• PARAMILITARY CE Be PARAMILITARY

JohnAndrade

M TOCKTON SPRE 5 5 © Macmillan Publishers Ltd, 1985 Softcover reprint of the hardcover 1st edition 1995 978-0-333-38629-3 All rights reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced, or transmitted, in any form or by any means, without permission.

First published in the United Kingdom by MACMILLAN PUBLISHERS LTD, (Journals Division), 1985 Distributed by Globe Book Services Ltd, Brunei Road, Houndmills, Basingstoke, Rants RG21 2XS, England.

British Library Cataloguing in Publication Data Andrade, John World police and paramilitary forces. 1. Police 2. Paramilitary forces I. Title 363.3 HV7921 ISBN 978-1-349-07784-7 ISBN 978-1-349-07782-3 (eBook) DOI 10.1007/978-1-349-07782-3 Published in the United States and Canada by Stockton Press, 1985 15 East 26th Street, New York, N.Y. 10010, USA.

Library of Congress Cataloging in Publication Data Andrade, John M. World police and paramilitary forces.

Bibliography: p. 1. Police-Handbooks, manuals, etc. 2. Paramilitary forces--Handbooks, manuals, etc. I. Title. HV7921.A59 1985 363.2 85-17247 ISBN 978-0-943818-14-6 GazeUehelicopter. First flown in 1967and in productionsince 1971,the AerospatialeSA 341GazeUeis typicalofthehelicopters currently in use by police and paramilitary forces. TheSA 342M illustrated has the markings ofthe French Gendermarie and is fitted with a PA system for crowd control duties.

Saracen and Wheelbarrow. Many types ofarmouredvehicleare in service with paramilitary forces. TheAlvis FV 603(C) Saracen armoured personnel carrier shown is used by the British Army in Northern Ireland in support ofthe local internal security forces. The reverse flow cooling system indicates that it was built for use in the Middle East. Note the turret traversed to the rear and the ring mount for a 7.62 mm machinegun. Tothe rightofthepictureis a WheelbarrowMk7, a remote-controlledbombdisposalmachine. Thephotograph was taken at Templemore Avenue, East Belfast, in May 1977 following a report of a suspect car which had been abandoned. A. Ruger revolver. The Ruger Police Service Six is the revolver most widely used by US police forces and government agencies , and by certain LatinAmerican police forces. Itis availablein blued or stainless steel finish, in a choiceofbarrel lengths andin three calibres - .357 Magnum (shown here),.38 Special, and 9mm Parabellum. B. BrowningFN pistol. Designed in 1925by John M. Browning, the 9 mm Browning High-Power has been built in Belgium byFN under licence since 1935.One ofthemost reliableself-loadingpistols currentlyavailable, it isin service with militaryand police forces ofover 50 countries. The model illustrated here is the British Army Pistol, Browning FN, 9mm, High Power No 2, Mk 1. Co Uzi submachine gun. The 9mm Uzi submachine gun was developed from the Czech models 23 and 25 SMGs by Lt Uziel Gal and is in production by IMI at Ramat HaSharon, Israel, and FN at Herstal, Belgium. It is available with a folding metal stock, as shown, or with a wooden stock, and is popular with the NAill armed and paramilitary forces because of its simplicity and reliability. Sankey armoured vehicle. The GKN Sankey AT 105 was developed from the earlier AT 104and is available in a number ofversions, including the AT 105-E armoured personnel carrier and the AT 105-P internal security vehicle (shown here). The standard AT 105-P has an optional7.62mm machinegun in theturret, bulletproofwindscreen, and provision for rotating beacons, siren, hand-operated searchlights, and a PA system. It may be adapted for bomb disposal duties.

Shorland. The Shorland was developed in 1965to meet the requirements ofthe Royal Ulster Constabulary, and entered production as an armouredpatrolcar; otherversions weresubsequentlyintroduced. The Shorlandillustratedhere isthe Mk 3, based on the 109-inch wheelbase Land Rover, and powered by a 2.6 litre Rover engine rated at 91hp. Armament consists ofa 7.62 mm GPMG in a manually operatedturret. AllRUeShorlands weretransferredto the UlsterDefenceRegiment and BritishArmy units in NorthernIrelandduring the late 1970s. The Shorland is also in use with the Dutch, Portuguese, and other paramilitary forces. China, People's Republic of 45 CONTENTS Ciskei 183 Colombia 47 Preface and Acknowledgements viii Comoros 49 Introduction IX Congo 50 Selected Bibliography xiii Costa Rica 51 Afghanistan 1 Cuba 52 Albania 2 Cyprus 53 Algeria 3 Czechoslovakia 54 Andorra 4 Denmark 55 Angola 5 Djibouti 56 Anguilla 6 Dominica 57 Antigua and Barbuda 7 Dominican Republic 58 Argentina 8 Ecuador 59 Australia 10 Egypt 60 Austria 14 EISalvador 61 Bahamas 16 Equatorial Guinea 62 Bahrain 17 Ethiopia 63 Bangladesh 18 Falkland Islands 64 Barbados 19 Fiji 65 Belgium 20 Finland 66 Belize 22 France 67 Benin 23 Guiana 73 Bermuda 24 Gabon 74 Bhutan 25 Gambia 75 Bolivia 26 German Democratic Republic 76 Bophuthatswana 182 German Federal Republic 77 Botswana 27 Ghana 79 Brazil 28 Gibraltar 80 Brunei 30 Greece 81 Bulgaria 31 Burkina Faso 32 Grenada 82 Burma 33 Guatemala 83 Burundi 34 Guinea 84 Cambodia 35 Guinea-Bissau 85 Cameroon 36 Guyana 86 Canada 37 Haiti 87 Cape Verde 39 Honduras 88 Cayman Islands 40 Hong Kong 89 Central African Republic 41 Hungary 90 Chad 42 Iceland 91 Chile 43 India 92

v WORLD POLICE AND PARAMILITARY FORCES

Indonesia 94 Niger 148 Iran 95 Nigeria 149 Iraq 96 Norway 150 Ireland 97 Oman 152 Israel 99 Pakistan 153 Italy 101 Panama 154 Ivory Coast 106 Papua New Guinea 155 Jamaica 107 Paraguay 156 Japan 109 Peru 157 Jordan 112 Philippines 158 Kenya 113 Poland 159 Kiribati 114 Portugal 161 Korea, North 115 Puerto Rico 225 Korea, South 116 Qatar 164 Kuwait 117 Romania 165 Laos 118 Rwanda 166 Lebanon 119 St Christopher 167 Lesotho 120 StHelena 168 Liberia 121 StLucia 169 Libya 122 St Vincent and the Grenadines 170 Liechtenstein 123 Samoa, Western 233 Luxembourg 124 San Marino 171 Madagascar 125 Sao Tome e Principe 172 Malawi 126 Saudi Arabia 173 Malaysia 127 Sengal 174 Maldives 128 Seychelles 175 Mali 129 Sierra Leone 176 Malta 130 Singapore 177 Mauritania 131 Solomon Islands 178 Mauritius 132 Somalia 179 Mexico 133 South Africa 180 Monaco 135 South West Africa 184 Mongolian Republic 136 Spain 187 Montserrat 137 Sri Lanka 189 Morocco 138 Sudan 190 Mozambique 13.9 Suriname 191 Nauru 140 Swaziland 192 Nepal 141 Sweden 193 Netherlands 142 Switzerland 195 Netherlands Antilles 144 Syria 198 New Zealand 145 Taiwan 46 Nicaragua 147 Tanzania 199

VI CONTENTS

Thailand 200 Vanuatu 228 Togo 201 Vatican City State 229 Tonga 202 Venda 186 Transkei 185 Venezuela 230 Trinidad and Tobago 203 Vietnam 231 Tunisia 204 Virgin Islands (Br.) 232 Turkey 205 Virgin Islands (USA) 226 Turks and Caicos Islands 206 Yemen Arab Republic 234 Tuvalu 207 Yemen, People's Democratic Uganda 208 Republic of 235 Union of Soviet Socialist Republics 209 Yugoslavia 236 United Arab Emirates 212 ZaIre 237 United Kingdom of Great Britain and Zambia 238 Northern Ireland 213 Zimbabwe 239 United States of America 221 Uruguay 227 Equipment 241

vii Preface and Acknowledgements

The text of the present book is based on notes taken by the author, when he was connected with a major intelligence organization in his country of origin. Much has changed since then and additions and corrections to the original text have been made to ensure accuracy. However, a directory of this magnitude could not have been written without the collaboration of other individuals and organizations. The author gratefully acknowledges the assistance provided by: Jose Luis Afonso, former intelli­ gence operative; Dennis T. Brett, former Librarian-Cura­ tor, Police Staff College; Adrian J. English, specialist in defence -and security matters; Dr Fernando Marques, specialist in paramilitary and internal security forces; Jorge Manuel Pimenta, researcher; Denis Vinot, historian and intelligence specialist. Also Christopher K. and Martin O'Shaughnessy, for their assistance during the revision of the typescript; various police and diplomatic personnel; and all the anons. Finally, special thanks go to Robert Kean, without whose constant assistance and encouragement this book would have never been finished. No book is perfect, however careful the author may have been. Some information may have been omitted that merits inclusion; there may be up-to-date additions that could be made. The author would like to have such points drawn to his attention in order to prepare for the next edition. Likewise, constructive criticism will be welcome. Countries are listed in alphabetical order. Most entries are divided into three parts: Introduction (historical notes), Organization (details), and Operations (current and potential situation). Many developed countries have a brief note on their main private security companies.

Vlll WORLD POLICE AND PARAMILITARY FORCES

strued as undermining the democratic freedom of the people it is theoretically meant to serve. On the other hand, the INTRODUCTION police exist to enforce the law and do not (or should not) take any sides in such disputes. Consequently, civil libertarians often regard the police as intrinsically undemocratic, authori­ There is no agreement about where the first police force came tarian or even proto-fascist. into being. Anthropologists suggest, and in all probability they are right, that the need for a police force became Current trends in police work apparent when the first organized society emerged. This was For better or worse, society is changing, and police forces an empirical response to the realities of communal life; the have had to change accordingly. Operational procedures fact that mass psychology differs from individual psychology, thought unlikely to be adopted ten years ago are now and that an individual may respect the law when alone and commonplace. Communities are no longer as homogenous break it when a part of an anonymous group, was recognized and law abiding as they used to be; the era of the unarmed in practice long before it was formulated in theory. British-style neighbourhood policeman is almost at an end. There was a police force in ancient Sumeria, although its Three main trends can be observed in current police duties are not known; the Egyptian Pharaohs had police, both activity: the increased use of firearms; the general acceptance to maintain law and order and to check political enemies. of new technological developments; and the growing intru­ Classical Greece had a police force in every city-state, and sion on individual privacy (despite various legal safeguards). Rome developed the concept of urban police to a level far Most law enforcement agencies have always armed their ahead of the time. The present-day Vigili Urbani may quite personnel, particularly those assigned to street duties. Auto­ legitimately consider themselves as the successors of the matic pistols and revolvers were issued alongside the stan­ Imperial Roman Vigiles Urbis. When the Roman Empire dard truncheons, but were not often used, partly because fell, the old traditions were maintained so far as was even the lawbreakers retained some respect for authority, practicable. Not only did the local magistracy survive for a and partly because courts were less lenient if weapons were long time, with their powers scarcely altered (apart from the used against police officers. Social developments in today's limitations caused by the instability of those years) and permissive society have radically modified this situation. maintaining local police forces, but the new Germanic and Serious disturbances are now commonplace in many coun­ Celtic rulers preserved their tribal police. These were of tries and there has been a growth in terrorist activities. course different from what Rome had known; they are best Police forces have had to increase their firepower to a lesser compared to paramilitary forces. or greater degree. Rifles and shotguns have been modified for The police forces of Europe were mainly dependent on the law enforcement duties; the former mainly for sniping and the various kings or feudal noblemen. When the bourgeoisie latter as a very effective riot containment weapon. The latest began imposing itself on the prevailing society values, the single-barrel, pump-action shotguns (in actual fact combat larger cities felt they could raise their own police forces. shotguns) are extremely versatile and can fire a wide variety These were of a quasi-military character, as they were of ammunition. Firearms training is provided by most police required to defend the cities in the case of an attack. Unlike forces, even by those which have traditionally refrained from the former royal police agents, they were manned by local the routine issue of weapons, such as the various UK citizens and subsidized by the merchant class. This created an constabularies. It is now established that the number of historical precedent; even as late as the 18th century, certain gun-related offences is increasing in the UK. For example, Dutch and British colonial police forces were raised primarily the 1983report by the ChiefConstable of Merseyside pointed to protect business interests. out that although general crime levels were lower than the The concept of police is not the same throughout the world. previous year, offences involving weapons had risen 'at a Three types of police currently exist: the British type, with frightening rate'. civilian constables responsible for upholding the rule of law; Specialized paramilitary units, first organized in the USA the European type, with armed officers ensuring that the will and popularly known as SWAT (Special Weapons And of the central government is carried out (Roman law Tactics) Teams - have been formed within many police concept); and the Socialist Bloc type, which differs from the forces, and used with good results to neutralize siege European type in being motivated by the country's official situations, particularly where hostages are involved, or ideology. against terrorists. The modern police force appeared, like so many other Riot control is taught at most police academies. The contemporary institutions, in the early 19th century, during principle is to break up a riot by using a minimum of force and Napoleon's rule in France. Napoleon gave Europe the first causing as few casualties as possible. Water cannon have been really modern police organization; a professional and effi­ employed for decades, but their limitations are obvious. cient paramilitary force, the Gendarmerie; and the first Water capacity can be exhausted in less than ten minutes, and political police, Fouche's Haute Police (which, although it determined rioters may regroup and resume disturbances did exist before Napoleon's rise to power, reached its highest once the danger has passed. Thus, the use of non-lethal status during the Empire). The new legal code, the Code weapons has tended to increase. These can be divided into Napoleon, influenced most Western European countries. two main groups: chemical ordnance and limited-effec­ These institutions spread over Europe with the Empire and tiveness projectiles. their influence can still be felt. Initially developed for military use, chemical grenades The end of World War II brought the victory of the have been found ideal for riot containment. Their earliest democratic ideology, and with it an ethical difficulty for the recorded use was in Paris in 1912, when the Gendarmerie police. In principle, the democratic state is not free to employ employed grenades filled with ethyl bromacetate against any means whatever to exercise its right to defend itself: if the criminal gangs. Chemical grenades were initially made state exists only by the people's consent and for its conve­ available in two main types: CN (chloroacetophenone), nience, its self-defence may be - and frequently is - con- discovered in Germany in 1869 and popularly knows as tear

ix WORLD POLICE AND PARAMILITARY FORCES gas, and CS (2chlorobenzylidene malononitrile), which is prisoners and even torture, and these have sometimes been faster-acting and much more effective. Other chemicals have substantiated. A good interrogator should have no need for been tested under operational conditions and later commer­ brutality; satisfactory results can be obtained with persuasion cialized - such as CR (dibenz(b:f)-l:4-oxazepine) which is and a sound knowledge of practical psychology. In some considered six times more potent than CS. Chemical gren­ countries advanced techniques such as hypnosis are used. ades are either thrown by hand or fired from guns (both This has proved as reliable as the polygraph (the lie detector) adapted guns and dedicated riot weapons are employed). and truth serums. However, certain countries, such as the Limited-effectiveness projectiles were evolved from the UK, are reluctant to accept the validity of such techniques to wooden bullets used against rioting mobs by some armies. provide evidence which will stand up in a court of law. Since these were often lethal and thus unacceptable in Mobility is a prime requirement of any modern police civilian use, rubber bullets, thought to be less dangerous, force. Motor vehicles are universally employed together with were developed. Fired from riot guns pointed at the ground, the use of helicopters, and light aircraft. Police aircraft have so that they would only strike on ricochet, rubber bullets existed from the 1920s (initially for use against smugglers). were nevertheless capable of inflicting serious wounds and By the mid-1930s the main American and Canadian forces even killing under certain circumstances. This has led to their already included an aviation element. The development of gradual replacement by plastic bullets, made of hard PVC the helicopter from the late 1940s onwards provided a and intended to be fired at a distance of 20 to 30 m from relatively low-cost machine ideally suited for local police rioters. Unlike rubber bullets, they are aimed at the legs but work, and many progressive forces were quick to recognize under operational conditions hits have been made to targets' it. chests or heads at very short range. Such injuries usually Police helicopters are used for emergency services (such as result in death or serious injury. It is a regrettable comment medical evacuation and transport of medical personnel); for on the state of contemporary society that the use of such general patrol work, particularly in directing heavy traffic; in weapons is officially considered to be unavoidable. the enforcement of laws against drug smugglers; in riot Another serious aspect of urban violence is the use of control; and for auxiliary duties, such as collaboration with explosive devices by certain radical organizations. Unlike local or regional civil defence authorities. Fixed-wing aircraft guns, explosives injure indiscriminately. Most armies have are also used extensively, although they are less versatile bomb-disposal units, but sometimes it is not possible to since they depend on airfields or airstrips. However, police request their services (it is often politically unacceptable to aircraft often operate on floats where necessary. have army units performing civilian tasks). As a result, the The police forces of some smaller countries have tradi­ police forces of most industrialized countries have formed tionally been in charge of the fire and ambulance services. explosive and bomb-disposal squads, adopting military tech­ The specialization required by modern technology has niques but changing them to meet different operational already caused some forces to give up their fire departments, situations. and more advanced countries also have national ambulance Recent advances in surveillance technology have made services. However, a number of countries retain police-oper­ intelligence gathering less noticeable. Surveillance may be ated services; some fire departments have been militarized, direct or indirect. In the former case, the subject is kept or attached to local gendarmeries, particularly in Africa. under observation by law enforcement officers; if under poor Police activities are by no means limited to crime preven­ visibility conditions or at night, light intensifying devices are tion and suppression. The police have always been called often used. In the latter case, the very latest technology is upon to enforce certain laws, which reflect prevailing forms used to supplement the opening of letters and other postal of social prejudice such as Prohibition, the ban on the sale of items. Various bugging devices are available to security alcoholic drinks in the USA in the 1920s. agencies, some of which are amazingly efficient; phone tapping is also employed. The law of most free countries strictly regulates all surveillance operations in order to pro­ Internal security police tect the rights of citizens and to prevent abuses. In everyday language, an internal security police force is The primary role of the police remains that of fighting often referred to as the secret police, or political police; crime. It is not generally known that only between 25 and 30 something that only repressive regimes are supposed to have. per cent of the crimes which come to the attention of the It is also commonly believed that internal security police first police are fully solved. Improved efficiency is clearly a appeared in the 20th century. Both assumptions are incor­ priority, and again modern technology is increasingly rect. First, it may be said that no country wishing to preserve employed. The latest advances in forensic medicine and its identity can afford to be without an internal security crime detection are incorporated in the re-equipment of police. Secondly, such police forces are known to have police laboratories, subject to budgetary limitations. existed almost since the beginning of recorded history. Computers are now an essential part of police work; nearly Joseph Fouche formed the Haute Police. A revolutionary all forces possess a central computer, or have access to a leader who became Duke of Otranto and Minister of Police computerized data bank. Information on offenders is stored under Napoleon, Fouche was the first to neither subordinate in the computer and retrieved when necessary. Frequent use a police force to the will of the head of state, nor to codified is also made of other computers for data such as medical and law, but to the ideology on which the state was based. insurance records. This is seen as a potential threat to a In recent years, there has been a tendency towards the citizen's right to privacy, and legal measures are being taken deliberate defiance of the law. Strictly speaking, this is not a or considered in many Western countries to prevent infringe­ new phenomenon but its growth is unprecedented. It is no ments of basic rights. longer limited to subversive movements, or anarchist and Information is also acquired through the interrogation of libertarian groups, or asocial elements. The idea that the law suspects, and this is one field where the police often come should be broken if it appears to the individual to be under attack, especially from civil rights groups. Accusations unjust - a most dangerous precedent, since there is no unity have been made of brutality, degrading treatment of of principle in any community, and adherence to this idea x WORLD POLICE AND PARAMILITARY FORCES could ultimately lead to a breakdown of law and order - has an agreement would be contrary to Interpol's traditional become acceptable to otherwise law-abiding citizens, and neutrality in political matters. However, it was decided that, may even acquire the respectability that pressure groups regardless of how it is justified, terrorism should be con­ have in a parliamentary democracy. As an example, scores of sidered as criminal. There were precedents too; skyjacking, religious communities in the USA voted in 1984 to break the for example, is a modern form of piracy. immigration laws of their country and to support actively the Another problem of frightening social import is the escala­ illegal immigration of growing numbers of Latin Americans. tion in drug trafficking in Europe and North America since The internal security police forces, which until recently- the 1960s, and particularly since the late 1970s. The resources in Western European countries at any rate - concentrated of the national police forces are of necessity limited in dealing on intelligence gathering and secondary counter-intelligence with transnational drug-running. Interpol can be much more to protect the state, give increasing attention to civil disobe­ efficient in processing and exchanging related information, dience. In Western-style democracies, where the right of the and has already provided invaluable service in combatting state to self-defence is often opposed as limiting the rights of drug trafficking. the individual, internal security organizations have been forced to develop their techniques to a high standard of Interpol, 26 rue Armengaud, 92211 Saint-Cloud, France sophistication. In some cases, the illusion has been main­ tained among the general public that there is no 'secret Interpol is the best-known and most prestigious inter­ police'. This was made possible by the use of common courts national police organization, but there are others, with a of law and criminal legislation to counter what is basically more specialized role, such as the following: subversive activity. International Association of Chiefs of Police Inc, 11Firstfield Road, Gaithersburg, MD 20760, USA (948 - 0922) International police organizations International Police Association, Kent Constabulary, Sutton The existence of an international police force was made Road, Maidstone, Kent ME15 9BZ, England (65432) necessary by the fact that crime knows no frontiers and the Ligue Internationale des Societes de Surveillance, Alpen­ need for a more efficient collaboration between the various strasse 20, CH-3052 Zollikofen, Switzerland (57 06 23) national police forces. The principle behind an international police organization was put forward at the First International Congress of Paramilitary forces Criminal Police, held at Monaco in April 1914. The delegates A force is classified as paramilitary if it has a degree of studied proposals for the creation of an international criminal military capability, although strictly speaking it is not a records office - possibly the first time the existence of inter­ branch of an armed service. It mayor may not be under national crime was officially acknowledged - and the har­ military control and is often integrated with the country's monization of extradition procedures. No further progress armed forces during a national emergency. Members of a was made, due to the outbreak of World War I. paramilitary force receive basic military training and are At the Second Congress, held in Vienna in 1923, the issued firearms. Their equipment is often comparable to that International Criminal Police Commission (ICPC) was of a regular army unit. Armoured cars, helicopters and light organized, with headquarters in Vienna and a membership aircraft are in routine service with many paramilitary forces, limited mainly to Europe. Its statutes remained unaltered such as the French Gendarmerie and the Italian Carabinieri. throughout the 1930s and World War II, after which it was Many of the world's police forces have paramilitary considered necessary to rethink the whole concept of an capability - for example, the Chilean Carabineros or the international police organization. Accordingly, a conference Soviet Militsiya - and in some cases they actually are part of was held in Brussels in 1946 which concluded with the the armed forces. On the other hand, some paramilitary adoption of new statutes, the transfer of ICPC headquarters organizations have no specific police duties, being mainly from Vienna to Paris, and - significantly - the choice of the concerned with Home Guard activities (for example, the acronym Interpol as the telegraphic address of the Commis­ Norwegian Heimvern) or pre-military training (the Soviet sion. Interpol soon became the accepted abbreviation for the DOSAAF). ICPC. The increase in lawlessness and violence throughout the The ICPC was reorganized again in 1956, becoming the world has forced the police of most industrialized countries to International Criminal Police Organization. Ten years later, issue firearms on a much more regular scale, and to increase in 1966, its General Secretariat moved to a new building at its firepower where weapons were previously used. In other Saint-Cloud, near Paris, which it still occupies. Interpol cur­ words, the tendency is to convert the police forces into rently has 139 member countries, including eight Socialist paramilitary forces, or at the very least to create within the Bloc republics - Cuba, Hungary, Laos, Romania, Vietnam, police force specialized units to deal with serious civil dis­ Yugoslavia, and China, which became a member in Septem­ turbances. ber 1984. Interpol has no powers of arrest. It is basically a data co-ordination centre for the police forces of the member Private security companies countries, each having its own central bureau. Being ideolo­ Security forces were born of necessity. An indirect conse­ gically neutral, Interpol collaborates on occasion with law quence of the increase in prosperity in the mid-1950s was an enforcement agencies of Socialist Bloc countries which are increase in crime, for which the police forces were not not members. prepared and with which they were unable to cope due to In 1972 an agreement between member countries provided shortages of manpower and resources. There was an obvious for direct involvement in the suppression of international gap, which was filled quite adequately by the various private terrorist activity. There was some opposition on the grounds security organizations. that terrorists are often politically motivated, and that such These organizations had already been in existence for

xi WORLD POLICE AND PARAMILITARY FORCES

many years. The first private police force, Pinkertons, was ations. Modern private security is a highly respectable formed in the USA in 1850, and in the UK the predecessor to industry - many security operatives are former policemen­ Securicor came into being in 1935. The usefulness of private and the danger of corruption is in practice negligible. security companies in complementing police duties is now The growth of the private security industry has brought better understood and - despite some opposition from organ­ strong reaction from libertarian and civil rights groups, izations such as the British Police Federation - is readily mainly in the USA and the UK. Securitycompanies have been accepted. accused of being armed and uniformed privatepolice forces, Their first activities were generally limited to guarding hiring themselves out to the highest bidder and presenting a private estates and transporting large sums of money or potential threat to civil liberties and democracy. Left-wing important papers in armoured vehicles. Successive advances groups have also objected to the use by larger companies of in technology made it possible to expand. Private security private security personnel instead of the police during serious companies now hire out guards to commercial and industrial civil disturbances. For example, during the 1981 race riots in organizations, provide advice on setting up internal security the UK, commercial premises were occasionally guarded by arrangements, evolve facilities and procedures for dealing security personnel in areas where the police were outnum­ with pilfering and vandalism, and organize vetting systems for bered. Such sensitive issues, which cannot be ignored in a employees of civilian contractors, while still maintaining their Western democracy, have largely been dealt with through original services at a much more developed level. Some legislation which sets the limits within which security organiz­ companies offer individual protection for vulnerable execu­ ations may operate without violating civil liberties. Extracare tives, either through use of the latest technology or by hiring has also been taken in the field of public relations, and all out bodyguards. In the USA certain companies specialize in reputable companies cultivate a public image which accur­ providing polygraph tests for the industry. ately reflects their activities, aims and interests. Because private security companies offer more individual Private security has become indispensable in today's standards of service than the police forces, insurance com­ society, and future policing schemes will almost certainly take panies often insist that higher-risk firms use them. However, this de facto situation into consideration. It is a realistic efficiency has sometimes been impaired through hiring approach; in today's Western democracies, the police are so security personnel from smaller organizations. This has deeply restricted by political convenience, manpower revealed a potential flaw in private security companies: unless shortages and budgetary cuts that they can no longer dispense their own vetting procedures are thorough, there is still the with private-enterprise allies, if society is to receive the possibility of infiltration by individuals with a criminal back­ protection to which it is entitled. ground. The danger is obviously higher in smaller organiz-

Xli Fowler, Norman, After the Riots- The Police in Europe (London: Davis-Poynter, 1979) Selected Bibliography Greenwood, Colin, Police Tactics in Armed Operations (Boulder, CO: Paladin Press, 1979) Hamilton, Peter, Espionage and Subversion in an Industrial The books listed below have been selected because they are Society (London: Hutchinson, 1967) not over-specialized and are available in most large libraries. Hart, Jenifer M., The British Police (London: Allen & Many titles are still in print. Unwin, 1951) Readers who wish to build up their knowledge of police Howe, Sir Ronald, The Story of Scotland Yard (London: matters are advised to consult published bibliographies, The Barker, 1965) author particularly recommends Dennis Brett: The Police of Kelly, William and Kelly, Nora, Policing in Canada (Agin­ England and Wales: A Bibliography, 1829-1979 (Bramshill, court, ONT: Gage, 1975) Police Staff College, 1979). Lambert, John R., Crime, Police and Race Relations: A Study in Birmingham (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1970) Leigh, L. H .. Police Powers in England and Wales (London: Ackroyd, Carol, et ai, The Technology of Political Control Butterworth, 1975) (Harmondsworth: Penguin, 1977) Leonard, V. A. and More, Harry W., Jr. (ed.), Police Allason, Rupert, The Branch. A History ofthe Metropolitan Organization and Management (St Paul, MN: Foundation Police Special Branch 1883 -1983 (London: Seeker & Press, 1982) Warburg, 1983) Lewis, Roy, A Force for the Future (London: Temple Smith, Alderson, John C., The Police we Deserve (London: Wolfe, 1976) 1973) Madgwick, Don and Smythe, Tony, The Invasion ofPrivacy Baldwin, Robert and Kinsey, Richard, Police Powers and (London: Pitmans, 1974) Politics (London: Quartet, 1982) Manwaring-White, Sarah, The Policing Revolution. Police Banton, Michael, The Policeman in the Community Technology, Democracy and Liberty in Britain (Brighton: (London: Tavistock, 1964) Harvester Press, 1983) Becker, Harold K, Police Systems of Europe: A Survey of Mark, Sir Robert, Policing a Perplexed Society (London: Selected Police Organizations (Springfield, IL: Charles C Allen & Unwin, 1977) Thomas, 1973) Marshall, Geoffrey, Police and Government (London: Bowden, Tom, Beyondthe Limits ofthe Law. A Comparative Methuen, 1965) Study of the Police in Crisis Politics (Harmondsworth: Martin, J. P. and Wilson, Gail, The Police: A Study in Penguin, 1978) Manpower. The Evolution ofthe Service in England and Bowes, Stuart, The Police and Civil Liberties (London: Wales, 1829-1965 (London: Heinemann, 1969) Lawrence & Wishart, 1966) Muir, William Ker, Jr, Police-Streetcorner Politicians (Chi­ Brock, Edwin, et al, The Police & The Public (London: cago, IL: Chicago University Press, 1977) Heinemann, 1962) Plate, Thomas and Darvi, Andrea, Secret Police. The Inside Bunyan, Tom, The History and Practice ofthe Political Police Story ofan International Network (London: Robert Hale, in Britain (London: Julian Friedmann, 1976) 1982) Bunyard, Robert S., Police: Organisation and Command Police and Constabulary Almanac1984 (Henley-on-Thames: (Plymouth: Macdonald and Evans, 1978) R Hazell & Co, 1984) Cambridge University, The Security Industry in the United Police Review (various issues) Kingdom (Cambridge University Institute of Crimino­ Potter, John Deane, Scotland Yard (London: Burke, 1972) logy: 1970) Purcell, William E., British Police in a Changing Society Campbell, Don, Police: The Exercise of Power (Plymouth, (Oxford: Mowbrays, 1974) Macdonald and Evans, 1978) Reith, Charles, British Police and the Democratic Ideal Chapman, Brian, Police State (London: Pall Mall, 1970) (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1943) Chappell, D and Wilson, P. R., The Police and the Public in Rule, James, Private Lives and Public Surveillance (London: Australia and New Zealand (St Lucia, QLD: University of Allen Lane, 1973) Queensland, 1969) Security: Attitudes and Techniques for Management Clayton, Tom~ The Protectors (Oldbourne: 1967) (London: Hutchinson, 1968) Coatman, John, The Police (Oxford: Oxford University Security Gazette (various issues) Press, 1959) Security Procedures in the Public Service [The Radcliffe Dilnot, George, Scotland Yard: Its History and Organisation, Report] (London: HMSO, 1962) 1829-1929 (London: Geoffrey Bless, 1929) Smith, Paul Slee, Industrial Intelligence and Espionage Dobson, Christopher and Payne, Ronald, Terror! The West (London: London Business Books, 1970) Fights Back (London: Macmillan, 1982) Thompson, Anthony, Big Brother in Britain Today (London: Donner, Frank, The Age of Surveillance (New York, NY, Joseph, 1970) Alfred A. Knopf, 1980) Whitaker, Ben, The Police (Harmondsworth: Penguin, Dorey, Marcia A. and Swidler, George J., World Police 1964) Systems: A Factual Text (Boston, MA: Northeastern Williams, David, Keeping the Peace (London: Hutchinson, University Press, 1975) 1967)

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