S.R.S.D. Memorial Shiksha Shodh Sansthan, Agra, India
ANNALS OF ART, CULTURE & HUMANITIES
A Peer Reviewed Refereed Research Journal ONLINE ISSN-2455-5843 Volume II, Issue II, August 2017, pp. 01-13 www.srsshodhsansthan.org
From Subversion to Survival: A Study of Kashmir’s Folk Theatre
Arif Nisar Research Scholar
Department of English, Jamia Millia Islamia, New Delhi
About the Author
The author after completing his M.Phil (in English studies) from Department of English, Jamia
Millia Islamia, New Delhi, is currently pursuing his Ph.D on Kashmiri folklore from the same department. For M.Phil programme, the dissertation was titled A Study of Bhand Pather: A Cultural Phenomenon, a subversive and a Dying Art Form. For his Ph.D the author is collectively looking at folklore of Kashmir including other folklore forms, which for a long time have been thoroughly unattended in present day scholarship.
Abstract
The valley of Kashmir is a place which has been fertile in cultivating different patterns of culture through different artistic forms. Kashmir, in fact presents prosperity for study of historicity, folklore and anthropology. A part of this rich and diverse culture is Bhand Pather- Kashmir’s traditional and indigenous folk theatre. Bhand Pather forms an integral part of Kashmiri culture and art. This art form is rich in its own history. Kashmiri folk theatre since long times back serves to reflect the lives of common masses with an experimentation of everyday life. Bhand Pather, which used to articulate
resistance and discontent, is struggling to survive within the present conflicting situations. While looking at the historical roots of Bhand Pather, the paper would also locate its routes, which would be an answer to the question, how this art is relegated to the margins of obscurity?
Key Words% Bhand Pather, Folklore, Kashmir, Subversion, Survival.
Introduction Our cultural values and beliefs are manifested through our lifestyle. Our life style and moral values represent our social ethos. The importance of culture lies in its close association with the ways of thinking and living. Understanding the cultural values of a society can be feasible by looking at the interplay of various symbolic arts and artefacts through which individuals in a community engage with their lived experiences. AACH, Vol. II, Issue II, August 2017 ONLINE ISSN-2455-5843
These lived experiences turn into folkloristic materials both material as well as spiritual which are studied and looked upon through the discipline of folkloristics. The folkloristic materials hold the social and cultural significance to any society through different endorsed symbols, being transmitted, from distant past to the present social setup. These folkloristics materials are the main vibrant cultural agents through which one can easily discern one‟s culture and identity through consciousness and persistence. Therefore, the study of these folkloristics materials i.e. folklore introduces us to cultures that we appreciate through an understanding of traditional folk art forms. Without an understanding of folkloristic materials from diverse cultures, people live with many delusions which create stereotypes. Folklore basically is oriented to study the cultures in depth. In the world of technology and media, folklore makes us understand the meaning and order of things present in a culture.
Within the debates of challenges and methodologies, the discipline of folklore conjures to be study of people who have marginally being labelled as folk that is to say people who are marginalised as illiterate and subaltern. The present paper does not venture into the debates and challenges that folklore as a discipline has faced rather it creates an endeavour to study Kashmiri folk theatre as an art of the subaltern and illiterate group within Kashmiri society. Moreover, the focus would be given to trace the changing contours and paradigm shift of Kashmiri folk theatre, which is thoroughly ignored and pushed to shades of obscurity within the cultural space and, in academics as well. From Roots to Routes
The valley of Kashmir is a place which has been fertile in cultivating different patterns of culture through different artistic forms and genres. Kashmir, in fact presents prosperity for study of historicity, folklore and anthropology. A part of this rich and diverse culture is Bhand Pather- Kashmir‟s traditional and indigenous folk theatre. Folklore, in context of Kashmir, is one among the cardinal resources available to understand the nature of Kashmiri society. Given Kashmir‟s long oral traditions and its various indigenous performing arts and artefacts, the folklore of Kashmir is immensely rich. Sadly, apart from the European scholastic initiative, no other scholarship has paved its way to reach the folk treasure of Kashmir. Therefore, a lamentable gap is observed for a long period of time in the native (regional) scholarship, especially in academic institutions.
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Kashmiri folklore therefore lacks the institutional support throughout its development. A scarcity is observed in collecting the original folklore, at the same time the significance of folklore is never highlighted at academic level. After a long lamentable gap, Kashmiri folklore is now paving its way to bigger audience, but an objective study of Kashmiri folklore is still left unattended.
Locating the origin of any folk form would bring in many fallacies, as Alan Dundes observes that it is not an easy task to find the origin of folklore. In his own words, “since origins are almost unknown despite the centuries of speculative historical reconstruction efforts” (Dundes 181). Bringing in the notions of Alan Dundes it can be argued that it will be always an intricacy for a researcher to situate the evolutionary and originating point of Kashmir folk theatre. Bhand Pather including other folk art forms has undergone through the challenges of identity and alienation. Bhands according to The World Encyclopaedia of Contemporary Theatre are the traditional folk entertainers found in India, Bangladesh, Pakistan and Nepal. The Bhands are associated with Muslim community, which has lost all its traditional notions of folk entertainment. One would hardly find the exact dates of roots about Bhand Pather, but the mention of various references in many historical books and manuscripts lead us to the fact that Kashmir had rich tradition of folk arts with a strong religious sanctity. Ramesh Tamiri maintaining these notions writes that, “Music, dance and drama have remained part of the social life of Kashmir‟s since time immemorial, this had strong religious sanction. Dances and dramas used to be performed in temples during religious festivals and at the Royal court” (32). It can be argued here, that this theatre must have been there from the very beginning of religious activities.
From historical perspective, this relationship is not seen as a matter of heritage only but an association of shared experience is sought from its ritualistic modes. While reaching to the historical perspective, it is substantiated that Bhand Pather essentially is a socio-cultural activity that has evolved from ancient religious rituals. Growing out of religious rituals, thereby Bhand Pather forms a multifarious web reflecting different aspects of political, social and economic life. Going by the belief that Bhand Pather in the past, functioned as a representation of religious beliefs; it is then a complex exploration to locate its origin from the inter-religious associations throughout the shifting times in Kashmir. This would not be an inference to link it to particular religion, rather what seems to be appropriate is to locate a unique site to discern its true nature.
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The conventional and ritualistic values of Bhand communities gave permanence to this folk art by presenting either the mythological themes or relevant social subjects.
The changes, of course, are important for any art to grow and evolve, but it is very essential to understand paradigm shift of indigenous folk arts. However the changes from its indigenous form have not paved a platform for this theatre form to evolve and develop rather, they have limited its vitality to limited audience. Bhand Pather has evolved as an artistic expression of everyday life in Kashmir. Indeed Bhand Pather has “dramatised historyi” of Kashmir but the mainstream narratives, especially the written word, from the Vale have pushed this folk theatre form to the margins. Within these debates of mainstream discourse, the Bhand patrons fear that, this art form might become a topic for history books only. Indeed, this folk theatre form has evolved across the history of Kashmir with different changes to reflect the different social circumstances at different times. The result of these changes has narrowed its pertinence. For example, the social significance of this art form lies in the ritualistic modes that represent all social relations. Looking at the present position of Bhand Pather, the traditional and ritualistic notions are considered less important compared to the present modes of entertainment only, where its position has been reduced to a simple act buffoonery or clownery. The apparent changes of bringing Bhand Pather from the traditional approach of performances from open fields to the small screens have limited its vitality and vibrancy. “They were loved in the local circles for bringing to fore the sufferings of people,” says Arshad, “But they no longer can do that, for they have been made dependent on the government instead of the common people, who gave them a share of their crop as a token of their love”(Bhand Diplomacy).
Now, the orientation is centred towards modern fashions, which in the first place has narrowed down the actor-spectator relationships. Secondly, Bhand Pather which used to enjoy the open-field performance is pushed to small screens where an absence of actor-spectator communication is observed. It has now the mute spectators or no spectators at all. Whatever Bhand performances we have now preserved through small screen, documentaries, it can be argued here, have no spectators at all. Spectators have had to be the active participants and commentators throughout the performances and they are immediate critics to relate the symbolic with the social reality that they have been part of.
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Lastly, this theatre form existed initially as indigenous and independent but with the passage of time it has been taken under government policies, this could be said that such changes has limited its strength to explore the social reality with much emancipation.
An Activity and Art of Subversion
Jisha Menon in an interview with Frontline stated the relationship of indigenous folk art forms and their political orientation in different contexts.
Indigenous theatre offers its own array of dramatic tools to grapple with the asymmetries of class, caste and power. For instance, several folk forms have used theatre to mock and ridicule those who subjugate. For instance, Jatra of Bengal, Tamasha of Maharashtra, Burrakatha of Andhra Pradesh and Bhand Pather of Kashmir are forms that use humour to mock and ridicule those in power. These folk forms reveal the subversive power of comedy, its ability to question and de- naturalise figures of authority. (Menon)
Certainly, Jisha Menon‟s observation holds true to Kashmir‟s folk theatre. In the history of existence of theatre in Kashmir, if one looks at the tradition of Bhand performances, one realises that these performances have been addressing issues of common masses that are central to Kashmiri society and have been raising voice for social consciousness and change. To understand the nature of any society it is pertinent to see the patterns of experienced and lived world around reflected through the culture and art forms. These cultural forms in a society have the power to confer and question the social and political institutions. In order to understand the true historical nature of Kashmir‟s culture and artistic life, one can explore the conventions folk arts and traditions that manifest the actual facets of social life of Kashmir. Julie Hakim Azzam in The Alien Within: Postcolonial Gothic and the Politics of Home has talked about the praxis of folk theatre of Kashmir in Rushdie‟s Shalimar the Clown. She remarks:
Balwant Gargi writes that the Bhand Pather “mirrors social evils” such as “the cunning money lender, the dowry system, the corrupt police, ... [and] haughty officials. . . . Some plays are about legendary heroes and gallant lovers. But it is the incisive satire that characterizes” the form. Clowns play the most important
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role in the Bhand Pather as they are “the preservers of this tradition.” Clowns, also called jesters. (Azzam 198)
Both historically as well as culturally, one of the main purposes of Bhand Pather along with other social awareness was to bring the changes from an individual-consciousness into group consciousness. It has always attempted to bring forth the struggle of marginalised classes of society at different levels of oppression. Intentionally or unintentionally, the Bhand performers used this art form to fight against different forms of social injustices. Subsequently in the contemporary theatrical realm, we observe the theatre practitioners like Bertolt Brecht and Augusto Boal relating the real life to theatre and subsequently to politics of our times. These theatre practitioners have opened up the limited notions of conventional theatre, by relating it to the political life. These modern attributions of modern day theatre have undoubtedly opened up the new possibilities of folk and regional theatres. Shafi Shauq who writes about Bhand Pather has rightly observed:
Bandhi Paethir is and has been a powerful medium of social transformation and has the potential of being a medium of mass education in times to come. In the past, it has been the most popular and effective strategy of revolt against various social evils and exploitation, and in the contemporary complex world when mankind is beset by numerous hazards like over population, AIDS, pollution, noise, joblessness, and terror, we hope that the Bandhi Paethir becomes a popular form of street theatre to bring out attitudinal education among the masses. It has the power to involve artists as well as the audiences in a participatory hermeneutic activity. Seen against the elitist forms of art and literature, a Bandhi Paethir counteracts appropriation and privacy of meaning by setting up a dialogical relation between identification and distance. (Shauq)
Indeed the sufferings and miseries of common people cannot be shared through passive modes of writing only. There is no doubt that performances at common level be it street theatre or Forum Theatreii, share the feelings of common masses by actively engaging with spectators. Spectators take part directly or indirectly to convey their problems by conveying the messages to others, in order to make them aware of their own problems. In earlier times, since most people in Kashmir were illiterate, they were not equipped with proper mediums of expression through
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AACH, Vol. II, Issue II, August 2017 ONLINE ISSN-2455-5843 which they could have shared their problems. Bhand Pather served as an effective oral medium for conveying their problems to the public. This is how Bhand performances and other folk art forms like Ladi Shah iiiprovided a voice to the spectators, enabling and empowering them to share their views and ideas. It is indeed through the direct engagement of audience or spectators that they used to convey the grief and sorrow directly. Shafi Shauq writes that, “It is an open stage drama in which sometimes the spectators also partake” (Shauq 165). It can be argued here, that these notions of Bhand Pather can be found identical with the theatrical notions of Augusto Boal. The 20th century Brazilian playwright Augsto Boal, whose theatrical notions went reactionary, for he introduced a theatre against the conventional theatre which renders all the power to actors only. His theatre is the theatre of pedagogy, a voice to the downtrodden and oppressed section of society. One can draw a parallel between Theatre of the Oppressed and folk theatre of Kashmir. Bhand Pather is not essentially meant to be performed at playhouses with walled stage; it can be performed anywhere and everywhere, like the Theatre of the Oppressed. The paradigms that it possesses make it the theatre for the oppressed and Theatre of the Oppressed at the same time, as we can relate it to the Boalian theatrical notions whose approach to call a theatre as oppressed is appropriate until, it is at people‟s service. Bhand Pather like Theatre of the Oppressed is a distinctive theatre practice that aims at teaching the common people that „everyday life is nothing but a self-contained theatre‟.
Going by the historical references, Javaid Iqbal Bhat‟ s view renders a backdrop of Bhand Pather with specific purpose to withstand against any form of oppression at tough times in Kashmir. With the limited resources available to them, the folk artists have given expression through spectacle to the sufferings of the peasants. Maintaining distance from the centres of power, they could vent their anger against the oppressive rulers through comic satire. The political masters were not the only targets of satire but it was also creatively directed at their local collaborators, a Munshi for example, or a Daroga. Very rich in rustic humour and satire, produced from their costumes, body movements, and the linguistic turns and twists, these performers have been described by Walter Lawrence, as “remover of sorrows” (Bhat 51).
The traditional theatre of Kashmir could not retain its indigenous characteristics that might be the reason why this art form has not been taken up by most of the writers with much integration. Though it has not retained an independent status in the cultural domain of Kashmir,
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AACH, Vol. II, Issue II, August 2017 ONLINE ISSN-2455-5843 the promising features of this art form are still noteworthy. It has been used as a medium to reflect the social, political, religious and economic predicament of different times. Any form of subjugation and social austerity has been presented in symbolic expressions through spectacle. Moreover, Bhand Pather did not only present the cultural and social life of Kashmir but at the same time it portrayed Kashmir‟s tough times such as the conflicts, epidemics and struggles that have been given visual representation in the performances. Perhaps the history books might have missed some aspects of Kashmir‟s society but Bhand Pather has always been there, dramatising the political, social and religious life through spectacle.
Take for example any form of Pather like Dard Pather, the performance aims at portraying the oppression of Kashmiri‟s under the Dards, which is say the Afghan rule in Kashmir. In this Pather, the action begins by showing the king‟s oppression on the common masses. The king is an outsider, a foreign ruler, whose oppression on local peasantry is extremely unbearable. The performance shows how the local peasantry turns against the womaniser King‟s oppression. Moreover, the performance portrays the love of Kashmiri‟s for their native language and land too. The Bhand performances always attempt to raise the consciousness of the oppressed people to speak up and assert themselves. Bhand Pather as an important form of Kashmiri folklore will never be adequately comprehended unless it is studied within the debates of subversion throughout the different trajectories of time and history. Bhand Pather which used to reflect the lives of common masses with an experimentation of everyday life presents people‟s incredulous, tyrannical and catastrophic times faced in the times of non- native ruler-ship from time and again has become a victim of non-existence. The performative mode of Bhand Pather has dramatised different historical dilemmas of Kashmir‟s history. Though the Bhand plays have descended orally, but they considerably present different scenarios of Kashmir‟s past. With the rise of political conflict in the later years of 1980s, almost all art forms in the valley have suffered, and it holds true to Bhand-Pather as well. The long conflict and its adverse effects on art and theatre forms since decades of conflict have raised a consciousness among people who now often tend to scrutinize this art form as an „Oppressed Art‟ form. Apart from dramatising the socio-cultural history of Kashmir‟s past, Bhand Pather has been acting a symbolic artefact for Kashmir‟s syncretic tradition. With the coming of nationalist debates the Bhand performers try to incorporate the ethnic themes to their performances. The performances somehow managed to spread discontent among the audience
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AACH, Vol. II, Issue II, August 2017 ONLINE ISSN-2455-5843 against considering the dilemma of conflict. Indeed, Bhand performances were used as conscious political instruments in highlighting the concurrent situations within the valley.
The very famous Dard Pather and Raaze Pather shows the excessive oppression and tyranny of Afghan rule and another important Pather about English colonisers i.e. Angrez Pather raises public awareness about the oppression of the British occupation in Kashmir. According to Farooq Fayaz, these performances used to reflect the oppression in every period of turmoil in Kashmir from old times, he mentions about the Kashmir‟s Karkota dynasty that, “During the period of political crisis which followed the fall of Karkota rule in Kashmir, Pathers began to reflect in a symbolic manner the court intrigues, religious conservatism, social rigidity, feudal exploitation of Damaras and bureaucratic vandalism of official cadre known as Kayasthas” (115- 16). Bakerwal Pather- the Pather about Bakerwals/nomads bears a close likeness to Dard Pather where the local Bakerwals are exploited in the hands of merchants. In addition, the ignorance of the language spoken by the merchants helps them to loot the Bakerwals. The element of oppression in all forms of Bhand Pather is present with a mixture of social significance. In fact, all the Pathers have the themes and messages that deal with oppression and social injustice in Kashmiri society. The performances thus bear a close relationship to the true picture of the society and aim at the social changes at the same time. Any form of Pather highlights the evil, corruption, misery, mischief, and all the shortcomings in socio–political order. All these notions bear closeness to the Theatre of the Oppressed. It would not be inappropriate to call Kashmiri folk theatre a theatre of the oppressed as it holds nearness and likeness to the Theatre of the Oppressed.
Conclusion: From Subversion to Survival
Bhand Pather has struggled to survive from the historical dilemmas to the political and turbulent times of conflict within Kashmir Valley. Within these existential crises, Bhand Pather did not evolve and develop its boundaries across the nations. The question „Why and how this art form has almost disappeared prior to and during the years of conflict‟, still haunts the Bhand communities and theatre patrons. Ramesh Tamiri has mentioned in his book Painting and Theatre in Kashmir that Kashmir has remained destitute in art during medieval period. In the foreword of this book, Ratan Parimoo observes that Tamiri “has made a significant observation that Kashmiri society for the most part of the medieval period remained devoid of any
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AACH, Vol. II, Issue II, August 2017 ONLINE ISSN-2455-5843 developments within performing arts, although the dance forms of Hafiza and Bhand Jashan survived”(xi). Dr. Tamiri‟s references to surviving arts shows how the, Bhand Jashan i.e. Bhand Pather, has struggled for survival. Bhand Pather has thus struggled for its existence along the different trajectories of turbulent times. Although, most of the performers of Bhand Pather are not „intellectual‟ but their performances orient instructions to common people. They are common people, who are given very sarcastic names such as Bhands, Kasibs. These names imply as someone who is „illiterate‟, whose social status is very low, and they are treated as mere street exhibitionists or fools. People are forgetting the role of Bhands and their performances whose efforts have preserved the distinct nature of the Kashmiri culture and language i.e. bestowing it with a privileged identity throughout the history.
The word Pather in Kashmir‟s context connotes resistance; it is used to convince the people who do not agree. Bhand Pather as an art form has repeated its conviction regarding social calamites from time to time with no reservations. It has crossed and touched upon every form of oppression. Earlier Bhand Pather was a celebrated tradition with satire and mockery on the social and political institutions. Since the period of turmoil and turbulence started in Kashmir, Bhand artists have changed their story-lines in their performances. As an art form, it has depicted the resistance by criticising the regime, whether it is the Indian occupation and the paramilitary forces or the 1947 rule of Dogra‟s and Dards. This art form which once used to articulate resistance and discontent trough subversion is pushed to shades of obscurity and oblivion.
Arup Kumar Sen highlights about the decadence of Bhand Pather “The 1990s was the decade of "disappearances" in Kashmir and the Bhands and their plays disappeared as well. The intense violence of the 1990s left no space for folk theatre (82)”. These existing conditions of conflict, since decades, within Kashmir valley have shattered the commitment to memory and history about the lost, neglected and dying art forms. The entire structure of social, religious and cultural life suffered a disruption since the years of conflict. Besides the political and social life, the valley has witnessed the cultural disintegration too. The cultural art forms have received a great setback during the long years of conflict and Bhand Pather is one of the living examples of such intimidation. However, some perceptible attempts have been made to revive these dying folk art forms, but they (art forms) hardly would find the wings again. This is to suggest that
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AACH, Vol. II, Issue II, August 2017 ONLINE ISSN-2455-5843 even the art forms that have some presence, are still in a state of oblivion. Kashmir, the land of prosperity and synchronization has become the land of terror, where everything is buried under the weight of „conflict‟. This artistic form as a whole has suffered major setback and has failed to revive its past glory. The conflict, which is the result of Indo-Pak nationalistic engagements, has repressed the social and cultural life of Kashmir. Both militancy as well as the paramilitary forces are the two main bodies silencing the Kashmir‟s artistic life. This silence has been noticed in Kashmir‟s folk arts including Bhand Pather as well. The artistic life of Kashmir, which is known for its inquisitive past glory, is shoved towards shades of obscurity. The hostility and mounting of tension thus have its impact on artistic life of Kashmir. M.K. Raina observes this silence to Bhand Pather:
With the rise of terrorism in this region came violence and killing. The militants issued new dictates regarding how to behave and what to wear. The first casualty was of terrorism was cultural space. Musical instruments were broken and folk singers and musicians were beaten up. The folk theatre of Bhands was attacked; its members tried by terrorists and told not to perform any of their traditional plays or songs, etc, since all this was considered un-Islamic. Hence, for nearly ten years nobody performed; marriage that used to be community affairs became drab and boring without any singing and dancing. The same happened to Bhand Pather- the folk play. It was not performed for almost a decade (286).
It can be argued here from the above observation that, within the existing conditions of disturbance, the existing art forms are in a state of extinction. The survival of art forms has remained a challenge for Kashmir in present times. The question of identity and alienation has become main concern for these art forms. A victim of such concern is Bhand Pather.
The theatre patrons have found it difficult to retain the originality of Bhand Pather and they started practising it with modern sensibilities and also gave it a new shape. In order to restrain the decline of this folk art form contemporary theatre persons like M.K.Raina and others started adopting the modern techniques and thematic concerns to give it life again. To revive this art form, many theatre companies were invited to perform for the public. Theatre companies such as Elfred Theatre Company of Bombay and Parsi Theatre Company were introduced to Jammu and Kashmir. Later Kashmir‟s own theatre productions came into existence, among these
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Kashmir Theatres Ltd, Maharaja Drama Company, Saraswati Drama Club, Ram Natak Company, and Amateur Drama Company were popular. Amateur drama club was engaged with staging not only Kashmiri plays but also the Urdu dramas. Later the educational institutions such as S.P. College started taking interest in dramatic arts. Apart from the support of the Government, the common masses have also shown considerable interest in theatre activities. People, who were unfamiliar with the folk theatre that was once the indigenous theatre in itself, have received its popularity as forms of drama. It can be argued here that, the Kashmiri indigenous folk theatre i.e. Bhand Pather that exist in the form of performances have taken the dramatic shape, even without performance. Such manifestations within this folk art realm have pulled its indigenous status from collective work to the individual interest of writing dramas. Although these changes from traditional notions to the modern connotations have somehow helped this art form to survive but at the same time it has lost its aesthetic imagination and direct manifestations.
Notes i See “Bhand Pather: History Dramatised” Farooq, Fayaz. Kashmir Folklore: A Study in Historical Perspective. Srinagar : Gulshan Publishers, 2008.
ii Forum theatre is the novel idea of introducing the theatre practice, introduced by the theatre practitioner Augusto Boal in his Theatre of the Oppressed. It is a form of education for the people to change their world. In this form of theatre practice, the actors or audience members could stop a performance to show how people are being oppressed. The audience or the spectators get a chance to suggest different actions for the actors to carry out on-stage in an attempt to change the outcome of what they were seeing. By doing so sometimes the spectators get on stage to perform with the actors, so they become spect-actors.
iii Ladi Shah is an old oral art that has been preserved by recounting the stories from village to village. The purpose of this art is primarily to mock in a humorous tone. The people engaged with this art form are like street performers, who are uneducated. Ladishah‟s are though uneducated people but the stories they narrate form home to home, are the historical narratives of Kashmir.
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References
Azzam, Julie Hakim. The Alien Within: Postcolonial Gothic and the Politics of Home. Diss. U of Pittsburgh, 2007. Web. 10 May 2015. "Bhaand „Diplomacy‟." Kashmir Life. 3 Mar. 2014. Web. 19 May 2015. Bhat, Javaid Iqbal. "Loss of a Syncretic Theatrical Form." Folklore 34 (2006). Web. 8 Aug. 2014. Dundes, Alan. Essays in Folkloristics. Meerut: Folklore Institute, 1978.Print. Fayaz, Farooq. Kashmir Folklore: A Study in Historical Perspective. Srinagar : Gulshan Publishers, 2008. Print. Lawrence, Walter R. h all o Kashm r. London: H. Frowde, 1895. Print. Menon, Jisha. "Urban Indian Plays Removed from Roots." Interview by Vikhar Ahmed Sayeed. Frontline 28 Sept. 2010. Nisar, Arif. A Study of Bhand Pather: A Cultural Phenomenon, a subversive and a Dying Art Form. Dissertation, Jamia Millia Islamia University, 2015. Raina, M.K. "Folklore Changes." Folklore, Public Sphere, and Civil Society. Ed. M. D. Muthukumaraswamy and Molly Kaushal. New Delhi: Indira Gandhi National Centre for the Arts ; 2004. 285-302. Print. Sen, Arup Kumar. "Culture as Resistance." Economic and Political Weekly 44.4: 82. JSTOR. Economic and Political Weekly. Web. 14 Aug. 2014. Shauq, Shafi. "Kashmiri Folk Theatre- Relevance of Kashmiri Folk Theatre." Heritage of Kashmir. Web. 14 Mar. 2015. ---. "Medieval Kashmiri Literature." Folktales and Literature of Himalaya. New Delhi: Isha, 2007. Print. Tamiri, Ramesh. Painting and h atr in Kashmir: Suraj iku’s Journ . Jammu: Suraj Foundation, 2010. Print.
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