhrmn.«.`mcnmkxnmd unvdk+sgdudqaqnnshr`L'hshronrrhakdsg`ssgdG'eqnmsl`qfhm(`mcsgdK 'sgda`bjl`qfhm(bnlahmdsnfhudsgdudqaqnns`qd`khydcLsnmd-

6 Hsòod`qr`rhesgdmdf`shudlncd`krng`rèkn`shmfKhmsgdS @L rteehwl`qfhmvghbghrenkknvdcax`.¡.-D w`lokdcj10/0rtffdrsrsg`s vgdm`chqdbsnaidbshrotshmsnsgdrdmsdmbd+sg`ssgdekn`ssnmdqdl`hmrhm sgdS @Lonrhshnm'hmbnmmdbshnmvhsgsgdudqa(`mchrmnsitrsekn`shmf adenqdsgd.¡.-HesgdKv`ritrsadenqdsgd.¡.sgdmsgdudqaÎrrdbnmcunvdk vntkcmnsadèedbsdc`mcsgdKvntkcadqd`khydcnmsgdmntm-Hm`cchshnm+ hshrhlonqs`mssnmnsdsg`ssgdghfgsnmdnmsgd.¡.rs`xdcnmsgd.¡.`mcchc MN S lnudnudqnmsnonesgdnaidbs-D w`lokdrcj10//,10/2-

3/13/06 Dukawa Sketch 38 Itrrhud 1 GG Rdqh`k 2 LL B nmchshnm- 3 LL ∆ Etstqd 0 ¿ GG Oqnfqdrr- 0 ÷*bC KK Oqnf,B nmc 3 qn”*bC KK Cde-Ets- 0 ¤mg…c» Mdf B nlokds- 3 '‹mf“rgÕ( G'G.K( ¡ Hlou 3 GK ¡ Itrrhud 3 GK ¡ B nmchshnm 3 LL.GG ∆ ¡ Etstqd 3 ¿ GG ¡ Oqnfqdrr- 3 q’bC.C KK ¡ Cdo B nlok-0 1 GG6 « '¿( B nlok-1 0 GG.GL s« ¿ B nlok-2 2 LL s.s« Etstqd0 0 g… ›l*udqa7 ¿ Etstqd1 > gdss« ›l*udqa ¿ D wok- rddVIII Q dls B nlokds- 0> q” GK s≈.f.j B nmchshnm 4> q” GG ∆ Oqnfqdrr- 0> q”¤l KK Etstqd 0> q”¿ GG Rs`s Fdmdq`k 0 q÷.U ,, M`qq`shud 2 q÷ ,, U q‹ B nmchshnm 3 qn ,, ∆ Cdodmc0 0> q÷'oqdrdms( ,, « qn'o`rs( ,, « gd'etstqd( ,, « Cdodmc1 0> q” ,, ss« q÷ ,, ss« gd ,, ss« 1-O qnmntmr`mcS gdhqS nmdrv hsghmsgdS @ L Rxrsdl S gdOqnmntmr`mcsgdhqbnqqdronmchmfbg`mfdrhmsnmd bqd`sddudm`ahffdqoqnakdlsg`msgdsnmdnmsgdudqaqnnsr- S nmdo`ssdqmrnmOqnmntmr9'`bbnqchmf sn A RB + 78,005( O `ssdqm Rdfl dmsr T rdr Odqrnm S nmd Odqrnm S nmd '0( 0r L 0o L ›l s«+` Cdbk`q`shud+Etstqd+Oqnfqdrrhud 1r L 1o L n m÷ Cdodmcdms0+EtstqdCdodmcdms 2r G 2o G v› « Cdodmcdms1 '1( 0r G 0o K ›l s«+` Rtaitmbshud+Itrrhud 1r G 1o K n m÷

7 My findings here differed from BSC -- they said bçrçg was HM, I found it to be HH. 8 I would say that the main verb of this construction is /hé/ (BSC /he/ M tone) while the other is more or less an infinitive.

3/13/06 Dukawa Sketch 39 2r GK 2o GK v› « '2( 0r K 0o L ›l s«+` M`qq`shud+Rdqh`k+Cdodmc-2 1r K 1o L n m÷ Rs`shudM`qq`shud 2r G 2o G v› « '3( 0r G 0o G l« s«+` B nmchshnm`k+Mdf`shudr'`kk( 1r G 1o G v÷ m÷ Rs`shudB nmchshnm`k 2r G 2o G v› « '4( 0r K 0o K ›l s«+` Q dlnsdB nmchshnm`k 1r K 1o K n m÷ 2r GK 2o GK v› « Oqnaàkxsgdlnrsgdkoetk`rodbsnesghrhrsg`ssgdfqntohmfrsgdlrdkudrhe vdrsqdsbgsgdl`khsskdlhfgsbktdtrhmsnsgdrhfmhehb`mbdnesgdsnm`k bg`mfdr-Enqdw`lokd,,fqnto'0(lhfgsadqd,bk`rrhehdc`rHmcdodmcdms udqal`qjdq+'1(lhfgsadlnqdsgdhcd`nertanqchm`shnm+vghkd'2(`qdlnqd hmkhmdvhsgbn,cdodmcdms- Hmrnldv`xr+sghrhrrsqdsbghmfsgdc`s`-Enqhmrs`mbd+sgdcdodmcdms enqlrhmfqnto'0(adhmfl`cdhmsnÌhmcdodmcdmsÓvghkdsgdItrrhudne'1( vghbgvntkctrt`kkxb`qqxsgdenqbdne`mhlodq`shudhrqdctbdcsn` Ìrtanqchm`sdÓqnkd- Hqd,dw`lhmdcsgdbnmsdwsrnesgdrdudqaenqlrhmA RB `mcsgdbnmsdws l`jdrhsbkd`qsg`shshrcdodmcdmsaxvg`sV D vntkcb`kkcdodmcdmsl`qjdqr 'shldl`qfhmr+qdk`shudbk`trdr(+atssgdrd`qdl`qjdchmsgdsdwsaxsgdrd cduhbdrvghbgl`xdwbktcdsgdmddcsnqdl`qjsgdl-H`krnadkhdudsg`sl`x adcdodmcdms2lhfgsadò`qshbhokdenql'A RB mdudqchrbtrrdco`qshbhokdr(- S gdqdhr`krn`m`rodbsnesgdsnmdnesgd`rrhfmdcsnmdsnsgdoqnmntmr sgdlrdkudradenqdsgdS @Lhròokhdc-Hmrgnqs+sgd2qcodqrnmoqnmntmr`qd hmgdqhsdmskxghfg`mcsgd0rs`mc1mcknv'sgddwbdoshnmhrhmsgdonrrdrrhud. admde`bshudvgdqdsgd1mcrhmftk`q`mcoktq`k`qdghfg+atssghrcndrmns rddlrhfmhehb`mshmuhdvsg`ssgdcheeedqdmbdadsvddm0rs`mc1mcodqrnmhr mnsrddmhmsgdrtaidbsonrhshnmrvhsghmsgdudqao`q`chflr(- C -O nrrhakdO qnbdrrdrneRdmsdmbdS nmd 0-O nrrhakdO qnbdrrdrneRdmsdmbdS nmd9U dqaQ nnsr S gdenkknvhmfqdoqdrdmsr`m`ssdlossndwok`hmsgdqdrtkshmfsnmdne sgdudqaqnnshmsgdkhfgsneoqnonrhmfsnm`klnqogdldrhmsgdqnnsl`qfhmr- S gdjdxhcd`hr`roqd`chmfnesgdsnmdnmsnsgdqnnseqnlsgdl`qfhmr enkknvhmfqtkdr-S gdlnrsa`rhbqtkdhrsg`s`snm`klnqogdldb`mmnsroqd`c nudqlnqdsg`m1rdfldmsrhesgdqdhr`mnoonrhmfsnmdnmsgdnsgdqrhcd-Enq dw`lokd+sgdbnlokdshudenqlrgùd`Knudqsgds≈vghbgb`mnmkxroqd`c nmdlnqdonrhshnmsnbqd`sdsgdGKnmsgdqnns-V gdqdsgdqd`qdmnnsgdq hmsdqudmhmfrdfldmsr+sgdGKvntkcbnldsnfdsgdq`mcenql`Lnudqsgd udqamncd-

3/13/06 Dukawa Sketch 40 L ncd S xod O M S @ L Q nns,Q drtks S @ L Rteehw D mc Cdbk- B nlokds- 0 G GK K s≈.U f.U j Rtaitmbs- 1 G GG s∆.s M`qq`shud 2 G LL K ›q‹.U q‹ Hlou 3 G GG Itrrhud 1 G GG Rdqh`k 2 G LL K B nmchshnm- 3 G LL K ∆ Etstqd 0 ¿ GG Oqnfqdrr- 0 ÷*bC KK Oqnf,B nmc 3 qn”*bC KK Cde-Ets- 0 ¤mg…c» Mdf B nlokds- 3 '‹mf“rgÕ(GG G'G.K( K ¡ Hlou 3 GG GK K ¡ Itrrhud 3 GG GK K ¡ B nmchshnm 3 G LL.GG K ∆ ¡ Etstqd 3 ¿ GG ¡ Oqnfqdrr- 3 q’bC.C KK ¡ Cdo B nlok-0 1 G GG8 « '¿( B nlok-1 0 G GG.GL K s« ¿ B nlok-2 2 LL s.s« Etstqd0 0 g… ›l*udqa0/ ¿ Etstqd1 > gdss« ›l*udqa ¿ D wok- rddVIII Q dls B nlokds- 0> q”G GK K s≈.f.j B nmchshnm 4> q”G GG ∆ Oqnfqdrr- 0> q”¤l KK Etstqd 0> q”¿G GG Rs`s Fdmdq`k 0 q÷.U ,, M`qq`shud 2 q÷ ,, U q‹ B nmchshnm 3 qn ,, ∆ Cdodmc0 0> q÷'oqdrdms( ,, « qn'o`rs( ,, « gd'etstqd( ,, « Cdodmc1 0> q” ,, ss« q÷ ,, ss« gd ,, ss« O nronrhmfL snad`KG nqG Krdptdmbd`mcudqaqnns, snmdkdrr @esdqlddshmfvhsgRsdudmA hqc+hsrs`qsdcsnadbnldbkd`qsg`svhsghm vnqcr`mclnqogdldrsg`ssgdqdvdqdGKrdptdmbdr'h-d-ptdrshnm`mcsgd GKneItrrhud`mcRtaitmbshud(+atssgdqdvdqdmns`mxjmnvmrdptdmbdrne

9 My findings here differed from BSC -- they said bçrçg was HM, I found it to be HH. 10 I would say that the main verb of this construction is /hé/ (BSC /he/ M tone) while the other is more or less an infinitive.

3/13/06 Dukawa Sketch 41 KG-Hsv`roqnonrdcsg`ssgdLsnmdlhfgsadhmqd`khsx`rdptdmbdneKG- Hm`cchshnm+hsv`rrtffdrsdcsg`ssgdudqaqnnsrgntkcadbnmrhcdqdcsnmdkdrr enq`m`kxrhrotqonrdr-V hsgsgdrdsvnhcd`rhmlhmcsg`shsl`xadonrrhakd sngùdàdssdqdwok`m`shnmnesgdsnmdoqnbdrrdrhmCtj`v`- Hsv`r`krnchrbnudqdcsg`s`GKnech,rxkkàhbqnnsrv`rqd`khydc`r` Lnmlnmn,rxkkàhbqnnsr-Mnvoqnuhmfsg`smnsnmkxv`rhsonrrhakdsg`s` KGrdptdmbdv`rqd`khydc`r`L+atssg`ssgdduhcdmbdrgnvdcsg`s`GK rdptdmbdhlonrdcnm`lnmn,rxkkàhbqnnsv`rqd`khydc`r`L- Udqarvhsg1unvdkr`mcmnrteehwrdfldms S @LL`qfhm Q nns S @LL`qfhm 'G( UU 'K( LL Udqarvhsg0unvdk`mcmnrteehwrdfldms S @LL`qfhm Q nns S @LL`qfhm 'G( U 'K( L Udqarvhsg1unvdkr`mc`rteehwrdfldms'Cdbk`q`shudenqdw`lokd( S @LL`qfhm Q nns S @LL`qfhm 'G( UU 'K*s«( GK*s≈ 00 Udqarvhsg0unvdk`mc`rteehwrdfldms 'Cdbk`q`shudenq dw`lokd,cj0//0( S @LL`qfhm Q nns S @LL`qfhm 'G( U 'Uf.j*K('rdfldmsg`r`rrhfmdcsnmd( GK Udqarvhsg0unvdk`mcmnrteehwrdfldms'Cdodmcdms,vgdqd.«. hrcdkdsdc,cj0075( S @LL`qfhm Q nns S @LL`qfhm 'G( U 'K*.≈.( L '.«.hrcdkdsdc+atssnmdqdl`hmrsn knvdqsgdGhml`qfhm( S gdU dqaO `q`chfl v hsgM ntmrsg`s`qdS nm`kL hmhl `kO `hqr

11 Lnmn,rxkkàhbqnnsrqdronmcdchmsgdr`ldv`x`rsgdah,rxkkàhbudqa qnnsr+gnvdudq+rdptdmbdrneGKòod`qdcsnadbnmudqsdcsn`mLvgdmsgd unvdkv`rmnskdmfsgdmdcenqsgdsvnsnmdr-Mnsdsg`ssgdCdbk`q`shud bnlokdshudg`csgdunvdkkdmfsgdmdcvhsg.f.`ccdc`mcjdossgdGK rdptdmbd+atssgdMdf`shudbnlokdshud+Mdf`shudHlodq`shud+`mcsgd Mdf`shudItrrhudvdqdbnmudqsdceqnlGKsn`L-S gdqdenqd+hshronrrhakd sg`smnsnmkxhrKGbnmudqsdcsnL`sshldr+ats`krnGKvgdmnmkx0snmd ad`qhmftmhshroqdrdms-

3/13/06 Dukawa Sketch 42 S gdmntmrÌvdkkÓ'›q,cŸ(`mcÌlnqsdqÓ'›q,c⁄(vgdqdok`bdcsgqntfg `skhlhsdco`q`chfl'axsgdm`stqdnek`mft`fdkhlhs`shnmr(-S gdotqonrdv`r snrddhesgdsnm`kchrshmbshnmnesgdnaidbsonrhshnmvdqdl`hms`hmdchmsgd rtaidbsonrhshnm'sgdnaidbscheedqdmbdv`r4-2rdlh,snmdrhm`rdmsdmbd`mc `qntmc2rdlh,snmdrhmhrnk`shnmvhsgsgdbk`rrl`qjdq(-D w`lokdr`qdeqnl cj1//0,1/15-S gdsnm`kchrshmbshnmv`rjdoshm`kkcheedqdmsudqao`q`chflr dwbdosenqsgdodqedbs+mdf`shudbnmchshnm`k`mcsgdmdf`shudbnlokdshud- S gdU dqaO `q`chfl `mcsgdQ dk`shnmadsv ddm O qnmntmr+O qnodqm`l dr`mcM ntmr S gdqdchcmnsrddlsnad`bnqqdk`shnmadsvddmsgdsnmdnmòqnodq m`ldnqoqnodqmntm`mcsgdsnmdnmsgdoqnmntmr'drodbh`kkxsqxhmfsnmnsd sgd2qcrhmftk`q(-Hv`r`krnknnjhmfsnrddhesgdbk`rrl`qjdqvntkcs`jd sgdsnmdne`bdqs`hmoqnmntm+atssgdqdv`rmns`mxmnshbdàkdbnqqdk`shnm adsvddmsgdsnmdnesgdoqnmntmr`mcsgdsnmdnmsgdoqnodqm`ldnqoqnodq mntm- 1-O nrrhakdO qnbdrrdrneRdmsdmbdS nmd9O qnmntmr S gdqdhrmnsghmflnqdcheehbtkshmsgdCtj`v`snmdrxrsdlsg`m dwok`hmhmfsgdq`shnm`kdadsvddmsgdu`qhntrsnmdrnesgdrtaidbsoqnmntmr- Eqnlsgdtrdneoqnmntmrhmnsgdq`qd`rhsòod`qrsg`ssgdcde`tkssnmd cdrhfm`shnmenqsgdoqnmntmr`qd9 Rhmftk`q Oktq`k 0rsOdqrnm K K 1mcOdqrnm K K 2qcOdqrnm G G Enqoqnmntmfqntor"0`mc"3sghrcndrmnsb`trdòqnakdladb`trdenq fqnto9 "0`Gb`mad`rrdqsdcadsvddmsgdOM`mcsgdS @Lxhdkchmf9 L'K*G( L'K*G( L'K*G( L'K*G( G'G*G( G'G*G( "3svnGÎrb`mad`rrdqsdcadsvddmsgdOM`mcsgdS @L`mcrhmbdnmkx1 svnsnmdrb`madok`bdcnm`snmdad`qhmftmhs+nmkxsgdGhrqd`khydcnq onrrhakxitrssnmdqdok`bdldms- G'K*G *G ( G'K*G *G ( G'K*G *G ( G'K*G *G ( G'G*G *G ( G'G*G *G ( Gnvdudq+hmoqnmntmfqntor1`mc2+hsòod`qr`rhe0r`mc1r`bs`rnmd fqnto`mc0o`mc1o`bs`r`mnsgdq9 "1`Kb`mad`rrdqsdcadsvddmsgdOM`mcsgdS @L,,)cdmnsdroqnakdl `qd` G'K*K() K'K*K( G'K*K() K'K*K( GK'G*K( GK'G*K( MN S D 9S gd2qcodqrnmcndrmnsfnsnLadb`trdnesgdrsqdmfsg.hmsdfqhsxne sgdGnm2qcodqrnmoqnmntmr'kdwhb`kkxrstbj(- "2`Gb`mad`rrdqsdcadsvddmsgdOM`mcsgdS @L,,)cdmnsdroqnakdl `qd`

3/13/06 Dukawa Sketch 43 K'K*G() L'K*G( K'K*G() L'K*G( G'G*G( G'G*G( MN S D 9S ghrfqntohrrhlhk`qsnfqntonmddwbdosenqsgd0r`mc1r- @etqsgdqhcd`v`roqnonrdcsg`ssgdoqnmntmrenq0r`mc1r`mcsgd0o`mc 1olhfgsadcheedqdmskdwhb`kkx'K`mcKG+hmrsd`cnesgd`rrtldcK`mcK(+ atssg`sqdrtksdchmitrs`rl`mxoqnakdlr-

IX. Important processes @ -RdptdmbdrneKG `mcG KsnL Hmkhfgsnesgdbnlokdwhsxnesgdsnmdnmsgdudqaqnnsr+hsòod`qrsg`s vgdm`K`mcGnqG`mcK`qdhlonrdcnmnmdsnmdad`qhmftmhssg`shshr qd`khydc`r`L- A -S nmdhmsgdudqal `qfhmr Hmuhdvnesgdc`s`+hsrddldcadrssnoqnonrdsnmdrhmsgdS @Ludqa l`qfhmrsg`m`snmdenqò`qshbtk`qsdmrd-S ghrv`rrtffdrsdcadb`trdnesgd dwhrs`mbdnerdfdldmsrhmsgdS @Ludqal`qfhmrvghbgg`crnldhmektdmbd nmsgdsnmdnesgdudqa'oqnfqdrrhud`r`mdw`lokdeqnlsgdoqd,udqal`qfhm `mcsgdo`rssdmrd.s«.hmsgdonrs,udqal`qfhm(- B -Roqd`chmf S nmdeqnlsgdudqal`qfhmròod`qdcsnroqd`cnmkx1onrhshnmrhe sgdqdv`r`mnoonrhmfsnmdeqnlsgdnsgdql`qfhm-Hesgdqdv`rmnnoonrhmf snmdsgdmsgdsnmdbntkcroqd`cnudqsgdvgnkdudqamncd-

X. Orthography Considerations and Conculsions @ -S nmdnmM ntmr @ssgdoqdrdmsshld+sgdqdhr`q`sgdqkhlhsdcmtladqnechrbnudqdc bnmsq`rshmfo`hqr'<30)-S gdqd`qd`bntokdnenoshnmr9 0( L`qjsgdsnmdvhsgsnmdl`qjrnmlhmhl`ko`hqrnmkx- 1( Gùd`rkhfgskxcheedqdmsrodkkhmf 2( Q ds`hmognmdshbrodkkhmf+atskdùdchrshmbshnmsnadcdsdqlhmdc axbnmsdws 3( L`qjsnmdnm`kkmntmr'oqnaàkxsgdkd`rscdrhqdc(- B nmrhcdqhmfsgdkhlhsdcmtladqnelhmhl`ko`hqr+atssgdmddcsnrs`x nodmsnsgdonrrhahkhsxl`mxnsgdqr-Hsòod`qradrssnsd`bgv qhshmfsnmdnm l hmhl `ko`hqr-K`sdq+sgdsnmdl`qjrnmmntmrb`maddkhlhm`sdchehshr cddldctmmdbdrr`qx-Hs`krnrddlradrssnqds`hmsgdsgqddkdudksnmd chrshmbshnm'Knvl`qjdc+Ltml`qjdc+Ghfgl`qjdc+`rhm¿`¡ qdrodbshudkx(tmshkrtbgònhmssg`sehmchmf`lhmhl`krdsrddlrntsnesgd ptdrshnmnqsg`ssgdm`stqdnesgdmntmrvntkcadbkd`qaxbnmsdws- A -T mcdqrodbhehb`shnmenq`l ìnqhsxneudqaenql r Hmsgdenkknvhmfrdbshnm+Hgnodsnrgnvsgdlnqogdldr`mcsnmdrne u`qhntrudqaenqlrentmchmsgdCtj`v`k`mft`fd-N msgdv gnkdsgdqd`qd udqxedv ok`bdrv gdqdsnmdhsrdkehrsgdN M K X l `qjdqne`cheedqdmsudqa sdmrdnql nnc-Enkknvhmfsgdkhrshmf+Hgnodsnonhmsnts`qd`rvgdqdsnmd cndrl`jd`cheedqdmbd-Hvhkkm`ldsgdcheedqdmsenqlr`bbnqchmfsnsgd

3/13/06 Dukawa Sketch 44 sdqlrfhudmaxA RB '78,005(-A RB `krnl`cd`chrshmbshnma`rdcnmsgd unvdkhmsgdudqarsdl,,Hvhkkmnsl`jdsghrchrshmbshnm+atsnmkxsgd chrshmbshnmrsg`svntkcadbnllnmsn`kkudqar-V gdqdlxnvmsnmdehftqdr cheedqeqnlsgdhq`m`kxrhr+Hvhkkennsmnsdsgdcheedqdmbdr- A nkchmchb`sdrchrshmbshuded`stqdrnesgdudqarxrsdl- L ncd S xod O M S @ L Q nns Rteehw D mc Cdbk- B nlokds- 0 GK s≈.f.j Rtaitmbs- 1 GG s∆.s M`qq`shud 2 LL ›q‹.U q‹ Hlou01 3 GG Itrrhud02 1 GG Rdqh`k03 2 LL B nmchshnm- 3 LL ¶ Etstqd 0 ¿ GG Oqnfqdrr- 0 ÷*bC KK Oqnf,B nmc 3 qn”*bC KK Cde-Ets- 0 ¤mg…c» Mdf B nlokds- 3 '‹mf“rgÕ( G'G.K( ¡ Hlou04 3 GK ¡ Itrrhud05 3 GK ¡ B nmchshnm 3 LL.GG ¶ ¡ Etstqd 3 ¿ GG ¡ Oqnfqdrr- 3 q’bC.C KK ¡ Cdo B nlok-0 1 GG06 ß '¿( B nlok-1 0 GG.GL S « ¿ B nlok-2 2 LL s.s« Etstqd0 0 g… ›l* ¿ udqa07 Etstqd1 > gdss« ›l*udqa ¿ D wok rddVIII Q dl B nlokds- 0> q” GK s≈.f.j B nmchshnm 4> q” GG ¶ Oqnfqdrr- 0> q”¤l KK Etstqd 0> q”¿ GG Rs`s Fdmdq`k 0 q÷.U ,, M`qq`shud 2 q÷ ,, U q‹ B nmchshnm 3 qn ,, ¶ Cdodmc0 0> q÷'oqdrdms( ,, ß

12 Here the distinctive feature is that the verb appears without the pronoun or the pronoun follows the verb. 13 I personally did not see any difference between the Subjunctive and the Jussive -- in the elicitation on some of the verbs our native speaker added the /tæ/ which was the only distinctive feature between the two. In addition, I have not been able to see a difference semantically between the two. 14 Here the distinctive feature between the narrative and serial is the absence of the -ýrü verb suffix. 15 There does not appear to be any difference between the Negative Completive and Negative Imperative outside of the limit of the latter to the second person. 16 Again, there appears no difference between Negative Completive, Imperative or the Jussive. 17 My findings here differed from BSC -- they said bçrçg was HM, I found it to be HH. 18 I would say that the main verb of this construction is /hé/ (BSC /he/ M tone) while the other is more or less an infinitive.

3/13/06 Dukawa Sketch 45 qn'o`rs( ,, ß gd'etstqd( ,, ß Cdodmc1 0> q” ,, S s« q÷ ,, S s« gd ,, S s« A `rdcnmA RB cdrbqhoshnm`mclxudqhehb`shnmrnesgdhqehmchmfr+H bnmbktcdsg`ssgdqdhrmnudqaenqlsg`shrchrshmbsnmsgda`rhrnesnmdnmsgd qnns-Hmqdf`qcrsnnqsgnfqòghbbnmrhcdq`shnmr+Hbnmrhcdqhstmmdrrdrr`qxsn l`qjsnmdnmudqar'sntmcdqrodbhexsnmdnqsgnfqòghb`kkx(rhmbdsgdsnmdnm sgdqnnshrqdctmc`mshm`cchshnmsnsgdrdfldms`klnqogdldrl`qjhmfsdmrd+ lnnc+`mc`rodbshmsgdk`mft`fd'S @Lhrnudqrodbhehdcaxsnmd`mc lnqogdldr(- B -S nmdnmO qnmntmRtaidbsr @f`hm+sgdsnmdnmsgdoqnmntmrhrsgdlnrscheehbtkssndwok`hm'Rdd UHHH+C-1-(-S gdqd`qd`skd`rssgqddonrrhahkhshdr9 0( L`qjsgdjmnvrtqe`bdsnmd'sghrvntkc`clhs2snmdr(- 1( Kdùdsgdsnmdtml`qjdc+`mckdùdhssnbnmsdws'sghrlhfgskdmc snqd,qd`chmfrnldrdmsdmbdrctdsnbktdr`sk`ssdqo`qsrnesgd rdmsdmbd(- 2( L`qjsgdetmbshnmnesgdsnmdq`sgdqsg`msgd`bst`ksnmd- @ssghronhmssgdqdòod`qrsnadmnmddcsnvqhsdsnmdnmsgd oqnmntmr-S gdl`sdqh`kr`kqd`cxoqnctbdccndrmnsgùdsnmdl`qjdcnmsgd oqnmntmr`mcsgdqdcndrmnsòod`qsnadcheehbtksxhmqd`cctdsnsgdk`bjne sgdsnmdl`qjhmf- C -S nmdnmF q`l l `shb`kHsdl r Hmsgdenkknvhmf`qd`rsgdqdl`xadoqnakdlrhmtmcdqrodbhexhmfsnmd9 S gdM df`shud`mcC dodmcdmsB k`trdL `qjdqr S gdlnrsrhfmhehb`msfq`ll`shb`khsdlhrsgdchrshmbshnmadsvddmsgd.¿. 'cdodmcdmsbk`trdl`qjdq(`mc.¡.'mdf`shudbk`trdl`qjdq(-Hesghrbnmshmtdr snadsgdnmkxrhfmhehb`msb`rdnesnmdchrshmbshnm+sgdmonrrhakxhslhfgsad òoqnoqh`sdsndhsgdq9 0(trdsnmdl`qjhmfr 1(l`jdsgdchrshmbshnmnm`kdmfsga`rdr+h-d-Ì`Óenq.¿.`mcÌ``Óenq .¡. 2(l`jdsgdchrshmbshnmax`m`ccdcrdfldms+h-d-Ì`Óenq.¿.`mcÌ`gÓ enq.¡. @ssghronhms+hsòod`qrlnqdadrssntrdsgdsnmdl`qjhmfrnmsgd Ì`ÎrÓsghr`krnl`xad`gdkosnsgnrdvqhshmfsnmdl`qjrnmsgdlhmhl`k o`hqr`rvdkk- C dl nmrsq`shudO qnmntmr Hsrddlrmdbdrr`qxsnvqhsdsnmdnmsgdcdlnmrsq`shudoqnmntmr(“kà” this/ these and ká that/ those) which only differ in tone. S gdL nqogdl drenqB nmchshnm`k`mcC dodmcdmsU dqar V hsghmsgdlnncl`qjhmfrxrsdlsgdqdhr`cheedqdmbdadsvddmsgd lnqogdldrenkknvhmfsgdudqaqnns-S gd.∆.l`qjrbnmchshnm`kbk`trdrvghkd sgd.≈.'nq.«.(l`qjrcdodmcdmsudqar-S gdqd`qdsvne`bsnqrvghbgl`x l`jdsgdvqhshmfnesnmdhmrhfmhehb`ms-Ehqrs+S gdsvnudqaenqlrs`jd`

3/13/06 Dukawa Sketch 46 cheedqdmsoqnmntmrds'Ehqrsodqrnmrhmftk`q`mcRdbnmcodqrnmrhmftk`q vntkcsgdmadcheedqdmbh`sdc(-Rdbnmckx+sgdcdodmcdmsenqlnesdm+atsmns `kv`xrhrl`qjdcaxsgdCdodmcdmsl`qjdqÌ¿-ÓV hsgsgdrdsvne`bsnqr+hs òod`qrsg`s`lahfthsxvntkcadq`sgdqrdkcnl- S gdRteehwL nqogdl drenqO `rsshl d`mcRtaitmbshud U dqar S gdo`rsshldrteehwÌs≈Ó`mcsgdRtaitmbshudrteehws∆hr`mnsgdq`qd` vdqdsgdqdvntkcadrnld`lahfthsxhesgdsnmdv`rmnsvqhssdm-Gnvdudq+ sgdqd`qdsvne`bsnqrsg`slhfgsqdctbdsgdnbbtq`mbdne`lahfthsxhm rdmsdmbdr9Ehqrs+sgdo`rsshldrteehwg`r`bntmsdqo`qsÌ,jÓnqÌ,fÓvghbg òod`qrnm0/$ nqfqd`sdqnesgdudqarsdlrhmsgdo`rsshld-Rdbnmckx+sgd Rtaitmbshudl`qjdqg`r`bntmsdqo`qs`rvdkkÌ,sÓvghbgl`xadtrdctosn 4/$ nesgdshld-V hsgsgdrdsvne`bsnqr+sgdnbbtq`mbdne`lahfthsxvntkc adqdctbdcrhfmhehb`mskx- Gnvdudq+vdgùdentmc`mtladqntrnbb`rhnmrvgdqdhsv`r hlonqs`mssnl`qjsgdrtaitmbshuds∆-S gdqd`qdlhmhl`ko`hqrdmsdmbdr vgdqdsgdnmdvhsgsgdËs≈ld`mr+Ìadb`trdne----ÓvgdqdsgdnmdvhsgsgdË s∆ld`mr+Ìhmnqcdqsg`s----Ósgdcheedqdmbdadsvddm`b`tr`kbk`trd`mc` otqonrdbk`trd-

XIII. Testing of Proposed Orthography HmjddohmfvhsgsgdrtffdrshnmrneRsdudmA hqc+Hvntkckhjdsncn rnldrdqhntrsdrshmfsgdoqnonrdcrxrsdl-S gdq`shnm`khrsg`sl`mx nqsgnfqòghdr`bgnnrdmntsneÌkhjdÓ`mcÌchrkhjdÓhmrsd`cnevg`svnqjr adrs-Hmsgdmd`qetstqd+H`lfnhmfsnqdbnqcu`qhntrodnokdqd`chmfrsnqhdr hmsgdoqnonrdcnqsgnfqògx-Hok`msnkhrsdmsnsgdsòdr`mehmcsgd`qd`r vghbgb`trdodnokdsnrstlakd`mcsgdmbgdbjhesgdqd`qdbnllnm`qd`r vgdqdlhrs`jdr`qdadhmfl`cd-@qd`rsg`sHvhkkadenbtrhmfnm`qd9 • tmcdqrodbhehdcsnmdhmoqnmntmr • tmcdqrodbhehdcsnmdhmudqaqnnsr • tmcdqrodbhehdcsnmdhmmntmrvhsgntsjmnvlhmhl`ko`hqr • tmcdqrodbhehdcsnmdhmbnmchshnm`k`mccdodmcdmsrteehwdr • tmcdqrodbhehdcsnmdhmo`rsshld`mcrtaitmbshudrteehwdr 'to,c`sd9S ghrmddcrsnadrodbhehdca`rdcnmehmchmfr rs`sdchmsgdoqduhntrrdbshnm(-

3/13/06 Dukawa Sketch 47 @ oodmchw1b-0 O qnmntmr9

Rhmftk`q Oktq`k Rhmftk`q Oktq`k 0rsOdqrnm K,›l.l« K,s« K,q« Ks« 0rsOdq-'hmbk( K,`.m` Km` 1mcOdqrnm K,v÷.n K,m÷ GËqt GËm÷ 2qcOdqrnm G,v› G,«.x« G,v› G,«.x« Rtaidbs`mcN aidbs Onrrdrrhud`mcA dmde`bshud S gdenkknvhmfc`s`rtoonqsrsghrbg`qs9 cj/76/,777 cj100/,1012 Q dk`shudO qnmntmr9 S gdqdk`shudoqnmntmr`kkòod`qsnadknvsnmd'cj`mcq/74/,75/(- @ cidbshudr Knvsnmd`cidbshudr9 ot ÌmdvÓ ts ÌnkcÓ s«s ÌsgqddÓ a÷m ÌfnncÓ i`y ÌqdcÓ otr ÌvghsdÓ c««m Ìl`mxÓ q« Ìrl`kkÓ G hfgsnmd`cidbshudr9 b``qh ÌahfÓ ghh ÌedvÓ rm› ÌgdùxÓ jn ÌdudqxÓ jòo Ì`kkÓ qhl Ìak`bjÓ S gdqdhrmns`m`rrhfmdcsnmdo`ssdqmnm`cidbshudr`r`kdwhb`kfqnto- Oqduhntrkx+`cidbshudrvdqdrgnvmsngùdcheedqdmssnmdr'rdbshnmHH(- A dknv`qdmtldq`krvghbgcheedqhmsnmd'dw`lokdrcj/7/0,710`mcq///1c, d(- Knv btm+xnnq+s«s+s`sxnnq+÷o 0+1+2+6+0/'qdrodbshudkx( Ghfg m``r+s``m+bhmc+ddq 3+4+5+7'qdrodbshudkx( Ghfg,Knv idq÷ 8

3/13/06 Dukawa Sketch 48 @ cudqar Knv b«mb«m ÌrknvkxÓ c««m Ì`knsÓ g÷q,lg÷q ÌpthbjkxÓ jnln Ì`f`hmÓ Ghfg bn Ìenqv`qcrÓ ihlihl Ìa`bjv`qcrÓ s«las«la Ìb`qdetkkxÓÌpthdskxÓ From: dk 2150-2161 O qdonrhshnmr9 Knv ›m,s÷m--- Ìnmsnone---Ó KK ›m,qhha--- Ìadrhcdne---Ó KK ›'m>(j`s`ms« Ì`qntmcsgd---Ó KKK ›m Ìvhsg---Ó K cj111/ Ghfg ›m,l«--- Ìhmrhcdne---Ó KG xnvxnv Ìbknrdsn---Ó GG ›m,ihl Ìadghmcne---Ó KG Eqnldw`lokdrcj/72/,730 @ oodmchw1b-1 S gd2snmdchrshmbshnmcdrbqhadcaxA RB 9 B nl okdshud E tstqd O qnfqdrrhud 0- l∆mg¡ l≈mg¡ l«mg¡ Hvdms Hvhkkfn H`lfnhmf 1- v‹ms’‘f v‹Ûs’‘f v‹ms’‘f gdoq`xdc gdvhkkoq`x gdhroq`xhmf 2- s∆mf``f s≈mf``f s«mf``f vdshdc vdvhkkshd vd`qdsxhmf 3- ∆l08a∆q≈f ∆ma∆q≈f ∆la∆q≈f sgdxcqhdc sgdxvhkkcqx sgdx`qdcqxhmf 'A RB +0/8e(

19 When the particle ýn precedes /b/, it assimilates to ým.

3/13/06 Dukawa Sketch 49 @ oodmchw1b-2 O`ssdqmnesgdS nmdnesgdOqnmntmr@bbnqchmfsnS @L F o O M S @ L Q N N S Rte D mc 0 0r L GK K B N L O KD SHU D 0o L K GG E T S 2r G K KK O Q N F Q D RRHU D KGK C D E HM - E T S GG'GLA RB ( L '¿(C D O - B N L O 0 GG.GL L ¿+C D O - B N L O 1 g… 'hmeu( ¿+C D O - E T S- 0 1 0r G GG G RT A IT M B SHU D 0o K GG IT RRHU D 2r GK 2 0r K LL LG M @ Q Q @ SHU D 0o L LL RD Q H@ K 2r G LL L C D O - B N L O - 2 3 0r G GG HL O U 0o G LL G B N M C HSHN M @ K 2r G GK KK O Q N F ,B N M C HSHN M 'GKG( GG.GK ¿+M D F + B N L O KD S GK ¡M D F + HL O U GK ¡M D F + IT RRHU D LL.GG G ¡M D F + B N M C HSHN M U K GG ¡M D F + E T ST Q D K KK ¡M D F + O Q N F Q D RR

3/13/06 Dukawa Sketch 50 3. Lexical Categories A: Nominals 1. Nouns a. Nouns b. Class markers Noun roots rarely occur in isolation, generally they occur with a class mark (CM) either before or behind the noun. (See page 4.1 for details on the noun class system). l,g÷1/ g÷,l ›q,s`Î`q ›s,s`Î`q B L,v`sdq v`sdq,B L B L'rf(,rsnmd B L'ok(,rsnmdr b-O`qshbhokdr'udqa`kmntmr( @ssghronhms+sgdqdòod`qrsnad`cheedqdmbdadsvddmsgd hmehmhshud`mcsgdo`qshbhokd-V gdm`mhmehmhshudhrtrdcsnbnlokdsdsgd udqar+lnrsnesgdshldsgdudqahroqdbddcdcax.l.'rxkàkhb(- Rnldshldr+sgdudqavhkkadbnlokdsdcaxsgdr`ldenql`rsgd o`qshbhokd-S gdB Lnmsgdo`qshbhokdb`mekho`rsgdmntmrcnvgdmsgdx `qdsgdrtaidbsnesgdrdmsdmbd-Rddbgòsdq4- 2. Pronouns (see Appendix E for Pronoun Chart) a. Personal b. Emphatic Emphatic pronouns are a combination of the personal pronoun and the demonstrative pronoun. e.g. l«j`+ m÷j` c. Possessive 1. Unmarked 2. Emphatic possessive d. Reflexive e. Relative (same as personal pronoun, but with a high tone) f. Demonstrative kà “this” “these” (number is determined by the ká “that” “those” accompanying class marker) g. Indefinite a “a person” “persons” m«s “a person” “persons”

20 @ssgdoqdrdmsshld'0886(+vd`qdtrhmf`gxogdmadsvddmsgdbk`rrl`qjdq`mc sgdmntm-V d`qdfnhmfsncnsdrshmfnmsgddeedbshudmdrrne`hchmfqd`cdqrsnrdd ÌvnqcrÓhmrsd`cneqdkxhmfnmognmdshbu`ktdrrhmbdl`mxnesgdmntmrb`mgùd eqnl2sn01*cheedqdmsu`qh`shnmr-S ghrhrctdsnbk`rrl`qjdqròod`qhmfadenqd `mcèsdqsgdmntm+rhmftk`q.oktq`kchrshmbshnmr'eqnlbk`rrl`qjdq(+`mc rnldshldrcdrshmbshnma`rdcnmrhyd-Mnsd'1//1(9Q d`cdqrgùd`citrsdcpthsd vdkksnsghrrxrsdl-

3/13/06 Dukawa Sketch 51 3. Adjectives a. Descriptive We have found descriptive adjectives for color (3), size, weight, age, good / bad.... Some of the adjectives (color, age) have the class marker following, other adjectives (size, good / bad ) have the class marker preceeding the adjective, while others appear to use /m«. to designate.

COLOR-CM i``r,v› 'qdcodqrnm( i``r,xn 'qdc`mhl`k( i``r,÷ 'qdcsghmf( B L ,F N N C v›l,anmm« 'fnncodqrnm( xnl,anmm« 'fnnc`mhl`k( ÷l,anmm« 'fnncsghmf( b. Quantifiers P t`mshehdqrhmΩ s,Gtmhmbktcdsgdenkknvhmfbnmbdosr9 ghh ÌedvÓ c««m Ìl`mxÓ'`krntrdc`r`m`cudqa( c. Numeral Similar to the adjectives, the numerals often include the use of the class marker that corresponds to the noun being counted. n,f``m ›q,f``m B L,ÌnmdÓ xnnq ÌsvnÓ sds ÌsgqddÓ m``r ÌentqÓ N qchm`kmtladqr9.`.* MT L* .`. B L Khsdq`kkx9 nqchm`kLJ Mtladq nqchm`kLJ B k`rrl`qjdq Khsdq`k Ehftq`shud Ehqrs `btmm`v› `bnv›'eqnms.e`bd( Rdbnmc `xnnq`v› S ghqc `s«s`v› Entqsg `m`rr›m`v› Ehesg `s``m`v› K`rs `s›qv›'s`hk( `j÷l`v›'ehmhrg(

3/13/06 Dukawa Sketch 52 Verbal (Verbs can be functionally changed into a noun by the attachment of a class marker.) 1. Verbs haan “come” ha “go” kum “get” ji “return home”

2. Adverbs b«mb«m ÌrknvkxÓ.Ìb`qdetkkxÓ bn Ìenqv`qcrÓ bns ÌnmkxÓ c««m Ì`knsÓ '`krn`m`cidbshud( c÷m Ì`f`hmÓ f« Ìhlldch`sdkxÓ g÷q,lg÷q ÌpthbjkxÓ ihl Ìa`bjv`qcrÓ jhq`'jhk`( Ìl`xadÓ'G`tr`( jnln Ì`f`hmÓ'G`tr`( l` ÌdudmÓÌ`krnÓ l« ÌsnfdsgdqÓ s«la Ìnmkx+ÓÌpthdskxÓ snlrn'm«( Ì`f`hmÓ C. Conjunctions Sentence / clause / phrase (for a complete list see Appendix C) qdldm Ìadb`trdÓ'v.hmchb`shud(Ìhmnqcdqsg`sÓ'v.rtaitmbshud( ›m Ì`mcÓ 'l`mxnsgdqld`mhmfr,rdd@oodmchwC( `la` ÌatsÓ'eqnlG`tr`( jn ÌnqÓ'eqnlG`tr`( ›qdf« ÌheÓ'eqnlG`tr`( stmc` ÌrhmbdÓ'eqnlG`tr`( v`sn Ìsgdm`r`qdrtksÓ a÷ Ì`r+ÓÌèsdq+ÓÌvgdm+ÓÌvghkdÓ C-Oqdonrhshnmr S gdoqdonrhshnmrnesdmgùd`tmhptdbk`rrl`qjdqÌm,Ó`ss`bgdcsnsgd oqdonrhshnmÎrqnns-S gdbk`rrl`qjdqm,b`m`krnekhosnsgdnsgdqrhcdnesgd oqdonrhshnm-Ognmdshb`kkx+hshroqnaàkxZld,m,ld\vhsg`mtmcdqkxhmfenql ne.ld,mm,ld.atsnqsgnfqòghb`kkx+vdgùdaddm`ss`bghmfsgdbk`rrl`qjdq snsgdehqrsvnqc+sgtrÌld,mld-Ó m,s÷m Ìànud+ÓÌnmÓ m,ld ÌhmrhcdÓ m,qhha Ì`knmfrhcdÓ m,qhhf Ì`qntmcÓ m,c`j Ìcnvm+ÓÌtmcdqÓ ›m Ìhm+ÓÌvhsg+ÓÌenq+ÓÌaxÓ---'rdd@oodmchwC(

3/13/06 Dukawa Sketch 53 D -O`qshbkdr 0-Cdodmcdms) ¿ l`qjr`cdodmcdmsbk`trd'bk`trdehm`k( 1-Mdf`shud) ¡ l`qjrmdf`shudrdmsdmbd'trt`kkxrdmsdmbdehm`k,, l`xvnqjbk`trdehm`khmrnldb`rdr,,rddbgòsdq6(- )ansgsgdcdodmcdms`mcmdf`shudo`qshbkdrtrd`qdctokhb`shnmoqnbdrr vghbghrognmdshb`kkxlnshu`sdc-RddB gòsdq6+ognmnknfhb`koqnbdrrdrenq cds`hkr- 2-P tdrshnm'rddbgòsdq8( qh gnvl`mx> jd vgdqd> v` vgn> x` vg`s> 3-Lxrsdqx m« trdc`ssgddmcnebdqs`hmogq`rd`mcbk`trdr'rdd @oodmchwC(

3/13/06 Dukawa Sketch 54 4. Morphology and Syntax of Nouns and Noun Phrases 4.1 Noun Morphology and Syntax

The Noun Class System Preface: A noun class system with a “flip” Ω s,Gtm uses anoun class system. The noun root is most often accompanied by its class marker (CM). These class markers not only serve as a lexical aid in the distinction of meaning, but also have grammatical significance. Unlike many other noun class languages, the class marker can flip from front to rear of the noun root. Simplistically, the class marker is before the noun when the noun is the object of the verb and it follows the noun when the noun is the subject of the verb. There are other factors but this is a simplification of the most interesting aspect of the noun system of the Dukawa language. Phonologically, the class markers become clitics phonologically attached to the adjacent word, rather than to the noun itself. e.g. V › hha›lg÷ '`rhsrntmcr( V › hha l, g÷ 'vgdmchuhcdchmsnfq`ll`shb`kvnqcr( He draws CM-water. L` ›s,Rghq '`rhsrntmcr( L`,›s Rghq 'vgdmchuhcdchmsnfq`ll`shb`kvnqcr( vnqcr,B L Fnc ÌFncÎrvnqcrÓ It is difficult to say for sure whether these class markers are “pure” clitics or not. In their basic form (listed under “Affix” on next page), they do not appear as separate words (they are dependent on the noun), BUT their phonologically related counter- parts (listed under “Reference marker” and “Genitive marker”on next page) can appear as separate words. So for our purposes in this paper, we refer to the class markers as affixes that cliticize. However, at some point in the future, we may need to re-classify the class markers as clitics. So far only few nouns has been found that do not take a class marker: /wa/ (child), /yakar/ (children), and /kyem/ (rain) although in the Dukku dialect /kyem/ does have a class marker.

3/13/06 Dukawa Sketch 55 Noun Classes The following chart shows the noun class markers with their corresponding reference marker and genitive marker. Singular Plural Affix Ref. Gen Affix Ref. Gen High tone Low tone High tone Low tone HUMAN (This is true generally, but there may be a few exceptions) ,, v‹ v¤ ,m« ∆ ≈ ,,.n,.,n ’ ‘ ,m« ∆ ≈ @MHL@K(This is true generally, but there may be a few exceptions) ,,.n,.,n x” x“ ,,.«f«,.,« x” x“ S GHMFr '`( ,,.n,.,n ’ ‘ ›r,.,›r r… r» 'a( ,,.n,.,n x” x“ ›r,.,›r r… r» 'b( ,,.n,.,n ’ ‘ ›s,.,›s s’ s‘ 'c( ›q,.,›q c… c» ›r,.,›r r… r» 'd( ›q,.,›q c… c» ›s,.,›s s’ s‘ 'e( ›q,.,›q c… c» ,,.«f«,.,« x” x“ T MB N T MS @A KD .L@RR'MncheedqdmbdhmRhmftk`q.Oktq`k( l,.,l l’ l‘ l,.,l l’ l‘

NOTES: S gdèehw«f«,hrnmkxòqdehwvghkd,m«hrnmkx`rteehw-@kknsgdq èehwdrb`mad`ss`bgdcsndhsgdqsgdadfhmmhmfnqdmcnehsr`bbnlo`mxhmf mntm- S gdÌ@eehwÓhrmnsdchmsghroòdq`mcsdwsr`rB L'bk`rrl`qjdq(vghkdansg ÌQ dedqdmbdl`qjdqÓ`mcÌFdmhshudl`qjdqÓ`qdqdedqqdcsn`rFB L'fdmhshud bk`rrl`qjdq(-V dgùdsdrsdctrhmfÌ«f,Ó`rsgdnqsgnfqòghb qdoqdrdms`shnmneÌ«f«,Ó+atshsrddlrd`rhdqenqsgdCtj`v`qd`cdqrsn l`hms`hmsgdrtqe`bdenql- In summary: Singular Plural B k`rrL`qjdqr9 ,n, ,m« ,›q, «f«,.,« ,l, ,›r, ,›s, ,l, Q dedqdmbd`mcFdmhshud9 v› « ÷ xn xn r« cd s÷ l÷ l÷

3/13/06 Dukawa Sketch 56 Affixes: All of these “affix markers” are prefixes in an isolated environment. For example, during solicitation, “What is this?” is answered by CM + NOUN. EXCEPTION: the human plural is always a suffix. The affixes are “bound” (only used with the noun to which they attach to syntactically -- however, not always attached phonologically).

Reference Class Markers: These are relative pronouns that are phonologically related to the class markers and the personal pronouns. The reference markers are “free” (refer to the noun but not connected to the noun as a prefix or suffix).

Genitive Class Markers: The genitive class markers are used to show the relationship between two or more nouns. According to Bender-Samuel, Skitch, Cressman, the reference marker and genitive class marker only differ by tone.

Noun Classes with Semantic Value S gdbk`rrdrcdehmdcaxsgdl`qjdqrfdmdq`kkxcdehmdsgdmntmhm9 Mtladq9 rhmftk`q.oktq`k Kdwhb`kchrshmbshnm9 «f«,gxnÌFthmd`bnqmÓ l,gxnÌ'fthmd`bnqm(ekntqÓ Hm`cchshnm+sgdbk`rrdrhmrnldb`rdr`qdcdsdqlhmdcaxsgdoqnodqshdrnesgd qdedqdmsenqsgdmntm-Enqdw`lokd+bnmrhcdqsgdvnqcenqÌqnbjÓvghbgb`m nbbtqhmu`qhntrbk`rrdr9 ›q,s`Î`q Ìrl`kkrsnmdÓ ›r,s`Î`q Ìrl`kkrsnmdrÓ n,s`Î`qÌahfrsnmdÓ ›s,s`Î`q ÌahfrsnmdrÓ @krn`rhlokhdchmsgdbg`qs+sgdÌLÓbk`rr'L`rrmntmbk`rr(trt`kkxqdedqr snhsdlrsg`s`qdtmbntms`akd,,khpthcr+onvcdqr---- 4.2 Basic Syntax of Nouns in Sentence Structures As stated above, the marker precedes the noun in isolation (except for the Human plural). However, this does not reflect the order within sentence structure. The order of elements in a sentence can be described as:

A. Noun functioning as the subject of the sentence: Noun + Noun class marker ....Verb (Obj) B. Noun functioning as the object of the sentence: Subj Vb Noun class marker + Noun

The following sentence shows how both are working in the same sentence. Notice that there is a bonding of the ending vowel of the verb and the class marker /o/ to form the /«w/ sound. 0- g÷* l rgnÎnrs«v v`j'rtqe`bdenql( g÷,l rgnÎnrs« n,v`j (underlying form) water-CM filled CM-swamp “The water filled the swamp.”

3/13/06 Dukawa Sketch 57 Generally, the class marker will also precede other suffixes to the noun such as the possessive pronouns, thus being closest to the stem. 1-`hjh*v* q« ÷q anm'rtqe`bdenql( `hjh,n * q« ÷ ›q,anm'tmcdqkxhmfenql( work-CM my is CM-good “My work is good.”

C. When there is a genitive phrase following, the corresponding genitive marker replaces the noun class marker. The genitive class marker is noted by GCM. The relationship between the nouns are as follows: [Noun + GCM] + [CM + Noun] The GCM and CM will often become phonologically fused together creating what “appears” to be other types of noun classes.

3- l`*s÷ Rghq l`,s÷* n,Rghq talk-GCM CM-God “talk of God” or “God’s words”

4. (We hear) fx«q ÷l l`q fx«q,÷* l,l`q fx«q,FB L'fx«q( B L'l`q(,l`q fear of death “Fear of dying”

4- qx``ar«m v› qx``a,r«* ›m v› anger-GCM PM3* his “ghr`mfdqÏ *PM3 - possessive marker 3rd person

6. ›m jnl s÷m v› ›m jnl,s÷ * ›m v› Prep. hand-GCM (pl) PM3 him in hand of him Îhmghrg`mcrÏ

However, with some adjectives the Noun Class Marker is used instead of the GCM. At the present, my examples consist of possessive adjectives (1st and 2nd persons), colors, and numbers. 6- l«m›s i``rs÷ s÷m x« l«m,›s i``r,s÷ s÷* ›m « l«m,B L qdc,FB L)) OL2 sgdl rsnl`bg qdcmdrr ne sgdl khs- S gdhqqdcrsnl`bgmdrr ÌS gdhqrhmetkmdrrÓ ))Mnsd9sghrFB Lhrqdedqqhmfsnsgdmntmbk`rrneÌrsnl`bgÓ`mchr l`qjhmfsgdogq`rd-

3/13/06 Dukawa Sketch 58 7-'xntenkknv( b÷v,›r xnnq c`v f``m`- b÷v,›r xnnq c`* n f``m*¡ qn`c,B L'ok( svn shldB L nmd Mdf qn`cr svn shld nmd Mns ÌX ntb`mmnsenkknvsvnqn`cr`ssgdr`ldshld-Ó V gdmsgdfdmhshudogq`rdhrdwsdmcdc+hs`ood`qrsg`ssgdl`qjdqrqdekdbssgd bk`rrnesgdgd`cmntmnesgdogq`rd9 0/- 'rgnvtr( b÷v,xnq anm xnm cnqn Rghq Zb÷v ,xn\* ›q,anm xn*›m cnq n,Rghq Zb÷v ,xn* ›q,anm xn\*›m cnq n,Rghq qn`c,FB L B L,fnnc FB LOL2 enkknvhmf B L,Fnc ÌRgnvtrsgdfnncv`xneenkknvhmfFnc-Ó Possible Psychological Explanation for the position of CMs /GCMs: One way to understand the placement of the class markers, may be to see the marker at the beginning as showing the end or completion of an idea while the noun class marker at the end shows anticipation of further information.

For example: CM + Noun End of idea or expression (isolated Direct Object or tail of genitive phrase) Noun + CM/ GCM Expectation of coming verb or further description (used as Subjects of verbs and head of genitive phrases)

Limitations of the grammatical markings of certain noun classes: A. The Animal Class 21 Hmsgd`mhl`kbk`rr+sgdB Ll`qjdqadenqdsgdmntmhr«f«,vghkd`esdq sgdmntmhshr,«-Gnvdudq+tmkhjdsgdbk`rrdrenqsghmfr`mcl`rrmntmr+sgd bk`rrl`qjdq«f«,hrl`hms`hmdcvhsgsgd`cchshnmne,«vgdmsgd`mhl`kr`qd sgdrtaidbs-

V ›y««-q›+ Ìß f«, v ›l«m`r«-r«s« s« l`f`m`lxds Ó He says.pst CM(pl)monkey they spoil.pst our corn all. PN V CM-N CM/PN V PN N ADJ He said, “The monkeys ate all of our corn!” Ref: A.1.c. 023

With human subjects, the name of the person is sometimes (but not always) followed by a human class marker.

K `l a` v › qn jnm- K`la` gd hr oqdrdms- M@LD B L U U ÌK`la`hrgdqd-Ó

21 This is subject to re-negotiation. We recently observed that our language helper makes occasional errors in regards to the class marker. Our only example of this came from one of his texts.

3/13/06 Dukawa Sketch 59 C han ›m L `f`ihm« « gdÎ–rs« n,b›b- Chan `mc L`f`ih vdms bgtqbg M@LD B I M@LD B L U OK@B D “Dibo and Magaji went to church.”

Observations on use of the class markers and the genitive class markers One of the difficult tasks is hearing the difference between the class markers and the corresponding genitive class markers (see chart for similarities phonetically). One of the ways we have tried to find out which form is being used is by switching noun with a noun from the “-¤q” “-de” class so that it is easier to hear the distinction between the the class marker and the genitive form. This has been helpful.

Two nouns in a genitive construction When two nouns come together in a gentive construction (“of”), the first noun root is followed by the genitive form of that noun and the class marker for the second noun attaches to the previous class marker, then the noun root of the second ends the contruction.

Noun- genitive class marker class marker- Noun Root-GCM CM-Root

Example: A `,‘l,g‘ 'rtqe`bdenql( A `,‘l,g‘ 'chuhcdchmsnfq`ll`shb`kv nqcr( A `,‘ l, g‘ Q nns,F BL BL , Q nns A `f ne v `sdq ÎA `fnev `sdqÏ<Îv `sdqa`fÏ'enqcq`v hmfv `sdq(

With this construction there are 49 different combinations with the genitive class markers merging into the class markers (non-genitive). Enqdw`lokd9'trhmfsgds‘fdmhshudenqlne¤s( s‘* n < sn s‘* ¤q < s‘q s‘* ≈ < s≈ s‘* ¤s < s‘s s‘* ¤r < s‘r s‘* l < s‘l s‘* ¤m < s‘m

Residue On Noun Class System: Noun + Possessor We have had conflicting results when trying to test in various conditions. One construction in particular has been the construction of noun + possessor. This can be as simple as: l`,›sRghq`mcl`,s÷Rghqb`madtrdcsndwoqdrrÌFncÎr vnqcr-ÓS gdrhst`shnmhretqsgdqbnlokhb`sdcaxsgdtrdnesgdonrrdrrhud oqnmntmrhmok`bdnesgdonrrdrrnq-J ›js,nqdnqj›js,÷qd'sgdÌnÓ adhmfsgdbk`rrl`qjdq`mcsgdÌ÷Óadhmfsgdfdmhshudbk`rrl`qjdq(-D udm vhsgrvhsbghmfadsvddmmntmrnesgdË›qËcdbk`rr+rshkkg`roqnudctmgdkoetk hmdrs`akhrghmf`o`ssdqmhmsgdk`mft`fd-Hadkhdudsgd`mrvdql`xadhm`

3/13/06 Dukawa Sketch 60 rtcskdu`qh`mbdhmld`mhmfadsvddmsgdsvnonrrhakdv`xr'nmdtrt`kkx rddlrqhfgssnsgdm`shudrod`jdq(-Enqdw`lokd9nmdlhfgsoqnonrdsg`s0( l`,›sRghq`mc1(l`,s÷Rghqcnmnsld`mdw`bskxsgdr`ld-S gdqd lhfgsadcheedqdmsrg`cdrneld`mhmf9 ÌV nqcrsg`sadknmfsnFncÓ'nvmdqrgho( ÌV nqcrsg`sb`ldeqnlFncËronjdmaxFncÓ'rntqbd.nqhfhm+oqnctbdq( ÌV nqcràntsFncÓ'bnmsdms( ÌS gdldrr`fdvhsgqdrodbs.qdedqdmbdsnFncÓ'qdedqdmbd( ÌS gdldrr`fd`rrnbh`sdcvhsgFncÓ'`rrnbh`shnm( @ssghronhms+Hgùdmnschrbnudqdc`qtkdsnadàkdsnoqdchbsvg`senqlne sgdbk`rrl`qjdqvhkkadtrdc-Ó 4.3 Specific Syntax of Nominals 4.3.1. Simple Nouns without modifiers as Subjects The syntactical relationship between a noun and its class marker in a subject position is N + CM. G÷,l qn jnm ¡- V `sdq,B L hr oqdrdmsmns- M,B L Rs`shud U MD F ÌS gdqdhrmnv`sdq-Ó

4.3.2 Simple Nouns without modifiers as Objects The syntactical relationship between a noun and its class marker in an object position is CM + N. Ω l b÷m÷f l,g÷- H v`ms v`sdq- OM U B L,M- ÌHv`msrnldv`sdq-Ó

4.3.3. Noun Phrases with Modifiers V gdm`lnchehdqhroqdrdms+sgdonrhshnmneB Lhrmns`etmbshnmne rxms`bshbonrhshnmnesgdmntmogq`rd+dwbdosvgdmmnsdcnsgdqvhrd- C dl nmrsq`shud9 COM*Mntm*FB L Rtaidbs`mcN aidbsOnrhshnmr J¡ctcd That well GCM ÌS g`svdkkÓ P t`khsx'ÌfnncÓ( Mntm*FB L*›q,anm Rtaidbs`mcN aidbsOnrhshnmr Ct,cd›q,anm Well-GCM CM-good. ÌS gdfnncvdkkÓ

3/13/06 Dukawa Sketch 61 B nknq Mntm*B L*bnknq*FB L A nsgRtaidbs`mcN aidbsOnrhshnmr Ct,›qi``rcd'÷b`madtrdchmok`bdnecdgdqd11( Well-CM red GCM ÌS gdqdcvdkkÓ @ fd'mdv `mcnkc( Mntm*B L*nkc.mdv*FB LA nsgRtaidbs`mcN aidbsOnrhshnmr Ct,›qo›cd'÷b`madtrdchmok`bdnecdgdqd( Well-CM new GCM ÌS gdmdvvdkkÓ Rhyd Mntm*B L*rhyd*'FB L(A nsgRtaidbs`mcN aidbsOnrhshnmr Ct,›qb``qh÷ 'gdqdF B L rv hshbgdrsn÷adb`trdcdcdmnsdrrl `kkmdrr( Well-CM big GCM ÌS gdahfvdkkÓ M tl adq Mntm*B L*mtladq A nsgRtaidbs`mcN aidbsOnrhshnmr Ct,›ssds Well-CM(pl) three ÌS gdsgqddvdkkrÓ .jn.*FB L*.jd.*Mntm*FB LA nsgRtaidbs`mcN aidbsOnrhshnmr Jn÷jdct,cd'@krn9jncdjdct,cd.jns÷jdct,s÷+`bbdoshakd( Every GCM well-GCM ÌD udqxvdkkÓ O nrrdrrhnm Mntm*B L*onrrdrrnq Ct,›qChan Well-CM Dibo ÌChanÎrvdkkÓ Enqsghqcodqrnmoqnmntmr9 Mntm*FB L*.›m.*OM Ct,cd›m« Well-GCM 3PM them ÌS gdhqvdkkÓ

22 /÷.vntkcfdmdq`kkxhmchb`sdsg`ssgdnaidbshrk`qfdqsg`m`mnaidbsqdedqqdcsnax.cd.+rnld nesgdrddw`lokdrl`xoqnudrnldmdtsq`khy`shnmnesghrchrshmbshnmvghkdsgddw`lokdnerhyd sdmcrsnrtoonqssghrchrshmbshnm-

3/13/06 Dukawa Sketch 62 O nrrdrrhnmv hsg.l `.Mddcrsnadbgdbjdcenqansgonrhshnmr B L*Mntm*FB L*.l`.*onrrdrrnq Ωq,ct,cdl`Chan CM-well-GCM of Dibo ÌChanÎrvdkkÓ B nmsdms Mntm*FB L*B L'bnmsdms(*Mntm'bnmsdms(*'FB L'bnms`hmdq(( Ct,cdl,g÷'cd( J÷j,cd›s,f`'cd( Well-GCM CM-water (GCM) Calabash-GCM CM-tuo (GCM) ÌV dkknev`sdqÓ ÌB `k`a`rgenqstnÓ V dhfgs Mntm*FB L*B L*vdhfgs Jv÷l,s÷›r,m› Metal-GCM(pl) heavy ÌS gdgd`uxvdkkenqlrÓ B nl ahm`shnmr9 C dl nmrsq`shud`mcP t`khsx9 COL*Mntm*FB L*›q,anm*FB L J¡ct,cd›q,anmcd That well-GCM CM-good GCM ÌS g`sfnncvdkkÓ C dl nmrsq`shud`mcB nknq COM*Mntm*B L*bnknq*FB L*FB LRtaidbs`mcN aidbsOnrhshnmr J¡Ct,›qi``rcdcd That well-CM red GCM GCM ÌS g`sqdcvdkkÓ C dl nmrsq`shud`mc@ fd'mdv `mcnkc( COM*Mntm*FB L*B L*nkc.mdv*FB L*'FB L(A nsgRtaidbs`mcN aidbs J¡ct,cd›q,o›cd'cd('÷b`madtrdchmok`bdnesgdcdgdqd( That well-GCM CM-new GCM (GCM) ÌS g`smdvvdkkÓ C dl nmrsq`shud`mcRhyd COM*Mntm*B L*rhyd*FB L A nsgRtaidbs`mcN aidbs Onrhshnmr J¡ct,›qb``qh÷ 'gdqdF B L rv hshbgdrsn÷adb`trdcd cdmnsdrrl `kkmdrr( That well-CM big GCM ÌS g`sahfvdkkÓ

3/13/06 Dukawa Sketch 63 C dl nmrsq`shud`mcM tl adq COM*Mntm*B L*mtladq*FB L A nsgRtaidbs`mcN aidbsOnrhshnmr J¡ct,›ss«ss÷ Those Well-CM(pl) three GCM ÌS gnrdsgqddvdkkrÓ C dl nmrsq`shud`mcO nrrdrrhnm A nsgRtaidbs`mcN aidbsOnrhshnmr COM*Mntm*B L*onrrdrrnq*FB L J ¡ct,›qChancd That well-CM Dibo GCM ÌS g`svdkkneChanÓ Enqsghqcodqrnmoqnmntmr9 COM*Mntm*FB L*.›m.*OM*FB L J ¡ct,cd›m«cd That well-GCM 3PM them GCM ÌS g`svdkknesgdhqrÓ C dl nmrsq`shud`mcO nrrdrrhnmv hsg.l `.Mddcrsnadbgdbjdcenqansgonrhshnmr COM*Mntm*FB L*.l`.*onrrdrrnq J ¡ct,cdl`Chan DPN well-GCM of Dibo ÌS g`svdkkneChanÓ C dl nmrsq`shud`mcB nmsdms COM*Mntm*FB L*B L'bnmsdms(*Mntm'bnmsdms(*'FB L'bnms`hmdq((*FB L'bnms`hmdq( J¡ct,cdl,g÷'cd( cd 'cdb`madqdok`bdvhsg÷( That well-GCM CM-water (GCM) GCM ÌS g`svdkknev`sdqÓ 'svn.cd.rehm`khrÌrvddsdqÓ( J¡j÷j,cd›s,f`'cd(cd That calabash-GCM CM-tuo (GCM) GCM ÌS g`sb`k`a`rgehkkdcvhsgstnÓ S gdCtj`v`rod`jdqrcnmnsfdmdq`kkxbnlahmdnsgdq`cidbshudrsnfdsgdqrnsgd enkknvhmfhrtm`stq`k+ats`bbdoshakd9 @ fd`mcM tl adq9 Mntm*B L*`fd*FB L*mtladq A nsgRtaidbs`mcN aidbsOnrhshnm Ct,›sts,s÷sds Ct,›so›,s÷sds Well-CM old-GCM three Well-CM new-GCM three ÌS gqddnkcvdkkrÓ ÌS gqddmdvvdkkrÓ P t`khsx`mcM tl adq Mntm*B L*mtladq*FB L*tq,anm*FB L) A nsgRtaidbs`mcN aidbs Ct,›ssdss÷›q,anms÷) Well-CM three GCM CM-good GCM* ÌS gqddfnncvdkkrÓ )l`xadnoshnm`k @ fd`mcV dhfgs

3/13/06 Dukawa Sketch 64 Mntm*B L*`fd*FB L*B L*vdhfgs A nsgRtaidbs`mcN aidbsOnrhshnm Jv÷l,›sts,s÷›r,m› Metal-CM old-GCM CM-heavy ÌS gdnkcgdùxvdkkenqlrÓ Jv÷l,›so›,s÷›r,m› Metal-CM new-GCM CM-heavy ÌS gdmdvgdùxvdkkenqlrÓ B nknq`mcV dhfgs Mntm*B L*bnknq*FB L*FB L*B L*vdhfgsA nsgRtaidbs`mcN aidbs Jv÷l,›sqhls÷s÷›r,m› Metal-CM black GCM GCM CM-heavy ÌS gdgdùxak`bjvdkkenqlrÓ P t`khsx`mcV dhfgs Mntm*FB L*›q,anm*FB L*B L*vdhfgsA nsgRtaidbs`mcN aidbsOnrhshnm Jv÷l,s÷›q,anms÷›r,m› Metal-GCM CM-good GCM heavy ÌS gdfnncgdùxvdkkenqlrÓ c. Quantification c.1 Numerals V gdmmtldq`kr`qdhmunkudc+sgdmntmhrtrt`kkxenkknvdcaxhsr l`qjdq`mcsgdmtldq`knbbtqr`ssgddmc'M*B L*MT L(- a÷j«sh,n f``m g÷,›q f``m atbjds nmd c`x nmd M,B L MT L M,B L MT L ÌnmdatbjdsÓ ÌN mdc`xÓ l¡,›s xnnq vnqcr svn M,B L'ok( MT L ÌsvnvnqcrÓ Gnvdudq+vgdmsgdmntmqdedqrsngtl`mr+hsrnldshldrvhkkgùdsgd o`qshbkdÌm«mÓ'M*B L*Ìm«mÓ*MT L(-V gdmsgdbk`trdhr vhsgntsùdqa+sgdmtladqhrenkknvdcax«-S gdqdhrònrhakhsxsg`ssghrhr tmcdqkxhmfkxÌËm«Ó'oktq`kbk`rrl`qjdqenqgtl`mr(`mcÌ›m+Óatssghr vntkcenql`qdodshshnmnesgdËm«vghbgb`mmnsaddwok`hmdcheòokhdcsn sgdenkknvhmfdw`lokd9 gtm,m« m«m sds '«( odnokd sgqdd M,B L O`qsk MT L Ì'sgdxZ`qd\(sgqddodnokdÓ Q D E9@-1-a-/07+/08+/1/

3/13/06 Dukawa Sketch 65 c.2 Quantifiers V gdmpt`mshsxneodnokdhrrodbhehdcaxdwsqdldr'`kk+`kns+nqkhsskd( sgdvnqcnqcdqhr9M*B L@CI- gtm,m« lxds.c««m.ghh.jòo.v`qv`q odnokd `kk.ltbg.khsskd.`kk.`kk M,B L @CI.@CI.@CI.@CI.@CI Ì`kksgdodnokdÓ Ì`knsneodnokdÓ ÌudqxedvodnokdÓ Enqsghmfr`mc`mhl`kr9M*@CI m`ghh ÌèdvbnvrÓ gxnc««m Ì`knsnebnqmÓ EnqÌLÓbk`rrmntmr9B L*Mntm*@CI 'qd,bgdbjsghr( l,gtghh Ì`khsskdchqsÓ l,gtc««m Ì`knsnechqsÓ V gdmpt`mshsxhrrodbhehdcvhsg`cdlnmrsq`shudsgdrxms`whr`r enkknvr9 lxdsnq jòo j` ZN A ID B S \ ZB L\ Ì@kk sgnrd----Ó V gdmbnmbdosrneÌd`bg+ÓÌdudqx+ÓnqÌrnldÓ`qdbnlltmhb`sdc`k`qfdq ogq`rdhrtrdc-Enqltk`9J n*FB L*jd*'mntm(*FB L jncdjdg÷,cd dudqxc`x jn÷jdg`j,÷ dudqxxd`q jnxnjdv ’,xn dudqxcnf Hqqdftk`q9 jnv `m dudqxodqrnm.nmd jnjdm« dudqxvgdqd jnqhh mnsghmf'nmdvntkcdwodbssghrsnld`mÌdudqxsghmfÓ(

d. Possesssor / Relationship Possession is indicated by one of the following ways: 1. Possession is usually indicated by giving the object being possesed followed by the possessor or possessive pronoun. For example: a÷j«sh qt mdÎ` qd atbjds xntq vnl`m lx ÌxntqatbjdsÓ ÌlxvhedÓ

v’ Chf` mdÎ` Chf` cnf Chf`'m`ld( vhed Chf` ÌChf`ÎrcnfÓ ÌChf`ÎrvhedÓ

V gdmgtl`mr`qdfhudmhmsgdoktq`k+sgdoktq`kl`qjdqenkknvrsgd onrrdrrhudoqnmntm-S ghrdw`lokdl`xad`mdwbdoshnmctdsnhesgd.m«. enkknvdc.mdÎ`.hslhfgshlokxsg`sd`bgg`clnqdsg`mnmdvhed

mdÎ` s« m« vhed ntq OK ÌntqvhudrÓ

3/13/06 Dukawa Sketch 66 Hmqdk`shnmrghorqdf`qchmfsghqcodqrnmrhmftk`q`mcoktq`koqnmntmr'`mc rnldshldrsgdehqrsoktq`kdwbktrhud(+`ronrrdrrnq+`o`qshbkdÌ›mÓhr hmrdqsdcadsvddmsgdgd`cmntm`mcsgdonrrdrrnq'nqsgdqdk`shnm`kmntm`mc sgdoqnmntm(- jnl,s÷ ›m « g`mcr ne sgdhq M,FB L'ok( OL sgdhq Ìsgdhqg`mcrÓ s`sn ›m v› ad,cd ›m s« e`sgdq ne ghr ok`bd FB L ne tr Ìghre`sgdqÓ Ìntqok`bdÓ

1-N mdnsgdqv`xsnrgnvsghrqdk`shnmrghohraxok`bhmfsgdodqrnm`k oqnmntmenqsgdonrrdrrnqhmeqnmsnesgdmntmonrrdrrdc-S ghrl`xadnmkx adb`trdnesgdenkknvhmfpt`mhshehdq-S ghrmddcretqsgdqbgdbjhmf-

ßf«,v›l « m`rr›s« s« l `f`m` lxds lnmjdxr ronhkdc ntq bnqm `kk B L,M,B L U OM M @CI ÌS gdlnmjdxrronhkdc`kknentqbnqm Ó Q D E9@-0-b-/00+/05+/12+/22 2-S gdk`rsv`xsnrgnvsghrqdk`shnmrghohraxtrhmfsgdonrrdrrhudl`qjdq .l`.adsvddmsgdnaidbs`mcsgdonrrdrrnq-S gdqdhr`qdk`shnmrghoadsvddm sgd.l`.`mcsgddlog`shbfdmhshudoqnmntm'rddo`fd2-1(-S gdhmsdqdrshmf `rodbsnesghronrrdrrhudl`qjdqhrsg`shsb`mqdedqsnfqntorneodnokd`r vdkk`rhmchuhct`kr-S gdrxms`whr`renkknvr9 B L*N A ID B S *FB L*l`*ON RRD RRN Q - n,gtq÷l`L÷jrn ÌsgdgntrdneL÷jrnÓ ›q,axncdl`hmt Ìsgdfq`m`qxnelnsgdqÓnqÌ`vnl`mÎrfq`m`qxÓ ›s,s÷÷as÷l`b`lon Ìg`srneldmÓ.ÌldmÎrg`srÓ 4.4. Inflection S gdqdhrmns`khmjadsvddmsgdrtaidbs`mcsgdudqahmsdqlrne mtladq'rhmftk`q.oktq`k(- 4.5. Allomorphy A db`trdnesgdbg`mfhmfm`stqdnek`mft`fd+sgdqd`qdrnld `kknlnqogrhmsgdmntmbk`rrl`qjdqrxrsdl-S ghrhrmnsdwok`hmdcaxch`kdbs neqdfhnmatsch`kdbs`bbnqchmfsn`fdfqntor-Lnrsnesgdnkcdqodnokd bnmrhrsdmskxtrdsgd.n,.bk`rrl`qjdqvghkdl`mxnesgdxntmfdqodnokd qdok`bd.n,.vhsg.t,.+atsmnshmdudqxvnqc-Rhmbdsgdbg`mfdhrmns tmhudqr`k`mchrrnldvg`shmbnmrhrsdms+hsrddlradrssnl`hms`hmsgd.n,. bk`rr`mcmns`cc`mdv.t,.bk`rr- D w`lokd9 n,ih `mc t,ih Ìekx'hmrdbs(Ó 'nkcdqodnokd( 'xntmfdqodnokd(

3/13/06 Dukawa Sketch 67 V dgùditrsqdbdmskxmnshbd'1//1(+sg`ssgdE`j`hk`mft`fdsnsgd MnqsgvdrsnesgdCtj`v`rg`qdsgddw`bsrdsnebk`rrl`qjdqr`rsgdCtj`v` vhsgsgddwbdoshnmnesgd.n,.bk`rrvghbghrqd`khydc`r.t,.- 4.6 Derivational Processes 4.6.1. Verbal Nouns (the participle) (see chapter 5 for examples) B L * U nq U * B L'rtaidbsonrhshnm( ›s,mdldr Ìk`tfghmfÓ ›q,rgdÎds ÌkhuhmfÓ'khs-rhsshmf( ›r,b`m Ìa`qjhmfÓ n,o÷ ÌgtmshmfÓ 4.6.2. Names and Titles `-M`ldr S gdCtj`v`m`ldrsg`s`qdÌotqdCtj`v`Ótrt`kkxgùdÌ`Ó*` mntm'nql`xaddudmudqar(-S gdm`ldl`xadshdchmsnsgde`bssgd`bghkc v`ranqmctqhmfsgdshldneqhbdg`qudrshmfnqsg`s`gtmsdqjhkkdc`bdqs`hm `mhl`kvgdm`bghkcv`ranqm- @a««q« ÌQ hbdÓ.Ì@odqrnmb`kkdcÍQ hbdÎÓ @gxn ÌFthmd`B nqmÓ @bds` ÌGnsOdoodqÓ @ldq ÌGtmfdqÓ @q÷÷f ÌD kdog`msÓ a-S hskdr @shskdhrcdqhudcaxok`bhmf`ÌjnÓadenqd`mntmnqudqasnfhud` odqrnm`shskd- jn,fv÷ln ÌbghdeÓ jn,oxò Ìak`bjrlhsgÓ jn,j÷÷a Ìonnql`mÓ'udqaÌrteedqÓ( A nsg.`.enqm`ldr`mc.jn.enqshskdrbntkcadonrrhakxshdchmsnsgdmntm bk`rrrxrsdl'`rbk`rrl`qjdqr(+atsadb`trdnesgdhqkhlhs`shnmrvdgùd bgnrdmsnjddosgdlrdo`q`sdc-

3/13/06 Dukawa Sketch 68 5. Morphology and Syntax of Verbs and Verb Phrases23 5.1 Verb Morphology 5.1.1. With Simple Stems The simple verb consists of a verb stem plus verb tense marker. Root + Tense Marker ∅ Present (un-marked) ,r›s« Odqedbs ,s«+,f.,j O`rs13 ,r« Etstqd.o`rs D w`lokdr9 a›Î›f,∅ aqd`j a›Î›f,r›s« gùdaqnjdm a›Î›f,s« aqnjd g``,f vdms a›Î›f,r« 'vhkk(aqd`j+aqnjd Gnvdudq+sgdrdudqasdmrdrl`qjdqrcnmnsetmbshnmsns`kkxhmcdodmcdmskxne sgdoqnmntmr`mcsgd`bbnlo`mxhmflnqogdldr-L`mxshldrhsòod`qrsg`s sgdsdmrd.`rodbshrcdqhudclnqdeqnlsgdoqnmntm`mcudqa`koqdehw lnqogdldrsg`msgdudqarteehw-S gdqd`rnmsghrchrbtrrhnmhmbktcdr oqnmntmrhradb`trdnesdmsgdoqnmntm`mcudqa`koqdehw`qdldqfdcsnfdsgdq- S gdsvnlnrsbnllnmlnqogdldr`qd.l.`mc.`.-S gdrdlnqogdldr bnlltmhb`sdsgd`rodbsneoqnfqdrrhud`mcetstqhrshb'qdrodbshudkx(-Mnsd gnvsgdenkknvhmfldqfdsnfdsgdq9 O M " O M * O qnfqdrrhud Q drtks 0r l« l l«l 1r v÷ l v÷l 2r v› l v›l 0o'dw( s« l s«l 1o m÷ l m÷l 2o « l «l O M " O M * E tstqd Q drtksN qsgnfqògx 0r l« ` Zl`\ l` 1r v÷ ` Zv`\ v÷` 2r v› ` Zv›`\ v›` 0o'dw( s« ` Zs`\ s«` 1o m÷ ` Zm`\ m÷` 2o « ` Z«`\ «` S ghroqnbdrrneldqfhmfsgdunvdkrsnfdsgdqhrtmhptdenqsgdk`mft`fd- Fdmdq`kkx+vgdmnmdunvdkhrenkknvdcax`mnsgdqunvdk`bqnrrlnqogdld antmcqhdrsgdrdbnmcunvdkcqnornts-Gnvdudq+sgdunvdkoqdrdqu`shnm l`xgùdètmbshnm`ka`rhrhmsg`slnmn,rxkkàhblnqogdldr`qdoqdrdqudc-

23 Entries in italics in chapters 5 are observations found in BSC (Bender-Samuel, Skitch, and Cressman) which we have not confirmed. 24 This distinction is based on CV patterns: -g/k (type 1) V, VC, CV, CVC, VVC, CVVC (typically mono-syllabic) ,s«'sxod1(B UB B +B UB U+UB U+UB UB +B UUB 'sxohb`kkxah,rxkk`ahb( 'A RB +8/(

3/13/06 Dukawa Sketch 69 S gdqdhr`khlhs`shnmsnsgdlhwhmfnesgdrdudqa`koqdehwdr`mcsgdànud udqa`krteehwdr-Fdmdq`kkx+sgdenkknvhmfb`madbnlahmdc9 Udqa Udqa Oqnmntm*lnqogdld Udqa rteehw Q drtks OM l U ∅ OqdrdmsOqnfqdrrhud OM ` U ∅ Etstqd OM ` U ,r« Etstqd D w`lokdr9 L«lg``m L« l g``m H oqnfqdrrhud bnld ÌH`lbnlhmf-Ó S `g``m- S « ` g``m V d Etstqd bnld ÌV dvhkkbnld-Ó V ›à`jrr«- V › ` a`jr r« Gd etstqd qdldladq etstqd ÌGdvhkkqdldladq-Ó Hsltrsadr`hcsg`ssgdrd`qdsxohb`kÌshldÓcdrhfm`shnmrenqsgdrd udqa`krteehwdr`mcudqa`koqdehwdr'`ss`bgdcsnsgdoqnmntm(-Hsòod`qrsg`s sgdudqa`koqdehwl`qjdqr'.l.`mc.`.(b`qqxlnqdvdhfgssg`msgdrteehwdr'., s«.+.,r›s«.+.,r«.---(hmqdf`qcrsnÌshld-ÓD rodbh`kkxhmM`qq`shudsdwsr+sgd rteehw.,r«.hrnesdmtrdcenqo`rs`mcetstqdshld-S ghrhr`m`qd`sg`smddcr etqsgdqrstcx-A RB chcmnsdudmldmshnmsgd.,r«.hmsgdhq`m`kxrhrnesgd udqa-V d`qdmnvhmudrshf`shmfnsgdqqd`rnmrenqsgd.«.rhmbdsgd.r.lhfgs ado`qsnesgdudqarsdl- Hm`cchshnm+hsrgntkcadmnsdcsg`shmrnl dudqarsgdunvdkrnesgd udqaqnnsrtmcdqfnbg`mfdrhmsgdbg`mfhmfnesdmrd-S xohb`kkx+dbg`mfdrsn `:nsn÷+tsn÷---hm`mtladqneudqar-S ghrhrmnstmhudqr`k,,rnmnqtkdr b`madvqhssdmsndwok`hmvghbgudqarrgnvsghrunvdkbg`mfd`mcvghbg nmdrcnmns-A RB cdrbqhadcsghrbg`mfd`rvdkk+atssgdnsgdqv`x`qntmc- S gdhqv`xhradssdqnmkxhenmdsghmjrnesgdoqdrdmstml`qjdcenql`rsgd a`rhbudqarsdl:gnvdudq+trhmfsgdOdqedbs`mcEtstqdenqlnesgdunvdk nmdb`moqdchbslnqd`bbtq`sdkxsgdenqlnesgdO`rs`mcOqdrdms-Enq dw`lokdansg.n.`mc.t.b`mbg`mfdsn.÷.:henmdrs`qsrvhsg.÷.'Oqdrdmsnq O`rsenql(`rsgda`rhbenql+sgdmhshrtmoqdchbàkdvgdsgdqsgdunvdkvhkk bg`mfdsn.n.nq.t.- D w`lokdr9 O dqedbs O `rs O qdrdms E tstqd gdÎ«rs« g``f g` gddr 'ÌfnÓ( gnÎnrs« g÷÷f g÷ gnnr 'ÌjhkkÓ(

5.1.2. With Complex Stems Rhlhk`qsnsgd`anududqa`koqdehwlnqogdldr+sgdenkknvhmf lnqogdldr`ood`qadsvddmsgdrtaidbs`mcsgdudqarsdl9

3/13/06 Dukawa Sketch 70 U dqa`kO qdehwE tmbshnm m D wok`m`snqxlncd'A RB +0/8( 'S ghròod`qrsnadRg`mihqch`kdbsnmkx-( qn Q dlnsdO`rs qn` Q dlnsdEtstqd gd Etstqd'sghrhrsgdetstqdenqlnesgdvnqcenqÌfnÓ( D w`lokdr9 S «mg`- S « m g` V d dwok`hmfn ÌV dvdms-Ó'`r`mdwok`hm`shnm( @J hqgnodqrnmtmcdqrs`mcrsghr`r9ÌV d`qdfnhmf-Ó Ω l qn g``f- Ω l qn g` `f- H qdl nsd fn osSM R ÌH v dms hm sgd o`rs 'ats mn knmfdq fn(Ó A RB + 000 V › qn` s÷÷f- V › qn ` s÷÷f- G d qdl nsd etstqd oq`x ÌG d v ntkc gùd oq`xdc---Ó A RB + 001 V ›gdxnli`Î`rr- V › gd xn l i`Î`rr Gd etstqd hs sn ehw ÌGdvhkkehwhs-Ó 5.1.3. Affixes A drhcdrsgda`rhbsdmrd.`rodbsudqalnqogdldr+sgdqd`qdrnld èehwdrsg`s`ss`bgsnsgdudqa-Rnld`qdtrdchmok`bdne`sdmrdl`qjdq rteehwvghkdnsgdqrb`madenkknvdcax`sdmrdrteehw- `- '0(,a« Chrs`msro`sh`kodqrodbshudÌnudqsgdqdÓ14 L`mdfa«r«-'rtqe`bdenql( L« ` mdjd a« r« 'T Kenql( H vhkk v`kj sgdqd etstqd ÌHvhkkv`kjsgdqd-Ó V ›gx`la«r›s«xn- V › gx`m a« r›s« xn Gd r`v sgdqd odqedbs hs ÌGdg`crddmhsnudqsgdqd-Ó '1(,m Chrs`msro`sh`kodqrodbshud,,rnlddudmsv`rcnmd!sgdqd! `mcsgddeedbshrmnv!gdqd! V ›f``ms«v`m,md&`- Gdl`qqhdcgdqsgdqd'`mcaqntfgsgdqgdqd(-

25 We are looking into a similar morpheme /r›m. meaning “here,” but it is inconclusive at this time.

3/13/06 Dukawa Sketch 71 V hsgnts,m Ω ls÷l›q›v›- Hrdmsghl'eqnlgdqdsnsgdqd(- V hsg,m Ω ls÷lm›q›v›- Hrdmsghl'eqnlsgdqdsngdqd(- V hsgnts,m Ω lg÷f›q›j`m- Hgd`qcbqxhmf- V hsg,m Ω lg÷fm›q›- Hgd`qcbqxhmf'eqnle`q`v`x(- V hsgnts,m V ›a`à›q›a««q«- Gdrnkcqhbd- V hsg,m V ›a`àm›q›a««q«- Gdrnkcqhbd'hmè`qv`xok`bd( V hsgnts,m V ›rv÷÷q›l,g÷- Gdcq`mjv`sdq V hsg,m V ›rv÷m›q›l,g÷- Gdcq`mjv`sdq'eqnlrnldok`bd,,mnsgdqd(- a- ,« B nmshmt`shud'mddcretqsgdqbgdbjhmf( b- ,«*,› A dmde`bshud'@ bbnqchmf sn A RB + hs hr ` .,«.(V dgùd nardqudcsghrsnadË›vghbghrenkknvdcax`m`ldnq` odqrnm`koqnmntm+hsb`qqxrsgdrdmrdneÌenq'sgdadmdehs ne(---Ó c- ,∆) B nmchshnm`k '@ bbnqchmf sn A RB + hs hr ` ghfg snmd( d- ,s.s« B `tr`shud e- ,s.s∆ RtaitmbshudS ghrb`madvhsgnqvhsgnts`ÌqdldmÓ hmsqnctbhmfsgdbk`trd-S gdnmkxe`bsnqsg`sl`xrdo`q`sd sgdld`mhmfadsvddmsgdB `tr`shud'd-(`mcsgd Rtaitmbshud'e-(hrsgdghfgsnmdnmsgd«- f- ,›q›.› M`qq`shudo`rs,,S gdrdbnmcòod`qrsnad`ÌrgnqsdmdcÓ udqrhnmnesgdehqrs-Hm`cchshnm+vgdmsgdudqadmcrhm` unvdksgdknmfenqlhrrgnqsdcsn,q›'sghrenkknvrsgd ognmnknfhb`koqnbdrrdradsvddmlnqogdldantmcqhdr(- Hmrnldb`rdr+nmkxsgd.q.vhkkqdl`hm,,`f`hmadb`trdne ognmnknfhb`koqnbdrrdr- V ›gnq«l«s V › gn q « lxds V › gn ›q› « lxds Gd jhkk osS MRm`qq sgdl `kk ÌGdjhkkdcsgdl`kk Ó Q de9@-0-b-/50

* This may be part of the stem.

3/13/06 Dukawa Sketch 72 g- q}l)Oktq`khsxne`bshnm.qdod`sdc`bshnm- V ›gnl›q›«jòo- V › gn l ›q› « jòo Rgd jhkk oktq- M`qq-os- sgdl `kk ÌRgdjhkkdcsgdl`kk-Ó Q de9@-0-d-3/12 h- ,m« S ghròod`qrhml`mxnentqsdwsr-@bbnqchmfsndw`lokdrhmA RB + 'o-57`mcdkrdvgdqd(+sghrhr`cdodmcdmsenqlnesgdudqa- Gnvdudq+vgdmA RB fùdsgdkhrshmfnecdodmcdmsudqar+., m«.v`rmnshmbktcdc'.,«.`mc.,s«.vdqdkhrsdcatsmn.,m«.(- N mdonrrhakddwok`m`shnmhrsg`ssgd.m.hro`qsnesgdqnns,, sghrmddcrlnqdrstcx-

5.2 Syntax of the Verbial Phrase The tense / aspect of the Dukawa language appears to have components in both the pronominal suffixes and verbal areas.

Verbal Verb TNS Verb TNS Verb Prefix #1 Mkers #2 Mkers #3 ADV l qn ¿ 'Q nns( ∅ .l.* b«mb«m Hmehmhshud m q÷ ›q› r›s« B L*O`qshbhokd `)) q` « s«+f.j g÷ql,g÷q gd r« v`qv`q ÷ss« m« c««m r«mf«'Ìbnmshmt`kkxÓ( anq›l'Ìbnmshmt`kkx+ÓsgdÌ,›lÓl`xad`m hmehmhshudl`qjdq( B nlldmsr9'`kkbnlonmdmsr`qdnoshnm`krhmbdrnldrdmsdmbdrgùd`m hlokhdcudqa-( Udqa`kOqdehw9.l.oqnfqdrrhud:.`.etstqd:.m.dwok`m`snqxlncd- A dhmfUdqar9.q`.l`xad`bnlahm`shnmneqn.q÷vhsgsgd.`.eqnlsgd enkknvhmfb`sdfnqx-S gd.gd.hrqdk`sdcsnsgdvnqc.g`.ld`mhmf ÌfnÓètstqdl`qjdq-S gd.÷ss«.òod`qrsnad`mnsgdqo`rssdmrd enqlnesgdadhmfudqa- S MR'`mclncd(Ljdqr9S gd.`.b`mnbbtqvhsgnts`mxnesgdsgdoqduhntr b`sdfnqhdr`mcb`ms`jdènkknvhmfudqa-A tssgdnsgdqsvn.›q›. `mc.«.+ltrsenkknv.qn.nq.q÷.`mcbnlokdsdsgdudqa`kogq`rd- Hmehmhshud.O`qshbhokd9@ssghronhmssgdqd`qdl`mxptdrshnmrqdf`qchmfsgd m`stqdnesgdhmehmhshud`mcsgdo`qshbhokd-Oqduhntrkx+sgd.l.adenqd ùdqav`rbnmrhcdqdcsgdhmehmhshudl`qjdqrhlhk`qsnsgdD mfkhrg Ìsn-ÓGnvdudq+hmkhfgssg`ssgd.l.hr`krn`mntmbk`rrl`qjdq`mc sg`shsòod`qrsg`sudqarb`madbg`mfdchmsno`qshbhokdax`cchmf nsgdqmntmbk`rrl`qjdqr'n+›s+›r+›q,gùdaddmentmc(,,hsl`x adsg`ssgdqdhrmnchrshmbshnmadsvddm`mhmehmhshud`mcò`qshbhokd hmCtj`v`-Hsl`xadonrrhakdsg`ssgdx`qdnmd`mcsgdr`ld`mc cheedqeqnll`hmudqarnmkxhmsgdrdmrdsg`ssgdx`qdoqdehwdcax` mntmbk`rrl`qjdq-S ghrl`xfhudrnldvdhfgssnrnldjhmcneudqa

** It is very possible the a (the verbal prefix) and ra ( future form of the being verb - verb #1) may be one and the same only that a is a shortened version.

3/13/06 Dukawa Sketch 73 q`mjhmfvhsghmsgdk`mft`fd-A RB +khrsdcÌudqa`kmntmrÓhmsgdhq fknrrdrnesdwsratschcmnschrbtrrsgdhql`jd,to-Hsòod`qrsg`s `klnrsdudqxudqab`ms`jd`bk`rrl`qjdq`mcadbnld` Ìo`qshbhokd-ÓS gdbk`rrl`qjdqb`mekho`bbnqchmfsnr`ld fq`ll`shb`kqtkdr`rsgdmntmr- @CU9@ssgdoqdrdms+udqxedv`cudqargùdaddmchrbnudqdc-.b«mb«m. trt`kkxld`mrdhsgdqÌrknvkxÓnqÌb`qdetkkxÓ:.gnql,gnq.Ìpthbjkx. e`rsÓ:`mc.v`qv`q.b`qqxrsgdhcd`neÌbnlokdsdkx-ÓHm`cchshnmsgd `cidbshud.c««m.b`madtrdc`r`m`cudqasnb`qqxsgdrdmrdneÌ` kns-Ó@ssgdoqdrdmsshld+sgdqd`qdnmkxànts03*`cudqarsg`svd gùdchrbnudqdc-'Rddbgòsdq2enqbnlokdsdkhrshmf( Participles and Infinitives There seems to be a relationship or similarity between the participles and the infinitives. At this point it is difficult to say where the line of division can be drawn. Structurally, the participle is a combination of a verb root and a class marker. The participle’s syntax is based on its grammatical function in the sentence -- the class marker following when the participle is the subject and before the verb root when the participle is the object (same as for nouns). gdv,›rc`l›s«ld- 'bgdbj9Xntqc`mbhmfsqntakdrld->>>( dance-CM troubles me V CM V PN1s “Dancing troubles me.”

Ωlgxdmdrs«v››r,gdv- I saw him CM-dance PN V PN CM-V “I saw him dancing.” A majority of verb roots have the /m/ class marker for the infinitive while using a different marker for constructions of the participle.

Ωlb÷m÷fl,mdldr- I want to laugh. PN V Infmkr V “I want to laugh.” Mdldr,›sc`l›s«ld- laugh-CM troubles me V CM V PN “Laughing troubles me.”

However, this is not consistently true, some words seem to take either /m/ or another CM for the infinitive and participle.

Ωlb÷m÷f›r,j`m- 'bgdbj9hernldnmddkrdhrbqxhmf>>>( I want to cry PN V CM-V “I want to cry.”

J`m,›rc`l›s«ld- cry-CM troubles me V-CM V PN “Crying troubles me.”

3/13/06 Dukawa Sketch 74 Ωlb÷m÷fl,mdjd- 'bgdbj9hernldnmddkrdv`kjr>>>( I want to go(walk) PN V CM-V “I want to go.” mdjd,lc`l›s«ld- walk-CM troubles me V-CM V PN “Walking troubles me.”

When participle take objects the class markers of the participles and the class markers of the noun merge together like the noun classes do in noun phrases.

Hha,l,g÷c`l›s«ld Hha,ll,g÷c`l›s«ld- draw-CM CM-water troubles me V-CM CM-N V PN “Drawing water troubles me.”

Allomorphy @bbnqchmfsnA RB +sgdqd`qdrnld`kknlnqogrvghbgsgdxdwok`hm `bbnqchmfsnB Uo`ssdqmrnesgdudqaqnns-Enqdw`lokd+sgdrhlokdo`rs sdmrd+rnldudqars`jdÌ,s«Óvghkdnsgdqudqars`jdÌ,f.,j-Rddennsmnsdnm o`fd4-0- @mnsgdq`kknlnqoghraxm`stqdnesgdbg`mfhmfnesgdk`mft`fdnudq shld-S gdnkcdqodnokdbnmrhrsdmskxtrdÌ,›q›Ó`rsgdm`qq`shudo`rssdmrd l`qjdqvghkdrnldnesgdxntmfdqfdmdq`shnmtrdÌ›q«-ÓRne`qvdg`ud bnmshmtdcsntrdsgdnkcdqudqrhnmadb`trdhshrlnqdbnmrhrsdmshmhsrtr`fd- Hmnsgdqvnqcr+sgdbg`mfdg`rmnsaddmtmhudqr`k+atso`qsh`k`ssghronhms-

Inflection As stated, there is no link between the subject and the verb in terms of number (singular and plural). This is true for both noun and pronoun subjects.

Theories to be checked: Proper Name + progressive PN Habitual / customary eg. v›l

K`la`v›la``a ÌK`la`btsnl`qhkxrdkkr-Ó

Proper Name + progressive MK Progressive (doing right now) eg. m

K`la`la``a ÌK`la`hrrdkkhmf'qhfgsmnv(-Ó

Proper Name + ro + anq› + m + (infinitive) Repeated Action

K`la`qnanq›la``a ÌK`la``kv`xrrdkkr-Ó

Proper Name + v›l*r«mf« + m + (infinitive) Repeated Action

K`la`v›lr«mf«la``a ÌK`la`bnmshmt`kkxrdkkr-Ó ** At this point we are uncertain as to whether the progressive marker /m/ should be attached to a proper name or not.

Mnsd9.r«mf«.b`madrvhsbgdcvhsg.l`Î`r.vhsgmn`oo`qdmsbg`mfdhmld`mhmf-

3/13/06 Dukawa Sketch 75 6. Clause Syntax and Semantics 26 6.1. Syntax Introduction This introduction is for those who like to see the big picture before exploring the smaller components of the language. The basic unmarked word order in Dukawa is S V O. The intransitive is S V and the bi-transitive is S V O (primary) O (secondary). S q`mrhshud9RUN V ›ldÎ«rs«n,jtj«- V › ld s« n,jtj« Gd l`jd os-smr B L,qnnl Rtaidbs Udqa N aidbs ÌGdl`cd`qnnl-Ó Hmsq`mrhshud9RU V ›q÷÷m- V › q÷÷m Gd bnld Rtaidbs Udqa ÌGdhrbnlhmf-Ó A h,sq`mrhshud9S V O (primary) O (secondary). Ω lx`Î`rs«v›n,s`j`q`c`- Ω l x`Î`r s« v› n,s`j`q`c` H fhud os-smr ghl annj Rtaidbs Udqa Q dbho- N aidbs ÌHf`udghlsgdannj-Ó'Mnsd9hshrtmm`stq`ksnr`xÌHf`udsgdannjghl-Ó 'lnqdrodbhehbrnmmntmqnkdr,,Rdd5-1-0-( In simplistic terms, a Dukawa sentence might be ordered in the following way:

(Time Subject: (Being (D.O.: Verb (Infinitive: (D.O.: (NEG). Phrase) N/NP/PN Verb) PN) /m/ + V) N/NP)

As mentioned before, this is the unmarked sentence order. The direct object and other parts of speech can be front shifted for emphasis.

6.1.1. Phrases 6.1.1.1. Time Phrases Fdmdq`kkx+sgdCtj`v`k`mft`fdok`bdrsgdshldogq`rd`ssgd adfhmmhmfnesgdrdmsdmbd-S gdqd`qddwbdoshnmrsnsghrfdmdq`kqtkd+atssgd tml`qjdconrhshnmne`shldogq`rdhrrdmsdmbdhmhsh`k-

26 Entries in italics in chapters 6 are observations found in BSC (Bender-Samuel, Skitch, and Cressman) which we have not confirmed.

3/13/06 Dukawa Sketch 76 6.1.1.2. Prepositional Phrases S gdqd`qdudqxedvoqdonrhshnmrhmsgdCtj`v`k`mft`fd-S gd Ì`rrnbh`shudÓoqdonrhshnm.›m.g`rùdqxghfgrdl`mshbkn`c-N sgdq oqdonrhshnmrhmbktcd9 m,ld hm+hmrhcd m,s« hm'`rhmÌhm`sqddÓats`rhmaq`mbgdrmnssqtbj( ›ms›m khjd'bnlo`qhrnm( m,ihl adghmc bn eqnms'khsdq`kkx+Ìe`bdÓ( m,qhha adrhcd qdl enq m,qhf `qntmc xnvxnv Md`q S gdrxms`wnesgdoqdonrhshnm`kogq`rdhr'`rsgdm`ldhlokhdr(9 Oqdonrhshnm 'B L(mntm S gdbk`rrl`qjdqenqsgdmntmvhkkoqdbdcdsgdmntm`mcvhkkaxm`stqdnesgd bk`rrl`qjdqr`ss`bgsnsgdoqdonrhshnm-@rhm9 ›mldvjtj« '`rhsrntmcr( m,ld n,jtj« '`rvqhssdmnqsgnfqòghb`kkx( hmrhcd B L,qnnl ÌhmrhcdsgdqnnlÓ S gdqd`rnmenqchrbtrrhnmgdqdhmrxms`whradb`trd.›m.`sshldrrddlrsnad trdchmbnmitmbshnmvhsgsgdo`qshbkdnqonrs,onrhshnm.m«.-S gdbnlahm`shnm nesgdrdfhudrsgdld`mhmfÌvhsg-ÓS gdrxms`whr`renkknvr9 .›m. Mntm .m«. D w`lokd9 Ω l gdÎ«rs« ›m R`mc` m«- H fn-orsS MR vhsg R`mc` OM U-S MR O'`rrnbh`shud(M O ÌHvdmsvhsgR`mc`- @ssghronhms+hshrcheehbtkssnr`xvgdsgdq›mrgntkcadbnmrhcdqdc` oqdonrhshnm`mc`bnmitmbshnm'Ì`mcÓ(+nqvgdsgdqhsrgntkcitrsad bnmrhcdqdcòqdonrhshnm-S gdrhst`shnmhretqsgdqbnlokhb`sdcaxsgdl`mx trdrnesgdo`qshbkdÌm«-Ó@ssgdoqdrdmsshld+vdgùdfqntodcl`mxnesgd trdrne.m«.hmsnsgdb`sdfnqxneÌ`rrnbh`shudl`qjdqÓ'rddòodmchwC(- 6.1.2. Syntax of Clauses

6.1.2.1. Grammatical Units

a. Dependent Clause S gdqd`qd`skd`rssvnsxodrnecdodmcdmsbk`trdr-S gdehqrs`mclnrs bnllnmg`r`m.¿.bk`trdehm`k-L`mxshldr+`rtanqchm`shmfbnmitmbshnm khjdÌa÷Óhrtrdcbk`trdhmhsh`kkx+atssgdvdhfgsnesgdÌcdodmcdmbxÓ`ood`qr snqdrsoqhl`qhkxvhsgsgd.¿.-Mnsd9sgd.¿.cdodmcdmsl`qjdqhrchrshmbseqnl sgd.¡.mdf`shudl`qjdq+atssgdxansgtrd`enqlneqdctokhb`shnmrddsgd rdbshnmnmsgdmdf`shudenqcds`hkrnesgdognmnknfhb`koqnbdrrdr-

3/13/06 Dukawa Sketch 77 A ÷ J `m` v nns« ¿+v›y««q›+ÌR`qq`l`mm÷’’>Ó A ÷ J `m` vnns«¿+ v› y««q›+Ì---- @r J `m` `qqhudcCOL gd r`hc---- Ì@ rJ `m``qqhudc+gdr`hc+ÌGdkkn+`mxancxgnld>ÓÓ Q D E9@-0-b-/2/ Hmrnldb`rdr+Ìa÷Ó`krnld`mrÌgnvÓ`mchrrshkktrdcvhsgsgd.¿.'Rddsgd shskdrenqsgdoqnbdctq`ksdwsr9@-2-``mc@-2-a-( S gdrdbnmcsxodnecdodmcdmsbk`trdtrdrsgd.m«.hmok`bdnesgd hmchb`shudsdmrdl`qjdqr-N esdm+Hs`ood`qrsg`sÌm«Ób`qqxr`o`rssdmrd `rodbs- ßb“vm«j`c`cd+nqttm›q›---- ß b“v m« j`c`cd+ n qttm›q›--- S gdx dmsdq COL sgdm xnt bnld-nts Ì@ssgdshldsgdxdmsdq+xntsgdmbnldnts`mcxntjhkksgdl-Ó @bbnqchmfsnA RB +sgdqd`qd`krnv`xrsg`scdodmcdmsbk`trd`qd l`qjdcaxsgdsnmdr+rteehwdr+`mcoqnmntmo`ssdqmrnesgdudqaogq`rd '0/5ee(- b. Relative Clauses Sometimes, relative clauses begin with one of the relative markers (see section dealing with the noun classes to see the relationship between the relative marker and the noun class markers). At this point, it is hard to say whether this relative marker is just a pronoun or how much the tone makes a difference in its grammatical make-up. The point is, however, that there is a relationship between the relative markers and their corresponding noun classes and pronouns. The components and syntax of relative clauses are similar to those of other clauses. The Dukawa language treats relative clauses in the same fashion as dependent clauses (for obvious reasons) by generally using the dependent marker (à) clause final. [Again, this dependent marker is the /a/ with a low tone which can be easily confused with the /a/ with a high tone which marks the negative.] As attested by BSC, there can be a variety of relative clause transformations. We do not understand all the variants at the present time. However, below is a few examples of basic relative clauses:

Relative Clauses as Subjects: V’xn)qnlq«›s,lnmfn'¿+xn(g`v`fl«lqdv- dog which is eating CM-mangos DM it bite me yesterday Subj (rel clause, DM) V Object ...

* This GCM appears to be doing double duty as a GCM and a relative pronoun. This kind of double duty would not sound good to the Dukawa speaker except when the relative clause is the subject. However, it could be that the examples below are affected by the /ka/ in such case this example (relative clause as a subject) may have two also if /ka/ was present. This needs further testing.

Relative Clauses as Objects: Ωlgx`mfj`mds'v›(v›nvnrr¿

3/13/06 Dukawa Sketch 78 I saw that person GCM who you hit DM Sub V Obj (rel. clause, DM).

Relative Clauses as Reciepient: Ωlgx`mfj`m«s'v›(v›nx``rgv÷q¿- I saw that person GCM who you gave money DM Sub V Recip. (rel. clause, DM).

Relative Clauses as Benefactee: Ωlgx`mfj`m«s'v›(v›Ωlmnldqxnlq«qdlv›¿- I saw that person GCM who I did food for him DM Sub V Benef. (rel. clause, DM).

Relative Clauses as Instrument: Ωlgx`mfj`jn,'xn(+xnv›vnrnv÷¿ I saw that stick GCM which he hit you DM Subj V instrument (rel clause, DM)

c. Comparison Clauses/ Phrases 0-Rhlhk`q V gdmrnldnmdnqrnldsghmfhrrhlhk`qsgdoqdonrhshnm.›ms›m.hr trdc9 V›mdldrs«›ms›mChan- He laughed like Dibo V›n,`hjh)›ms›mChan He works like Dibo )S ghrhrlnrskhjdkx`o`qshbhokd`bshmf`rsgdudqa- 1-Q drdlak`mbd V gdmrnldnmdnqrnldsghmfqdrdlakdr`mnsgdqsghmf+`enqlnesgd udqa.rg``r.nqsgdudqa.gx`m.hrtrdc9 V›rg`Î`fChan- He resembled Dibo V›gxdmdv›r«y««Chanv›- He sees him that is to say Dibo him. He resembled Dibo 2-B nmsq`rs B nmsq`rshrnesdmbnlltmhb`sdcaxdhsgdq.ihrgs«.nq.`q``fs«.vghbg b`qqhdrsgdrdmrdneÌo`rrdrÓnqÌdwbddcr-Ó V›ihrgs«Chanl,r««a- He passed Dibo CM-height. Gdhrs`kkdqsg`mChan- Xn`q``fs«›s,lnmfnl,qdqdl- It passed CM-mangoes CM-sweetness Hshrrvddsdqsg`ml`mfnr- Rnldvnqcrhmgdqdmskxb`qqxsgdhcd`nebnlo`qhrnm+enqdw`lokd9 Chanqnrdjjv››mChf`-

3/13/06 Dukawa Sketch 79 Dibo is elder him of Diga Chanhrnkcdqsg`mChf`- d. Gapping S gdCtj`v`k`mft`fd`kknvrenqrnldfòohmf'`rrtldcnqb`qqhdc nudq(nefq`ll`shb`khsdlr- U dqar9'sgdrdbnmcnesvnhcdmshb`kudqarhmÌo`q`kkdkÓbk`trdr'h-d-vhsg r`ldrxms`w(( R`ltdk÷ml,÷o+Xng`mm`m««f«,jtkhjtkh- Samuel bought CM-meat, John part. CM-peanut rings R`ltdkantfgsld`s+IngmZantfgs\od`mtsqhmfr- R`ltdko`m`fn,fv÷q+Xng`mm`m«n,jhhs- Samuel killed CM-goat, John part. CM-chicken. R`ltdkrk`tfgsdqdc`fn`s+IngmZrk`tfgsdqdc\`bghbjdm- Rtaidbs`mcU dqar9'sgdrdbnmcnesvnhcdmshb`krtaidbsr`mcudqar rdptdmbdrhmo`q`kkdkbk`trdr( Ωlx`rs«L`qhn,a›qnch+Xng`mm`m«l,÷o- I gave Mary CM-bread, John part. CM-meat HfùdL`qxaqd`c+ZHfùd\Ingmld`s- O qnmntmRtaidbsC qno9 Rtaidbsoqnmntmrb`mmnsadcqnoodc-Hshrtmfq`ll`shb`ksnr`xsgd khsdq`kdpthu`kdmsne9ÌHfùdaqd`csnL`qx`mcvdmsgnld-Ó Ωlx`Î`rs«L`qhn,a›qnch›m)'›l(ihÎdrs«n,gtq- “I gave Mari CM-bread and I went home N aidbsr`mcU dqar9 Ctj`v`cndrmns`kknvudqar`mcnaidbsrsnadfòodc-Hmsgd rdmsdmbd+ÌIngmvdmssnsgdl`qjds`mcL`qx`krn+Ósgdudqa`mcnaidbs ltrsadqdod`sdc- B nminhmdcRtaidbsr9 Xng`mm`›mChanm«--- John and Dibo (part.)... B nminhmdcN aidbsr9 ---Xng`mm`'m«(›mChan'm«(-Ansg.m«.Îr`qdnoshnm`k+atsm`shudrod`jdqr oqdedqsgdoqdrdmbdnesgdrdbnmc.m«.-

e. Copula Clauses (from BSC, 64, 67) The copula can be explict in some cases, but in most cases it is implied as in the following examples: ø = implied copula

0-Hcdmshehb`shnm9 ZHcd`\ ø CM ZHcd`\ ø CM gnqnms«,÷›m,xn÷j`m« shadow of it it here

1-D pt`shnm`k ZHcd`\ ø [Idea] CM

3/13/06 Dukawa Sketch 80 ZHcd`\ ø [Idea] CM j`qhh,xn qdmh ÷ that thing derision it

j÷÷jdg`j,÷ j`a÷ ÷ every year like that it

ihm,cd›mv› I``sn name of him Jaato ---

2-Cdhbshb ZHcd`\ ø CM /ka/ ZHcd`\ ø CM /ka/ q`a`qh,÷l,q``a ÷ j` story of poison it this ÌS ghrhrsgdrsnqxneonhrnm-Ó

6.1.2.2. Clause Relationships In section 6.1.3. a summary of clause syntax will be given. In this section, various relationships will be presented with keys to the ways that they are communicted in›s,Gtm.

6.1.2.2.1. Time Simultaneous Subordinate Simultaneous time can be expressed by a subordinating clause by: 1. The use of a time clause marked by the dependent clause marker /à/ followed by the head clause. C`,÷---'cdo-bk-(¿+'gd`cbk`trd(- ÌS gdshldne----Ó G÷,cd---'cdo-bk-(¿+'gd`cbk`trd(- ÌS gdc`xne----ÓA RB +05

2. The use of a time clause marked by the dependent clause marker /à/ followed by the time oriented subordinating conjunction. A ÷---'cdo-bk-(¿+'gd`cbk`trd(- Ì@r-'rnldancxcnhmfrnldsghmf(+------Ó

Co-ordinate To show that two or more equal ranking clauses are in simultaneous time, can be expressed by: 1. Placing the conjunctions /j÷/ or /éé/ between the clauses. BSC, 21,29,34 2. Making the first verb in either the completive, narrative or future tense then having the following verbs in the serial tense. BSC, 34

Sequence The sequence of events can be expressed in a number of different ways. Here are a few examples of marked sequence. 1. Head clause followed by .j`ohm ÷. enkknv dc ax ` bk`trd hm sgd rtaitmbshud l nnc9 'G d`c(---ÌadenqdÓ---'rtaitmbshud(- A RB + 07

3/13/06 Dukawa Sketch 81 1-S gdbnmitmbshnm.stma¡¿.'ÌadenqdÓ(adsvddmsvnbk`trdr- A RB +13 2- Sgd bnmitmbshnm .`rgh a÷÷. 'Ìv dkk `esdqÓ( enkknv dc ax ` cdodmcdms bk`trd `mc cdodmcdms l `qjdq .¿. `mc gd`c bk`trd enkknv hmf- A RB + 05 3- Sgd bnmitmbshnm. oqdonrhshnm r∆.r¡ adsv ddm sv n bk`trdr- A RB + 31

Note: “kapin” and “ashi” are from Hausa.

6.1.2.2.2. Logical Relationships Causal Causal relationship can be shown in the following ways: k- Sgd bnmitmbshnm .›s›. enkknv dc ax ` cdodmcdms bk`trd `mc l `qjdq .¿. enkknv dc ax sgd gd`c bk`trd- A RB + 05 1- Sgd bnmitmbshnm .stmc`. enkknv dc ax ` cdodmcdms bk`trd `mc l `qjdq .¿. enkknv dc ax sgd gd`c bk`trd- A RB + 05 2-S gdbnmitmbshnm.qdldm.adsvddmsvnbk`trdr-A RB +10

Cause - Results S ghrhrdwoqdrrdcax`trhmfnmdnesgqddudqar'q÷ÌotsÓ:g`ms« Ìaqhmf:Óm÷lÌg`oodmÓ(hmsgdbnlokdshudsdmrdenqsgdb`trd`mcsgd enkknvhmfbk`trddwoqdrrdrsgdqdrtks-A RB +0/ Cause - Effect This is expressed by a clause expressing the cause in a completive tense followed by the conjunction /har/ “until (usually)” followed by the effect clause in a dependent tense form. BSC, 13

Purpose 0-V hsgmnbnmitmbshnmsgdotqonrdbk`trdhr`gd`cbk`trd enkknv dcax`bk`trdhmsgdrtaitmbshudnqitrrhudl nncr-A RB +5 1-V hsgsgdbnmitmbshnm.qdl dm.sgdgd`cbk`trdhrhmsgdetstqd enkknv dcax.qdl dm.v ghbghrsgdmenkknv dcax`bk`trdhmsgd rtaitmbshud-A RB +5 2-Hmrdmsdmbdrnemdf`shudotqonrdsgdrdmsdmbdnqcdqhr9 Q dl dm'gd`cbk`trd(---.s`rrd.nq.j`c`.---'rtaitmbshud(- ÌHmnqcdqsg`s---- kdrs----Ó A RB +5 Conditional Predictive 1. Without a conjunction the conditional clause is formated as: BSC, 9 Conditonal (conditional clause) Head (usually Narrative or Serial verb form) 2. With /J ÷.`mc.›qdf«.9

3/13/06 Dukawa Sketch 82 `-J ’'bnmchsnm`kbk`trd(---……'rdqh`kudqaenql(- b. J ’›qdf«'bk`trd(……+'gd`cbk`trd(- b-Ω qdf«'noshnm`k.›m,yd.('bk`trd(+'bk`trd(-A RB +11

Contrafactual Negative Non-concessive Condition with universal quantifiers 0- V hsg .J ’. J ’ * v ` 'v gndudq( 'B nl okdshud C do bk`trd(---r«)--- 'gd`c bk`trd(- * xn 'v g`sdudq( * x`mc` 'v gdmdudq 1- V hsg Q dk`shud O qnmntm Q O M ------'bnmchshnm`k bk`trd(---r«)---'gd`c bk`trd(- ) r« hr noshnm`k enq ansg "0 `mc "1- A RB + 25-26

Hypothetical @ gxonsgdshb`k bnmchshnm b`m ad dwoqdrrdc ax9 J ’----'bk`trd v hsg udqa hm rdqh`k enql (---'bk`trd v hsg bnl okdshud+ etstqd+ nq oqnfqdrrhud enql r( BSC, 36

Uncertain Uncertainty can be expressed by: 'bk`trd v hsg9--- J ’--- 'bk`trd v hsg ----- Narrative, Jussive, Progressive, completive or or completive verb forms) future verb forms) BSC, 25

Quasi-certain

Contraexpectation Enqbk`trdr+sgdbnmbdoshnmnebnmsq`dwodbs`shnm`khrdwoqdrrdc ax9 J ’cd'cdodmcdmsbk`trd(¿+'gd`cbk`trd(- Ìj÷cdÓ`bnmitmbshnmdwoqdrrhmf`bnmsq`dwodbs`shnm-S ghrrdmsdmbdadfhmr v hsg!j÷cd!'v ghbgfhudrsgdduhcdmbdv ghbgv ntkcg`udfhudmdwodbsdc qdrtksrv hsg`cdodmcdmsbk`trdenkknv dcax!l xds›mj`m«m«!bnmitbshnm v hsgsgdgd`cbk`trdv ghbgfhudrsgdtmdwodbsdcbnmbktrhnm-A RB +06

'cdodmcdmsbk`trd+lxds›mj`m«m«+'gd`cbk`trd(- RddB g`osdq6 U`qh`shnmr9 lxds›mj`m«m«m« `la`lxds›mj`m«m«m« E nq ogq`rdr9 J ’ 'mntm ogq`rd(+ 'gd`c bk`trd v hsg etstqd udqa enql (- BSC, 17

3/13/06 Dukawa Sketch 83

Comparision

6.1.2.2.3. Restatement General - specific Amplification - Summary 6.1.2.2.4. Comparision Comparision

Contrast Hsdl r `mc bk`trdr b`m ad bnmsq`rsdc ax sgd enkknv hmf9 A RB + 32+33 0- Sgd o`qshbkd .‹m«. ok`bdc adsv ddm sgd bk`trdr- Rnl dshl dr sgd o`qshbkd v hkk nbbtq `esdq sgd rtaidbs ne sgd rdbnmc bk`trd 'khjd ` onrs,onrhshud(- 1-S gdbnmitmbshnm.`la`.ok`bdcadsvddmsgdsvnbk`trdr-

Explanatory 0- Sgd bk`trd .’‘ g¡ms«. hr trdc rdmsdmbd hmhsh`k sn hmsqnctbd ` bk`trd ne dwok`m`shnm- Khsdq`kkx+ hs l d`mr+ ÌHs aqntfgsÓ -- ehf- ÌSg`s hr v gx----Ó A RB + 00 1- Sgd bnmitmbshnm .a¡¿. hr trdc sn dwoqdrr `m dwok`m`shnm- Sgd rxms`w hr9 'gd`c bk`trd( a¡¿ 'O M ( * .m. 'dwok`m`snqx bk`trd( A RB + 13

Manner S gdbnmitmbshnm.a’.nq.a’‘.hrtrdcsndwoqdrrl`mmdq-S gd rxms`whr9 'gd`cbk`trd(a’‘'cdodmcdmsbk`trd(.¿.- A RB +06

6.1.2.2.5.

6.1.3. Syntax of Complex Sentences Order of Dependent and Independent Clauses @bbnqchmfsnA RB +sgdtrt`knqcdqnecdodmcdms`mchmcdodmcdms bk`trdr`qd9 'cdodmcdms('cdodmcdms(----'hmcdodmcdms(

3/13/06 Dukawa Sketch 84 B g`qsneB k`trdO nrhshnmr Type Conjunction Clause Ending Conjunction Head Conjunction Clause Type Type Type RD P T D MB D j`ohm÷ rtaitmbshud stma¡¿ `rgha÷÷ Cdo ¿ r∆.r¡ B @T R@K udqa9q÷+g`ms«m÷l, qdrtks bnlokdshud B `trd g`q deedbs ›s› Cdo ¿ stmc` Cdo ¿ qdldm OT Q ON RD gd`c rtaitmbshud.itrrhud etstqd qdldm rtaitmbshud qdldm s``rd.j`c` B N MCHS HN M@K oqdchbshud bnmchshnm`k m`qq`shud.rdqh`k j’ bnmchshnm`k …… rdqh`k ›qdf« v.pt`mhehdqr j÷*^^ bnlokdshudcdo- 'r∆( Q dkOM bnmchshnm`k 'r∆( gxonsgdshb`k j’ rdqh`k oqnfqdrrhud.bnlokds-.ets tmbdqs`hmsx m`qq+itrrhud+bnlokdshud j’ oqnfqdrr+bnlokdshud+etstqd B N MS Q @^D W OD B j’cd cdo ¿ gd`c S @S HN M B N MS Q @RS ›m« `la` D W OK@M ’‘g`ms« a¡¿ OM*.m. L@MMD Q gd`c a÷÷ cdo¿

3/13/06 Dukawa Sketch 85

6.1.4. Shifting / Re-ordering for EmphasisN aidbsrb`madsnohb`khydcax oqdonrhmf'h-d-ok`bhmfhmrdmsdmbd,hmhsh`konrhshnm(- a. Shifting of Direct Object V `m,f``m+xny««+ÌV ÷ ›l b÷m« l fd-Ó V `m f``m xn y««+ V ÷ ›l b÷m« l fd odqrnmnmd hs r`hc+ X nt H v`ms snl`qqx S nnmdfhqk `mhl`kr`hc+ X nt H v`ms snl`qqx H-N - Rtaidbs U CN Rta U HmeU ÌS nnmd'nesgdfhqkr(+sgd`mhl`kr`hc+ÌHv`mssnl`qqxX N T Ó Q de9@-0-c-/02 b. Shifting of Indirect Object S gdhmchqdbsnaidbstrt`kkxenkknvrsgdudqa+atsq`qddw`lokdrg`udaddm entmcvgdqdhshrhmsgdbk`trdhmhsh`konrhshnm- V `m,f``m+xny««+ÌV ÷›lb÷m«lfd-Ó V `m f``m xn y««+---- odqrnmnmd hs r`hc+---- S nnmdfhqk `mhl`k r`hc H-N - Rtaidbs U ÌS nnmd'nesgdfhqkr(+sgd`mhl`kr`hc+ÌHshrxntHv`mssnl`qqx Ó Q de9@-0-c-/02 6.2. Semantics and Logical Relationships

6.2.1. Noun Roles and Sentence Syntax and Semantics The following are the the default grammatical functions of nominals (and adverbs) in various semantic roles.

a. Agent S gd`fdmshrsgdrtaidbsnesgdudqa- J `m`g`Î›q› J `m` g`Î ›q› J `m` fn osS MR ÌJ `m`vdms-Ó b. Patient S gdo`shdmsnbbtqr`rsgdoqhl`qxnaidbs- V ›gnq«lxds V › gn q› « lxds Gd jhkk osS MR sgdl `kk ÌGdjhkkdcsgdl `kk-Ó

3/13/06 Dukawa Sketch 86

c. Recipient S gdqdbhohdmshrsgdoqhl`qxnaidbsadsvddmsgdudqa`mcsgdrdbnmc`qxnaidbs- Ω lx`Î`rs«R`mc`n,s`j`qc`- Ω l x`Î`r s« R`mc` n,s`j`qc` H fhud os-smr R`mc` annj Rtaidbs Udqa Q dbho- N aidbs ÌHf`udR`mc`sgdannj-Ó'Mnsd9hshrtmm`stq`ksnr`xÌHf`udsgdannjR`mc`-Ó

d. Experiencer S gddwodqhdmbdqnbbtqr`rsgdrtaidbs- Chf`gx«m«rs«v›- Chf` gx`m s« v›- Chf` rdd osS MR ghl ÌChf`r`vghl-Ó S gddwodqhdmbdqnbbtqr`rsgdnaidbs-

L«m,›sc`l›s«l «- L«m,›s c`l›s« l« Rsnl`bg,B L'ok( sntakd-osS MR ld ÌRsnl`bgsqntakdrld-Ó ÌHeddka`c-Ó

e. Stimulus S gdrshltktrb`mnbbtq`rsgdnaidbs- Ω lgx`mqdda,nS `mjn- Ω l gx`m q``a,n S `mjn H rdd knmdkhmdrr,B L S `mjn- ÌHlhrrS `mjn-Ó V ›q÷l,ldq V › q÷ l,ldq gd hr gtmfdq ÌGdhrgtmfqx-Ó S gdrshltktrb`mnbbtq`rsgdrtaidbs-

L «m,›sc`l›s«l«qdl qt- L«m,›s c`l›s« l« qdl qt Rsnl`bg,B L'ok( sntakd-osS MR ld adb`trd xnt ÌRsnl`bgsqntakdrldadb`trdnexnt-Ó ÌHeddka`cadb`trdnev g`sxntr`hc'nqchc(-Ó

f. Essive (Predicate Nominative) V ÷q÷mdÎ` qd- V ÷ q÷ mdÎ` qd X nt `qd vhed lx ÌX nt`qdl xv hed-Ó 'L`mxOqdchb`sdMnlhm`shudnbbtqvhsgntssgdadhmfudqa(-

g. Causer `-S gdb`trdqhrsgdrtaidbshmbnmitmbshnmvhsgsgdudqa.q÷Î÷f.ÌotsÓ

3/13/06 Dukawa Sketch

Kàhq÷Î÷fv››s,mdldr- Kàh q÷Î÷f v› ›s,mdldr Kàh ots ghl k`tfghmf ÌKàhl`cdghlk`tfg-Ó Ω lq÷Î÷fv››s,mdldr- Ω l q÷Î÷f v› l,qhxn ›s,mdldr H ots ghl xdrsdqc`x k`tfghmf ÌHl`cdghlk`tfgxdrsdqc`x-Ó a-S gdb`tr`shudhrdwoqdrrdcaxÌqdlÓenkknvdcaxsgdb`trdq'oqnmntmrhm fdmhshudb`rd,,rddo`fd2-1-(- L«m,›sc`l›s«l«qdl qt- L«m,›s c`l›s« l« qdl qt Rsnl`bg,B L'ok( sntakd-osS MR ld adb`trd xnt ÌRsnl`bgsqntakdrldadb`trdnexnt-Ó ÌHeddka`cadb`trdnev g`sxntr`hc'nqchc(-Ó h. Causee S gdb`trddhrsgdoqhl`qxnaidbsnesgdb`tr`shududqa- Ω lq÷Î÷fF`vs`lrnl Ω l q÷Î÷f F`vs`l rnl H ots F`vs`sn qtm ÌHl`cdF`vs`qtm-Ó i. Beneficiary `-S gdadmdehbh`qxhrsgdoqhl`qxnaidbs'r`ld`rqdbhohdms(- V ›mnlnrs«l «xn- V › mnlnrs« l« xn- gd l`cd ld hs- ÌGdl`cdhsenqld-Ó a-S gdadmdehbh`qxhrdwoqdrrdcaxÌqdlÓenkknvdcaxsgdadmdehbh`qx'oqnmntmrhm fdmhshudb`rd,,rddo`fd2-1-(- MdÎ`qdidf«s«idf«qdl qd- MdÎ` qd idf«s«idf« qdl qd- vhed lx bnnj-dc enq ld- ÌLxvhedbnnjdcenql d-Ó b-S gdadmdehbh`qxhrdwoqdrrdcaxok`bhmfsgdadmdehb`qxadsvddmsgdbnotk``mc sgdudqane`bshnm- MdÎ`m«qn@a`q`l,qhrghm›s,f`- MdÎ` m« qn @a`q` l,qhrghm ›s,f` V hudr `qd @a`q` bnnjhmf stn- ÌS gdvhudr`qdbnnjhmfstnenq@a`q`-Ó

3/13/06 Dukawa Sketch 88

c-S gdadmdehbh`qxb`m`krnaddwoqdrrdcaxok`bhmfsgdadmdehbh`qxèsdqsgd rtaidbs- L«Chfàdqdf›mgxnad›mg÷- L« Chf` adqdf ›m gxn ad ›m g÷ H Chf` cqhdc oqdo bnqm ok`bd 2OL rtm ÌHcqhdcfthmd`bnqmhmsgdrtmenqChf`-Ó j. Designation S gdqdhrmnrhlokdv`xsndwoqdrrsghrhmnmdbk`trd-Khsdq`kkx+nmdvntkcgùdsn r`x9Hfùdghllnmdx,gdfùdldlhkjnqHfùdghllnmdxrnsg`sgdbntkcatxlhkj-

k. Company B nlo`mx.`bbnlo`mxhrdwoqdrrdcvhsgÌ›mÓenkknvdcaxsgdbnlo`mx`mcsgdm noshnm`kkxenkknvdcaxÌm«-ÓEnql9RUN ›m*^^*'m«(noshnm`khmrnldb`rdr- Ω lb÷m÷jlg`›m v ÷ m«- Ω l b÷m-j l g` ›m v÷ m« H v`ms-osS MR sn fn vhsg xnt vhsg ÌHv`msdcsnfnv hsgxnt-Ó L«lq«qhhxnlq«›mmdÎ`qd L«l q« qhhxnlq« ›m mdÎ` qd) H'oqnfqdrr( d`s ennc vhsg vhed lx ÌH`ld`shmfenncvhsglxvhed-Ó * To add .m«/ would make it “my wives” (plural)!

l. Instrument S gdhmrsqtldmshrtml`qjdc`mcenkknvrsgdudqa'`mc`mxnsgdqnaidbsr(- V ›o`m`fn,m`›q,v `m- V › o`m`f n,m` ›q,v`m- Gd bts-sgqn`s B L,bnv B L,jmhed ÌGdjhkkdcsgdbnvv hsg`jmhed-Ó

m. Cause / reason / purpose S ghrb`maddwoqdrrdcax`rhmfkdmntmnmkxhehshrtrdcvhsg.qdl'dm(.`mcsgd ogq`rdhreqnmsdc- Q dl'dm(R`mc`+›l`qf›q›- Q dldm R`mc`+ ›l `qf›q› adb`trdne R`mc` H kdes ÌHkdesadb`trdneR`mc`-Ó

n. Location Knb`shnmhrdwoqdrrdcèsdqsgdudqa- Ω l÷ms«xnn,L `fìhx`- Ω l ÷ms« xn n,L `fìhx` H antfgs hs B L,L`fìhx` ÌHantfgshshmL`fìhx`-Ó

o. Destination Cdrshm`shnmhrdwoqdrrdc`esdqsgdudqa'itrskhjdknb`shnm(,,mnoqdonrhshnm-

3/13/06 Dukawa Sketch

V ›lg`n,j`rnv `- V › l g` n,j`rnv` Gd oqnfqdrrhud fn B L,l`qjds ÌGdhrfnhmfsnsgdl `qjds-Ó p. Direction Chqdbshnmhrcdrhfm`sdcaxtrhmf.q``f›.nq.ihcct.enkknvhmfsgdudqa- V ›lmdjdq``f›n,j`rnv`- V ›l mdjd q``f› n,j`rnv` gd'oqnf( v`kj rhcd B L,l`qjds ÌGdhrv`kjhmfsnv`qcrsgdl`qjds-Ó

V ›qtms«ihcctn,L`fìhx`- V › qtms« ihcct n,L`fìhx` Gd b`ldnts snv`qcr B L,L`fìhx` ÌGdv`rfnhmfsnv`qcrL`fìhx`-Ó

q. Source `-Rntqbdhrdwoqdrrdcaxtrhmf.c`f`.nq.cdf`.'G`tr`kn`m(èsdqsgdudqa-L`mx shldr+atsmns`kv`xr+sgdCtj`v`Ìad,cdÓkhsdq`kkxÌok`bdneÓvhkkadòqdedqqdcCtj`v` dwoqdrrhnm+ats.c`f`.òod`qrsnbnudq`k`qfdqq`mfdneld`mhmfsg`msgdÌad,cd-Ó V ›g``ms«c`f`L`fìhx`- V › g``ms« c`f` L`fìhx` gd b`ld eqnl L`fìhx` ÌGdb`ldeqnlL`fìhx`-Ó a-Rntqbdhrdwoqdrrdcax`mnaidbsenkknvhmfsgdudqaqvnms«'ÌbnldntsneÓ(- J `g÷,l÷qvnms«›q,ctC`vc`- J ` g÷,l÷ qvnms« ›q,ct C`vc` sg`s v`sdq,B L b`ldnts vdkk Cùhc ÌS g`sv`sdqb`ldeqnlCùhcÎrvdkk-Ó r. Time nq`kkx9 Ω q,g÷ j`m«'vghkdonhmshmf`svgdqdsgdrtmvhkkad( B L,rtm gdqd ÌV gdmsgdrtmhrgdqd---Ó v`sbgshld9'atsv`sbgntsl`mxcnmÎsgùdv`sbgdr ( J v÷l,›r xnnq metal-CM two “At two o’clock”

@fnm«jv÷l,›rsds- @ fnm« jv÷l,›r sds- vd-vhkk ldds lds`kr,B L sgqdd ÌV dvhkkldds`s2nÎbknbj- s. Means Ld`mrhrdwoqdrrdcèsdqsgdnaidbs.ok`bd'khjdHmrsqtldms(- S «mdj«rs«n,L`fìhx`›r,m`- S « mdjd s« n,L`fìhx` ›r,m` V d fn os-S MR B L,L`fìhx` B L'ok(,kdf ÌV dvdmssnL`fìhx`nmenns-Ó

3/13/06 Dukawa Sketch 90

t. Manner L`mmdqhrdwoqdrrdcfdmdq`kkxax`cudqarenkknvhmfsgdudqa- V ›mdj«rs«b«mb«m- V › mdjd s« b«mb«m Gd v`kj os-S MR rknvkx ÌGdv`kjdcrknv kx-Ó

u. Content of a verb of speech B nmsdmsneùdqaneroddbghrdwoqdrrdcaxtrhmfùdqaneroddbgenkknvdcax.l`, s÷.`r`bnlokdldmshydqsgdmsgdbnmsdms- V ›bdo«rs«l `,s÷›s,fd- V › bdo«rs« l`,s÷ ›s,fd- gd s`kjdc s`kj,FB L B L,l`qqh`fd ÌGdv`rs`kjhmfàntsl`qqh`fd-Ó J n,fvnlnmnlnfl `,s÷stjrn,j÷s- J n,fvnln mnlnf l`,s÷ stjr n,j÷s- shskd-bghde chc s`kj,FB L atqm B L,atrg ÌS gdbghdes`kjdcàntsatqmhmfsgdatrg-Ó v. Addressee / interlocter `-S gd`ccqdrrddhrdwoqdrrdc`rsgdoqhl`qxnaidbsneùdqaneroddbg- Ω lqtr›s«v›- Ω l qtr›s« v›- H snkc ghl ÌHronjdsnghl-Ó a-@ccqdrrddb`m`krnaddwoqdrrdcaxtrhmf.›s,l`.enkknvdcax.›m.`mcòdqrnm '`m`bbnlo`mhldmsogq`rd(`knmfvhsg.m«.- V ›mnmf›s,l`›mm`h›mv›m«- V › mnmf ›s,l` ›m m`h ›m v› m«- gd chc s`kj vhsg eqhdmc ne ghl ÌGdronjdsnghreqhdmc-Ó w. Abstract Nouns and Figures of Speech S gdàrsq`bsmntmr9 l,Îxn duhk @krnàrsq`bsmntmrb`madenqldcaxotsshmf`B Lvhsgùdqa`krsdlnqmntm- ›s,bnm knud ›q,rgnna id`kntrx

Figures of speech (see dictionary for more examples). rgdÎds ÷,q`ghx` khud vdkk Ìod`bdÓ x`Î`r› ›s,mho fhud sqtsg ÌadkhdeÓ

3/13/06 Dukawa Sketch

Summary of Noun Roles

Subject Verb O (primary) O (secondary) Agent Patient Experiencer Recipient...... Object Causer Stimulus Essive Causee (participle/ infinitive) Beneficiary...... Object Object...... (rem +) Beneficiary Object...... (›m +) Company Object...... Instrument Location Destination (q``f› +) Direction (daga +) Source Time Means (l`,s÷ + ) Content of verb of speech Addressee '›s,l`*›m +) Addressee

3/13/06 Dukawa Sketch 92

7. Negation General Principles of Negative Sentences: a. The á In the most simplistic form, the negative is expressed by an /á/ at the end of a sentence. It is important to note that it is a high tone because an /à/ (low tone) is used to designate a dependent clause. W›m wus’s«. He is smelling (something).

W›m wus’s« á. He (prog) smells not “His is not smelling (something).” not V ›lvtrÎr«¿+---V ghkdgdv`rrldkkhmf+---'knvsnmdl`qjr` Cdodmcdmsbk`trdmnsMdf`shud(

Although the above example shows the negative attached to the verb, the negative occurs at the end of the sentence / clause not the end of the verb. V ›a``al,÷o¡- V › a``a l,÷o ¡- gd rdkk B L,ld`s mns ÌGdcndrmnsrdkkld`s-Ó V ÷a`jrnftgtm,m«¡- V ÷ a`jr n ft gtm,m« ¡ X nt qdldladq xnt gdko odnokd,B L mns ÌX ntqdldladqsg`sxntchcmnsgdko`mxnmd-Ó Q de9@-3-`-/56

Note that here the negative appears at the end of the embedded clause. There can be an element of ambiguity in such constructions. For example: V ›a`jrnftgtm,m«¡- V › a`jr n ft gtm,m« ¡ Gd qdldladq xnt gdko odnokd,B L mns S ghr`lahfthntrrdmsdmbdbntkcadtmcdqsnnc`rdhsgdq9 0-ÌGdqdldladqsg`sxntchcmnsgdko`mxnmd-Ó 1-ÌGdenqfnssg`sxntgdkodcodnokd-Ó

EXCEPTION TO SENTENCE FINAL: In some cases, the negative /á/ will not occur sentence final. When there is an appositional phrase, a vocative phrase, or an interrogative marker (/ree/ - in this case), then the /á/ is not sentence final but occurs prior to these items (BSC, 72). In addition, it appears that a dependent clause can receive the negative marker (I would like to see more examples before I make this definite). Q dldm`gdjxdl¡+gtm,m«hmhs«- Q dldm ` gd jxdl ¡+ gtm,m« hmhs« Because Indef. come rain not people-CM left that area “Because there was no rain, the people left that area.” V›÷ssl,v÷mr¡+l«s›mj`m«m«+v›cdÎdrs«n,Îxn- he.had CM-strength not, all with that, he climbed CM-tree.

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Ì@ ksgntfg gd v `r mns rsqnmf+ gd bkhladc sgd sqdd-Ó

Qdldmv›gnjrli`Î`rn,lns`¡+v›ihn,gtq›r,m`- Because he able to fix CM-car not, he returned CM-home CM-legs. ÌRhmbd gd bntkc mns ehw sgd b`q+ gd v `kjdc gnld-Ó

B nmbktrhnm9S gd.¡.l `qjhmfsgdmdf`shudnbbtqr`ssgddmcnesgdrdmsdmbdtmkdrr9 0-Hshr`mnm,ehm`kcdodmcdmsbk`trdsg`shrmdf`sdc'Rodbhehb`kkxgdqd+ Ìcdodmcdmsbk`trdÓdwbktrdrdl adccdcbk`trdr,,rdddw`l okdnmo`fd6-0-(- 1-V gdm`m`oonrshnm`kogq`rd+unb`shudogq`rd+nq`mhmsdqqnf`shudl `qjdqhr rdmsdmbdehm`k'S gdrdbntkcadbnmrhcdqdcdwsq`,rdmsdmsh`k(-

b. The Form of the Verb Negative sentences that refer to past events appear to use the present tense form and not the corresponding past tense form of the verb nor the verb suffixes. However, the progressive and future (verbal pre-fixes) can be used between the subject and the verb.

V ›g``m¡ Gdchcmnsbnld- He come not

V ›` g` ¡ He (future) go not ÌGdvhkkmnsfn-Ó

c. The Form of the Pronoun Only certain forms of the pronoun can be used as the subject of a negative sentences. The normal pronouns for the completive are replaced by the accusative forms. Below are the appropriate subject pronouns for completive negative sentences: (See page 3.2 )

Singular Plural 1 (incl) l« s« 1 (excl) ` 2 v÷ m÷ 3 v› «

The negative sentence CAN have the progressive /m/ or future /a/ aspect markers. See the second example under “b. The Form of the Verb.”

d. The Floating High Tone @bbnqchmfsnA RB +sgdmdf`shud`krnhrl`qjdcax`ghfgsnmdvhsghmsgd rdmsdmbd-S ghrghfgsnmd`ood`qrnmsgdudqa+nsgdqvhrd+hshrqd`khydcnmsgdoqnmntm nqbk`rrl`qjdqoqdbdchmfsgdudqa'A RB +61(-

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O gnmnknfhb`kO qhmbhokdrnesgdM df`shud '`mcsgdcdodmcdmsl`qjdq.¿.

0- Q dctokhb`shnm ne k`rs bnmrnm`ms adenqd .¡.: W›m baab. He is selling.

W›m baab bá. He is not selling. He (prog) selling not “He is not selling.”

This has been observed with: p, t, k, b, g, s, r, n, m, w, z.

1- Hmrdqshnm ne .v . 'K `ah`k,fkhcd( adenqd .¡. v hsg rdmsdmbdr dmchmf v hsg a`bj unv dkr- W›m sw÷÷. He is drinking.

W›m sw÷÷ wá. (as it sounds) W› m-sw÷÷ á. (orthographically) He (prog) drink not “He is not drinking.”

2- Hmrdqshnm ne .x. adenqd .¡. v hsg rdmsdmbdr dmchmf v hsg eqnms unv dkr- W›ll,ydd. He is saying.

W›m zee yá. (as it sounds) W› m-zee á. (orthographically) He (prog) say not “He is not drinking.”

Please note: This process is exactly the same for the dependent clause marker /à/.

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8. Imperatives, Hortatory, and Optatives

Imperative The imperative is formed by the basic form of the verb (unmarked tense) with a high tone. If a pronoun is used (optional), it is usually the second person plural form even though it may refer to only one person.

high tone Verb (PN - 2p)

Example: ÌG¡¡mm÷+g¡¡mm÷ ----Ó ÌB nld+B nld ---Ó Q dedqdmbd9@-0-b-/35

Hortatory The hortatory is formed using the basic form of the verb (including the high tone), but with a pronoun in front of the verb. On some verbs, the vowel will be the high form /e/ instead of /a/; /o/ instead of /÷..... BSC called this form the “Jussive.” We hope to continue our analysis of the verbs and verb tones.

high tone PN - 1p Verb (PN -2p)

Examples: 1. A jí. “Let us return home.” we go.home

2. @ m…j… m÷--- ÌKdstrfn---Ó we walk you (pl) REF: A.1.b. 012 A.1.c. 049

RnldshldrsgdvnqcÌx`f«Óhrtrdchm`gnqs`snqxrdmrd-Rnldshldrhshrsq`mrk`sdc `rÌkdstr---ÓnqÌ`kknv-ÓS gdrdl`xitrsad`ksdqm`sdD mfkhrgsq`mrk`shnmrne` rhmfkdbnmbdos- 2- ---x`f«›lm«j«ad,cd--- ---x`fd ›l m«j« ad,cd ---`kknv ld fn ok`bdne--- Ì`kknvldsnfnsnsgdok`bdne`eqhdmc-Ó Q D E9@-0-b-/11

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Optative @ssgdoqdrdmsshld+etmbshnm`kxnos`shudbk`trdrg`udnmkxaddmentmchm` gnqs`snqxsdws-S ghrhrsnr`x+sgdqdhrmns`cheedqdmsudqaenqlenqsgdnos`shud+atshs hrbnlltmhb`sdcaxbk`trdbnmitmbshnmr-S gdrddw`lokdr`qdeqnlrsnqxvhsghmsgd gnqs`snqxsdws-S ghrbnmrsqtbshnmsg`sfhudr`mÌhmchqdbsqdptdrsÓ`mcrdmrdne onrrhahkhsxhr`renkknvr9 J ÷--- ¿- @CU'rdmsdmbd( COL'Cdodmcdmsbk`trdl`qjdq( D w`lokdr9 0- J ÷v›`ftl«¿- J ÷ v› ` ft l« ¿ L`xad gd vhkk gdko ld COL ÌL`xadgdvhkkgdkold-Ó Q D E9@-3-`-/11 @-3-`-/5/ 1- J ÷v`ftl«¿- J ÷ v÷ ` ft l« ¿ L`xad xnt vhkk gdko ld COL ÌL`xadxntvhkkgdkold-Ó Q D E9@-3-`-/18

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9. Formation of Interrogative Sentences 1. Yes / No Questions In the most simplistic form, the interrogative is expressed by a lengthening of: 1.1. The final vowel (I believe with a high-falling tone): W› c›w›st« o kuk«. He entered the room.

W› c›w›st« o-kuk∆≈- W› c›w›st« o-kuk« ∆≈ He enter.ptTNS CM-room QM “He entered the room?”

1.2. The final consonant (or reduplication of the consonant) with either /∆≈/ or /íì/ attached. (I believe with a high-falling tone): W›m wong He is sharing (something).

W›m vnmff∆≈ W›m vnmf f∆≈ he (prog) share QM “Is He sharing?”

Tags for Yes / No Questions x…» A variant form for the simple interrogative sentence is the use of /yéè/ at the end of the sentence (again with a high-falling tone). This tag carries the sense of doubt -- “Is it really true?” W› sho’ost«w b÷kk«ti He filled the bucket.

W› sho’ost«w b÷kk«tíì Did he fill the bucket? with yéè W› sho’ost«w b÷kk«ti yéè Did he really fill the bucket? Is it true that he filled the bucket? W› sho’ost« o-b÷kk«ti yéè he fill.ptTNS CM-bucket QM “Did he fill the bucket?” / “He didn’t fill the bucket, did he?”

j’’> 'anqqnvdceqnlG`tr`( When a Yes / No question is being asked in a way that an affirmative answer is expected the sentence will usually end in “j’’>Ó-

V ÷f`m«s«j’’> V ÷ f`m«s« j’’> X nt tmcdqrs`mc-osS MR CnmÎsxnt>'Hsghmjxntcn( “You understood me -- Didn’t you?”

J ÷ a` j``m« ¡¿> This is a long form of the above and used in the same way. Literally, it says, “Is it not like that?”

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2. Content Questions: The content question like the Yes / No form add a length to the final vowel, However; content questions only have the high tone. There is no falling tone at the end. Generally, The form is as follows: Question word...'m«(---V(high tone).

2.1. Basic Question Words: Wa “Who?” (person) Ya “What?” (thing / animal) Ke “Where?” Ri “How?” ---m«--- ptdrshnmo`qshbkd< P O

2.2. Specific Question Forms: Note: Many of the question forms make use of relative clauses. Who? (Wa + CM/PN + m«---( V `v ›m« [ka].....v‹‹ Who (is) [that] ...... he?? V `v ›m« wan ko.... (inter. marker) Who owns ...... ?

As Subject: V`v›m«j`m«sv›v›vnrr«n,fv÷qq¡¡ who he QP that person he who hit CM-goat QM “Who is the man hitting the goat?”

As Object: V`v›m«b`lonv›Chanlf`rrr¡ who he QP man he Dibo is greeting ? “Who is the man Dibo is greeting?”

As Possessor: Fv÷qv`«m««j¡¡ fn`svgnBL'ok(POBL'ok(sgdrd> “Whose goats are these?”

As Benefactee: V`v›m«v÷idf«_idf∆∆ who he QP you cook ? “Who are you cooking for?”

As Recipient: V`v›m«ngdds›r,fv’’ who he QP yo bring CM-grass ? “Who will you give the grass to?”

What? (Ya “what” + CM + /m«.*B L.OM---(16 @ksdqm`sd9 X `'M(

27 NOTE: The question here is somewhat humorous, to ask the correct question one must know what noun class the item belongs to -- if one knows the class most likely he or she will know the object! However, if it is a liquid or powder one can guess that object in question is part of the “m” class (second example). The default question (if one does not know the class) is example number 3. ALSO:

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1. Noun class (de) X ` cd m≈ cd j`ø What is this (here - a rock)? Yan 2. Noun class (m) X ` l‘ md l‘ j`ø What is this (here - sand)? Yam (assimilation) 3. Animal / living thing: X `xnm« yo kaá What is this (here)? Yan

X`xnm«v÷lmnlhxnj`¡ what it QP you are doing it this ? “What do you use this for?”

X`xnm«nb÷m«l÷’ what it QP you want to buy ? “What do you want to buy?”

Why? Why is expressed by: Q hl *x`*xn*m« ...(high tone ending). “Because of what?” Rim y`xnm« ng`ms«∆ you come ? Why did you come? Rim y`xnm« v›l`qd… he died ? Why did he die? Rim y`xnm« o ha n,j`rnv`¡ you come CM-market Why did you go to the market? Q hl x`m«… Why? [because of what?]

Where? Static: Two forms: Ke n« n« or Ke J dmdÎ`qdq÷…… V gdqdhrlxvhed> Ke n« n« Diga ›q,qdnaá Where is Diga watching cows? Ke n« n« ›r-du r÷’ Where is the well? (lit. “Where well is?”) Ke n« n« ne’a ruú Where is your wife? Ke n« n« ta’ar o carií Where is the big rock? Movement envolved: Two forms: J dbnr«'÷(nqJ drnr«'÷( 28 J dbnr«o hayéé Where did you go? J dbnr«o r››n m«∆ Where are you coming from? J dbnr«÷ w÷m haá Where are you going?

Not all possiblities are given here - for example items that are plural one would use the plural class marker to give the sense of “What are these?” 28 I believe that J dbnr« is the preferred form in the sense that /co/ meaning “side” gives the true lexical meaning. The word /so/ does not appear to have any meaning of its own and seems to be the variant form of /co/. The /÷. might be present in all the examples, but might be assimiated into the following /o/ in line with the vowel ellipsis rule (see chapter 2). Generally, the second vowel drops unless the second vowel is more crucial to understanding of the speech (see 5.1-2.).

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How? Form: Q h'l ÷'›m(() V dkkadhmf'l nrsnesdmsgdetkkenql ,,nq.qhl .( Q hl ÷›m yakar (mé) How are the children? Q hl ÷›m ne’a ruú How is the wife? Q hl ÷›m o-huruú How is the compound? Q hl ÷l t«t (t∆( How was the night (did you sleep)?

* At this point, it is a speculation that /rimon/ is really /ri/ (what) + /l÷.'FB L(*.›m. '2OL(-S gd.›m.hroqna`akxoqdrdmsadb`trdlnrsnesgdshldsgdnaidbshrhmsgd sghqcodqrnm-N bb`rhnm`kkx+nmkx.qhl÷.hrtrdchm`rhlhk`qv`x`rsgdD mfkhrg dwoqdrrhnm+ÌGnvhrhs>Ó

Method / manner: Q hm«m«∆---- or Q ha÷----Zkhs-ÌGnv>'ptdrshnm(Gnv'l`mmdq(Ó\ Q h÷j``m«-Zfdmdq`kptdrshnm9ÌGnvhrsg`s>Ó'D wok`hmsnld---(\ Qhm«m«v÷qhrghm›q,f`¡ how QP you cook tuo ? “How do you cook tuo?”

Qhm«m«›lgdv÷lft⁄ how I going you to help? “How can I help you?”

How many? How old? (Quanity) Pattern: [object] qhg÷mr«'m«( ....(sometimes the object may refer to persons) [person] jdg÷Î÷.... S gd.m«.hrnoshnm`k+atsrntmcradssdq'ÌrvddsdqÓ(snsgdm`shudrod`jdq. M`qhg÷mr«m«q÷v÷’. cow how extent is you ? “How many cows do you have?”

X`j`qqhg÷mr«m«q÷v÷’. children how extent is you ? “How many children do you have?”

G÷sqhg÷mr«m«v›q÷’. day how extent he is ? “How many days (old) is he?”

M«sm«m«mqhg÷mr«m«---> NOTE: This form usually refers to objects not people people NUM what extent... “How many people...?

G`j,›rqhg`mr«m«v›q÷’- Gnvl`mxxd`qr'nkc(hrgd> Q hg`mr«m«gdv`msnoo…… How much should I pay you? J dg÷Î÷ B `lonjdg÷Î÷---- Gnvl`mxldm---> Gtm,m«jdg÷Î÷--- Gnvl`mxodnokd---> At the present, we can not comment on Dubious and Exclamatory questions (BSC, 48-50)

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10. References Bender-Samuel, John, Donna Skitch, and Esther Cressman, 1973. Studies in Nigerian Languages No. 3 Duka Sentence, Clause, and Phrase. Published by Institute of Linguistics, Zaria and Centre for the Study of Nigerian Languages, Abdullahi Bayero College, Ahmadu Bello University, Kano.

Dettweiler, Stephen H. and Sonia G. Dettweiler. 1993. Sociolinguistic Survey of the Duka People. An unpublished manuscript. Ilorin, Nigeria.

Duddles, Craig and Mary Duddles. 1995. Towards a Tentative Dukanci Orthography. An unpublished manuscript. Rijau Local Government, Niger State, Nigeria.

Skitch, Donna and Esther Cressman. 1976. Takardaw Markus. (The Gospel of Mark). A locally published book. Tungan Magajiya, Niger State, Nigeria.

_____. 1976. Jagoran Karatun Dukkanci. (Learning to Read the Dukawa Language). A locally published book. Tungan Magajiya, Niger State, Nigeria.

_____. 1976. ∂ ÷q,cd S÷l ›m J `s,÷ Rghq9 ›r,r«o,›r `x` m«- (Hoe for hoeing in God’s farm: Songs and Verses). A locally published songbook. Tungan Magajiya, Niger State, Nigeria.

_____. 1978. Rv ÷÷f,s÷ ›s,L ¡ J `qhl L `f`m`- (lit. Drinking the Talk of Wise Sayings Fig. Proverbs). A locally published book. Tungan Magajiya, Niger State, Nigeria.

_____. 1979. F ÷r›s X««rn J ›qhrsh9 V `m bn ad s÷m r«jj« x`m j÷m rd Rghq (The Letters to the Hebrews). A locally published book. Tungan Magajiya, Niger State, Nigeria.

_____. 1979. S`j`qc` ÷` J `l m`9 V `rhj`s sdss s’ Xng`m` F «m«` (The Three Letters of John). A locally published book. Tungan Magajiya, Niger State, Nigeria.

_____. 1979. L t Xh Rghqh Stm X`myt9 @ Y÷mf› M ÷ Stm›l L ÷j` (We should prepare). A locally published Gospel tract. Tungan Magajiya, Niger State, Nigeria.

_____. No date. J ` J nxh C tjj`mbh ` R`tj`jd (Learn Dukkanci Easily). A locally published book. Tungan Magajiya, Niger State, Nigeria.

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11. Dukawa books available as of May 2002 Traditional Stories (reference number) The Woman who Wanted to Control Her Husband Z001 Kana and the Monkeys Z002 The Woman and the Dog Z003 The Turtle and the Bird Z004 The Hare and the Tortoise Z005 The Monitor Lizard and the Hare Z006 The Hare and the Elephant Z007 The Hyeana and the Monkey Z008 The Woman and Her Husband Z009 The Hunter Z010 The Monitor Lizard and the Hare Z011 The Ant and the Monitor Lizard Z012 The Birds and the Hare Z013 The Hyeana and the Sheep Z014 The Monkey and the Mosquito Z015 The Elephant and the Chicken Z016 The Hunter and the Antelope Z017 A Certain Girl Z018 The House with the Cat Z019 The Hyeana and the Bird Z020 The Hare and the Fish Z021 The Dog the Hyeana and the Monitor Lizard Z022 The Two Travelers Z023 The Leopard and the Tortoise Z024 If I Had Known Z025 Knowledge Z026 Abara Kills an Antelope Z027 Ahyo and Abara Z030 Akat and the Goats Z031 Abara and His Friend Z032 Abara Wants to Get Married Z033 Abara and the Cows Z034 Abara and His Father Z035 Ana and Her Mother Z036 Abara Buys a Gun Z037 Ana Gets a Husband Z038 Abara Knows How to Read Z039 The Girl and the Leper Z040 The Situation of the Poorman Z041

Educational books My ABC's Y001 Counting book Y002 (in progress) Things We Know Y003 Transitional Primer from Hausa to Dukawa Y004 Dukawa Proverbs #1 Y005

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Dukawa Proverbs #2 Y006 Dukawa Proverbs #3 Y007 Primer for First Time Readers #1 Y008 Primer for First Time Readers #2 Y009 Primer for First Time Readers #3 Y010 Primer for First Time Readers #4 Y011 Teacher's Manuel Y012 Farming Guinea Corn Y013 How to Fish with a Hook Y014

Bible Translations Jonah M01 Luke and Philippians M02

Christian song books Praise Jesus' Name #1 S001 Praise Jesus' Name #2 S002

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Appendix A: Abbreviations for Parts of Speech PS ABB Adjective ADJ Adverb ADV Affirmative AFF Class Marker CM / CMK Conjunction CJ Demonstrative DEM Dependent Marker DPM Determiner DET Exclamatory Word EXCL Future FUT Genitive Class Marker GCM Hausa Word (trade language) (h.) / (H) Hortatory hort Imperative IMP Indefinite Pronoun InfPN / IndefPN Infinitive INF Marker MKR Narrative NARR Negative NEG Noun N Number NUM Participle Marker PARTmkr Past Pt Past Narrative PtNarr Perfect PERF Possessive Poss Plural PL Preposition P Present PRES Progressive Progress Pronoun PN Proper Name NAME Quantifier QUAN Question Q Question Word QWD Relative Pronoun RPN Repeated Action RA Sound Word SWD Tense tns Time Word TIME Title Marker / Maker TITLE Verb V Yes/ No Question YNQ First person singular 1s plural (inclusive) 1pi plural (exclusive) 1pe Second person singular 2s plural 2p Third person singular 3s plural 3p

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Appendix B: Time words a` ¤m m`r n,c` time. rnnm'udqx(. atj1 time. snlnqqnv . CM: l. b`2 See main entry: b``m≈. time. b``m≈ Variant(s): b`. time. snc`x. bd1 Variant(s): bd&dr; bddr. v. 1) bts. 2) g`qudrs. CM: l. — time. 3) g`qudrsshld. R≈ l‘ ¤m bd- Until the time of harvesting. bd2 time. ehesgrs`fdhmq`hmxrd`rnm. CM: l. bnv ,l‘ ¤q,g‘ time. rtmcnv m. c`1 time. CM: n+¤q. 1) shld. 2) — fig. rnnm'udqx(. Lit: 'without spoiling time'. a` l,m``r n,c` very soon 6) — fig. e`rs'udqx(. Lit: 'Without spoil time'. A ` l,m``r n,c` No delay c`,n f``m Lit: 'time one'. conj. `snmbd. c`,‘ conj. sgdshldne. Ref: BSC, 16 [Note: the time clause ending in à] c`,‘ fig. dwodbs'mnsgòodmv gdmxnt(+rdsshld'mnsgòodm`ssgdshldxntrds(. Lit: 'it comes time you put not'. ` g``m c`,‘ m‘ gv ‘ ø expect (not happen when you) / set time (not happen at the time you set) Ref: Ruka 12:40 c`,‘ n,rv ‘s Lit: 'time of thirst'. idiom. e`rshmf. c` n,c` time. shldsnshld. CM: n. c` ¤m jd time. dudqxshld+`kksgdshld. CM: n. c`c`m time. sgdm. From: Hausa. C `q`mfd n. 1) C `q`mfd+snv m. CM: n. — time. 2) Sgtqrc`x. CM: n. cnq2 time. rdudmsgrs`fdhmq`hmxrd`rnm. CM: l. f`1 time. 1) adenqd. CM: m. — conj. 2) adenqd. CM: m. f‘r4 time. 1) q`hmxrd`rnm. CM: n. f‘ryv ¤m time. entqsgrs`fdhmq`hmxrd`rnm. CM: ¤q. g`v 4 time. 1) c`xkhfgs. CM: l. g≈o time. 1) odqhncadsv ddmcqxrd`rnm`mcq`hmxrd`rnm. CM: l. — v. 2) btsshmfsgdsnorneesgdfthmd`bnqmok`ms. CM: l. g‘2 n. 1) c`x. CM: ¤q+¤s. — n. 2) rtm. CM: ¤q. 3) g‘,¤q `m Lit: 'sun comes out'. adj. d`rs. g‘,¤q qhl Lit: 'sun at dusk'. adj. v drs. g‘,¤q q‘ l,bnv time. rtmcnv m. g‘,¤q q‘ l,q¤¤m time. rtmqhrd. hihld time. k`sdq. From: Hausa. j` ≈ time. sghrxd`q. j`l`r2 time. rhwrs`fdhmq`hmxrd`rnm. CM: ¤q. jdl bd ¤q,axn time. dhfgsg`mck`rsrs`fdhmq`hmxrd`rnm. CM: n. jn cd jd c`,cd time. 1) `kksgdshld. 2) dudqxshld. See: jn x`m c`. jn cd jd g‘,cd time. dudqxc`x. jn cd jdm g‘,cd time. dudqxc`x. jnx`mc` time. `kksgdshld+dudqxshld+`kv `xr. See: jn cd jd c`,cd. L `fìhx` n. 1) L `fìhx`'snv m(. CM: n. — time. 2) Stdrc`x. CM: n. l`q`f` Variant(s): l`q`j`. time. sghqcrs`fdneq`hmxrd`rnm. CM: ¤s. lg`m≈ time. sg`sshld. [Note: this word does not fit in the pattern of the language -- something is not right.] l‘j` Variant(s): lnj`. time. 1) mnv . CM: l. l‘mb≈ Lit: 'of harvest'. time. k`rsxd`q. m`m,cd m`m time. hlldch`sdkx. From: Hausa. m‘‘mg‘ Lit: 'heat of the day'. Variant(s): m‘m ¤m g‘. time. lhcc`x. CM: m. m¤m¤g‘ time. shldnec`xadsv ddm0/@ L ,1OL . See: m‘m. CM: m. Q `g`ch time. Rtmc`x. From: Hausa. CM: n. q`m time. eqnlrtmqhrdsnànts8@ L . CM: n.

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Q hi`t n. 1) Q ì`t+snv m. CM: n. — time. 1) Eqhc`x. See: ¤q,i`v . CM: n. q¤¤m,l‘ ¤q,g‘ time. rtmqhrd. CM: l. qxn time. xdrsdqc`x. CM: l. qxns time. 5,6OL . CM: ¤q. Rànm f`qh n. 1) Rànmf`qh+snv m. CM: n. — time. 2) V dcmdrc`x. From: Hausa. CM: n. r`q`m time. shldnexd`qenkknv hmfn,atc`'g`ql`ss`m(+atsbnmrhcdqdco`qsnecqxrd`rnm'n,yv ¤m(. CM: ¤q. rgn2 time. sgdehqrso`qsneq`hmxrd`rnm. CM: n. V `rhah time. R`stqc`x. From: Hausa. CM: n. V `ss`mmh time. L nmc`x. From: Hausa. CM: n. xhrgnldxn time. sgqddc`xreqnlmnv . CM: m. xhrgr‘ time. sv nc`xreqnlmnv . CM: m.

Summary: There are a few in here that are possibly Hausa c`,÷+c`,c« shldne--- b`.b``m« today m-riyo yesterday m-buk tomorrow m,xhrg÷ c`xèsdqsnlnqqnv l,lnj` mnv m,f` adenqd hihld k`sdq halabada -H forever nand«nan - H immediately ko de ke da-de everytime k÷de ke h÷,de always most of the time rarely q÷÷m«’a next ruwe last Ogq`rdr9 L`fìhx`m,s÷m svnS tdrc`xreqnlmnv L`fìhx`÷qtvdqdmnm,s÷m svnS tdrc`xr`fn J ¿Q `g`ch÷q÷÷m«¿ S ghrbnlhmfRtmc`x g÷l,qhxnc« svnc`xr`fn g÷,›s÷o 0/c`xr'hmsgdetstqd( g÷,›s÷os÷qtvd¿ 0/c`xr`fn ›s,g÷c««m l`mxc`xr ›s,g÷ghh èdvc`xr j¿qdmf,xn sghrlnmsg n,qdmfl,atj mdwslnmsg n,qdmfm,xhrg÷ svnlnmsgreqnlmnv qdmfl,qhxn k`rslnmsg qdmfg÷l,qhxnc« svnlnmsgr`fn ›r,qdmfc««m l`mxlnmsgr ›r,qdmfghh èdvlnmsgr

3/13/06 Dukawa Sketch 107 j¿g÷j,÷ sghrxd`q g÷jlatj'g÷j›ms÷m( mdwsxd`q g÷jmxhrg÷ svnxd`qreqnlmnv llnmbd k`rsxd`q gnqgnmm« svnxd`qr`fn ›r,g÷jc««m l`mxxd`qr ›r,g÷jghh `edvxd`qr

Sentences:

K÷ de ke Lahadi-de m«m hees o c›c Every Sunday I go to church me boro m ha o c›c I aways go to church

÷ k«n d`,÷ m«m hees o c›c Sometimes I go to church me tab› m ha o c›c I never go to church d« k«n h÷-de man hees o c›c Someday I will go to church me yag› m ha o c›c ¡ I will never stop going to church

Rijau ÷r÷÷n«’a, ma hees o c›c Next week Friday, I will go to church

Sabon gari ÷ ruwe, ›m he’ist« o c›c Last Wednesday, I went to church

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Appendix C: Conjunctions and Discourse Markers

D mfkhrg sn C tj`v ` 'enq lnqd bnlokdsd cdrbqhoshnm rdd sgd C tj`v ` sn D mfkhrg Rdbshnm( @ knmfshld`fn--- conj. m,f` m,f`. `qtlnq conj. ¤m yd. èsdq conj. a‘m2. èsdqèdv c`xr conj. ¤s,g‘ ghh. èsdq`v ghkd conj. Ÿihl≈. `f`hm conj. jnln (1); snlrn m≈ (1). `kksgdshld time. c` ¤m jd, see: c`. `ksgntfg conj. `la` lxds ¤m j`m≈ m≈ m≈; j‘ cd; lxds ¤m j`m≈ m≈ m≈. `mc conj. snlrn m≈ (3); ¤m1. ò`qseqnlsg`s--- conj. ` g¤rr≈ s‘ j` l`+. `r conj. a‘1 (1); gnm¤; ¤s¤2. `rne conj. a‘m3. `rrtld conj. rd n. `snmbd conj. c`,n f``m, see: c`. `ssgddmc--- conj. j‘l (5). adb`trd conj. m‘l2; qdldm (1); stmc` (2); ¤s¤2. adb`trdnesg`s conj. qdldm j``m≈ (1); qdldm j`m≈ gv `. adenqd conj. a`6; bhm; f`1 (2); jòhm; jòhm ‘; stm a`; stm a``; time. f`1 (1). ats conj. `la`; ¤m≈. b`trd+qdrtkshmfhm---- conj. g`ms≈2; q‘2. dudm conj. jn4; dudmadenqd!nebntqrd! conj. j‘ m,f`. dudm'v .lxds( conj. lxds ¤m; m≈8. dudm'v .m≈( conj. lxds2. dudqxshld time. c` ¤m jd, see: c`. dwbdos conj. r≈2 (4). dwodbs'mnsgòodmv gdmxnt( fig. c`,‘, see: c`. ehm`kkx--- conj. j‘l (5); ª m s``r≈. eqnlmnv nm--- conj. l,l‘j` g`q l` bn. gnv adv. a‘1 (3). gnv dudq conj. `la` lxds ¤m j`m≈ m≈ m≈; lxds ¤m j`m≈ m≈ m≈. H`lehmhrgdcsdkkhmfsgdrsnqx- conj fig. l`,¤s s``f. he conj. jn1; jnln (2); ¤mx` (1); ¤qdf≈. hemns conj. a`5. hlldch`sdkx conj. fxdos,‘ ¤m xhrg (1); ¤m fxdos,‘ ¤m xhrg (1). hmnqcdqsg`s conj. qdldm (2). hmnsgdql`ssdqr--- conj. ª m s‘ jdm l`,s‘. hmsgddmc--- conj. j‘l (5); ª m s``r≈. hmsgdl`mmdqne--- conj. a‘‘. Hmsgdo`rs---- conj. m,f` m,f`. hmsgdr`ldv `x conj. gx`m`f≈; j`mf,n n,f``m. hmsgdr`ldv `x--- conj. ¤m j` a¤,xn n,f``m. Hmxntqnohmhnm--- conj. ¤m gx`m¤ qt--- hrhsmnsadssdq conj. ¤c¤o≈. hrhsmnsoqnodq conj. ¤c¤o≈. hshrdudmadssdqsg`msg`s--- conj idiom. xn ihrg≈ l``. hshrkhjdsg`s conj. j``m≈ ‘. hshrmdbdrr`qx conj. rd2; r≈4. itrs`r conj. gx`m`f≈. k`sdq conj. snlrn m≈ (2); ⁄ihld. khjdsg`s conj. jø`m≈ (1). khrsdm conj idiom. j` ¤s,s‘.

3/13/06 Dukawa Sketch 109 l`xad conj. ¤mf¤s≈`. ld`mrsg`s--- conj. ¤myd2. ltbgkdrr conj. g`q2; x`f¤ms≈. mnsr`xhmf conj. x`m y≈≈. mnsxds conj. ¤mf‘. mnv conj. l,l‘j` cd j`. mnv sgdm conj. l,l‘j` rd. nmkxv hsgrtbg`bshnm conj. a‘5. nq conj. jn2. oqnaàkx conj. ¤mf¤s≈`. pt`khex adj. ¤mc¤o≈ (2). rdsshld'mnsgòodm`ssgdshldxntrds( fig. c`,‘, see: c`. rhmbd conj. a‘1 (2); bhmc`; stm; stmc` (1); ¤s¤2. rhmbdsgdshldne--- conj. a‘ ¤m c`,‘. rn conj. jø`m≈ (2). rn`r conj. ¤ms`r¤. rnhsv hkkmnsgòodm conj. qdldm j`c≈; qdldm s``r¤. rnldshldk`sdq conj. Ÿihl≈. rnnm'udqx( fig. c`1. rodms`knsneshld fig. c`1. rtccdmkx conj. a` qdl. Rtoonrdsn conj. ¤mc¤o≈ (1). sg`m conj comp. ‘ss≈. sg`s conj. ¤m yd. sg`shr conj. v `s`. sg`shrgnv conj. j` a‘,r≈. sg`shrv gx--- conj. a``. sg`shrv gx conj. ‘ j`. sg`shrv gx--- conj. ‘ qv ‘&≈; ‘‘ g`ms≈. sg`sv `rsg`s closer. s`cdj` (2). sgdc`xne conj. g‘,cd. sgddmc closer conj. s`cdj` (1). sgdl`hmonhmshr--- conj. ¤m j` a¤,xn n,f``m. sgdonhmshrsghr--- conj. qdldm j``m≈ (2). sgdqd`rnmv gx---'adb`trd(--- conj. qhh,xn qv ‘&≈. sgdshldne conj. c`,‘, see: c`. sgdm conj. j` c`,cd; j` c`,cd m≈; j` c`,‘; j`c≈1; njj`; r`6; r≈2 (3); ¤mx` (2); x`md. sgtr conj. j` g‘m,r≈. shld time. c`1 (1). shldsnshld time. c` n,c`, see: c`. tmdwodbsdckx--- conj. lxds ¤m j`m≈ m≈. tmkdrr conj. r≈2 (2). tmshk conj. g`q1 (1); g`q1 (2); prep. r≈2 (1). tmshksgdshld conj. g`q l` bn. tosn prep. g`q1 (3). v dkkèsdq conj. `rgh a‘‘. v dkk+dudmmnv - conj. s‘ j‘ l,l‘j`. v ghkd conj. stm. v hrga`cktbj fig. a`3. v hsgnts conj prep. a`3.

C tj`v ` sn D mfkhrg9 ` g¤rr≈ s‘ j` l` Lit: 'a person remove these even'. conj. `o`qseqnlsg`s--- `la` conj. ats. `la` lxds ¤m j`m≈ m≈ m≈ conj. gnv dudq+`ksgntfg. `rgh a‘‘ conj. v dkk`esdq. Ref: BSC,16 [Note: the time clause ending in à, followed by the head clause] a`3 conj prep. v hsgnts. a` ¤q,a`&`r to justify, say someone is not guilty of wrong From: Hausa. 2) a`5 conj. hemns. Ref: Takan 42:16 CM: l.

3/13/06 Dukawa Sketch 110 a`6 conj. adenqd. a` qv ‘‘f v ‘ ¤m rv ‘ before the elephant (arrive) of drinking...before the elephant drinks a` qdl conj. rtccdmkx. a`` Za¿ø\ conj. `bnmitmbshnmdwoqdrrhmf`mdwok`m`shnm-Sgdoqnmntmhrenkknv dcax`m!m!hmsghrlnnc- Ref: BSC, 24 a‘1 conj. 1) `r. — conj. 2) rhmbd. a‘5 conj. nmkxv hsgrtbg`bshnm. a‘ ¤m c`,‘ conj. rhmbdsgdshldne--- a‘m2 conj. èsdq. a‘m3 conj. `rne. a‘‘ Za‘”\ Variant(s): a”. conj. `bnmitmbshnmdwoqdrrhmfsgdl`mmdqhmv ghbgrnldsghmfhrcnmd-Sgdgd`c bk`trdhrehqrssgdmsgdbk`trdadfhmmhmfv hsga‘‘bnmbktcdcv hsgæ- bhm conj. adenqd. bhm a` hmt ¤m v ¤ l`s v ¤ before his mother gave birth to him bhmc` conj. rhmbd. c`1 time. CM: n+¤q. 1) shld. 2) — fig. rnnm'udqx(. Lit: 'without spoiling time'. a` l,m``r n,c` very soon 6) — fig. e`rs'udqx(. Lit: 'Without spoil time'. A ` l,m``r n,c` No delay c`,n f``m Lit: 'time one'. conj. `snmbd. c`,‘ conj. sgdshldne. Ref: BSC, 16 [Note: the time clause ending in à] c` ¤m jd time. dudqxshld+`kksgdshld. CM: n. f`1 time. 1) adenqd. CM: m. — conj. 2) adenqd. CM: m. fxdos,‘ ¤m xhrg Lit: 'blink of an eye'. conj. 1) hlldch`sdkx. CM: n. g`ms≈2 Lit: 'bring'. conj. `bnmitmbshnmfhuhmf`b`trd,qdrtksr. Ref: BSC, 10 g`q1 conj. 1) tmshk`bdqs`hmshldnqdudms. 2) tmshk`bdqs`hmdeedbshr`bghdudc. Ref: BSC, 13 — prep. 3) tosn. 4) dudm. From: Hausa. g`q2 conj. ltbgkdrr. V ¤ v ¤js n,mt ø+ g`q ‘ v nnr≈ ¤r,ròs≈- He washed mouth not, much less it reach washing of hands and feet. -- He did not wash his mouth, much less did he wash his hands and feet. g`q l` bn conj. tmshksgdshld. gnm¤ conj. `r. g‘,cd conj. sgdc`xne. Ref: BSC, 16 [Note: the time clause ending in à] gx`m`f≈ conj. itrs`r+hmsgdr`ldv `x. j` a‘,r≈ conj. sg`shrgnv . j` c`,cd conj. sgdm. j` c`,cd m≈ conj. sgdm. j` c`,‘ conj. sgdm. j` g‘m,r≈ conj. sgtr,,gnv ànts`lnqdlncdqmdpthu`kdms>> Ref: CS-transitional primer j` ¤s,s‘ Lit: 'these ears'. conj idiom. khrsdm jø`m≈ Variant(s): j``m≈. conj. 1) khjdsg`s. 2) `chrbntqrdl`qjdqrgnv hmfsg`ssgdenkknv hmfrdmsdmbdr`qd rtll`qxneoqduhntrrdbshnm- Ref: Rut 1:22 3) j``m≈ ‘ conj. hshrkhjdsg`s. j`c` [?? \ct remen... kada] conj. bnmitmbshnmfhuhmf`mdf`shudotqonrd. Ref: BSC, 6 [Note: The head clause starts with remen, then kada follows with a verb in the subjunctive mood. "in order that... lest....] j`c≈1 conj. sgdm. [Note: check this one out.] j`c≈2 See main entry: qdldm j`c≈. conj. j`mf,n n,f``m Lit: 'stalk one'. conj. hmsgdr`ldv `x. CM: n. jòhm conj. adenqd. From: Hausa. jòhm ‘ conj. adenqd. Ref: BSC, 18 From: Hausa. [Note: followed by a clause in the subjuctive mood] jn1 conj. he. jn2 conj. nq. jn4 conj. dudm. jnln conj. 1) `f`hm. 2) he. From: Hausa. j‘2 Zj‘\ See main entry: j‘ cd. conj. j‘ cd conj. `bnmitmbshnmdwoqdrrhmf`bnmsq`dwodbs`shnm-Sghrrdmsdmbdadfhmrv hsg!j‘cd!'v ghbgfhudr sgdduhcdmbdv ghbgv ntkcgùdfhudmdwodbsdcqdrtksrv hsg`cdodmcdmsbk`trdenkknv dcax!l≈s¤m j`m≈m≈!bnmitbshnmv hsgsgdgd`cbk`trdv ghbgfhudrsgdtmdwodbsdcbnmbktrhnm- Ref: BSC, 17 See: l≈s ¤m j`m≈ m≈. j‘ m,f` conj. dudmadenqd!nebntqrd!. j‘l Variant(s): jnlnr. v. 1) ehmhrg. — n. 2) k`rsanqm. CM: ¤q. 3) etkkrsno. CM: ¤q. [Note: this is what we are using to describe a full stop in the

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Ýt-hun language.] 4) dmc. CM: ¤q. — conj. 5) `ssgddmc---+hmsgddmc---+ehm`kkx--- CM: ¤q. l`,¤s s``f Lit: 'words are shot'. conj fig. H`lehmhrgdcsdkkhmfsgdrsnqx- Syn: s`cdj`. l,l‘j` cd j` conj. mnv . l,l‘j` g`q l` bn conj. eqnlmnv nm--- l,l‘j` rd conj. `bnmitmbshnmsg`sl`qjrsgdsq`mrhshnmeqnlv g`sgòodmdcsnv g`ssgdrod`jdqv `msr sngòodm- lxds2 conj. dudm'v .m≈(. ---lxds ¤m x`m c`j,n gnq,n m≈- even foreigners. lxds ¤m conj. dudm'v .lxds(. ---lxds ¤m x`m c`j,n gnq,n m≈- even foreigners. lxds ¤m j`m≈ m≈ Variant(s): l≈s ¤m j`m≈ m≈. conj. `bnmitmbshnmdwoqdrrhmf`bnmsq`dwodbs`shnm-Sghr rdmsdmbd adfhmr v hsg !j‘ cd! v hsg ` cdodmcdms bk`trd enkknv dc ax sghr bnmitbshnm v hsg sgd gd`c bk`trd- Ref: BSC, 17 See: j‘ cd. [Note: is this myet...?] lxds ¤m j`m≈ m≈ m≈ conj. gnv dudq+`ksgntfg. Syn: `la` lxds ¤m j`m≈ m≈ m≈. m≈8 conj. dudm'v .lxds(. ---lxds ¤m x`m c`j,n gnq,n m≈- even foreigners. m,f` m,f` Lit: 'before before'. conj. Hmsgdo`rs----+@ knmfshld`fn--- m‘l2 Lit: 'happen'. conj. `bnmitmbshnmo`qsnesgdbk`trdrsg`sl`jdto`b`trd,qdrtksrdmsdmbd- Ref: BSC, 10 njj` conj. sgdm. ‘ j` conj. sg`shrv gx. ‘ qv ‘&≈ conj. sg`shrv gx--- ‘‘ g`ms≈ Z‘”g¿ms∆\ Lit: 'it brought'. conj. `bnmitmbshnmfhuhmf`mdwok`hm`shnm. Ref: BSC, 11 ‘ss≈ conj comp. sg`m. ¥ ss≈ ¤l gd l,c≈j ¤m ‘ j` æ+ ihhrs≈ ¤l c≈js ‘ j`- Instead of taking this, it is better that I take this (other one). reverse for English order: It is better that I take this one, than that one. qdldm Variant(s): qdl. conj. 1) hmsqnctbdr ` b`tr`k . qd`rnm bk`trd D W BD OS v gdm enkknv dc ax sgd rtaitmbshudlnnc'udqardmchmfhm,sƒnq,s(. 2) hmsqnctbdròtqonrdbk`trdv gdmsgdl`hmudqahrhm sgdrtaitmbshudlnnc'udqardmchmfhm,sƒnq,s(- [Note: This may be in underlying form "rem" + "ýn"] qdldm j``m≈ conj. 1) adb`trdnesg`s. 2) sgdonhmshrsghr--- qdldm--- j`c` conj. bnmitmbshnmfhuhmf`mdf`shudotqonrd. Ref: BSC, 6 [Note: The head clause starts with remen, then kada follows with a verb in the subjunctive mood. "in order that... lest....] qdldm j`c≈ conj. rnhsv hkkmnsgòodm. qdldm j`m≈ gv ` conj. adb`trdnesg`s. qdldm s``r¤ conj. rnhsv hkkmnsgòodm. See: qdldm j`c≈. qdldm--- s`rrd conj. bnmitmbshnmfhuhmf`mdf`shudotqonrd. Ref: BSC, 6 [Note: The head clause starts with remen, then tasse follows with a verb in the subjunctive mood. "in order that... lest....] qhh,xn qv ‘&≈ conj. sgdqd`rnmv gx---'adb`trd(--- q‘2 conj. `bnmitmbshnmfhuhmf`b`trd,qdrtksr. Ref: BSC, 10 r`6 See main entry: r≈. conj. sgdm. rd2 conj. hshrmdbdrr`qx. rd n conj. `rrtld. ª l c≈j rd n ydd v ` g``m- I assumed you will come. L ≈ c≈j rd n v ` g``m ø- I assumed you were not coming. Syn: r` yd. r≈2 prep. 1) tmshk. — conj. 2) tmkdrr. — conj. 3) sgdm. 4) dwbdos. r≈4 conj. hshrmdbdrr`qx. s` cd j` See main entry: s`cdj`. conj. s``r¤ See main entry: qdldm s``r¤. conj. s`cdj` Lit: 'finished here'. closer conj. 1) `v nqctrdcsg`ssgddmcne`rsnqx. — closer. 2) `v nqctrdcsnrgnv sgddmcne`rdbshnmnersnqx. 3) Hmoqnbdctq`ksdwsr+!s`cdj`!hr trdcsnrgnv sg`s`bdqs`hmrsdohmsgdoqnbdctqdg`rehmhrgdc- 4) Sgdqdhr`krnògq`rdtrdchmsgd gnqs`snqxsdwssnhmchb`sdsg`ssgdrod`jdqhrlnuhmfnmsn`mnsgdqonhms-RddBghdeneJ hqgnroddbg. snlrn m≈ conj. 1) `f`hm. 2) k`sdq. 3) `mc. s‘ j‘ l,l‘j` conj. `bnmitmbshnmsnrgnv sgdòokhb`shnmneoqduhntrrsnqx. stm conj. rhmbd+v ghkd. From: Hausa. stm a` conj. adenqd. See: bhm. From: Hausa. stm a`` Zstma¿ø\ conj. adenqd. Ref: BSC, 24 From: Hausa. [Note: between two clauses] stmc` See main entry: stm c`. conj. 1) rhmbd. 2) adb`trd. From: Hausa. [Note: clause ending in à, followed by head clause] ¤c¤o≈ conj. hrhsmnsadssdq+hrhsmnsoqnodq. ⁄ihld conj. sncdmnsdsg`ssgdmdwsdudmsv hkkgòodmrnnmhmsgdmnssnnchrs`msetstqd. Ÿihl≈ conj. `r ` shld ogq`rd hm ` rsnqx+ hs rgnv r sg`s sgd mdws dudms chc mns hlldch`sdkx enkknv sgd

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oqduhntrdudmsatssgdqdhr`kòrneshld- ¤m1 conj. `mc. ¤m fxdos,‘ ¤m xhrg Lit: 'blink of an eye'. conj. 1) hlldch`sdkx. CM: n. ¤m gx`m¤ qt--- Lit: 'in your seeing'. conj. Hmxntqnohmhnm--- ¤m j` a¤,xn n,f``m conj. hmsgdr`ldv `x---+sgdl`hmonhmshr--- ª m s``r≈ conj. hmsgddmc---+ehm`kkx--- ª m s‘ jdm l`,s‘ conj. hmnsgdql`ssdqr--- ¤m yd conj. sg`s+`qtlnq. Ref: CS-transitional primer ¤mc¤o≈ conj. 1) sgdv `xhsrgntkcadnqrnldsghmfsg`srgntkcgòodm- — adj. 2) pt`khex. [Note: not sure about this usage - get a sample sentence] ¤m≈ Z⁄m∆\ conj. ats. Ref: BSC, 43,44 [Note: a particle used between clauses, but sometimes the particle will occur after the subject of the second clause (like a post positive).] ¤mf‘ conj. mnsxds. ¤mf¤s≈` Z¤mf¤s≈ø\ conj. l`xad+oqnaàkx. ¤ms`r¤ conj. rn`r. ¤mx` conj. 1) he. — conj. 2) sgdm. ¤myd2 conj. sg`shrsnr`xsg`s--- ¤qdf≈ Z¤qdf≈\ Variant(s): ”q√fƒ. conj. he. Etym: ª * qdf≈> ¤s,g‘ ghh Lit: 'days few'. conj. èsdqèdv c`xr. ¤s¤2 conj. rhmbd:adb`trd:`r. CM: n. [Note: clause ending in à, and followed by head clause] v `s` conj. sg`shr. Ref: CS-transitional primer From: Hausa. x`f¤ms≈ conj. ltbgkdrr. V ¤ j‘l fv ‘v `m ` l` ¤m v ¤ j`s,‘ ø+ x`f¤ms≈ l` r≈j ¤m v ¤- He did not finish hoeing his own farm, much less the farm of his older brother. x`m y≈≈ conj. mnsr`xhmf. Ref: CS-transitional primer x`md conj. sgdm. x`myd conj. mnssnr`x:dudmsgntfg. CM: n. xn ihrg≈ l`` Lit: 'it better also'. conj idiom. trdcv gdmqdk`shmf`mdudmssg`ssgdadrso`qsnesgddudmshr xdssnadsnkc- Ref: Rutu 2:21

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Appendix D: The Uses of .m«/ and /›m/ m«(These may all be one morpheme, or 2 or more homophonous morphemes.) 0- B k`rrL`qjdqenqgtl`moktq`kr'rteehwnmkx( df-gtm,m«+x`m,b`lon,m«+m«s,m«+mdÎ`,m« 1- Ogq`rdbknrdq @-V hsgrnldshldogq`rdr df- j`c`cdm« ÌsgdmÓ Q hi`v÷q÷m«ÌEqhc`xsg`shrbnlhmfÓ b``m« Ìsnc`xÓ A -V hsgptdrshnmogq`rdr df- V `v›m«--- Ìvgn>--- Znai\qhg÷mr«m« Ìgnvl`mx>--- B -Fdmdq`k df- xn›q,anmm« ÌHs'hr(fnncÓ snlrnm« Ì`f`hmÓ 2- L`qjdqsg`srnldhsdlrvdqdfòodc'rddbgòsdq5( df-L`qxantfgsChanaqd`c+Chf`m«ld`s- L`qxantfgsChanaqd`c`mc'L`qxantfgs(Chf`ld`s- 3- @rrnbh`shudl`qjdq @-Hmbnmitmbshnmvhsg.›m.,,.›m.fdmdq`kkxadenqd sgdmntm`mc.m«.trt`kkxèsdq- 0-Ì`mcÓvhsg`rsqhmfnemntmr df-M0'm«(›mM1m«›mM2m«›mM3m«ZM< mntm\ 1-ÌvhsgÓ df- ›mZOdqrnm9OMnqOqnodqM`ld\m« ›mZldrr`fd,l`s,s÷\---m« A -@rrnbh`shudl`qjdqvhsgsgdrdmrdneÌ`krnÓ df- n,g«s,m« Ìv`sdqatee`kn`krnÓ @-1-a-10015 B -@rrnbh`shudl`qjdqvhsgrdmrdneÌ`mcsgnrd`rrnbh`sdcÓ Jdr÷C`vc`m«g`…»> Where David (and his brothers and sisters) go? ÌV gdqdchcCùhc`mcghraqnsgdqr`mcrhrsdqrfn>Ó V›qnl,g÷÷fm«- He is CM-life ÌGdhrgùhmfkhed-Ó J`j÷j,cdqnl,gxnm«- That calabash-GCM has CM- corn flour ÌS g`sb`kà`rgg`rbnqmekntq-Ó 4- Rteehwhmsgdmnlhm`khy`shnmne`cidbshudr.nqhmsdmrhehdq- df- r««am« Ìs`kkmdrrÓ ›r,m›m« ÌgdùhmdrrÓ ctqctqm« ÌkhfgsmdrrÓ b`qhb`qhm« Ìqd`kkxahf Ó n,y`jc««mm« ÌudqxgòoxÓ@-1-a-1/014 q`ghx`m« ÌvdkkmdrrÓ@-1-a-060/1.0700/

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5- Udqarteehw`ood`qrsnaddhsgdq`rdqh`kudqanqcdodmcdmsenql df-Um« ZU< udqa\ 6- OnrrdrrhudL`qjdqZghfgkxptdrshnm`akd\ df-n,lnsnq,m«ÌlxlnsnqÓ 7- @bbnqchmfsnA RB +014,,eqdptdmskxenkknvrr«,,atsl`xadsgdrdvhkkehs hmsn`mnsgdqb`sdfnqx-

›m 0- B nmitmbshnm `-Ìsg`shrÓ a-Ì`mcÓ 1- Oqdonrhshnm 'mddcsnbk`rrhexsgdrd---knb`shud---( `-ÌeqnlÓ a-ÌaxÓ b-ÌnmÓ c-ÌenqÓ d-ÌvhsgÓhmbnmitmbshnmvhsgm« e-ÌhmÓ 2- Onrrdrrhudl`qjdqenqsghqcodqrnmrhmftk`q`mcoktq`k'rnldshldrehqrs oktq`k(-

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Appendix E: Chart of Common Pronouns (tense/ aspect is only related to the Nominatives / subject pronouns) Singular Plural Completive Progressive Future Completive Progressive Future FIRST Mnl ›l l«l l` s« s«l s`(exclusive( ` ` `'inclusive( D log`shb l«j` s«j`+m`j` Fdm qd+cd s«+m` D log`shb l`qd l`s«+l`m` @bbtr`shud l« s«+m` Q dekdwhud ghmc«.ldghmc« ghms«+ghmm`.s«ghms«+m`ghmm` gnm}ghm---'@ssgdoqdrdms+sgdqdhrmnjmnvmrdl`mshbcheedqdmbdadsvddm sgdrdsvnenqlr-(

SECOND Mnl n v÷l v` m÷ m÷l m` D log`shb v÷j` m÷j` Fdm qt+ct m÷ D log`shb l`qt l`m÷ @bb v÷ m÷ Q dew ghmct.v÷ghmct ghmm÷.m÷ghmm÷

THIRD GT L@M Mnl v› v›l v›` « «l «` D log`shb v›j` «j` Fdm v› « D log`shb l`v› l`«.l`›m« @bb v› « Q dew ghmcdv›.v›ghmcdv› ghmcd«.«ghmcd« @MHL@K xn xnl xn` « «l «` S GHMFR ÷+xn+cd+l÷ «+xn+s÷+r«+l÷

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