Religious Pilgrimage in Slovakia

CEU eTD Collection In partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of Master ofArts ofMaster degree the for requirements of the fulfillment In partial C ATHOLIC Supervisor: Professor Jon Fox (University of Bristol) of (University Fox Jon Professor Supervisor: Department of Nationalism Studies Nationalism of Department S Central European University European Central ENTIMENT Alexander Bielicki Alexander Budapest, Hungary Submitted to Submitted May 2008 By , N ATIONAL I DENTITY CEU eTD Collection Chapter 7: Tourism and Pilgrimage...... 52 Chapter 6: The “All-Slovak” Pilgrimage Phenomenon...... 50 Chapter 5: Actors Outside the Church...... 44 Chapter 4: The Catholic Church asMany Actors...... 33 Chapter 3: Religion and Politics in Slovakia Today...... 25 Chapter 2: The ...... 17 Ritual Sites of Slovakia Chapter 1: The Communitas-Contestation Polemic...... 8 ...... 5 Introduction Preface...... 3 Table ofContents 7.1 The Influence of Travel Agencies...... 52 5.2 Slovak Political Parties and Pilgrimage...... 46 5.1 The Catholic ...... 44 Media and Pilgrimage 4.4 Conclusion...... 42 4.3 Slovak Pilgrimage and Special ...... 41 Interest Groups 4.2 The Vatican, the Slovak Bishop’s Conference and Pilgrimage...... 39 4.1 Diocesan versus Extra-Diocesan Roles...... 33 3.4 The Slovak Church and the Hungarian Minority...... 31 3.3 ...... 29 The Church and the Slovak Nation 3.2 The Church and the State...... 28 3.1 History and the Shaping of Public Discourse...... 25 2.3 Ritual and Political Significance...... 22 2.2 An Introduction ...... 18 to the Ritual Sites 2.1 History Significance...... 17 ...... 13 1.2 Methodology 1.1 Victor Turner vs. the Contesters...... 8 1 CEU eTD Collection Bibliography...... 64 Chapter 9: Conclusion...... 60 Chapter 8: Communitas and Contestation ...... 58 Revisited 7.2 The Economic Benefits of Pilgrimage as Tourism...... 54 2 CEU eTD Collection outside of this ritual phenomenon, and despite any nationalism. of utilization the concerning notions my challenged inquiry this of results The events. religious of midst in the reification ethnic to in contributing interest a vested had system political the within assumptions directed me towards finding which elements within the Catholic hierarchy and Church or State could be unified actors in the formation of these national pilgrimages, butmy by further fostering ethnic divisions within society. I was not so naïve to believe that the political Itappeared ethnic that manipulatingconflicts. populace were elites and religious the forof the reassertion ground abreeding asif looked they in were creating place Slovakia taking pilgrimages Catholic “universal” the into distinctions ethnic and national of injections concerningWWII clerical seemedFurthermore, repeated discourse the the troubling. regime has in and state acountry significantly Church connection between whose around revolved stands in programs, agendas and rhetoric. The “discovery” of national Catholic pilgrimages the Catholic Church in Slovakia, a process which adds significant revenue toa Church of project evangelization greater part of the as can be characterized process this Essentially, instead, theirsuggest); is primary function tocapture as many asniche markets possible. notcreate, induced to reflect manipulate or popular nationalism (astheliterature would in factors factors Iwould suggestthat are nationalizing Slovak structural pilgrimages, these intrusion Despiteof the events. ritual the drive actually of contestation factors these divisions should not be part of the rituals as well. In fact, most literature would suggest that events, the bulk of the contemporary literature on pilgrimage suggests no reason why these These national distinctions presentin the pilgrimages of Slovakia, of course exist Both in andundergraduate studies, graduate my wereeyes trained root out nationalist P REFACE 3 communitas that may occur at these CEU eTD Collection revenue. divisions; notfoster ethnicto but tensions, tomarket their(pilgrimage) product andincrease socialgroups, etc.) are frequentlyorganizations, for invokingresponsible these national interest parties, of (political elements civil society the ain processes, certainly role play these elites andreligious political While nationalities. the between apparatuses than as exclusive its bodies of constituent and Catholic Church morethe apparatuses function asinclusive they nationalizing could elements be forfor otherpurposes, easily appropriated but present,the these of invocation The government. state the on dependent economically hierarchy 4 CEU eTD Collection city in Slovakia. In the city of Košice, we find a pilgrimage site frequented by both by In Slovaks in frequented both city Košice, find site city the Slovakia. of apilgrimage we also be found in Gaboltov-- a small village in northeastern Slovakia-- and Nitra-- the oldest distinction of hosting the official Slovak national pilgrimage. Other national pilgrimages can country. distinction appear to have a certain degree of embeddedness in the religious structure of the historical precedent as a mobilizing factor for national movements. The imprints of national these ethnic tensions frequently play out. In Slovakia especially, pilgrimage has strong church. Furthermore, the church in Slovakia has been characterized as a battlefield on which exclusive pilgrimages should function as tools for contesting the ritual and social space of the ethnically and nationally these that suggest all Roma and Slovaks between tensions the and minority Hungarian the and Slovaks the between conflicts the parties, political nationalist organizers new for purposes. becoming by remained process of pilgrimage ritual the part the re-appropriated structure of its extra-religious appeal faded as well. In its wake, certain national elements of the regime. As pilgrimage’s function for social protest faded away after the regime change, part re-assertion context, of against Slovaknation the linked toprotest was inextricably the social protest against government policies, specifically religious policies. In this political 19 assertion of national identity prevailingagainst foreign mostlypowers, notably the during social action throughout the history of the Slovak lands. Pilgrimage functioned as an th and early 20 The National Basilica in the western Slovak town of Šaštín-Stráže holds the andCatholic- nationalist successof the andstate, church between history The recent Apart from individual spiritual fulfillment, pilgrimage has functioned as an outlet for th Centuries. Under communism,pilgrimage was transformed intoa form of I NTRODUCTION 5 CEU eTD Collection Slovakia (also possibly following the Polish example Polish the following possibly (also Slovakia Slovaks and one for Hungarians. As part of the Catholic Church’s Evangelization Plan for and Hungarians, but the pilgrimage church features two separate ritual points, one altar for 2008), p. 41. 2008), p. http://pdc.ceu.hu/archive/00002633/01/Ethnic_and_national_minorities_in_Poland.pdf 1 sites at occurring influencesseparation this Whointernational amorecomponent? activate become fostered by elements within the Church, and why are other pilgrimages able to or non-national character. Why does the national nature of pilgrimages at some ritual sites closely. more examined be will that elements nationalizing structurally these precisely several structural characteristics can be noted which add a definite national dimension. It is languages of the churches; however, when one examines Catholic pilgrimage in Slovakia, which arethe can be distinguished operational constructs readily semi-national apparent dimensions, Croatia and Poland being two good examples. In most cases, though, the only universalistic structure, there aremany instances of Catholic Churcheswith highly national Catholic the its suchformations through Church papacy-centered, outwardly discourages as the Norwegian, Swedish and Anglican Church, are somewhat national in nature. While dimension by which they can be characterized. Even some Protestants denominations, such upswing. the on be to seems even attention international Slovakia, European Association of Marian Pilgrimage Centers and the increasing tourism trade in that of Levo like instances contrasting find we salient, so seems identity national where pilgrimages these “All-Slovak”the pilgrimage hassprung upatritual sites across country.the In midst the of of phenomenon recent the Furthermore, schedule. pilgrimage regular becomethe of also part “EthnicandNational Minorities in Poland: Programme forthe Roma Community in Poland,” (Warsaw, 2003) What we find in the case of Slovakia are pilgrimages marked by marked national relative we find Whatin their caseof are pilgrimages Slovakia the Some religious institutions,like the Orthodox Church, have an obvious national þ a, a site marked by its international character. With Levo markedby itscharacter. a, asite international 6 1 ), separate pilgrimages for Roma have þ a’s induction into the a’s induction (accessed May 20, CEU eTD Collection understood social categories, not a social popularmanipulation nationalism. not understood of categories, integrative:but tomobilizefor Church support bodies through a reflection of popularly nationalizing elementsareindeed partof rituals,the intendedtheir function is divisive, not contextand the principal actors involved. Second, I will suggest that while these socio-political in the to relation in pilgrimage present Slovak Catholic aspects nationalizing function? really is extra-religious their primary that be viewed as an overt marker for, or at least an expressive element of, national identity; and areallthat by falling underunified Catholic the hierarchy? In order answerIn order to these thisfirst questions, study examines the structurally 7 In this case, can pilgrimage still CEU eTD Collection terminology by which pilgrimage may be examined. However, by using Turner’s strict distinguished. orotherwise sectarian be national, fact feltby participants may not connect them to theirreligious broader community,may but in initial in manywork 1970s, the social other have scientists demonstrated that communitasthe pilgrims feel themselves as part of a world-wide community of believers. Since Turner’s where asituation in create rituals these universal,that nature; universalistic seemingly conception TurnercharacterizedTurner’s modernof pilgrimage by its communitas. religious in best function described of Victor events: social the functions integrative the religious extra- the concerns pilgrimage on literature anthropological major the from emerging themes pilgrimage, somethingmore is occurring individual than spiritual fulfillment. One of the as be characterized whichcan duringagree events that they to all seem authors, various of the the contestation arguments emerging in response to them. Regardless of the key focal points onwhich processes thisintroduced in paperfocuses,mustbe fully they order to understand ‘contestation for ritual the utilize to ability the and multi-functionality its on focused have Sallnow Michael itsits ‘communitas liminality and to have been attracted pilgrimage, on scholar anthropological pre-eminent the Turner, Victor like Those century. 1.1 VictorTurner vs. theContesters Christian Pilgrimage 3 Columbia University Press, 1978). University Press, 1974), and Victor and Edith Turner, 2 Seeespecially John Eade and MichaelSallnow, “Introduction,” in Seeespecially Victor Turner, The works of TurnerVictor provide muchof modern the theoretical and framework half- past the over scientists social many of imagination the captured has Pilgrimage 3 C .’ While Turnerianapproaches donotadequately describe the structural HAPTER , ed. John Eade and Michael Sallnow (London: Routledge, 1991). 1: Drama, Fields and Metaphors: Symbolic Action in Human Society T HE C OMMUNITAS Image and Pilgrimage in Christian Culture 8 -C ONTESTATION 2 Contesting the Sacred: The Anthropology of .’ Others like John Eade and P OLEMIC (New York: (Ithaca: Cornell CEU eTD Collection examine pilgrimage asa“polymorphic” phenomenon pilgrimage sites will demonstrate that not elites control “the performance of the ritual.” interpretation of the event remains one of the paramount concerns, this study of Slovak 6 Anthropology singular. in the pilgrimage of instead pilgrimages, term use to prefer authors these that fact By exploiting the discourse they can try to dictate how the event is to be interpreted manipulate the multivocality of the usually employed symbols and forms for their own ends. required, elite the “butelements organizational of performance the ritual controlling the can is not communitasin of anti-structure conceptualization anarchy thishighlights requiresthat which apilgrimage and preparation organization state, absent of form,is not completely spontaneous or devoid of organization factors. The anti-structure. of world in this functions momentary dissolution or shuffling of the social order. For Turner, pilgrimage primarily pilgrimage as anti-structure, is demonstrated in the liminality of the ritual in which there is a structure. This subversive nature, which connects strongly with Victor Turner’s idea of which may be either supportive subversive to or of existingthe hierarchy social power or tends to view pilgrims as a temporarily unified group of social actors with a common goal of distinction. Authors since Victor Turner have tried to correct this conceptualization which conceptualization of multi-functional pilgrimage experiences, and rituals blurwhich lines the and subjunctive; a model is formulated which either disallows or at least discourages the dichotomies of tribal and historical, sacred and secular, structure and anti-structure, indicative 5 4 Eade and Sallnow (1991), 5 Jeremy MacClancy, “Popularising Anthropology,” inJ.MacClancy and C. McDonaugh, eds., p.195. (1974), Turner The multivocality can also be seen in the work of Eade and Sallnow, who choose to Turner acknowledges this that anti-structure, which should bethought of as aliminal (London: Routledge, 1996), 34. 1996), Routledge, (London: 9 6 . This point is further illustrated by the 4 . Not only are these Popularizing 5 .” While CEU eTD Collection India 9 Theory In other words, they are essentiallizing the ritual by the over-application of a single principle. works, if at all, rather better for Christian than non-Christian contexts confusing sociological reality with theological idealism, and of producing a paradigm that religions when applying their theoretical framework. “The Turners have been seen as “historical” other the possibly disadvantages which a point-of-view experiences, Catholic their personal with fieldwork early “tribal” the atreconciling their attempts reflects Turner communitas describes. thatTurner Itshould benoted that workof the Victorthe andEdith being fostered. Many would claim noempirical that studies on pilgrimage haveyielded the pilgrimage seems tosuggestthata universal community is nottheonly of type communitas Catholic into further research however, boundaries; regularly the perceived transcends creation, albeit temporary, of an overarching, universal, Catholic community which allows for suggeststhat the social of structures everyday suspension the Turner pilgrimage, Catholic at looking When one. dominant the as ritual the of interpretation their asserting proposed to be endemic ritual the to experience, problems arise which as are to groups may vary, so too may the group interpretations of the ritual. When analyzing the communitas clearly participation ritual for motivations individual the While pilgrimage. into research discourses secular and religious competing for arena “an as in general pilgrimage envision They 8 7 analyzing only a single theological element, and structuringin it idealized, universal terms its proposal by Victor Turner. The recurrent theme in the criticism states that the Turners are See both Eade and Sallnow (1991), 5 and Peter Van der Veer, SimonColeman “Do You Believe in Pilgrimage? Communitas contestation andbeyond,” Ibid., 2. (Los Angeles: University of California Press, 1994), 59-60. No. 2 (2002), 356. No. 2(2002), Multiplicity, “multivocality” and “polymorphism” now characterize the recent the now characterize and“polymorphism” “multivocality” Multiplicity, This idea of communitas in hasanti-structure been criticized by many sinceauthors 7 ,” a theme which will receive primacy in this paper. inthis primacy a will receive ,” theme which 10 Religious Nationalism: Hindus and Muslims in 8 .” Anthropological 9 . CEU eTD Collection conceptualizations can be applied to a situation where the competition surrounds divergent asituation thecompetition canbeapplied surrounds conceptualizations to where nationalism in a situation of competing religious structures; however, these salient. forces these societal forces mingle with the religious field of symbols and at what level identityof are extent what becomes to distinction the then, Essentially other. or denomination-based some form itof whetheris communitas, region-based, nation-based, village-based, religious community. Insofar as pilgrimage is a social phenomenon,it obviously engenders “universal” of needs notion a abandon the one to of communitas, conception Turner’s mayby ritual reinforcethe also relevant outgroup distinctions. So,in order to operationalize differentiation go hand in hand, so the communitas which at a certain social level is created necessarily mutually In exclusive. general primacy ingroup terms, and outgroup envisions them as being shaped andreinforced by ritual.the These viewpoints two arenot Sallnow’s notcounter-argument only views social distinctions as a part of ritual,the but pristine field of symbols, notas integral parts by which to interpret the ritual. Eade and given ritual; however, Turner announces these social factors as interlopers into the otherwise some of the subtleties of his work which allow for simultaneous multiple interpretations of a exclusively one-dimensional. In Image and Pilgrimage it of description empirical pilgrimage, isseen than “Communitas rather idealizing about as just one discourse an 11 10 world of the ritual, bringing theological or political divisions intoplay liminal the which penetrate of by social the structure beelements can corrupted communitas Turner and Turner (1978), 136. andTurner(1978), Turner 357. (2002), Coleman Peter Van der Veer paints a vivid picture of the relationship between religion and religion between of relationship the avivid Van Veer paints picture der Peter So while the criticism of Turner as essentialist is certainly founded, it perhaps ignores 10 .” However, communitas does not have to be interpreted as 11 , the Turners note that this ideal 11 . CEU eTD Collection mostly talking about two differentaspects of the ritual event. Some authors have reintroduce “structure” back in to the study of pilgrimage. These two camps, however, are softeningsomewhat the structural andelements, anothercampfalling itself all over to while pilgrimage the of aspects experiential the privileges which pilgrimage of theory a grand do. better understand why certain pilgrimage sites receive the amount of ritual attention that they focus authors contextualizingon pilgrimage within power relevantthe in structure, order to sometimes appearing as a struggle for control over religious or political structures. These social for contestationtool sometimesof power, appearing asstruggle over territory and Sacred the Contesting and Sallnow’s of religious community-building as the primary function of pilgrimage, it was not until Eade While manysuch van andas Morinis,to Turner’s conception der Veerobjected Eade authors 1970s, his conceptualization was used as apointof departure for most studies of pilgrimage. pilgrimage as communitas popularized by Turner.Victor Since Turner’s publications in the with that of Eade and Sallnow, whose edited volume finally lay to rest the theory of elements. itself “nationalizing” of eventcan contain structure the the that shows he pilgrimage, the at presented messages the of content the to addition which nationalism can be spread and asserted, one of which being religious pilgrimage. In interpretations of a single religious system. Van der Veer describes several mechanisms by 12 changed Coleman (2002) Coleman So, essentially, what we find in the relevantliterature is one camp attempting tocreate Much of van der Veer’sapproach towards religion and pilgrimage roughly coincides 12 . Their view, and van der Veer’s as well,conceptualizes pilgrimage primarily as a popular the that conception of finallypilgrimage had 12 CEU eTD Collection characterized Turner’s theory as more pseudo-psychological than anthropological than pseudo-psychological as more theory Turner’s characterized Limits ofLimits Communitas: A Covert Dimension ofPilgrimage Experience,” Anthropology of Pilgrimage 13 clues significant money-trail give can following the however, theories; present than better the pilgrimage acts. This is not tosay that materialist arguments can explain these phenomena inquiry, hasfrequently left incentives economic off listthe of motivations for inducing cultural elements rose and fell before pilgrimage became a prominent focus of academic concerningdiscourses materialist expressive theinquiry.havefostered fact that simple The 1.2 Methodology expression of religion. andgroups dioceses may evangelize; but all are able toraise money popularthis through raise awareness for their cause, political parties may attract new voters, youth missionary significantsum into the church budget. As willbe demonstrated, special interest may groups fundraising. One should not forget that in many cases, donations from pilgrims bring a going on than simply the creation of community or demarcation of community divisions. contestation theories do not explain the phenomenon completely. There is something more political andeconomic While structures. communitas theories obviously fall short, social, religious, with exclusively almost dealing instead, pilgrimage; of aspects experiential speaking, this work falls into the second camp, in that it does not attempt to engage the authors of contestationthe camp primarily depict organization and experience. not Roughly in Turnerattempts todescribeare right. while occurring shared the pilgrimage, experiences 302-325. Alan Morinis, “Introduction: The Territory of the Anthropology of Pilgrimage,” in The study The study of pilgrimage has been immensely shaped by intellectual the whichperiods One of the most frequently overlooked aims of pilgrimage revolves around , Alan Morinis ed. (Westport: Greenwood Press, 1992) andYoram Bilu,“The Inner 13 Ethos, Vol. 16, No. 3 (September, 1998), 16,No.3 Vol. (September, Sacred Journeys: The 13 , and they and , CEU eTD Collection 2 (2007), 181-204. 2 (2007), andlocal pilgrimages, regional pilgrimages draw: central/core pilgrimages groups interest andfill opportunists, entrepreneurs out supportingthe cast. mainly reside within the Catholic Church and its constituent bodies; however, political actors with them. These associated by actors andrepresented the arepresented pilgrimages these how with primarily deal Iwill factors), organizational (especially pilgrimage determinable. analytically more link this make help can rationale Economic attention. ritual the direct which forces given thereshould beperiod, link adeterminable between ritual attention societal and the in In any past. the because justsignificance beengiven have they attention receive ritual regarding the nature of certain pilgrimages. Furthermore, pilgrimage sites do not continue to 14 these nevertheless, of salient ritual; mostthe aspects the necessarily do not reflect sites. specific label to this assign to than tendencies, internationalizing or nationalizing their by pilgrimages individual the Catholic lay organizations, and some even by political parties. It is then better to characterize organized by the parish (or order responsible for the parish), some by the diocese, some by merely appropriated as such by event organizers. Most sites host multiple pilgrimages: some are they nature; in international or national inherently not are sites ritual thing, one For sites. the it. becameThis dichotomy attempting upon tooperationalize instantly problematic at present become which characteristics international or national the by further recognizing with which I am dealing can all be considered core pilgrimage, I have chosen to take a step Zuzana Novodvorská, “Význam Púte a jej Duchovné Prežívanie,” Pilgrimage sites in Slovakia may be easily characterized by may they in be which audience sites the Pilgrimage easily Slovakia characterized In this empirical study concerning the structural elements surrounding Slovak Admittedly, the national, non-national, orinternational characteristics of a pilgrimage 14 Slovenský Národopis (Slovak Ethnology), No. (Slovak Ethnology), 14 . As the sites CEU eTD Collection recommending an recommending an experiential inquiry as afuture topic tobeexplored. with the actual experience. This study, however, focuses solely on the structural elements, event the of structure intended the inlinking is essential it fact, in pilgrimages; nationalizing is not because survey data is unimportant in determining the experiential aspects of these webpages. and brochures advertisements, pilgrimage: the portrayal and organization of the pilgrimages. Most of the data comes from important to include, the bulk of the analysis will focus on the events leading up to the into the actualization of these national or international themes. While these points are (national symbols,manifest etc.) themselves atthe events; thus providing asmall window a la Turner,but they did provide usefulinhelping todetermine whattypes of symbols view photographs of past events. Photos certainly cannotlead one to an experiential analysis days commemorate the site. While I was unable toattend any of the sites on theirmain pilgrimage media, in posters and flyers,in Church bulletins, and in the souvenirs sold which ritual sites and gather information on how their pilgrimages were portrayed in the Catholic in ritual Slovakia. of sites core at several the exist Pilgrimagesmarketed especially for Slovaks, Hungarians, Roma, orinternational pilgrims usuallyis marketed, finding in reflection demographic actual the make-upof event.the in anevent way the manifestwhich themselves often characteristics These largely unnoticed. existevenif characteristics go make of often they upparts organizational that the structure October. 15 Slovak pilgrimages are primarily seasonal phenomena, with most pilgrimages scheduled between May and 15 , I was able tocollect asubstantial amount of information, also finding opportunities to Surveys interviewsand structured werenotusedin collection data the Thisprocess. In the spring of 2008, I made several trips to Slovakia in order to visit some of the 15 CEU eTD Collection multiple interpretations of the ritual point of attention. thuscreating ritual the events, of multiple interpretations indicate often organizers Multiple differentorganizers frequently the utilize same ritual space atdifferentmoments in time. sites further reveals this point. With many sites hosting multiple pilgrimages each year, are notconnected in any fashion. The organized of lack informational for specificbrochures fracturedof in events the sensethatorganizers the andbenefactors of Slovak pilgrimages-- reflects the overall disunity of the sites found in Slovakia, highlighting the fractured structure informational pamphlets The entirely non-existencebooks or of absent. Slovakia-wide were for theritual of sites Slovakia guidebooks uncommon, weregenerally brochures While brochures for the individual pilgrimage spots and guidebooks to the ritual sites of Slovakia. Apart from advertisementin newspapers, onflyers and on posters, I expected to find 16 CEU eTD Collection rule communist illegitimate vessel the nation under the the as of became envisioned Religion 13 the back to been traced nation. Slovakia contains around 30 sites that receive ritual attention, some of which have Significance 2.1 History primarily Slovak believers for these religious gatherings with highly political motivations political highly with gatherings religious these for believers Slovak primarily underground church were able mobilize to tens, sometimes hundreds of of thousands the with associated individuals the time, this at lands Slovak the through circulating Slovak dissidentmovement. Often advertising in the religious samizdats which began Czechoslovakthe church Socialist Republic. Theunderground adrivingin became force the events. the during intertwined often become elements anti-structure, as exclusionary towards structural elements. In fact, religious and political the religious calendar, it is difficult toenvision liminality, which Turner considers to foster of constraints of the independent action, largely cultural hasbecome acommon in Slovakia and ritual devotion, has once again found a place in the cultural canon. Because pilgrimage schedule during one year. For Catholics in Slovakia, pilgrimage as a form of social action ritual itsites,is speak possible to of somewhere60 and between 80ritual on events the Slovakia,” 16 Europe Vol. 18, No. 6 (December 1998), 2. 17 David Doellinger, “Prayers, Pilgrimages and Petitions: The Secret Church and the Growth of Civil Society in FransHoppenbrouwers, “Nationalistic Tendencies theIn Slovak Roman Catholic Church,” Religion in Eastern 17 , andpilgrimage became symbol. its Well-established historical links existbetween Catholic pilgrimage and Slovakthe During the mid-to-late 1980s, pilgrimage became a popular form of in social protest Nationalities Papers C HAPTER Vol. 30, No. 2 (2002). th Century. With multiple pilgrimages occurring at many of the 2: T HE R ITUAL 17 S ITESOF S LOVAKIA 16 . CEU eTD Collection containing the tallest wooden altar in Europe. The ritual site of Levo center showcasing asevidencedcenter by Gothic well-restored an enormous cathedral its Spišská Nová Ves district of eastern Slovakia, Levo pilgrimages, draws not only Slovaks butmany international pilgrims as well. Located in the 2.2 An Introduction to theRitualSites 2.2 AnIntroductionto of attheselocations. featured pilgrimages the representations These multiple and fourmultiple sites instancesof Šaštín-Stráže. showcase appropriations organizational process. The four sites chosen include Levoinclude sites chosen Thefour process. organizational from other pilgrimage sites have been inserted to highlight certain influences in the focus was a problematic task. Ultimately, Idecided upon four primary cases, but examples important andmost today why?” are in sites which of ritual Slovakia the of each individual shrine. So, when applying this to Slovakia, it becomes important to ask ignores the extra-religious context of the ritual and focuses more on the religious significance the socio-political context of the given time. All too often, popular writing on pilgrimage project. national the heartof closest tothe werethose attention received renewed shrines that rather, or oneand same; were the often protest national of andcenters pilgrimage ofCatholic Centers new sitesCentury), sprang garnerednewattention. pilgrimage sites upandcenturies-old mobilize popular for proposednational support Duringaspirations. period this (in 19 the intertwined. Since the dawn of the Slovak national movement, pilgrimages have been used to Levo The communist period was not the first time the Slovak nation and pilgrimage became With so many ritual sites from which to choose, selecting the case studies on which to depend on to seems sites ritual of certain significance the that asserts Van derVeer þ a, the home of the famous Marian pilgrimage, and the most well-attended of the 18 þ a was once a prominentmedieval trade þ a, Gaboltov, Košice-Kalvaria and Košice-Kalvaria a, Gaboltov, þ a’s pilgrimage is th CEU eTD Collection officially recognized the patron of the Šaštin pilgrimage, Our Lady of the Seven Sorrows, as active campaignregarding public Šaštin the national pilgirimage. In1927Pope Pius XI information toan on its regular Slovakregarding features website, pilgrimages contributes in the newly created Bratislava Archdiocese. The Slovak National Party (SNS), which 20 by evidenced its numbers attendance applied Slovak to the remains cases,and fieldofinquiry. afruitful beenhas not concept this election, ethnic and veneration Marian between connection the selects a nation on which to bestow her blessings. While much literature has been written on which these identifypersons normally socialshe appears,anduponthe of ethnic a nation-group collectivity- with the Mary appears, she bestows a sense of choseness and specialness upon the persons to whom election that accompanies any site supposedly visited by the Virgin Mary. “When the Virgin Slovakia and her Apparitions,” 19 Heritage Live Slovakia, emphasizes the pilgrimage at Levo communist regime. Dr. František Dlugoš, one of the most prominent clergymen in eastern has really blossomed into the most important pilgrimage site in Slovakia since the fall of the elevated to the status of a Basilica Minor. This site has a long history of ritual attention, but beginningthe of 20 the has received ritual attention 13 since the attention receivedhas ritual located a few kilometers outside of town on Marianská Hora (Marian Hill). While the site 18 “Levo ZlatkoSkrbiš “The Apparitions of the Virgin Mary of Medjugorje: the Convergence of Croatian Nationalism František Dlugoš, “Persecution of Catholic Church of Slovakia in the Mirror of Levo ē After Levo Despite the international flavor of this pilgrimage, there is often an element of ethnic a Pilgrimage Draws Hundreds of Thousands,” 18 .” Vol. 11, No. 2 2003). 11,No. (Summer Vol. þ Nations and Nationalism. a, the national pilgrimage to Šaštin garners the most public attention as publicmost attention Šaštin garners the to national a, the pilgrimage th Century. During John Paul II’s tenure as pope, the church was 19 .” So, the Virgin not only recognizes national difference, but 20 . The town of Šaštín-Stráže sits near the Czech border, Vol. 11, No. 3 (2005), 448. Vol. 11,No.3(2005), th Century,pilgrimage present the churchwasin built þ 19 a as one of the keys to the “spiritual renewal of The Slovak Spectator, July 16,2007. ē a’s Pilgrimages,” Slovak CEU eTD Collection http://www.sacr.sk/category2?id=25&lang=en 23 2002),60. Press, is ideally in utilized national forpilgrimages reifying the oft-espoused “plebian” nature of the spot pilgrimage way out-of-the- This pilgrimage. men) Slovak (read men’s a and pilgrimage almost exclusively Slovak one, a pilgrimage for the Košice archdiocese, a separate Roma discourse. political national in Church the of line official the determine influence of the “Slovak Church.” Such a distinction is important when attempting to underdirect be as it characterized cannot therefore, bodies; by extra-diocesan dictated organizations are in charge of the events, as is frequently the case in Slovakia, the structure is than we can in some other instances of pilgrimage. Where specific orders and religious lay “Slovakmore tothe structure its Church” intentionality of the wecanattribute archdiocese, by the are directly prescribed Gaboltov at Sincein-house. activities of some the organized Slovakia like that of Levo Redemptionist atGaboltov. Order Other prominent pilgrimages ritual to sites in eastern andby inKošice, partly the archdiocese by the is administered partly Gaboltov pilgrimages. Gaboltov is quite aninteresting case, for several reasons. The pilgrimage sitein OurLady dedicatedto specifically of Sorrows Seven the Basilica is one of 1267 churches in Slovakia dedicated to the Virgin Mary, and one of 219 titles lend an obvious national dimension to Marian devotion in these countries. Šaštín as “the Queenof Poland to is referred Croatia of haveincarnations Virginthe Mary installed whereOur as nations’ the Lady patron, the patron saint of the Slovak people (not of Slovakia). In the region, both Poland and a Polysemic Pilgrimage Centre in Poland” 21 22 Slovakia Tourism website, “Sites of Pilgrimage,” Slovakia: Little Big Country Kinga Sekerdej, Agnieszka Pasieka and Marta Warat, “Popular Religion and Nostalgia: Postsocialist Lichen as Vjekoslav Perica, Three main pilgrimages areorganized toGaboltov during the summermonths: an main holds site, four anational as alsocharacterized pilgrimage Gaboltov, Balkan Idols: Religion and Nationalism in Yugoslav States þ a do not fall under the direct control of the archdiocese, but are Polish Sociological Review 21 ” and “the Queen of the Croats 20 23 No. 4 (2007), 431-444;434. No.4(2007), . (New York: Oxford University 22 ” respectively. Such ” respectively. CEU eTD Collection (based on an example fromthe Bardejov district).” Final Report ofthe Project “Religiousness of the Slovak graveyard sections church of the and separate during services, backofthechurch atthe places in some areas of Slovakia: separate Sunday masses held for Roma on Saturdays, separate found other pilgrimage forms of echoes positivestill separate the segregation perception, the andspirituality culture Christian the “havebestpreserved Slovakia Slovak bishops, brought this notion surfaceto the again once by stating thatthe rural areas of vessels of true Catholic faith in the country. Pope Benedict XVI, in a 2007 address to the concerning the Slovak nation, Church butthe continually Slovak villagersportrays as the http://www.catholicculture.org/library/view.cfm?recnum=7719 25 539. 6 37, No. (2005), pilgrimage drawsmostly Slovak and Hungarians from surroundingthe ethnically-mixed part Thisof country. the southeastern liescity, contested largest in second historically the Košice, Slovakia’s ascontestation. idea of pilgrimage (andEadeandSallnow’s) der Veer’s exclusion. ethnic the outweigh to seems pilgrimage Roma accompanies the that in inclusion some, proceedings Romanies.For Catholic the toward directly specifically initiatives Catholic has influence begun factors, topositively other participants have generally havingresponded positively to “their pilgrimage own” obvious sign of segregation within a Church committed to “integration,” the Roma well, has been relatively well-attended since its recent inception. Despite the fact that it is an nation Slovak “Religiousness of the Slovak Romanies 27 Romanies 26 24 Pope Benedict XVI, “Address to Bishops of Slovakia,” Libreria Editrice Vaticana (June 15, 2007), Milan Kovac and Arne B. Mann, “The Romanies and Religious Faith,” Final Report of the Project Danijela Djuriši Silvia Miháliková, “Political Symbolism of Slovakia: Between the Cross and European Star,” Out pilgrimageof core the in spots Košice Slovakia,can best be envisioned usingvan The Roma pilgrimage, which draws participants from surroundingthe countries as ” (Budapest: Open Society Institute, 2003). 27 . However, the recentprominence of the Salesian order in the region, among 24 ē ová, “Church—an Initiator of Changes in the Romany Community: Chances and Limitations . Romanticizingvillage lifeis not only of generalthe part discourse ” (Budapest: Open Society Institute, 2003). 21 (accessed May 2007). 25 .” Sociológia 26 . Despite Vol. CEU eTD Collection simple religious devotion. This is precisely the lesson to be extracted from van der Veer’s many levels than on function more of Thesepilgrimages same events. the interpretations for whichallow multiple features unique Slovaks some primarily contain to cater that Bratislava to the almost exclusively national pilgrimages in Šaštin and Gaboltov. Those sites in pilgrimage international exclusively almost the from Slovakia, across greatly varies significance, andsignificance that rarely fromstems convictions.religious purely Pilgrimage Significance Political and 2.3 Ritual majorities. which have Hungarian by the clergy of the Slovak diocesan system who are predominantly Slovak, even in the areas Hungarians live.Itis note important to Slovakthat pilgrimages, by large,and aremanaged no almost where Slovakia, northeastern in Gaboltov of town the to goes which population itsSlovak for exclusively pilgrimage another organizes same The archdiocese difference. and Slovak Catholics of the region,instead functions as yet another separation of “national” Hungary.” This pilgrimage, designed in developpart to apartnershipbetween Hungarianthe altars within the same church, referred to as the “Church of Slovakia” and the “Church of Catholics of the region, but the ritual sites of the pilgrimage are separated into two separate Slovak andHungarian the incorporates Slovakia in eastern pilgrimage Košice the example, contestation of sites or territory, but the structural separation of “national” groups. For the not is in Slovakia pilgrimages of case in the beseen can what Instead, groups. relevant tothe its attachment and geography of symbolic contestation the becomes political terms into whentransferred bespace, which sacral seemsto of contestation the feature striking region. When looking at Van der Veer’s conceptualization of the pilgrimage to Ayodhya, the As van der Veer demonstrates, pilgrimage sites do not contain constant levels of ritual 22 CEU eTD Collection Slovak pilgrimages. In addition to offering individual spiritual fulfillment, these sites seem venerations. the of aspect election ethnic the enhancing further thereby shrines, asMarian be characterized can in sites Slovakia pilgrimage Catholic thirty approximately pilgrimage site, also focuses its veneration on the Virgin Mary. In fact, amajority of the incarnation of the Mary, the Virgin Mary of Carmel. Levo ritual sites connected ethnic, economic and religious interests, while other functions are purely symbolic. interestssecular as well. As demonstrated, ritualthe mayevents be shaped by political, as they surface, the fromappear on butpublicinvolve often contestation and rituals co-option actors unified not involved communities religious are only not phenomenon: the of treatment 30 29 28 Slovakia in holiday national a iscurrently Sorrows Seven the Lady to Our day of feast and dedicated pilgrimage In fact,the of a Slovakstate. realization the patron of the Slovak nation, a distinction which continues until today despite the Slovakia. At that time of the proclamation there was no Slovak state, so she was named as between godsand territory worshipping whose history is gods linkedtothe land continually theconnectionreaffirms Discussing association the between religion and geography, vanderVeer suggests that attention in few Slovakia, pilgrimagesin exist areas the heavily by populated Hungarians. areas of southern Slovakia. In fact, despite the proliferation of shrines receiving ritual to contributes geographicalthe of unity territory the the predominantly despite Hungarian Slovakia Tourism website 120. Ibid, Peter van der Veer (1994), 122. Multi-functionality, then, seems the best way to characterize the appeal of these core of by veneration the be reinforced can of a territory The“sacred geography” At Šaštin, it is Our Lady of the Seven Sorrows, the Church-declared patron of patron Church-declared the Sorrows, Seven the of Lady is Our it Šaštin, At 28 . It is possible tosee how the pilgrimage network in Slovakia also http://www.sacr.sk/category2?id=25&lang=en 29 . So this begs the question, who is being venerated in Slovakia? 23 þ a, as the largest regional Marian 30 . At Gaboltov, itis another (accessed April 2008). (accessed CEU eTD Collection products of a political process products existence of Hindu feelings and values. They are not ‘cultural givens’; rather they are the However, as van der Veer aptly notes in the case of India, “there is no constant and static showcase the sacred geographical unity of a country with a shortindependent history. in part ethnic Hungarian of the southern country. pilgrimageentrepreneurs sitesthe The also election, benefit regional economic aspirations, and provide another battlefield for Slovak ethnic ideas like religio-nationalist reinforce Movement), Democratic KDH (Christian to capture politically-motivated Catholics channeledattend to by likethe parties SNS and the Asian Studies 31 Slovaks. Peter van der Veer (1987), “God Must Be Liberated! A Hindu Liberation Movement in Ayodhya,” Vol. 21, No. 2 (1987), 299. 21,No.2 (1987), Vol. 31 .” The same formulation should be offered for Catholic 24 Modern CEU eTD Collection fact that Slovakia was under pressure from the Nazis seems to indicate that hebegrudgingly indicate that from to seems Nazis the was Slovakia pressure under fact that fascistand totalitarian connections; however, for those attempting to rehabilitate Tiso, the the fact that Slovakia carried out actions at the behest of Nazi Germany makes evident its against a rehabilitation of the Father Tiso and the regime. For opponents of the rehabilitation, referred to as a Nazi puppet-state, a charge that supports the arguments of those for and those as a time when Roman Catholic Church life flourished life Church Catholic Roman when atime as Roman Catholics as an ideal society, where the Roman Catholic social doctrine prevailed, or head of the ruling party, Jozef Tiso as the president. “The wartime state is regarded by some and priest Catholic with, of Slovakiastate emerged independent the Bohemia Moravia, and state. After theGerman annexation Sudetenlandthe of subsequent andthe occupation of This is the main explicitbattleground for representations of the church, the nation and the historical representations of Jozef Tiso and WWII “semi-independent” state of Slovakia. Discourse3.1 andHistory theShapingofPublic Slovakia. relationships occur:the overall climate of andreligion politics in post-independence as well as other organizational forces, one must first examine the context in which these of thinking as well are some examples of an unwarranted recycling of history. This indicates plain naïvete and a nationalistic way 33 32 Ibid, 2. 27. (1998), Hoppenbrouwers Much of what binds religion and politics together in Slovakia today involves the Before engagingin an analysis pilgrimagesthe of and their Church relation to actors Though itwould be wrong to accuse Slovakthe Roman Catholic Church of outright nationalism…there C HAPTER 32 . 3: R ELIGION AND ELIGION 25 P OLITICS IN 33 .” WWII-era Slovakia is Slovakia .” WWII-era often S LOVAKIA T ODAY CEU eTD Collection heart seems heartto havemore todowith betweenfall-out regardingbishops the for a the support had reversed their public opinions on individuals;these however, this apparentchange-of- pasts. By the mid-to-late 1990s, some of the bishops (most notably Monsignor Rudolf Balaž) unveilings,of atthese individualsattendance speakingwords praise with these for checkered London: Duke University Press, 1999), 146. Press,1999), University Duke London: predecessor, Andrej SeveralHlinka. bishops andeven Cardinal-Bishop Jan Korec memorials were unveiled across Slovakia in commemoration of Tiso as well as his party Slovak state as an “oasis in a Nazi desert in the form of an academic history of Slovakia, even goes so far as to describe the wartime portray Tiso not as a Nazi ally but as a savior of the Slovak Jews to attempting in engage debate, the certain organizations Catholic state, clerical-fascist the with itsconnection about tokeepassilentattempts aspossible hasmaderecent Church time and circumstance; and certain elements of the Catholic Church in Slovakia. While the varies over rehabilitation for parties althoughof the support these Movement), Democratic religious with affiliation,most notably parties the SNS (Slovak People’spolitical Party) and the KDH (Christian nationalist the Slovenska; Matica institution, cultural Slovak right-wing the of modern anti-Semitism: expressions someof the thereby triggering 37 36 war Germanfacilitated plans in tosparehis order country as much as possiblefrom horrors the of Discourse,” in 34 http://www.churchinhistory.org/pages/booklets/tiso.pdf 35 2004) 178. (Budapest: Shari J.Cohen, Ibid, 6. MichaelShafir, “Varieties ofAnti-Semitism inPostCommunist East Central Europe: Motivations and Poltical Dennis Barton, “Fr. Tiso, Slovakiaand Hitler,” (The Church in History Information Centre, 2003) 34 . Three main actors are responsible for attempting to rehabilitate Tisoandhis regime, torehabilitate for attempting areresponsiblemain actors Three In the firstyears after the fall of the communist regime, several plaques and Jewish Studies at the Central European University 2002-2003 Politics Without a Past: The Absence of History in Postcommunist Nationalism 36 .” 26 . A.Kovács and E. Ander eds. 35 . One piece of propaganda, (Durham and 37 were in CEU eTD Collection Slovak national culture,” “cooperate in the creation of schoolbooks and textbooks in some to be national minorities and ethnic groups on the territory of the Slovak Republic with the “strengthen Slovak patriotism,” “strengthen relations between cultures of citizens who claim Shortly independence inafter 1993, Matica was chargedby Slovakthe government to muchhaspolitical, influence over exercised re-creation of the Slovak social life. and political elections (over 8 percent in the 2006 elections). Matica Slovenska, while not overtly independence, andalso frequently asubstantial garners of portion popular inthe vote national coalition. KDH has been included in several of the coalition governments since elections national recent most with the party of the same name founded in 1871) elicited almost 10 percent of the vote in the itself as longestthe running continuous party in Slovakia (despite no historical continuity nationalist than Catholic more be to itself themselves against the KDH over this issue and the fact that the KDH was demonstrating support from the SNS for such initiatives has varied over time. Initially, the SNS positioned and Matica Slovenska have consistently called for a reappraisal of the WWII state, but decision-making and history over initiationtextbooks of general debate.TheKDHpublic institution especially of Tiso, the torehabilitate campaigns public holidays, regarding 41 40 Politics Without a Past. regimethe secondMe during the a way to publicly criticize certain bishops whose real error was being too accommodating to Me 2008). 39 38 SNSwebsite, 138. J. Cohen(1999), Shari For more on the developments between the first and second Me 17. (1998), Hoppenbrouwers þ iar regime than an actual re-interpretation of WWIIstate of the re-interpretation than iar regime actual an The SNS, KDH and Matica Slovenska have all been quite publicly active in their These organizations are notexclusively fringe groups. The SNS, which advertises http://www.sns.sk/clanky/sns-k-sviatku-patronky-slovenska-363.html 41 . Furthermore, itis once included again in rulingthe þ iar government 40 . 27 39 . ē iar governments, see Shari J.Cohen, 38 . Supportfor Tiso became (accessed on April 15, CEU eTD Collection 45 social science subjects,” and to generally promote Slovakia domestically as well aswell abroad as domestically Slovakia generally andto promote subjects,” science social 44 281-292; 286. (1997), 43 2008). http://www.culture.gov.sk/uploads/Kj/3k/Kj3k7G3Kmj0mhJMt5k460A/act_maticasvk.pdf 42 most vocal bishops in Slovakia, Rudolf Balaž, has had to forced to defend, “We respect them political players like the KDH, there are definitelinks between the two entities. As one of the state support alternative of attending ethics classes, and schools established by the Church would enjoy the having nonbelievers and non-Catholics with mandatory, become would education system, the army, and prisons. Under the draft education treaty, religious (read: Catholic) health the influence inschools, Catholic wouldextend that effectively treaties draft specific insistence of the KDH and the SDKU New Citizens) entered intoa concordat agreement with the Vatican, primarily at the Coalition Party), the SDKU (Slovak Democratic and Christian Union and ANO (Alliance of 3.2 TheChurchandtheState Slovakthe Church Catholic also implies support for aparticular historical identification between the Slovak nation and others familiar with the codewords of Slovak history and politics, this endorsement of Tiso general social discourse, especially regarding the interpretation of Tiso. “To Slovaks, and This put the organization in a privileged forinfluencing position youth opinion and the Ibid B.Tancerová, “Catholic yet Liberal?” Timothy Byrnes, ”Church and Nation in the Slovak Republic,” Religion, State and Society Vol. 25, No. 3 68/1997 Coll. Laws, Law from February 13, 1997 on the “Matica slovenská” (Slovak Cultural Society) In the year 2000, a coalition government made up of the KDH, SMK (Hungarian 45 .” Whether ornot the Catholic Church has directed the agenda of some 43 .” Transitions Online 44 . “That was followed up by the publication of four 28 (2003). (accessed April 42 . CEU eTD Collection giving them instructions as a political party that sticks to Catholic teaching, but itis absolutely not true that we are 49 48 47 46 it with former changes over time,the changes and thelatter since “Religious experience be cannot seen apart from religious organization formation; and group impractical separateto the study of religious values from the social context that shapes them. 3.3 TheChurchandtheSlovakNation whoare important to consider, are those “whodominate the religious scene national Catholic religious complex as a unified actor? As van der Veer suggests, the actors between Church and state, who exactly are we talking about? Is it possible to speak of a when connection makebutthe to we reference Catholics”), “lukewarm as characterized asCatholic themselves describes population the one must ask concerns the make-up of the relevant social groups. In Slovakia, over 70% of the Catholic Church. Catholic the meeting of bishops’the conferencean or advocacy group fightingfor aspecific within group thoughts attributed to “the Catholics” frequently stem from a single political party, a single ethnically, economically and sometimes even politically—and that actions, words, and important toremember theCatholics that of make country the upa very group— diverse is it in Slovakia, pilgrimage Catholic of aspects nationalizing structurally the at looking politically active laymen who consider themselves advocates for “Slovak Catholics.” When Slovakia, these important actors would include the bishops, other prominent clergy, and Van 284. Van der Veer(1987), (2003) Tancerová 284. Van der Veer(1987), Ibid In van der Veer’s conception of religious analysis, he determines that it is altogether 46 .” 29 48 (although (although many them of frequentlyare 47 .” So, the firstquestion 49 .” In the case of CEU eTD Collection in manner.a more covert are eschewed, ideas nationalizing can bestill emanating found from although sources, church some of his authority. At present, while direct political pronouncements from Church leaders of Sokol torelieve Archbishop was suggested totheBratislava archdiocese) subordinate unitsarchdiocese Trnava separate the (with into two archdiocese Bratislava-Trnava Korec and Cardinal former criticized for his cooperation with the communist regime communist the with cooperation his for criticized mostthe prominentindividuals likeArchbishop Sokol of Trnava and divisive have statements actions beenmadebyseveral evenChurch officials, by some of made by its officials are met with skepticism. In the past decade, politically (and ethnically) pronouncements political overt where situation socio-political ina itself found has Church well-established. Although politically and socially active even throughout recent history, the political hegemony and Slovak Catholic identity. conflict within the country, pilgrimage can be imagined to function as a contestation over a salient not is contestation religious though even sense, this In exploitation. mutual a of simultaneously political parities vie for the support of the clergy and church members in sort active church clergymen and laypersons alike attempt to influence the political process, and 53 52 51 50 Ibid, 15. 15. (1998), Hoppenbrouwers 286. (1997), Byrnes Timothy 17. (1998), Hoppenbrouwers On the political level, the church as a unified actor rarely exists; yet many politically many yet exists; rarely actor a unified as church the level, political the On In Slovakia, there exists a Church whose intricate connection with the nation has been has nation the with connection intricate whose Church a exists there Slovakia, In 53 . There is some speculation that the decision to splitthe 30 51 ), Archbishop Tkac of Košice 50 (who has been frequently been has (who 52 CEU eTD Collection 3.4 The Slovak Church and the Hungarian Minority andtheHungarian 3.4 TheSlovakChurch 54 diocesan borders were re-arranged. For many years now, the Vatican has refused to redraw might caseif bethe which population, a majority in contains Hungarian diocese Slovakia part) in long, skinny strips, traveling more north-to-south, than east-to-west. Therefore, no most are the drawn (for borders diocesan however, border; southern areaalongthe of the conflict of that It isarena itself central the than an observer of, oreven a participant in, ethnic conflict between Slovaks and Hungarians. of the Slovak Catholic hierarchy. “The Catholic Church in Slovakia, in other words, is more countercharges minority the and Hungarian of complaints tobalancethe (Catholic) attempts diocese. each of bishopsand archbishops the head featuring of Slovakia, borders the diocesan detailing 1: Postcard Figure Timothy Byrnes (1997), 283. (1997), Byrnes Timothy The maintenance of diocesan borders has been a problematic task for it theVatican task as has a problematic been borders of diocesan The maintenance 54 .” In Slovakia, ethnic Hungarians occupy much 31 CEU eTD Collection continues to divide itself institutionally,linguistically and pastorally along ethnic lines discounting for Slovak platitudes and Hungarian hyperbole, we are left with a church that these issues continue to bring national conflictinto the realm of church affairs. “Even still visible in the societal organs that associate with with Catholicassociate Church. the that in visible organs societal still the emanating from elements of Churchthe hierarchy may be declining, nationalizing strands are national rhetoric appears to be a sign of their success. So, while overt nationalism as nationalist opinions of some members of the clergy in check, and the relative absence of overt from ChurchSlovak sources. Itappears theCatholicthat hierarchy is keep attempting to the a bishop of “Hungarian blood” in Slovakia of election the prevents that Church Catholic Slovak in the inherent nationalism institutional language. In addition to issues with the priests, Hungarian Catholics feel that there is an Hungarian parishes Hungarian,speak reasonably good butof itiscourse nottheir native areas of the country. Furthermore, they maintain that they Slovak priests that they install in be more Hungarian but priests, priestly vocations remain low in number for Hungarianthe knowledge of language.Hungarian TheSlovak bishops continually would there that counter priests, and claim thethat Slovakinstalled priestsin their nothave parishes do anadequate in dioceses. of the power positions attained claimants of repression are laypersons and parish leaders, but not individuals who have the now, stands it As Church. Catholic Slovak in the entrenched institutionally becoming diocesan borders along ethnic linesin anattempt tokeeppopular ethnic unrest from 56 55 Ibid, 288. Ibid, 287. (1997), Byrnes Timothy The past decade has witnessed a decrease in ethno-national pronouncements coming pronouncements in adecrease ethno-national decade has The pastwitnessed Hungarian of number in the disappointed are in Slovakia Hungarians Catholic Many 55 . Regardless of the legitimacy of the claims, 32 56 .” CEU eTD Collection Dubnica nad Váhom, Nový Dubnik, Partizanská, Michalovce, Hemenne, Poprad,Rož in a Bratislava, churches largewebalsocontrolling casts relatively theSalesiannetwork fact, Salesians operate not only at Šaštín, but Košice and Bardejov (near Gaboltov) as well. In of the more popular religious festivals, retreats and pilgrimages under its umbrella. The pilgrimage, though by meansno only the reason. diocesan and extra-diocesan bodies, fundraising becomes oneimportant reason for organizing Catholic Church such as the St. Vojtech Foundation and the Catholic media. For both Catholic orders not under direct diocesan control as well as those social organs of the more frequently in the extra-diocesan realm. By extra-diocesan realm, Irefer to those perhaps and hierarchy church diocesan in the sometimes church, the of segments specific within exist elements large,nationalist like certain is at society that what wecandetermine Church as determininga unified actor, definite intentionality is quite problematic. Instead, pragmatic remains beto seen. Due to the difficulty in considering the Slovak Catholic occasions of support (as well as opposition) to state political initiatives has been purely Church’s Whether the partner. negotiation legitimate asa Church to beconsidered for the Slovakia. This entails a certain amount of give-and-take between church and state in order in institutions religious of other situations from the dissimilar isnot this although state, the Roles Extra-Diocesan versus 4.1 Diocesan Throughout Slovakia, the Don Bosco Salesian order has managed to capture several capture to managed has order Salesian Bosco Don the Slovakia, Throughout on dependence economic of in asituation itself finds inSlovakia Church Catholic The C HAPTER 4: T HE C ATHOLIC 33 C HURCH AS M ANY A CTORS Ė ava, CEU eTD Collection home order of the basilica. While diocesan support and administration seems to be important to Šaštín (a site controlled by the Salesians), cooperation exists between the bishops and the hole ritual events as diocesan or extra-diocesan. For example, even at the national pilgrimagepigeon- to attempt not also should we non-national), rather (or international or national purely instances. in can findoverlap certain goals diocesan extra-diocesan and that shows and Žilina, BystricaTrnava, Banská http://www.concordatwatch.eu/showtopic.php?org_id=849&kb_header_id=5411 2006,” Trans. Alexander Rehák of the Prometheus Society of Slovakia, May 10, 2001 58 57 educational works in Roma communities to organize special and initiatepilgrimages other evangelical to and be established centers”) (“pastorisation stations missionary that Conference: Slovak Bishop’s evangelical work of the Salesians also directly coincides with the recommendation of the Gaboltov and the Slovak and Hungarian pilgrimage to Košice. The educational and pilgrimages in Slovakia, the national pilgrimage to Šaštín, the separate Roma pilgrimage to administering for responsible organizing or somenational of most structurally the global ministry initiated by the founder, Don Bosco. Be this as itmay, the order is Bardejov. of outskirts the on away 10km over little a Spain) is a Salesian school for Roma (named after the first Roma saint, Zefir Jimez Malla from Basilica. In Košice,it operates on the church grounds. Near Gaboltov, their recent initiative run schools on or near these ritual sites. In Šaštín, the school physically connects to the frequently youth, the of aredirected Salesians the the towards projects order evangelization efficiency, almost all of these sites host pilgrimages. Not surprisingly, since many of the Slovak Bishop’s Conference, “Pastorisation and Evangelisation Plan of the Catholic Church in Slovakia 2001- Website of the National Basilica at Šaštín, Just as we should not fall into the trap of categorizing pilgrimages in Slovakia as The Salesian organization prides itself on its international nature, emphasizing the emphasizing nature, international its on itself prides organization Salesian The 58 . This agreement between the Bishop’s Conference and the Salesians 57 www.bazilika.sk . As evidence of their evangelizing andfundraising 34 (accessed April 21,2008). (accessed (accessed April 2008). (accessed CEU eTD Collection Salesians, who reside in nearby Bardejov, also administer pilgrimages at this site. My first lies less than 15km away. While the archdiocese hosts its own pilgrimage at Gaboltov, the frequent direct connections to Bardejov (mostly by bus), from which the village of Gaboltov Levo not provide information is Gaboltov, a well-attended site in the Bardejov district. As with standard jumping-offstandard for pilgrims point Levo going to Spišská Nová Ves (the nearest main railway connection to Levo Levo in Levo council) is Slovakia in particularly site telling. Furthermore,ritual if any Catholicvisited office outsidemost of the farský the urad (priest regarding information of lack the however, diocese; should not expect the Košice office to keep information on small pilgrimages outside their feastdaysLevo even at and information pilgrimage regarding obtain to directly Spišdiocese contact the advisedmeto The inKošice office well-attended. most transport), which is arguably the most important site in all of Slovakia, and definitely the could notprovide any information on Levo they Interestingly, well-attended. arequite which several of in Slovakia, eastern significance many of sites ritual are there the contrary, on few sparsely-attended; Slovakia are or Eastern me the most rudimentary information concerning the sites. This is notbecause ritual sites in before give they could and of nearby pilgrimages locations several dates the even assemble coming pilgrimages taking place within the Košická arcidiecéza, but they required a day to pilgrimage the notonly season, havenot they informationdid the any regarding prepared For example, when I approached the archbishop’s office in Košice shortly before the start of realm. extra-diocesan peripheral inthe mostly exist many sites, pilgrimage the of many for þ þ a, Košice is the most logical jumping-off point for travel to Gaboltov. Košice has a, it should be Košice. While railway connections do exist between Bratislava and Another pilgrimage in the Košice archdiocese for which the archbishop’s office did þ a should haveinformation about pilgrimagethe toMarianská Horain þ a (only andone ahalf hour away by public 35 þ a. þ a), Košice remains the þ a. Of course, one CEU eTD Collection Paulines host the very very the Paulines Marianka near host pilgrimage Bratislava to popular the and in Bratislava pilgrimages larger the of one host Dominicans The Word. Divine the of throughout the country include the Dominicans, the Franciscans, the Paulines and the Society and evangelical events. Church they that would normally heretical,consider jointventures creating many on ritual Catholic elements Greek of the ignorethe seems to hierarchy Roman The Catholic eparchies. each Catholic diocese invests far more capital in the station than do the Greek Catholic initiatives,most notably the funding of the Catholic radio station, Radio Lumen; however, in several bishops Catholic the with joined has hierarchy Catholic Greek the period, Catholic order Catholic Greek active most arethe of poor, education the devoted to the anorder Redemptorists, the ritual site at Staré Hory (a popular pilgrimage spot in Central Slovakia). The taking part in the Salesian and archdiocesan events. Redemptorist Order Redemptorist Despite one pilgrimage organized by the archdiocese and another by the Salesians, the administered by the Salesians, but only after Ispecifically requested information on this site. isalso which in Košice, site pilgrimage the regarding information me some provide did office archbishop’s the however, extra-diocesan; largely is administration pilgrimage Gaboltov’s because site the about information no had office archbishop’s the that was instinct 61 most heavily persecuted denomination under the communist regime,and were banned in 1950. adopted some elements of orthodox iconography andhierarchicalorganization. The Greek Catholics were the 60 Redemptionists, Tadeusz Rydzyk, heads thecontroversial evangelical radio station, Radio Maryja. string inSlovakia, the Redemptionists have a powerful voice in Poland, where one of the most powerful 59 TheGreek Catholics (also called Uniates) follow Catholic doctrine as prescribed bythe papacy, but have Notto be confused with the Redemptionists, a Trinitarian order within the Catholic Church. While not very www.sacr.sk In addition to the Salesians and the Redemptorists, other Catholic orders in residence The Congregation of the Most Holy Redeemer, or Redemptorist Order, also controls (accessed April 15,2008) (accessed 60 . With the re-introduction of the order to Slovakia after the communist 59 has control over the site, administering the other pilgrimages as well as 36 61 , but most of the other CEU eTD Collection Church “Slovak Church,” while the upper floor contains another altar referred to as the “Hungarian altars. The ground floor houses the ritual point for Slovak pilgrims, an altar known as the hill.from Calvary a beautiful the setting also and panorama panorama induce contemplation and spiritual reflection; or Gaboltov, with its quaint village moments in time does not seem to be particularly powerful. Two of the individuals that I situation seems to call out for Eade and Sallnow, the ethnic contestation of these ritual who is also venerated at Šaštín as well as many other locations. While this structural to OurLady isthird dedicated patron pilgrimage of of the SevenSorrows, Slovaks,the Hungarians, as well as a third whose ritual attention is constructed more for Slovaks. This contrast to ritual sites like Marianská Hora at Levo and much of the old monastery has been reconfigured as a gymnazium. This stands in sharp Salesians, churchgrounds have been madeover toaccommodate basketball and tennis courts, church at least three times daily. Itshould be noted that at Šaštín, another site operated by the the at services regular administer also Salesians The a pilgrimage. for site unusual-looking children to play basketball, soccer and other games, making the grounds of the church an site, the Salesians of Don Bosco operate a small school and provide outdoor courts for from the historic old town of Košice where most of the city’s churches can be found. At this sites. ritual which how tothe more relates this orders historicallyended up controlling important the should be done on the restitution of church lands after the end of the communist regime and few orders research churchesorganize their Further pilgrimages andmonasteries. to shrines, 62 ibid 62 The church at Košice-Kalvária is a multi-level Baroque structure with two separate with structure two is multi-level Baroque a Košice-Kalvária The church at Košice-Kalvária, the ritual point for pilgrimage to Košice, sits less than 2km away .” The pilgrimage church hosts two main pilgrimages attended both by Slovaks and 37 þ a, where pristine nature and a beautiful CEU eTD Collection their lives. Having a population with a general level of spirituality that does not make the beliefs in making youngergeneration and the church the ritual the of in point significance religious and social lives. considering as of their pilgrimage method anewgeneration regularto of part socializing parish and school both of contexts 2013 2007 emphasizesto theneed for “special attention youthto the inapostolate the Benedict. The Catholic Church’s The Catholic Benedict. John Paul II prominently advocated youth ministry in Slovakia and beyond, so too has Pope Justas in for theCatholicSlovakia. Church andpastoral plans in concordat emphasized the as youth on outreach placed with emphasis is This consistent toteenagers. catering These excursionsgotovarious ritual provide butsites, aschedule of specificallyevents foradvertisements pilgrimages organized and by sponsored youth Catholic organizations. GreekCatholicor like orders the Redemptorists. In addition,encountered many I by areaspopulated the Hungarians ethnic are to be found amongst the Slovaks wholive in the parts of the country furthest away from have along history of working andliving together, and “the anti-Hungarian strongest feelings although notfor reasons that Turner mightsuggest. Quite simply, the residents of this region benot asurpriseif at ethnically somewhatthese weresubjugated mixedrituals,tensions parishioners certainly constitute not an does objective interpretation of it events,the would Hungarians) is withcontent simply beingincluded. While the opinion Slovakof two spoke with at the Košice site seem to suggest that everyone (meaning the Slovaks and http://www.catholicculture.org/library/view.cfm?recnum=7719 64 Successful Party,” Europe-Asia Studies Vol. 53, No. 5 (July 2001), 762. 63 Pope Benedict XVI, “Address to Bishops of Slovakia,” Libreria Editrice Vaticana (June 15, 2007), Krivý, as cited in Tim Haughton, “HZDS: The Ideology, Organisation and Support Base of Slovakia’s Most (Re)Evangelization (Re)Evangelization hasthus twoimportant roles: instilling religious values and Extra-diocesan pilgrimages are not only limited to Catholic orders like the Salesians the like orders Catholic to limited only not are pilgrimages Extra-diocesan Plan forPastoral Care and Evangelization 64 .” Furthermore, itis an investment for the future, as a 63 .” 38 (accessed May 2007). for the years the for CEU eTD Collection date the evangelizing action of the two Brother Saints from Thessalonica. And you have started on this on started have you And Thessalonica. from Saints Brother two of the action evangelizing the date the mission in your Region of Sts Cyril and Methodius, you have therefore decided to revive and bring up to itself. Slovakia in position evangelization project. The first step in this evangelization plan entails securing the Church’s tochannel attempted in Euro-skepticism the somethis of found Slovakia towards One has can Vatican the read how Europe. in of saints the (re)-evangelizing incarnations act Slovakiaforcesto demonstrate and theirthat join to shouldas modern-day Poland the Holy See has jumped on the image of Cyril and Methodius’ missionary project, reworking it consumerism; and his successor proceeds on the same path. In Slovakia specifically, the II criticized the rest of Europe for its secularism,moral relativism, hedonism and Poland) with the task of leading the (re)-evangelization of Europe. For years, Pope John Paul of reference. The Vatican has charged certain nations (most notably Slovakia, Croatia and Poland especially, which cannotexactly be called nationalism, butleads to a national frame andPilgrimage Bishop’sConference 4.2 TheVatican,the Slovak ‘private’ dimension Europe, to an insistent ideological pressure that would like to reduce Christianity a merelyto for the Church in Slovakia but for all the People of God, subjected as they are, especially in that “this motto continues to be an authentic apostolic and missionary programme, not only visit Slovakia, to “Faithful to Christ, faithful to the Church,” Pope Benedict XVI maintains forbenefactors the church. In re-emphasizing PopeJohn Paul for hisII’s motto 2003pastoral church its main reference pointdoes Catholicthe no Church good, and does not create future 65 Ibid. With aview to 2013, the year when you will commemorate 1,150ththe anniversary of the beginning of The Holy See, especially under John Paul II, has promoted something in Slovakia and 65 .” 39 CEU eTD Collection and archbishops all effect how the organs of the Catholic Church operate in Slovakia. operate of Church Catholic the how organs the all effect and archbishops missions for the Slovak Church, the drawing of diocesan borders, and the naming of bishops conditions under which the Slovak Church and its lay organizations operate. The creation of committee than as an essential actor. That being said, their decisions do create the structural advisory an as more be envisioned should body) international in the (as Church Catholic the officials bydiocesan can be administered Catholic canon. Essentially,it remains up to the archbishops to decide which pilgrimage sites originally sparked interest in these sites centuries ago can be considered part of the official (usually Marian apparitions or miracles attributed to the intercession of the Virgin) that words, the body of the Catholic Church has not adjudicated on whether the alleged miracles from Papacy. In the other legitimization definitive neverreceived have attention ritual wouldfor thePope pilgrimageadvocate in beproblematic to sites mostgeneral thatgarner as suggestions would take. While the Vatican has recognized the sites of Šaštín and Levo pilgrimageSlovakia, of iscourse, form thelogical, culturally-embedded which these Slovakia focus on organizing “pastoral meetings, and retreats spiritual exercises Christianity in yourpeople. unanimous missionary mobilization with the rediscovery of tradition ofand strongthe and deep roots of http://www.rimkat.sk/rs/storage/partikularne_normy.pdf 68 67 66 Arcibiskupský úrad v Košiciach, Košická arcidiecéza: Partikulárne normy Ibid. Ibid. However, in assessing agency regarding the consistent use of pilgrimage in Slovakia, While pilgrimage isnotmentioned byname in plan,this itsuggests that Churchthe in 66 68 . 40 (2007). , “Dekrét opútnických miestach” 67 .” In þ a, it CEU eTD Collection specifically for mentally handicapped, their families and has become their families oneof mentally for friends, many handicapped, the specifically the being largest the of one persons, disadvantaged other and handicapped inak obdarovaných Levo pilgrimages for military personnel, the most prominent of which travels from Za numbers are actually quite small. The Vatican pilgrimage joins several other existing and emergency personnel.Whilerescue from representatives each groupattend, total the from different segments of the armed forces, police force, prison guards, bailiffs,fire fighters defense ministry personnel, the Slovak Honor Guard, several chaplains, and representatives 71 Magazine of the Ministry of Defense of the Slovak Republic (December 2007), 9. Rome Vatican the to and Corps Armed mostgroups, notably, Roma pilgrimage the atGaboltov. Since the initiation of this plan, new pilgrimages have been initiated for several of these the armed forces, the handicapped, addicts, prisoners, migrants, and armedprisoners,the migrants, handicapped,Slovaksforces, living the addicts, abroad minorities), separately from national Roma attention: the (listed minorities, national better Church in 2001-2006enumeratesSlovakia several groups to which churchthe needs topay Catholic the of Plan Evangelization and Pastorization The inSlovakia. groups specific on InterestGroups PilgrimageandSpecial 4.3 Slovak Slovakia April Mayof2008. and Slovakia 72 70 69 Slovak tourism website, Flyerprinted by the Viera aSvetlo foundation, 2008. Found on the bulletin boards of churches throughout Jozef SpiritualŽiak, “A Pilgrimage: Service Members Visit Rome andVaticanCity.” Ibid þ a 71 In addition, several Catholic charitable foundations have pilgrimages initiated for Another initiative has been the National Pilgrimage of the Slovak Armed Forces and Forces Armed Slovak the of Pilgrimage National the been has initiative Another The aforementioned evangelization plan is not the first attempt to focus church efforts . organized by organized foundation Viera aSvetlo the http://www.sacr.sk/category2?id=25&lang=en 70 . This pilgrimage includes prominent military and military prominent includes pilgrimage . This 41 . 72 . This pilgrimage designed Slovak Armed Forces Slovak Celoslovenská pú Đ ubica to , 69 . Ģ CEU eTD Collection Church, advocatespilgrimage in makesgeneral, butlittle reference tospecific pilgrimages. pilgrimage process. The Bishop’s Conference, as the main organizational body of the Slovak 4.4 Conclusion their unquestionably Catholic context. despite proceedings, serve secularize the to frequently andaimssocial the of directives action a level of normalcy, or embeddedness,in Slovak Catholic society. Furthermore, the hasattained ofsocial action asamethod pilgrimage In words, be other to obtained. regarded itjust by construct remains favored, mobilization isa socially-accepted which popular Catholic organizations; and that “pilgrimage is a favoured religious manifestation religious favoured is a “pilgrimage that and organizations; Catholic Evangelization Plan for the Catholic Church in Slovakia seems to act as a blueprintfor sites. major attached to specific orders, host specifically youth-oriented pilgrimages at almost all of the retreats and pilgrimages were just numerous as other listings. These organizations, often to pilgrimage. At churches the visited in and posters Slovakia, advertisementsforother youth shrine. sameritual of the interpretations site (and groups wanting to benefitfrom that popularity), but the possibility formultiple The proliferation of pilgrimages at Šaštín demonstrates not only the popularity of the ritual church otherthat pilgrimage schedules, instead featuring and picnics informational sessions. pilgrimages whose ritual focus is the Basilica at Šaštín. It includes fewer sessions in the Watch, April2008). Watch, 2006,” Trans. Alexander Rehák of the Prometheus Society of Slovakia, May 10, 2001 (accessed on Concordat 73 Slovak Bishop’s Conference, “Pastorisation and Evangelisation Plan of the Catholic Church in Slovakia 2001- In general, the Slovak Church hierarchy only plays a small part in the actual These new pilgrimage initiatives demonstrate two major points: thatthe points: major two demonstrate initiatives newThese pilgrimage when itgroup comes interest asaspecial be ministry conceptualized can also Youth 42 73 ,” butnot CEU eTD Collection Church inSlovakia Church One illustration of this limited affiliation comes from the official website of the Catholic 74 structure have alsofound ways maketo money of off pilgrimage. pilgrimage events. As will be shown, some of the influential actors outside of the church make pilgrimage at the can money Notonly churches. organizers off of church-related for most permanentlyespecially organizers,but revenues for theparishes or installedorders see Donationssuccessful increased bank pilgrimage from accounts. increase pilgrims usually adherents or improve their standing in the view of the bishops; but all who organize a hierarchy or possibly from individual pilgrims, the orders may increase the number of their may to evangelize,specialinterestgroups from increased the advocacy church the elicit which comes from organizing asuccessful The pilgrimage. maybishops gain anopportunity usually include fundraising. goals; which goals realize to separate utilizing pilgrimage actors, They are separate orders. social, educational and philanthropic wings, do not act in conjunction with the other Catholic the benefactors and organizers of many of the smaller pilgrimages. These orders, with their charitable foundations, societal organizations and youth ministries; inwhich functionturn, as specific parishes, often controlled by Catholic orders. These orders frequently create organizational distance,it is difficult tosay. Slovak Church towards certain interpretations of pilgrimage events or simply their the ambivalence of the Whether reflects more Gaboltov. this to pilgrimage archdiocese Košice the of that like cases in certain except pilgrimage, regarding information little feature conspicuously absent from the ritual events an holidays listed. Diocesan websites also Officialwebsite for the Roman Catholic Church in Slovakia, One aspect uniting these disparate actors under the Catholic umbrella isthe result Catholic umbrella under actors the uniting disparate these One aspect Agency the organizationregarding and administration of fallspilgrimages mainly on 74 . On the calendar of Church events for the year, pilgrimage remains 43 www.rimkat.sk (accessed April2008). (accessed CEU eTD Collection Catholic orders) are activemostin are pilgrimage. the promoting orders) Catholic and parishes dioceses, individual the (i.e. gain to most the with organs church those that Slovak in Church general has in domestic theevidence pilgrimages, hand at suggest seems to whichthe stake accurately the in beto determine order undertaken to needs funds church and the Slovak Bishop’s Conference. While in-depth fiscal analysis of the distribution of in Slovakia Church Catholic the of websites informational official the from absent noticeably publicizing of pilgrimagethe which events their parish hosts. Pilgrimage is information public. Individual farské uradí councils)(priest pilgrimage atthe contribute also sites to the and TV Lux are responsible for most dissemination of pilgrimage information to the Catholic Lumen Noviny, Radio such as Katolické outlets media Catholic bulletins, weekly the church calendar of upcoming events.Since pilgrimage information tobelargelyseems from absent addition, the version dateson frequently onlineof pilgrimages the newspaperannounces the for all of Slovakia) posts advertisements for pilgrimage tours both in print and online. In 5.1 TheCatholicMediaandPilgrimage say in regarding decisions its programming. The powerful organization behind RadioLumen has of more a Conference Bishop’s the backers of station, economic the as the Presumably, Churches. (Uniate) includingCatholic of acouple alsoGreek of Slovakia, and archdioceses see that Radio Lumen’s constituent body of investors mostly includes the individual dioceses 75 Online database Online forthe Official Companies Register ofSlovakia, From viewing the Official Register of Companies in the Slovak Republic Slovak in the Companies of Register Official the viewing From In addition to flyers and posters, Katolické Noviny (the weekly Catholic newspaper C HAPTER 5: A CTORS 44 O UTSIDE THE UTSIDE www.orsr.sk C HURCH , (accessed May 13, 2008). 75 , one can , one CEU eTD Collection 77 29, 2007). Slovakia when the Slovak government restricted BBC’s use of the frequency suggests how Catholicthis station was able get to BBCWorld Service’sbandwidth in 76 not is profit, mainconcern SSV’s pages.As business, across aregistered open the printed inside a halo, which sits atop a book (presumably the Bible) with the words Fidei et Scietiæ the Tatra, Matra and Fatra mountain ranges) from the symbol of Slovakia and inserts them (representing mountains three and cross double the Ittransports crest). national (Slovak znak can be quickly by determined theirlogo whichincorporates elements from slovenskýthe of one directly shopslocated these being behind thebasilica Šaštín. at They severalalso operate shops sellingdevotional Catholic literature, gifts andmemorabilia; running Katolické Noviny, publishes SSV other religious materials from apart periodicals. several different backers, two private individuals and one corporation St. Vojtech Group (hereafter referred to as SSV- Spolok Svetého Vojtecha), which in turn has individuals is a priest from the Rož Online database Online forthe Official Companies Register ofSlovakia, @ uba Lesná and Tom Nicholson, “BBC’s Radio License Yanked forUse of English,” SSV chooses to distinguish itself as a specifically Slovak religious organization, as behindThe powers Katolickélittle Noviny harder are totrack. It isby published the Figure 2: logo for Spolok Sv. Vojtecha (SSV) Ė ava diocese named Vendelín Pleva. 45 www.orsr.sk , (accessed May 13, 2008). 77 The Slovak Spectator . One of the private In addition to 76 . (Jan CEU eTD Collection http://www.dimenzie.sk/2000_01/03news.htm historical events,butalso aschedule publishes of events from and photos past pilgrimages not only a history of the pilgrimage, which is in itself a particular interpretation of Slovak obvious choice, especially given heavythe leanings nationalist of party.the SNSpublishes an becomes Šaštín to pilgrimage national the With theSNS, support. they that actively pilgrimage goes, comes from the ritual sites (and specific pilgrimages to those ritual sites) elements. conservative same of some contain the while the KDH would be shown as more religious than nationalist; however, both parties rough characterization of the parties would show the SNS as more nationalist than religious, the KDH, thereby creating a precarious position vis-à-vis their relationship to the KDH. A of that and between their platform factor becomes adistinguishing nature Their anti-clerical stance. anti-clerical outwardly an maintain they camps, religious conservative from support situation for the SNS, because while their particular nationalistideology attempts to find attempt to establish connections with ritual sites in Slovakia. This is a particularly curious appropriate the national pilgrimage at Šaštín for its own goals. Both the SNS and the KDH Pilgrimage and Parties Political 5.2 Slovak Slovakism. with but Catholicism, with just not organization the connect to attempts logo choice is Its of representative concern. asecondary perhapsthat although evangelization; 79 2008). 78 for photo opportunities at the ritual event; however, such tactics are not particular to Šaštin visible themselves make to attempt functionaries, government other as well as officials, SNS STVwebsite, “Národná pú SNSwebsite, A distinguishing factor between the two parties, as far as their relationship to As mentioned earlier, the Slovak National Party makes frequent attempts to http://www.sns.sk/clanky/sns-k-sviatku-patronky-slovenska-363.html ƛ slovákov(National Pilgrimage ofSlovaks),” (accessed May (accessed 2008). 46 (accessed April 15, April (accessed 78 79 . . CEU eTD Collection visit, they became pilgrimage were two of the most important and widely-attended sites in Slovakia. After the visit, thepapal these Before many in for of Catholics Slovakia. pride source national international attention. international pilgrimage of Slovak Christian Democrats to Levo With the KDH, we see a different kind of appropriation: the KDH has organized its own with the Tatra Mountains (one of the symbols of Slovakia) inthe background. symbols ofSlovakia) of the (one Mountains Tatra with the Figure 3; Postcard from the Pope’s 1995 visit to Slovakia, highlighting the ritual sites of Šaštín (left) and Levo Since the 1995 visit by the Pope to Šaštín and Levo the two most important and widely-attended sites in Slovakia. Papal 47 þ a, a site receiving both national and þ a, both sites have become a ē a (right), CEU eTD Collection interpretation of the events at Levo which managed to stay posted for 5 years. This displays the importance of one particular find a single poster or advertisement remaining from previous events, except for this one pilgrimage event,2003. 31August In my visits topilgrimage spotsacross Slovakia,did I not because of influenced partly their by prominence papal connections. choose these two sites for their pilgrimage projects, not because of their papal attachment but in their rise to prominence. As political entrepreneurs, SNS and KDH obviously would recognition of these sites as the dual symbols of the Slovak Catholics certainly played a role historic old town of Levo The poster shown above was found hanging in a window by the main entrance to the to entrance main by the in awindow hanging found was above shown poster The Figure 4: Poster for the All-Slovak Pilgrimage of Christian Democrats to Levo þ a during mya during visit inthere 2008. Notice thedate of scheduledthe þ a, at least for the individual that has kept this sign posted 48 ē a. CEU eTD Collection general to its party its party to adherents. general in pilgrimage advocating and pilgrimages specific in advertising active remains still party the its sponsored not KDH has While many years. so for 49 own pilgrimage in pilgrimage lastfewthe years, CEU eTD Collection events scheduled shape not only the particular ritual moment in time, but also reinforce often existlargely out of direct diocesan control. Homilies delivered, bishops present and experience religious “believers’ the to “mediate” Catholic Church see the pastorisation potential of the events. In this sense, the bishops seek to achieve attendance numberslike in someofficials 1980s.Certainly, the intheSlovak want simply organizers individual perhaps pilgrimage; of powers evangelization the on again from church. the outside symbol and vehiclefor opposition regimethe against yielding high numbers of supporters possible. With this turn of events, the Catholic Church became the most readily available mostly attended by Slovak youth, it was shown that mass organized events were indeed government itself. After the 1985 pilgrimage to Velehrad (in the Czech lands), which was support base religiousthe against policies of communistthe government, notthe communist of samizdats the time, along members with of secretchurch,the originally mobilized their itself as) a symbol against communist repression, but not for philanthropic reasons. Religious portrayed (and became Church The territory. Slovak the of in all force oppositional eminent party notes “Slovakthat Roman inCatholic Churchbecame 1980santhe important oppositional political in they nature, across confessional support gathered lines. Thus Hoppenbrouwers were not the only ones participating in the ritual events. As these pilgrimages were highly Watch, April2008). Watch, 2006,” Trans. Alexander Rehák of the Prometheus Society of Slovakia, May 10, 2001 (accessed on Concordat 81 80 Slovak Bishop’s Conference, “Pastorisation and Evangelisation Plan of the Catholic Church in Slovakia 2001- Hoppenbrouwers (1998). organizing mass pilgrimages to holy shrines on Slovak territory Perhaps the hierarchy of the Catholic Church in Slovakia wants to capitalize once tocapitalize in wants Church of Slovakia Catholic the hierarchy the Perhaps During the 1980s, when pilgrimage attendance was at its height, devout Catholics C HAPTER 6: T HE “A LL -S LOVAK 50 ” 81 ,” thusre-appropriating ritual events which P ILGRIMAGE P HENOMENON 80 ,” in fact becoming the CEU eTD Collection accurately describe the processes occurring here. occurring processes the accurately describe have regarding be to conducted intentions regarding useof the actual the this labelin to order have the intent of demonstrating inclusivity across confessional lines. More research would the fact that the that fact the discount not should one however, undertones; national of isdevoid ritual the of content the of Christian Democrats, as well as several others. Spirit Pilgrimage (which takes place on the weekend of Pentecost), the All-Slovak Pilgrimage Holy All-Slovak the handicapped, mentally the for pilgrimage All-Slovak mentioned already the include “All-Slovak”is indeed pilgrimages nation. These of the part who concerning Uniate communities, is obviously marked by national exclusivity, thereby invoking discourse confessional lines. This confessional inclusivity, especially directed towards Orthodox and crystallizingtowards pastoral opinions, they but provide opportunities toevangelize across influence. of totheir receptive Slovakpolitical Catholics posture toindirectly shape the for events bishops these allow leadersin Slovakia, Church Catholic decade has witnessed asignificantdecline in overtthe political proclamations made by thepast messages. Since social) (andother religious certain of interpretations reveal their in attendance. In other words, bishops who attend these ceremonies have the opportunity to reaffirm their stance on specific issues, and to impart relevant cultural idioms to the pilgrims Catholic values as espoused by the Church. These events create a platform for the bishops to The titles alone obviously infer some structurally national aspect to the event, even if avenue an with only not hierarchy Church the provide pilgrimages “All-Slovak” The Celoslovenská pú Ģ (“All-Slovak”) label on many of the pilgrimages seems to 51 CEU eTD Collection individuals into considering pilgrimage as an important part of their religious and social lives. destinations as well. Constant advertisement such as this serves to further socialize Catholic to domestic offer trips religious on several agencies travel offer, package tours Slovak Fatimade Compostela. andSantiago Whilemakeupmost of destinations the international devotion for Catholic tourist-pilgrims: Rome and the Vatican, the Holy Land, Lourdes, drivingthe force behind pilgrimages. the agencies capitalize on the high level of religiosity found throughout the country, they are not travel agencies were the most involves actor in the dissemination process. While travel andannouncements posted advertisements onchurch bulletin boards, itwould appearthat the Inquiries and reservations should be submitted via email. If one were only to read the awebsitetheirfeature on flyers. agencies travel of none however, these Omega Tours; and Trinity flyers: Maris, of for Stella thebulk the agencies wereresponsible Three tourist dozens flyersand Iencountered Šaštín, of forpilgrimage packagetours. and advertisements Catholic churches in the vicinities of Košice, Baredejov (near Gaboltov), Levo groups andtour travel agencies play in shapingtheevents. In thevisitation of around thirty those individuals who participatein the ritual events; however, alsoimportant is the role that concerns and primarily between tourism linkpilgrimage forged Therecentacademic field. of TravelAgencies 7.1 The Influence Most of the advertisements for pilgrimage tours showcase international sites of Pilgrimage as tourism,has seen one of the most recent booms in the literature of the C HAPTER 7: T OURISM OURISM AND 52 P ILGRIMAGE þ a, Bratislava CEU eTD Collection organize Slovak pilgrimages to the Vatican, tothe aswell organize Slovakas other destinations pilgrimages The Bishop’s Conference has even begun attempting to select official travel agencies to 2006.” 82 However, than morecurrently do. they attention receive much would pilgrimages Bratislava structural considerations were the prominent factor in shaping the face of pilgrimage sites, the of types andthese easeof access, opportunities, If accommodation as local pilgrimages. more which becharacterized exitscould sites in Bratislava other several domestic attention, the prominence of its location. In addition to this site which receives more international than despite many hasmade unknown to itSlovak Catholics relatively character internationalizing capital, the pilgrimage toBratislava sits on the European circuit of pilgrimages. Its services, Bratislava and Košice being two good examples. Partly due to its location in the for events theirparishioners. trips tothe Slovakia weregenerally rare, butthatshouldnot be asurprise asmany organizeparishes bus in pilgrimage for of reserve one sites fewhotel in rooms the advertisements area.The the use campsites, they must either rent a room in a private home or find utilize a travel agency to full of schedule ritual mayevents find difficulty in procuring lodging. For unwillingthose to location of many of these sites in small villages and towns, pilgrims wanting to stay for the well,mostly outside of the pilgrimage town in the nearest larger cities and towns. Due to the pilgrims attempting toattend. Only in afew instances were lodging opportunities offered as passengers for the services that do exist would often be well exceeded by the number of of train and bus connections to many of the ritual sites. Furthermore, the capacity of by Thesebus. agencieshavefor amarket primarilytheir because of product general lackthe Slovak Bishop’s Conference, “Pastorisation and Evangelisation Plan of the Catholic Church in Slovakia 2001- Not all ritualthe of aresites marked by a lack of transportation andoptions guest The travel agencies tours to Slovak ritual sites frequently includedonly transportation 53 82 . CEU eTD Collection 1995). to economically benefit from the influx of pilgrims/tourist-pilgrims of influx the from benefit economically to 7.2 The EconomicBenefitsofPilgrimageasTourism city. the ritual of sites the regarding archbishopin Bratislava, it is possible that a more active promotional campaign may develop a separate interestof more vested the With archdioceses. separate into two has splitTrnava) in based (formerly archdiocese Bratislava-Trnava the that now be changing may this of all 83 in and entrepreneurs when it comes to some economic argument deflate the This of seems to week in early July, very few of their guests are pilgrims. Most of them are simply tourists. the two main hotels on the square in Levo international tourist-pilgrim, should not be overestimated. When speaking with employees at gifts. Catholic and materials devotional selling structures permanent two has even Šaštín season. pilgrimage the many earn some extra money selling commemorative items and religious souvenirs during because of the small size of the village and its relative lack of services. Other entrepreneurs increased business surrounding the ritual events. Gaboltov may be an exception to this the from benefit may markets and restaurants local addition, In online. advertising primarily Levo and Šaštín Gaboltov, In low. tourist-pilgrims would be almost assess, impossible to butthe gainsare presumably relatively impact of economic the Catholic andKošice, in likelarge Bratislava example, the cities For beobserved. of could benefiteconomic indicators only certain in visited Slovakia, MartBax, Mart Bax’s account of Medjugorje in Bosnia illustrates how pilgrimage towns stand The economic impact of pilgrimage as tourism, even for those sites whichreceive forthose astourism,of even pilgrimage impact The economic Medjugorje: Religion, Politics, and Violence in Rural Bosnia þ a, many locals rent out rooms in their homes to pilgrims, to homes in their rooms out rent locals many a, þ a, they replied that apart from the main pilgrimage 54 (Amsterdam: VU University Press, University VU (Amsterdam: 83 . In the case of the sites CEU eTD Collection (2002), 31-51. (2002), Neolithic Temples: Contemporary Interpretations and Agendas,” Social and Cultural Economics of Piety determine to difficult increasing disciplines separate are hitherto two between the lines of distinction pilgrimage and tourism. As the emerging literature on pilgrimage and tourism suggests, the differently than other kinds of tourists—an assumption which is simply not the case. these informants were operating under the assumption that pilgrims should act, dress, or look insomeone whowould beinterested site, pilgrimage furtherargumentthat the reinforcing the themselves from bandits. One of the hotel employees even remarked that I did notlook like their journey as they once did in order to signal themselves to fellow pilgrims and protect pilgrimage center or both. Pilgrims,for the most part, no longer whether the emblems of little way of telling whether their guests had come primarily to visit the historic old town, the have would employees desk front these that note to important is it however, pilgrimages; pilgrimagearound towns having in amajor stake the promotion and growth of localthe 84 as pilgrimagesPerhaps arebeing innational other constructed All-Slovak pilgrimages and an in has toŠaštín of one become successful most Slovakia. the pilgrimage national pilgrimages stake in selling theevents provides some cluestobetter understanding this relationship. The referring to the organizers’ depiction of events as nationally or ethnically-based, the actors’ events? the at communitas) (or belongingness Are organizers attemptingportray to ethnic andnational inclusion as a factor which enhances organizationsadvertise choose to theirby pilgrimages theiremphasizing national dimensions. would-bemake pilgrims to the This trek. brings us back question to our concerning why vacation marketingdestinations, (ashighlighted earlier) plays important an role in inducing Seeespecially Eds.William Swatos and Luigi Tomasi, Not only are pilgrims and tourists difficult todistinguish, so too are the concepts of While motivation, or intentionality, is difficult to definitively determine when determine definitively to is difficult intentionality, or motivation, While 84 . Just as the marketing is important for establishing a steady stream of tourists to (Westport: Praeger, 2002), andKathryn Rountree, “Re-inventing Malta’s 55 From Medieval Pilgrimage to Religious Tourism: the History and Anthropology Vol. 13, No. 1 CEU eTD Collection Slovakia, have managed to effectively market this pilgrimage to a very broad audience. In eastern part of Slovakia. The Catholic Church and its organs, both inside and outside brings tourist-pilgrims not only to Levo to only not tourist-pilgrims brings of of open religiousthe marketplace. form of social capital, required toattract pilgrims and tourists-pilgrims from beginningthe pilgrims, recognition thereby achieving widespread sites,in a privileged position. The events held there in the late 1980s attracted the most protest against the communist regime placed Levo outside of Levo pilgrimages canbe these conceptualized. hand, therefore, makes the most sense. This, of course, is only one formulation by which Slovak Republic and may be unfamiliar names across borders. Marketing to the audience at in operate that only foundations andreligious organizations organizersthe arecharitable many Furthermore, large-scale marketing. for initiating necessary and overall resources the networks lack thecapital,they marketplace: the in pilgrimage competing international the so why has Levo as asurprise marketing of an event which attempts to appeal to secular issues identityof should notcome the therefore, reasons; of sacred andsecular are acombination andfrequently varied, attempt to capture some of that same success. Motivations for attending pilgrimage are 86 85 Doellinger (2002), 226. (2002), Doellinger William Swatos and Luigi Tomasi, eds., (2002) One of the main aspects of Levo This idea ofmodeling may someprovide sense regarding many of pilgrimagesthe I wouldmany arguethat organizersthe of arestructurally for disadvantaged 85 . However, the attendance numbers atLevonumbers the attendance . However, þ a and Šaštín, but how can those two examples be explained? The years of þ a notbecome the prominent model? þ þ a but to Košice and Bardejov in the often neglected often in the Bardejov and Košice to a but a’s prominence is its marketing success, which 56 þ 86 a and Šaštín, among a handfull of other . They had the intial start-up, in the þ a routinely surpass those atŠaštín, surpass those a routinely CEU eTD Collection 88 how ritual how ritual sites develop. not fully it do thatdemonstrates concerns dictate theological success, international pilgrimage Levo all encapsulate behind reasons of the not certainly does approach benefitfrom pilgrimsthe seem pryingto their way back into the leading position. While this of the region being nervecenter the lost itsof attention town administrative reins over the Spiš region and handed them to Spišska Nová Ves. This proud which being the pilgrimage church. “In communists 1950s…the the stripped Levo attractions of Levo sell tourist to in campaign the marketing activean engaged addition to the marketing through Church networks, certain individuals from the town also 87 centers two the between marked creating competition alsolosscame power of power, the economic Zuzana Jal Michael Lewis, “Levo 88 . With the flourishing of the Marian pilgrimage, certain citizens who economically ē ová, “Scenic Spiš is Slovakia’s Land of Superlatives,” ē a: Medieval Square a Real Gem to See,” 57 The Slovak Spectator The Slovak Spectator 87 .” With the loss of symbolic þ a’s riseto (April 10, 1997). (April (November 20,1996). (November þ a, oneof þ a ofits CEU eTD Collection restricted cultural cultural space restricted and geographic needpractices notbe regardedas,by strugglesforhegemony overt in reflecting definition, itself. “It becomes possible to see how the juxtaposition of varied interpretations and may misinterpret each other’s iconography. These conflicts need not find a voice in the ritual disagree over the exact interpretation of a ritual event; Roman Catholics and Greek Catholics villagers may thedisruptionsdislike broughtby and order tourist-pilgrims; diocese may everywhere: it find indeed can you contestation, for search you If handicaps. mental like VieraaSvetloengage church the to attempting inincreased advocacy for people with formentally handicapped persons at Šaštín, as a form of contestation: charitable foundations communitas nor contestation have to be the dominant force behind the event. the behind force dominant be the to have contestation nor communitas neither where asystem envision can one simultaneously, imagined be may that interpretation of levels multiple but aritual, of interpretations multiple just not acknowledging raises questions concerning whois really Slovak, and what does it mean to be Slovak. By exclusivity ethnic its communitas, beckons lines confessional across inclusivity its While for this. example find excellent to an pilgrimages backlook “All-Slovak” tothe to needs hand-in-hand. Communitas on one social level engenders contestation on another. One only however, they are notmutually exclusive. In fact, itmay be more accurate to say that they go inpresent such rituals. understanding reasonfor the the phenomenon, should one ignore not unifyingthe factors 89 Simon Coleman (2002), 359. Coleman (2002), Simon Admittedly a stretch, one can even envision special interest pilgrimages,like the one Contestation Contestation has largely replaced communitas in concerning literature the pilgrimage; C HAPTER 8: C OMMUNITAS AND OMMUNITAS 89 .” whileSo, identifying motives certainly aids in 58 C ONTESTATION R EVISITED CEU eTD Collection process. independent from each other. Furthermore, neither theory explains the entire pilgrimage of thought aredescribing different two processes which may be intertwined orcompletely schools therespective that demonstrates This cases,itcanbefused with contestation. some aspects of the ritual proceedings, communitas can be to some extent operationalized; and in worldly and religious authorities alike communitas can ideological apolitical acquire function and by and canbe manipulated ‘spontaneous’ “this notes, As Duijzings camp. contestation the into mainly falls structure elements, especially when analyzing contingency,but their analysis of organization and have beyond stepped communitas-contestation this dichotomy. Theyincorporate Turnerian Zubrzycki’s monograph on the Crosses of Auschwitz and Mart Bax’s work on Medjugorje 90 Ger Duijzings, Religion and the Politics of Identity in Kosovo More empirical works like Ger Duijzings’ piece on pilgrimage in Kosovo, Genvieve in Kosovo, pilgrimage on piece Duijzings’ Ger like works empirical More 90 .” When analyzing spontaneous and contingent and spontaneous analyzing When .” 59 , (London: Hurst and Company, 2000), 84. CEU eTD Collection although flags arefrequently present. These nationalizingmake elements up thestructure organizers or participants. We do not see a proliferation of flag waving at these ritual events, ethnic pilgrimages, but they are not the most salient reference points for the many of the organizer. the with resides frequently interpreter of role the and position, dominant the hold can event elements become readily apparent. Once again,it comes back to whose interpretation of the secularizing involved, and actors of events the the structure the analyzing after however, hierarchy, one might consider any ritual attention as a further sacralization of the ritual sites; sacralization and of secularization by processes secular dichotomy, shouldlook more authors towards conceptualizing and places, acts words bottom-up, grassroots-style organizational behaviorinvokes that nationalizingthese elements. driven, top-down structural relationship developing at these ritual sites; but often,it is a not be present at the site. Once again,it isimportant tonote that sometimes we see an elite- skillfully adapting orignoring structurally national or international aspects which may or may organizers,in conjunction with the advertisers, shape the direction of the pilgrimage, The structures. social secular and sacred between interconnectedness the highlight for each sites possible of these interpretations scale. Themultiple national-international the internationalizing components; as sites may host multiple pilgrimages which vary greatly on 91 Bax (1995), 66-67. Bax(1995), National distinctions are constantly present, further maintained by the national and national by the maintained further present, constantly are distinctions National As Mart Bax suggests, as difficulties exist in attempting to operationalize the sacred- In the end, it is not the pilgrimage site which contains the nationalizing or C HAPTER 9: 60 C 91 ONCLUSION . From the perspective of the Church CEU eTD Collection Catholic voters. Obviously,in an attempt to gain new supporters from the flock, they the torepresent legitimacy of parties the the further enhances participation pilgrimage both methods of gaining potential capital. Church community: as a means forincreasing church advocacy newand collecting members, the within agenda theirfor particular advancing asaplatform pilgrimage utilize primarily à-vis thediocesanChurch hierarchy. opportunities; organizing successful pilgrimages provides them with a privileged position vis- and benefitincreased revenue from evangelization not only the orders The Catholic into pilgrimage the potential for community, of streams producing thereby thefuture. revenue donations. Itshould be further noted that newgenerations socializing evangelization entails furtherpathway evangelization;towards and as a source two, of revenuefrom coming pilgrim nationalizing element of each pilgrimage. as the prototype for the nation. In this sense, the marketing of the event becomes the primary a Slovakleading Catholic of the to reification Slovaks, the in and Slovakia Church Catholic the between interconnected of strands weave to continue pilgrimages All-Slovak and national the appeal of linking nation and Catholicism, at least for a portion of the participants. The in time moments specific highlights for of shrines nationalization The intended audience. the seems to suggest that overt, positive national distinctions are attractive for at least aportion of symbols. and cultural milieu of the events, but the content remains light in nationalizing rhetoric and Political parties do not conceal theirintentions. Engaging their supporters in The special interest groups,while benefitingfrom fundraising at theevents, seem to Essentially, each parish benefits two-fold from hosting pilgrimage events: one, as a However, on another level, the fact that national references are used to sell the events 61 CEU eTD Collection well. With the swift opening of the religious marketplace in post-communist Slovakia, one excellent starting points from which to engage the topic, other factors must be engaged as understanding nationalizing the internationalizing or of a pilgrimage. While they can provide these pilgrimages; therefore, neither communitas nor contestation hold the absolute key for integrative both play that of androlesprinciples in certain exclusionary structure the creating marketing should be more thoroughly engaged. At what present, the can beis determined in nationalism topic of Specifically, the should bedone. more research actual experience, seem largelystructure by ignored particpants. the this type of marketing dominate the ritual; while the negative, exclusionary functions of the the dominant role in these events would be misleading. The positive, integrative functions of may also be conceptualized using contestation theories, but to suggest that contestaion plays dual the Slovak-Hungarian pilgrimage toKošice. The national All-Slovakand pilgrimages elements of contestation are structurally significant, as in the Roma pilgrimage to Gaboltov or Occasionally, pilgrimages. Slovak of marketing and administration organization, in the roles events. the to drive cannot or to want not do who those for market transportation routes to many of these sites offer limited service, they have indeed captured a public since however, business; their of part minor a remain sites pilgrimage Slovak outside of Slovakia whether there is more money to be made. The bus trips organized to events on focused largely remain market, Catholic in the advertising their concentrate simply processes. of evangelization secular the equivalent as this may be characterized Catholicappropriate “values” and “concerns” for their political agendas.Roughly speaking, In order to fully establish what type of connection exists between the structure and the So many both actors, inside and outside the Catholic play Churchstructure significant Travel agencies, whether they specialize in religious tours to pilgrimage sites or 62 CEU eTD Collection approaching pilgrimage, they are significant factors which have beenlargely ignored. I would not assert that material concerns are always the most salient point of reference when fundraising. onecan Thus, greater both ideological identify material While and concerns. distinctions, the significant actors may be seeking pathways to greater evangelization or forces at work become much clearer. In the case of these Slovak pilgrimages with national the structural of isunderstood, for reason pilgrimages the continuity and proliferation displays of religiosity, without questioning why they keep occurring year after year. Once for organizing frequently reason apilgrimage. continuity accept the public Authors these of fundamental is the focus, theories these of neither which on point One event. the of structure into caninsight frequently, More experience. arguments pilgrimage the contestation provide pilgrimages. multiple their and sites pilgrimage playedin of different role direction the formative the factors a shaping can economic see how In some instances, communitas theories can help to explain interpretation of the 63 CEU eTD Collection Eastern Europe Church.” Catholic Roman theSlovak in Tendencies “Nationalistic Frans. Hoppenbrouwers, Republic.” Slovak the in Nation and “Church Timothy. 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